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Physical science, which includes chemistry and physics, is electrons tends to line up.

ne up. But in this quantum spin liquid,


usually thought of as the study of the nature and properties the electrons interact so that they affect how the others are
of matter and energy in non-living systems. Matter is the spinning and never align no matter how cool the material
stuff of the universe the atoms, molecules and ions that gets. The material would behave as if its electrons,
make up all physical substances. Matter is anything that considered indivisible, had broken apart, the researchers
has mass and takes up space. reported April 4, 2016, in the journal Nature Materials.
Energy is the capacity to cause change. Energy cannot be Gases
created or destroyed; it can only be conserved and Gas particles have a great deal of space between them and
converted from one form to another. "Potential energy" is have high kinetic energy. If unconfined, the particles of a
the energy stored in an object due to its position for gas will spread out indefinitely; if confined, the gas will
example, a bucket of water balanced over a doorway has expand to fill its container. When a gas is put under
the potential to fall. "Kinetic energy" is energy that is in pressure by reducing the volume of the container, the
motion and causing changes. Any object or particle that is space between particles is reduced, and the pressure
in motion has kinetic energy based on its mass and exerted by their collisions increases. If the volume of the
speed. Kinetic energy can be converted into other forms of container is held constant, but the temperature of the gas
energy, such as electrical energy and thermal energy. increases, then the pressure will also increase. Gas
Five phases particles have enough kinetic energy to overcome
There are five known phases, or states, of matter: solids, intermolecular forces that hold solids and liquids together,
liquids, gases, plasma and Bose-Einstein condensates. The thus a gas has no definite volume and no definite shape.
main difference in the structures of each state is in the [Related: Properties of Matter: Gases]
densities of the particles. Plasma
Solids Plasma is not a common state of matter here on Earth, but
In a solid, particles are packed tightly together so they are may be the most common state of matter in the universe.
unable to move about very much. Particles of a solid have Plasma consists of highly charged particles with extremely
very low kinetic energy. The electrons of each atom are in high kinetic energy. The noble gases(helium, neon, argon,
motion, so the atoms have a small vibration, but they are krypton, xenon and radon) are often used to make glowing
fixed in their position. Solids have a definite shape. They do signs by using electricity to ionize them to the plasma state.
not conform to the shape of the container in which they are Stars are essentially superheated balls of plasma. [Related:
placed. They also have a definite volume. The particles of a Properties of Matter: Plasma]
solid are already so tightly packed together that increasing Bose-Einstein condensates
pressure will not compress the solid to a smaller volume. In 1995, technology enabled scientists to create a new state
[Related: Properties of Matter: Solids] of matter, the Bose-Einstein condensate (BEC). Using a
Liquids combination of lasers and magnets, Eric Cornell and Carl
In the liquid phase, the particles of a substance have more Weiman cooled a sample of rubidium to within a few
kinetic energy than those in a solid. The liquid particles are degrees of absolute zero. At this extremely low
not held in a regular arrangement, but are still very close to temperature, molecular motion comes very close to
each other so liquids have a definite volume. Liquids, like stopping altogether. Since there is almost no kinetic energy
solids, cannot be compressed. Particles of a liquid have just being transferred from one atom to another, the atoms
enough room to flow around each other, so liquids have an begin to clump together. There are no longer thousands of
indefinite shape. A liquid will change shape to conform to its separate atoms, just one super atom. A BEC is used to
container. Force is spread evenly throughout the liquid, so study quantum mechanics on a macroscopic level. Light
when an object is placed in a liquid, the liquid particles are appears to slow down as it passes through a BEC, allowing
displaced by the object. [Related: Properties of Matter: study of the particle/wave paradox. A BEC also has many
Liquids] of the properties of a superfluid flowing without friction.
The magnitude of the upward buoyant force is equal to the BECs are also used to simulate conditions that might apply
weight of the fluid displaced by the object. When the in black holes. [Related: Properties of Matter: Bose-Einstein
buoyant force is equal to the force of gravity pulling down Condensate]
on the objects mass, the object will float. This principle of Going through a phase
buoyancy was discovered by the Greek Adding energy to matter causes a physical change
mathematicianArchimedes who, according to legend, matter moves from one state to another. For example,
sprang from his bath and ran naked through the streets adding thermal energy heat to liquid water causes it to
shouting "Eureka!" become steam or vapor a gas. Taking away energy also
Particles of a liquid tend to be held by weak intermolecular causes physical change, such as when liquid water
attraction rather than moving freely as the particles of a gas becomes ice a solid when heat is removed. Physical
will. This cohesive force pulls the particles together to form change also can be caused by motion and pressure.
