INTRODUCTION TO GEOMORPHOLOGY

SUBJECT: GEOLOGY
COURSE: GLG 121
YEAR: 2017

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the conclusion of the course, a successful student will be able to:
1. Describe the morphology of the landscape and the major processes that form it
2. Describe major scientific ideas and theories about the development of the landscape i.e. geomorphic processes shaping the Earths
surface and the resulting landforms.
Recommended Textbook
Rither, D.F., R.C.Kochel, & J.R.Mitter (2001). Process geomorphology

Additional Reading
1. Principles of Geomorphology, Second edition, William D. Thornbury
2. Fundamentals of Geomorphology, Richard John Huggett
3. Marshak, S (2001). Earth portrait of a planet. WW Norton & Company
4. https://evals.ugs.utah.edu/uploadedFiles/1.16_L2_Nicoll.pdf
5. http://asimow.com/2006Lecture6.ppt

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 1 2
INTRODUCTION and faults earthquakes and volcanoes, sea floor spreading and the
movement of plates, is now attempted by geophysicist. The amount
The word Geomorphology is derived from three Greek words: ,
of physics and applied mathematics involved is so great that the
geo, "earth"; , morf, "form"; and , logos,
average geomorphologist, usually a geographer or geologist by
"knowledge/discourse". Although geomorphology means study of
initial training can hardly expect to contribute a great deal.
the form and structure of the earth, the subject in practiced covers a
Processes of erosion which gives rise to landforms endeavors to
narrower field. The study of the form of the earth is shared by a
understand the action of waste movement of water movement, of
numbers of sciences, among them geography, geology, geophysics
ice action and wind action as well as the processes of weathering.
in addition to geomorphology. In practice these sciences overlap, so
The size and shape of the Earth's surface, on land and beneath the
that hard and fast definitions of their scope are neither desirable nor
sea, is constantly changing. This is due to landform evolution
practicable. Based on these, geomorphology can be further defined
and the processes of weathering, which have altered the original
as the scientific study of landforms (Mountains, valley, plain,
geological shape of the rocks.
glacier, coast, island etc.), origin and evolution and the processes
Landform evolution and weathering are controlled by many
(erosion or subsidence and uplift) that shape/created them. The
different processes, the most important being climate and Earth
emphasis is placed on the mechanics of geomorphic processes and
movements, or plate tectonics. Plate tectonics alter the
on the relationship between properties of earth materials and the
geomorphology of the landscape more dramatically than any other
forces applied to them by gravity, wind, ice, water, waves and
natural process. For instance, they may create the steep slopes
humans.
associated with mountain chains and volcanoes, whose continual
However the geomorphologist does not study all aspect of the uplift or outpouring of lava contributes more to topography than
evolution of landforms. The origin of the major features of the earth climate. Continual fault movements in earthquake-prone areas will also
crust is usually not considered within the sphere of geomorphology. tend to dominate the landscape more than the modifying effects of erosion.
An understanding of the forces and processes responsible for folds
and

2Plate
| P a gtectonics
e alter the geomorphology of the landscape more
dramatically than any other natural process. For instance, they may create
the steep slopes associated with mountain chains and volcanoes, whose
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Landscapes experiencing different types of climate are subject to very
different types of weathering. In cold, mountain areas, glaciation is
the dominant shaping force at work; water is the main weathering
agent in warm, humid coastal and river regions; and wind erosion is
responsible for shaping many of the landforms in dry deserts.
RELEVANCE OF GEORMOLOGY
Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the
way they do, to understand landform history and dynamic, and
predict the future changes through a combination of field
observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling.
Geomorphology is important because people live on landforms
and their lives are affected (sometimes catastrophically) by
geomorphic processes:
- Slope determines whether soil accumulates and makes arable
land
- Slope stability controls landslides
- Mountains drastically affect the weather
This is also a two-way process: Human action is one of the
major processes of geomorphic evolution. How? Please
suggest possible ways.
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LANDFORM EVOLUTION
A concept of progressive change of landforms in response to surface
processes operating over a period of time.
Landforms evolve in response to a combination of natural and
anthropogenic processes.
The landscape is built up through tectonic uplift and
volcanism.
Denudation occurs by erosion and mass wasting which
produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere
within the landscape or off the coast.
Denudation elevation =
Uplift + Denudation
Elevation
Uplift
Landscapes are lowered by subsidence, either due to tectonics
or physical changes in underlying sedimentary deposits. These
processes are each influenced differently by climate, ecology,
and human activity.
Weathering, erosion, and deposition are a main force behind
landscape types. Other factors such as glaciations and tectonic
activity lead to landscape building. Winds also help form the
surface landscape.
 The water cycle or hydrologic cycle (see figure below) is the Hillslope evolution: qualitative approach
driving force behind weathering, erosion, and deposition.

The water cycle process looks like this:

Evaporation condensation precipitation infiltration
run-off
Without this process, weathering, erosion, and deposition would
have a difficult time occurring on Earth and these processes
together with mass wasting would be discussed further.

Practical applications of geomorphology include measuring the Some rocks are resistant to erosion (they form cliffs), some are weak (they form
effects of climate change, hazard assessments including landslide slopes).Resistant and weak are qualitative terms, but useful for describing landscape
prediction and mitigation, river control and restoration, coastal evolution.
protection, and assessing the presence of water.

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 MODELS OF LANDFORM DEVELOPMENT This includes landforms with some of the following geomorphic
features: beaches, deltas, flood plains, and glacial moraines.
The landforms that are found on the surface of the Earth can be
The following graphical model describes the relationship between
grouped into 4 categories:
general landform types and the geomorphic processes of weathering,
(1) Structural Landforms - landforms that are created by the
erosion, and sediment deposition
solidification of large quantities of magma or by massive
movements due or rock because of plate tectonics. This includes
landforms like: shield, fold mountains, rift valleys, and
volcanoes.
(2) Weathering Landforms - landforms that are created by the
physical, chemical or biological decomposition of rock through
weathering. Weathering produces landforms where rocks and
sediments are decomposed and disintegrated. This includes
landforms with some of the following geomorphic features:
karst, patterned ground, and soil profiles.
(3) Erosional Landforms - landforms formed from the removal
of weathered and eroded surface materials by wind, water,
glaciers, and gravity. This includes landforms with some of the
following geomorphic features: river valleys, glacial valleys, and
coastal cliffs.
(4) Depositional Landforms - landforms formed from the
deposition of weathered and eroded surface materials. On
occasion, these deposits can be compressed, altered by pressure,
heat and chemical processes to become sedimentary rocks.

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 Physical characteristics of Landforms loose surface materials are unprotected by a covering of vegetation.
In humid regions, except along the seashore, wind erosion is limited
Landforms are physical features of the earth's surface,
by the prevalent cover of grass and trees and by the binding action of
examples of which include mountains, plateaus, and valleys.
moisture in the soil. Wind is a geomorphic agent in all terrestrial/arid
Landforms are categorized by characteristic physical attributes
environments such as deserts. Deserts are regions with very low
such as elevation, slope, orientation, stratification, rock
annual rainfall(less than 300mm), meager vegetation, extensive areas
exposure, and soil type. Gross physical features or landforms
of bare and Rocky Mountains and plateaus and alluvial plains.
include intuitive elements such as berms, mounds, hills,
Therefore wind is a potent agent only in dry areas with fine-grained
ridges, cliffs, valleys, rivers, peninsulas and numerous other
soils and sediments and little or no vegetation. More local wind
structural and size-scaled (i.e. Ponds vs. Lakes, hills vs.
action is seen along sandy coast.
mountains) elements including various kinds of inland and
oceanic waterbodies and sub-surface features. Wind erosion engages two processes deflation and abrasion.
Deflation is the removal of loose particles by wind. Smaller
Landforms do not include man-made features, such as canals,
sedimentary particles are more susceptible to wind erosion than
ports and many harbors; and geographic features, such as deserts,
larger particles. Abrasion is the cannonading of rock and other
forests, grasslands, and impact craters
surfaces by particles carried in the wind. a sort of natural

Aeolian landforms
Where conditions are dry and the ground surface bare, wind is a
forceful instrument of erosion and deposition. The Aeolian
processes pertain to the activity of the winds and more
specifically, to the winds' ability to shape the surface of the Earth
and other planets. Wind as an agent of transport, and therefore of
erosion and deposition, the work of the wind is familiar wherever
sandblasting. Rocks and boulders exposed at the ground surface
may be abraded by sand and silt particles. Wind without grains is a
powerless or ineffective geomorphic agent; wind armed with grains
may be a powerful erosive agent.
Wind transport encompasses four processes, saltation, reputation,
suspension and creep. Before the wind can transport particles, it
must lift them from the ground surface.

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 With saltation, sand grains bound, land and rebound, imparting
renewed impetus to other grains. Such motion is confined to short
distances. On hitting the surface, saltating grains release a small
splash-like shower of parties that make small hops from the point
of impact. This process is known as reptation. With suspension,
particles of silt and clay lifted into the atmosphere become
suspended and may be carried great distances. This process is
known as suspension.

Wind deposition: Wind moves much sediment around the
globe, although by no means so much as the sediment moved by
rivers. Some of this sediment representing 10 percent of that
carried by rivers is delivered to the oceans. The rest is deposited
in land. Examples of Aeolian landforms include; ventifacts,
yardangs, dunes, Loess etc
Ventifacts are rocks which have been cut, and sometimes polished, by
the abrasive action of wind. Sculpted landforms, called yardangs, are
up to tens of meters high and kilometers long and are forms that have
been streamlined by desert winds. A dune is a hill of sand built by
Aeolian processes.
Structures created by wind erosion, which has
differentially removed rock according to hardness
and the height of wind-blown sand; Timna, Negev,
Israel.
Coastal and oceanic landforms
Many distinctive landforms are created where the oceans meet
coastlines. The action of waves, tides and longshore currents are
responsible for many of these landforms. Weather, too, is
important. Strong winds blow high waves and the wind and the
rain eat away exposed rocks. Soft sedimentary coastlines are
undercut by wave action, which eventually causes rock above to
collapse, forming vertical cliffs. As the cliffs, wave-cut platforms
are formed. Where the geology of a coastline changes, areas of
softer rocks are eroded faster than areas of harder, creating bays
and headlands.