drops or streams. Melting and freezing
Scientists reported in April 2016 they had created a bizarre When heat is applied to a solid, its particles begin to vibrate
state of matter, one that had been predicted to exist but faster and tend to move farther apart. When the substance,
never seen in real life. Though this type of matter could be at standard pressure, reaches a certain point called
held in one's hand as if it were a solid, a zoom-in on the the melting point the solid will begin to turn into a liquid.
material would reveal the disorderly interactions of its The melting point of a pure substance can often be
electrons, more characteristic of a liquid. In the new matter, determined to within 0.1 degrees C, the point at which the
called a Kitaev quantum spin liquid, the electrons enter into solid and liquid phases are in equilibrium. If you continue to
a sort of quantum dance in which they interact or "talk" to apply heat to the sample, the temperature will not rise
one another. Usually when matter cools down the spin of its above the melting point until the entire sample has been
liquefied. The heat energy is being used to convert the solid At high altitudes, there is less atmospheric pressure
into the liquid form. Once the entire sample has become a pressing down on the liquid, so it will boil at a lower
liquid the temperature will begin to rise again. Compounds temperature. The same amount of liquid at sea level is
that are otherwise very similar can have different melting under a greater atmospheric pressure and will boil at a
points, so melting point can be a useful way to distinguish higher temperature.
among them. For example, sucrose has a melting point of Condensation and deposition
367 F (186.1 C) while the melting point of glucose is 294.8 Condensation is when a gas transforms into a liquid.
F (146 C). A solid mixture, such as a metal alloy, can often Condensation occurs when a gas has been cooled or
be separated into its constituent parts by heating the compressed to the point where kinetic energy of the
mixture and extracting the liquids as they reach their particles can no longer overcome the intermolecular forces.
different melting points. An initial cluster of particles initiates the process which
The freezing point is the temperature at which a liquid tends to further cool the gas so that condensation
substance is cooled enough to form a solid. As the liquid is continues. When the gas transforms directly into a solid,
cooled, particle motion slows. In many substances, the without going through the liquid phase, it is called
particles align in precise, geometric patterns to form deposition or desublimation. An example of this occurs
crystalline solids. Most liquids contract as they freeze. One when subfreezing temperatures convert water vapor in the
of the important characteristics of water is that it expands atmosphere into frost or ice. Frost tends to outline solid
when it freezes, so ice floats. If ice didnt float, there would blades of grass and twigs because the air touching these
be no liquid water underneath a frozen body of water and solids cools faster than air that is not touching a solid
many forms of aquatic life would be impossible. surface.
The freezing point is often nearly the same temperature as
the melting point, but is not considered to be characteristic http://www.livescience.com/46506-states-of-
of a substance, as several factors can alter it. For example, matter.html
adding dissolved substances, or solutes, to a liquid will
depress the freezing point. An example of this is using salt
slurry to lower the temperature at which water freezes on
our roads. Other liquids can be cooled to temperatures well
below their melting point before they begin to solidify. Such
liquids are said to be super cooled and often require the
presence of a dust particle or seed crystal to start the
process of crystallization.
Sublimation
When a solid is converted directly into a gas without going
through a liquid phase, the process is known as
sublimation. Sublimation occurs when kinetic energy of the
particles is greater than atmospheric pressure surrounding
the sample. This may occur when the temperature of the
sample is rapidly increased beyond the boiling point (flash
vaporization). More commonly, a substance can be "freeze
dried" by cooling it under vacuum conditions so that the
water in the substance undergoes sublimation and is
removed from the sample. A few volatile substances will
undergo sublimation at normal temperature and pressure.
The best known of these substances is CO2 or dry ice.
Vaporization
Vaporization is the conversion of a liquid to a gas.
Vaporization can occur through either evaporation or
boiling.
Because the particles of a liquid are in constant motion they
frequently collide with each other, transferring energy when
they do so. This energy transference has little net effect
beneath the surface, but when enough energy is transferred
to a particle near the surface; it may gain enough energy to
be knocked completely away from the sample as a free gas
particle. This process is called evaporation and it continues
as long as liquid remains. It is interesting to note that a
liquid cools as it evaporates. The energy transferred to
surface molecules, which causes their escape, is carried
away from the remaining liquid sample.
When enough heat is added to a liquid that vapor bubbles
form below the surface of the liquid, we say that the liquid is
boiling. The temperature at which a liquid boils is
variable. Boiling point is dependent upon the pressure the
substance is under. A liquid under higher pressure will
require more heat before vapor bubbles can form within it.

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