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 Ocean landform includes seamounts (underwater mountains),
mid-oceanic ridges and submarine canyons. Some types of the
coastal and oceanic landforms include; abyssal plain, forearc,
barrier bar &barrier island, lagoon, delta, tombolo, estuary, bay &
gulf etc.

They are also prone to storm damage when ocean waves and
winds hit the land. Coastal erosion may cause the destruction of
buildings, port facilities, waterways, and amenities. Sea walls and
breakwaters are built to combat this destruction. Similarly,

Eroded material from coastlines is deposited to form beaches, constructing sediment traps such as groynes, and dredging

and sands can be blown onshore to form coastal dunes. Sands sediment in ports are methods used to limit the problem of

can also be washed by currents into long, offshore island called sediment accumulation.

Barrier Islands. Virtually, all landforms below sea level have

been formed by tectonic processes. These processes are the same
as those that act on the land-namely the uplift and subsidence of

Beaches are not permanent features, since the sand is often

simply being stored before moving on. They also change in
response to storms, when large banks of sand accumulate near to
the land. Coasts are constantly changing due to erosion, sediment
transport, and deposition, and are consequently very unstable
places to live.
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Mountain and Glacial Landforms
Glaciers(A large, slow-moving mass of ice, formed from compacted
layers of snow, that slowly deforms and flows in response to gravity
and high pressure), while geographically restricted, are effective
agents of landscape change. There are three glacial processes:
(1). Ice flow. Ice flow by three processes: flow or creep, fracture or
break and sliding or slipping.
(2).Glacial erosion. It is achieved by four processes: abrasion,
crushing and fracturing of structurally uniform rock, fracture of
jointed rock (joint block removal) and meltwater erosion. The
material eroded by abrasion and fracturing is entrained into the
bottom of the glacier.
(3) Glacial debris entrainment and transport. Detached bedrock
becomes incorporated into the glacier by two processes. Small rock
fragments adhere to the ice when freezing takes place, which is
common on the downstream side of bed obstacles. Large blocks are
entrained as the ice deforms around them and engulf them.
The excess of accumulation of snow over ablation (sublimation and
melting) is slowly converted to ice. This is achieved by melting and
refreezing in summer, leading to the formation of loose mass snow
and ice particles. The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes
abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock.
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The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is
termed a moraine. Moraines are ridges of eroded material that have
collected around the edges of a glacier during periods when it has been
stationery. Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as
opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.
Mountain and Glacial landforms are part of continental landforms as
they appear inland. The examples of Glacial and Mountain landforms
include: crevasse, mountain & mountain range, glacier, rift valley,
glacier cave, esker etc.
Slope landforms/Erosional Landforms
In mountainous areas, rock is eroded and transported by gravity,
surface water and wind. Larger material collects at the bottom of the
mountainside to form rocky slopes called scree slopes and get washed
into river networks to be transported downstream.
Other examples of slope landforms are: mountain, plain, plateau,
ravine, ridge, escarpment, scree, graben, gully, hill, horst, alas etc. A
ravine is a very small valley, which is often the product of
streamcutting erosion. A graben is a depressed block of land bordered
by parallel faults. It is the result of a block of land being downthrown
producing a valley with a distinct scarp on each side. Grabens often
occur side-by-side with horsts. Horst and graben structures are
indicative of tensional forces and crustal stretching.
 Volcanic landforms
Volcano result from the accumulation of once molten rock emitted
from far below Earths surface (lava).Active volcanoes continue to
raise the land surface as they erupt fresh lava, although parts of the
volcanoes are often destroyed as they explode. Some plateaus are
created by lava spreading over vast areas. Molten rock forcing its
way into faults in the Earths crust from below (magma) can also
raise the land surface. Volcanic activity is the most noticeable
process of landscape change. Examples includes; lava dome or
plug dome, mid-ocean ridge, oceanic trench, volcanic craters (not
impact craters), volcano, shield volcano, mud volcano & composite
volcano (or stratovolcano, supervolcano) etc.
A mid-ocean ridge or mid-oceanic ridge is an underwater mountain
range, typically having a valley known as a rift running along its
axis, formed by plate tectonics. This type of oceanic ridge is
characteristic of what is known as an oceanic spreading center. The
uplifted sea floor results from convection currents which rise in the
mantle as magma at a linear weakness in the oceanic crust, and
emerge as lava, creating new crust upon cooling. A mid-ocean
ridge demarcates the boundary between two tectonic plates, and
consequently is termed a divergent plate boundary.
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Karst Landforms/landscapes
Acid that attacks rock that dissolve easily and some rocks that
do not dissolve so easily creates very distinctive and imposing
landforms at the ground surface and underground.
Surface features reflecting the dissolution of bedrock above and
below ground are referred to as Karst Landscape. Highly acid
water dissolves the carbonates of which limestone is made and
this leaves empty spaces that are sometimes extremely large.
E.g. Limestone, a sedimentary rock made of the mineral
calcite, is soluble in acidic water.
Caves are a karst landform
Fluvial landforms
Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of
sediment. The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to
mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as bedload
(grains too large to be suspended for very long under normal flow
conditions), suspended load (grains small enough to be
suspended) or dissolved load (solute). The rate of sediment
transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the
river's discharge or currents. All the material carried by stream is
its load. River erosion is caused by water dissolving rocks, and by
the abrasion caused when cobbles, pebbles, and sand grains rub
along the base of the river valley and against each other.
Streams may attack their channels and beds by corrosion, abrasion
and cavitation. Corrosion is the chemical weathering of bed and
bank material in contact with the stream water. Abrasion is the
wearing away of surfaces over which the water flows by the impact
or grading action of particles moving with the water body.
Cavitation occurs only when flow velocities are high, as at the
bottom of waterfalls, in rapids and in some artificial conduits.
Streams may erode their channels downwards or sideways and these
are respectively termed Vertical and Lateral erosion. As rivers flow
across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with
other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a drainage system
and is often dendritic, but may adopt other patterns depending on the
regional topography and underlying geology.
Fluvial environments are dominated by running water. They are
widespread except in areas where ice dominates and dry regions,
where wind tends to be the main erosive agent. Downstream from
hills and mountains, river sedimentation creates a flat area of land
called a floodplain. As the name suggests, this landform originates
from the periodic flooding of the adjacent river, a process that results
in widespread deposition of sediment. Flooding may occur each year,
during springtime or monsoonal floods, and plays an important role
in renewing the sediment and water that help soil formation
In areas where the underlying geology is limestone, various distinct
landforms may be visible. Because limestone is jointed and eroded by
water, streams and rivers can easily carve into landscape, forming
gorges, caves and hollows called sinkholes. Floods are both
destructive and constructive. They wash away roads, buildings, and
soil from some areas, and deposit large volumes of sediment
elsewhere on the floodplain or in the ocean. Floods are usually caused
by rainstorms, especially cloudbursts, in upland areas, but snowmelt,
earthquakes, dam bursts, and volcanic eruptions can also cause floods.
Their unpredictable nature can cause huge damage to human life, as in
Bangladesh, where floods occur every year.
Other examples of fluvial landforms include; swamp, foreland basin,
lake, island, levee, river, braided channel, sedimentary basin, spring,
stream etc.

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GEOMORPHIC AGENTS AND PROCESSES
The geomorphic processes are all those physical and chemical
changes which effect a modification of the earths surficial
form e.g weathering, mass wasting, erosion and mass wasting.
A geomorphic agent or agency is any natural medium which
is capable of securing and transporting earth material. Thus
running water(fluvial), including both concentrated and
unconcentrated runoff, ground water, glaciers/moving Ice,
wind, and movements within bodies of standing waters
including waves current, tides and tsunami are the geomorphic
agencies.
Most of the geomorphic agencies originate within the earths
atmosphere and are directed by force of gravity. Gravity is not a
geomorphic agent because it cannot secure and carry away
materials. It is better thought of as a directional force. The
agencies thus far mentioned and processes performed by them
originate outside the earth crust and for that reason termed
exogenic. Other geomorphic processes originate within the
earths crust and are thus designated as endogenic. Tectonic
process such as volcanism and earthquakes belong to this class.
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Among the endogenic processes that drive the shaping of
landforms are plate tectonics, or the shifting of large, movable
segments of lithosphere (the crust and upper layer of Earth's
mantle). Weathering, erosion, mass wasting or mass movement
and deposition are the main processes responsible for shaping the
earth.
1. WEATHERING
Weathering can be defined the breakdown or decomposition of
rocks and minerals at or near the surface of earth due to physical,
chemical or biological processes with little or no transport. The
weathered material may stay in place, or it may move down
hillslopes, down rivers and down submarine slopes. This
downslope movement is caused by gravity and by fluid forces.
1.1 Condition factors
At least four variable factors influence the type and rate of rock
weathering. These are rock structures, climate, topography and
vegetation.
Rock structure is used in the broad sense to include the many
physical and chemical characteristics of rocks. It includes
mineralogical composition or texture, as well as such physical
features as joints, bedding planes, faults and minute intergrain
fractures and voids.
The minerals forming the rock in part determine whether it is more
susceptible to chemical or physical weathering. In the process of
weathering it is rare to find all constituents of the rock weathering at an
equal rate. Usually one mineral is weathered and the weathering of that
mineral loosens the whole fabric of the surface layers of the rock. In a
coarse- grained the weathering of one constituent may have a
proportionately larger effect than fine-grained rocks, sometimes possess
an interlocking structure in their crystals, and this must retard the When rainwater gets into rocks and then freezes and thaws, it can cause
decomposition of the rock. pieces of rock to break off. This is called weathering

Physical features such as joints, lesser fractures, bedding planes and
faults, to a large degree determine the ease with which moisture enters
the rock. These features allow the ingress of the agents of weathering
especially those of chemical weathering. The presence of joints greatly
increases the surface available for weathering and accelerates the general
rate of weathering of the rocks. Plutonic rocks, of which granites are the
most common, develop joints during cooling and probably also are as
they relieved of their weight of the rock above.
The major climate factors of temperature and humidity determine not
only the rate at which weathering proceeds but also whether chemical or
physical processes predominate.
Generally speaking it is said that physical weathering predominates
in cold and dry regions and chemical weathering in humid climates
whether they be temperate or tropical but these opinions may need
some qualification.
Topography affects the amount of rock exposure and also has
important effects upon such factors as the amount and kind of
precipitation, temperatures and indirectly the kind and amount of
vegetation. The abundance and type of vegetation influence the rate
and type of weathering by determining the extent of rock outcrops
and the amount of decaying organic matter from which carbon
dioxide and humic acid is derived.

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1.2 Agents of Weathering
(1) Physical weathering
- When rocks are broken in to smaller pieces without changing the
chemical composition of the rock. Think of a physical change (e.g.,
ripping a piece of paper) -- will change size, but all other
characteristics will remain the same.
Heating and cooling; Wetting and drying; frost action; unloading
and salt-crystal growth plays an important role on rock weathering.
Heating & Cooling When the heat of an intense forest/bush fire
bakes a rock, the outer layer of the rock expands. On cooling, the
layer contracts and eventually break off in sheetlike
pieces(exfoliation).Frost action/frost wedging The force exerted
as water freezes provides one of the most effective means of Finally, unloading is another example of physical weathering. When

disintegrating rock. Water expands when it freezes and pushes the erosion removes surface material, the confining pressure on the

walls apart. A very similar process occurs on roads, which causes underlying rock is eased. The lower pressure enables mineral grains to

potholes. move further apart, creating voids and the rock expands or dilates. In

Salt wedging In arid climates, dissolved salt in groundwater mineshafts cut in granites or other dense rocks, the pressure release

precipitates and grows as crystals in open pore spaces in rocks and can cause treacherous explosive rockbursts. Dilation produces large or

so weakens the rock that when exposed to wind & rain, the rock small cracks (fractures and joints) that run parallel to the surface.
breaks into separate grains.

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(2) Chemical Weathering.
Weathering involves a huge number of chemical reactions acting
together upon many different types of rock under the full range of
climate conditions. The chief chemical weathering processes are
hydration, hydrolysis, oxidation, carbonation and solution. Hydration
is transitional between chemical and mechanical or physical
weathering.
Hydration, whereby certain types of minerals take up or absorb water
and expand, thus causes additional stresses within the rock.
e.g CaSO4 + 2H2O CaSO4.2H2O
absorption of water into the crystal structure of minerals, causing
some minerals such as certain types of clay, to expand. Such
expansion weakens the rock.
Hydrolysis is said to be a main process of chemical weathering and
can completely decompose or drastically modify susceptible primary
minerals in rocks. It is common in the weathering of feldspars and
+
micas. In hydrolysis, water splits into hydrogen cations (H ) and
-
hydroxyl anions (OH ) and reacts directly with silicate minerals in
rocks and soils.
The reaction for the hydrolysis of orthoclase which has the chemical
formula KAlSi3O8, is
2KAlSi3O8 + 2H+ + 2OH- 2HAlSi3O8 + 2KOH
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So, the orthoclase is converted to alumino-silicic acid, 2HAlSi3O8,
and potassium hydroxide, KOH and both are unstable and react
further. As carbon dioxide is almost invariable present in the
atmosphere, it reacts to produce potassium carbonate and water
from potassium hydroxide.
2KOH + H2CO3 K2CO3 + 2H2O
The potassium carbonate formed is soluble and removed by water.
The unstable alumino-silicic acid reacts with water to produce
kaolinite,Al2Si2O5 (OH)4( a clay mineral) and silicic acid,H4SiO4:
2HAlSi3O8 + 9H2O Al2Si2O5 (OH)4 + 2 H4SiO4
The silicic acid is soluble and removed by water leaving kaolinite as
a residue, a process termed desilication, as it involve the loss of
silicon. If the solution equilibrium of the silicic acid changes then
silicon dioxide (silica) may be precipitated out of the solution:
H4SiO4 2H2O + SiO2
Although the process of hydrolysis occurs through the action of pure
water, it is accelerated by the presence of carbon dioxide. From the
present point of view its chief interest lies in the fact that it is the
process whereby feldspars are altered to clay which tend to contract
and expand under certain climate conditions. The taking up of water
by clay particles is also a form of hydration. It leads to clay swell
when wet.
From this we can see that, hydration assists other weathering processes
by placing water molecules deep inside crystal structures.
Minerals vary in their solubility. The most soluble natural minerals are
chlorides of the alkali metals: rock salt or halite (NaCl) and potash salt
(KCl).
Carbonation is the formation of carbonates, which are the salts of
carbonic acid (H2CO3). It is important in the breakdown of feldspars
and carbonates, especially limestones and dolomites, which are very
common rocks at the surface of the earth. Carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere dissolves in natural or raining waters to form carbonic acid.
Therefore, this reversible reaction combines water with carbon dioxide
to form carbonic acid, which then dissociates into hydrogen ion and a
bicarbonate ion. Carbonic acid attacks minerals, forming carbonates.
Carbonation dominates the weathering of calcareous rocks (limestones
and dolomites), where the main mineral is calcite or calcium carbonate
(CaCO3).Calcite reacts with carbonic acid to form calcium hydrogen
carbonate (Ca (HCO3) that unlike calcite is readily dissolved in water.
This is why some limestones are so prone to solution.
The reversible reactions between carbon dioxide, water and calcium
carbonate are complex. In essence the process may be written:
CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 Ca2+ + 2HCO3-
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This formula summarizes a sequence of events starting with
dissolved carbon dioxide (from the air) reacting speedily with
water to produce carbonic acid, which is always in an ionic state.
CO2 + H2O H+ + HCO3-
Carbonate ions from the dissolved limestone react at once with the
hydrogen ions to produce bicarbonate ions.
CO32- + H+ HCO32-
The reaction upsets the chemical equilibrium in the system and
more limestone goes into solution to compensate and more
dissolve carbon dioxide reacts with the water to make more.
Oxidation, the taking up of additional oxygen by any mineral is
also a common especially of iron compounds in the zone above
water table. The most common example is to be found in the
sedimentary rocks where many clays as long as they are deprived of
air by being saturated with water are blue or grey due to presence of
ferrous compounds, which on exposure to the air are oxidized to red
or brown ferric compounds.
The reaction for iron, which occurs mainly when oxygen dissolved
in water comes into contact with iron-containing minerals, is
written:
4Fe2+ + 3O2 + 2e- 2Fe2O3 [e =electron]
 Alternatively, the ferrous iron, Fe2+ ,which occurs in most rock 2. MASS WASTING/MASS MOVEMENT
forming minerals, may be converted to its ferric form,Fe3+,upsetting Mass wasting or mass movement is the transfer of earth material,
the neutral charge of the crystal lattice, sometimes causing collapse by processes that include flow, slide, fall, and creep, down slopes
and making the mineral more prone to chemical attack. etc.

Road cuttings and pit faces change colour often in the comparatively
short space of few months. Among the igneous rocks the basic types,
such as gabbro and basalt are characterized by black or very dark
green colour but their weathered residues are reddish brown due to
oxidation
The conditions which favor rapid mass wasting can be divided
into passive and activating or initiating causes. Passive causes
include:(a) Lithologic factors, unconsolidated or weak material or
those which become slippery and act as lubricants when
wet;(b)Stratigraphic factors, laminated or thinly bedded rock and

. Weathering Rates alternating weak and strong or permeable and impermeable

beds;(c)Structural factors, closely spaced joints, faults crush
--depend on 3 different factors:
zones, shear and foliation planes and steeply dipping
o Particle size/surface area exposed to the surface beds;(d)Topographic factors, steep slope or vertical

- smaller particle sizes weathered faster cliffs;(e)climate factors, large diurnal and annual range of
temperature with high freeze and thaw and abundant
- larger exposed surface area weathered faster
precipitation;(f)Organic factors, scarcity of vegetation.
o Mineral composition Activating causes are: removal of support through natural or

o Climate wet & warm climates increase weathering rates artificial means, oversteepening of slopes by running water and
overloading through water saturation or by artificial fills.

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 3. EROSION
Erosion refers to the transportation of rock, soil, and mineral
particles.
Factors Affecting Transportation of Sediments
Gradient (slope)
Discharge
channel shape
- The average velocity (speed) of a stream depends on its slope
and discharge, which in turn can explain the carrying power
of a stream.
- Meanders (see diagram below)
o Deposits-velocity is lowest along the inner banks
o Along a straight channel segment, fastest in mid channel,
near the surface.
o Erosion-around a bend, the zone of high velocity swings to
the outside of the channel.
o Another landform -- an oxbow lake -- can develop--
forming an independent loop that will become a lake
Valleys that have been eroded by streams are v-shaped and by
glaciers are u-shaped. Humans add greatly to the natural
processes of land erosion through activities, such as: highway and
construction, destruction of forests (clear-cutting), set forest fires,
poor landfill projects, etc
Today, human activities contribute more than ever to the erosion
on the Earths surface.
4. DEPOSITION
After weathering, mass wasting and erosion, rock particles are
deposited somewhere else - the final step in the erosional-
depositional system. Eroded material is moved by gravitational
and fluid forces. Where the transporting capacity is insufficient
to carry the solid sediment, or where the chemical environment
leads to the precipitation of the solute load, deposition of
sediment occurs. Sedimentary bodies occur where deposition
outpaces erosion, and where chemical precipitation exceeds
solution loss. Three types of sediment are recognized: Clastic
sediments, chemical sediments and biogenic sediments.

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 Final deposition of particles (sediments) usually occurs at the mouth
of a stream--a process called horizontal sorting takes place: The
sediments that were once carried down the stream are arranged from
largest to smallest.

Stream Horizontal Sorting Diagram

Shape: Round sediment compared to flat (skipping stone) sediment

Factors Affecting Deposition
of equal size will settle faster in a body of water. The graphic
The major factors that affect the rate of deposition are: below shows the relationship.
Particle size, shape, density, and the velocity of the
transporting stream:
o Size: smaller particles settle more slowly than the larger
particles, due to gravity. The smaller particles tend to stay
in suspension for longer periods of time. This form of
deposition is called graded bedding or vertical sorting.
The diagram below shows graded bedding.

Rate of Settling Diagram

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 Density: If particles are the same size but has different densities the
higher density particle will settle faster
Velocity: If the stream slows down during a drought period, the
carrying power will decrease and the particle sizes carried and
deposited will also decrease.
If a stream is flowing faster due to flood conditions, then the carrying
power of the stream will increase and the sizes of particles deposited
will increase as well.
LANDFORM CONTROLS (Driving vs Resisting forces)
1. Driving Forces (sources of energy)
a) Force = (mass) (acceleration); expressed as a vector with
magnitude and direction
b) Energy: capacity to do work.
I. Kinetic Energy: energy of motion
II. Potential Energy: energy of position
III. Heat / Thermal Energy - molecular kinetic energy
Energy drives geomorphic change and is the force behind
process. Without energy we would not have the
hydrologic cycle, weathering or the tectonic activity.
c) Work = Fs; where F = Force and s = distance
1). force is applied to a mass, work occurs when the mass is
displaced
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Driving Force: Application of energy in the context of
performing work on earth materials (e.g. hydraulic force +
particles = erosion)
Driving Forces in Geomorphic Systems:
1. Climate
2. Gravity and
3. Internal Heat/Tectonics
1) Climate (Exogenic Force: from without) - average weather
conditions at any place over a long period of time.
(a) Climate and the sun
I. Solar energy transferred as heat in atmospheric/oceanic
systems of the earth--climate systems driven by the heat
transfer of these systems (i.e. atmospheric and oceanic
circulation patterns)
(b) Climate largely driven by heat transfer of suns energy about
atmosphere and ocean waters.
(c) Climate as a 1st order controlling factor, influences:
I.rainfall/solar insolation of area
II.vegetative growth
III.style of weathering/erosion process
IV.hydrologic processes (fluvial, glacial)
 2) Gravity as a controlling factor (a) Internal Heat Transfer
i) Mantle convection: physical movement of rock
(a) Force of attraction between the earth's center of mass and surface
material as a heat transporting medium
materials (sediment, soil, water) drives landscape evolution.
a) hot, deeper mantle rises as it is of < density
(b) F = mg = "weigth" where m = mass of object, g = acceleration
b) cooler, shallower mantle sinks as it is of
due to gravity. g = acceleration of a falling object (e.g. sediment)
>density
due to gravitational force F, assumed to be constant at
980cm/sec2 = 9.8 m/sec2
(c) Gravity obviously influences surface water flow, mass
wasting/hillslope movement processes, serving as a driving force
i) Driving force for flowing water and ice
ii) Driving force for density-driven currents
e.g. air flow / weather

3) Internal Heat of the Earth (i.e. Tectonics)

(b) Internal Heat of Earth: supplied primarily by: Sea floor spreading and mantle convection

i. radioactive decay with exothermic heat loss Internal heat transfer of the earth thought to be the driving
ii. frictional heat by earth tides and internal rock mechanism of plate tectonics and plate motion.
deformation (i) Oceanic spreading centers/volcanism plate subduction and
volcanic arcs plate collision and rock
(c) How do we know the inside of the Earth is hot?
uplift/deformation/mountain building.
i) volcanic eruptions
ii) seismology
iii) deep mines / wells

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 22. Resisting force/framework
Geology of Land Area
(1) Lithology: rock types
o Various rock types have variable resistance to
erosion depending on mineralogy and
chemistry and the climatic/weathering regime.
o Igneous, Metamorphic, Sedimentary
Resistant vs. Non Resistant Rocks
e.g. sandstone vs. shale
(2) Rock Structure
Exercise on Convection (a)Folded rocks
(a) Convection is the processes of heat transfer by transfer of
(b) Faults, Fractures, Joints
mass. Convection is an important process in the atmosphere,
oceans and interior of the Earth. Create your own convection 1) Preferred zones of erosional weakness
system by using a heating element and any container. Place (c) Mountain Belts/Uplifted Rock Areas
the heating element in the container full of water and turn it
on. Answer the question below: (3) Rock Structure generally forms zones of
a. What water circulation patterns do you observe? Draw a
weakness upon which other surface processes can
sketch of what you see?
b. Explain the process of convection in terms of: act to carve the landscape.
i. How is the heat being transferred from the heating element to the
container of water. Exercise
ii. Why is the water circulating the way it is? Answer in terms of
heating, volume change, density contrast(remember that 1. What are the driving and resisting forces of landform
density=mass/volume development?
iii. List one example each of how convection influences geomorphic 2. Write short notes on landform controls.
systems in terms of atmospheric processes, ocean process and
plate tectonics.

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 Equilibrium and Time
Equilibrium results from balance between driving and resisting forces
acting on a geomorphic system. Types of equilibrium can be classified
into:

1. Static equilibrium
This type of system occurs when a system is in balance over a time
period and no change in state occurs. The elements of the landscape
adjust to changes in the process; forming a cause and effect
relationship to maintain static equilibrium i.e. Landforms show no
apparent change
time span: hours, days, months
2. Steady-state equilibrium
Steady state equilibrium obtains when constantly fluctuates about
an mean equilibrium state.
Time span: years, decades, centuries
3. Dynamic equilibrium
Hack (1960's) - elements of the landscape rapidly adjust form in
response to changes in the processes operating on them. System
changes progressively
Time span: millions of year

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The concept of Equilibrium System sediment load, the river will adjust its geometry to carry the load

Systems of all kinds may be regarded as open, closed or isolated relative to processes of erosion, transportation and deposition.

according to how they interact or do not interact with their Exercise..In the context of elapsed time, distinguish between the

surroundings (Huggett 1985). A system is a collection of related different kinds of equilibrium in the evolution of landforms?
objects and the processes relating these objects.
Thresholds and Complex Response
a. Isolated system:
An isolated system is, traditionally taken to mean a system that is
Thresholds concept: the limits to equilibrium
completely cut off from its surroundings and cannot therefore import or
export matter or energy. a) Within an equilibrium system, an equal state of
e.g. the Universe as a finite entity disequilibrium also exists, results from severe imbalance

b. Closed System within the system, system undergoes period of

A closed system has boundaries open to the passage of energy but
not of matter.
e.g. the Earth as a whole is closed
c. Open system
Matter and energy may flow into and out of the system freely. Most
geomorphic systems, including hillslopes, may be thought of as open
systems as they exchange energy and matter with their surroundings.
(1) steady state System
(special type of open system) balance between input and out
flow.... INPUT + OUTPUT
Many Geomorphic systems are viewed as equilibrium systems
e.g. River Systems: if a river is shifted out of equilibrium by increased
disequilibrium prior to re-establishment of equilibrium.
b) Geomorphic Thresholds: represent the limits of equilibrium
or critical limits. As processes extend beyond thresholds,
disequilibrium or response occurs.
e.g. as thresholds for hillslope water moisture are exceeded,
the system may respond in the form of slope failure or
landslide. Implies a critical threshold of moisture content
beyond which slopes will fail.
Therefore, a threshold separates different states of a system. It marks
some kind of transition in the behavior, operation or state of a system.
Everyday examples abound. Water in a boiling kettle crosses a
temperature threshold in changing from a liquid to gas. Similarly, ice
taken out of a refrigerator and placed upon a table in a room with an

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air temperature of 10C will melt because a temperature threshold has Example: process-response system
been crossed. In both examples, the huge differences in state solid
Negative feedback Positive feedback
water to liquid water, and liquid water to water vapour may result
from tiny changes in temperature. Many geomorphic processes operate Storm event
++ Uplift
Uplift +
only after a threshold has been crossed. Landslides for instance require a Rate of
Stream - Rate of
critical slope angle, all other factors being constant before they occur. - surface
gradient
Erosion runoff water
+ rate + infiltration
Earth Science System
+ Rate of into soil
There are many ways to describe the earth systems, including Stream flow
soil -
velocity
systems such as: Morphological, Cascading, and Process-response erosion

Systems are inherently subject to FEEDBACK What is it?

It is a process response to changes in system function that Systems Approach to Geomorphology
causes movement away from (positive) or back to morphological systems: examine morphological
(negative) the previous equilibrium state. properties of landforms or landscape elements
Negative feedback: self-regulating response that cascading systems: examine movements of mass and
opposes or dampens the general trend of the system or flows of energy through the landscape
process (e.g., incision and increased sediment transport Process-response systems: examine interactions
of rivers exposed to upliftregulates to balanced between morphological and cascading systems;
gradient). examine relationship between adjustments in process
Positive feedback: magnifying response that amplifies and form
the trend (e.g., in glacial systems, more snow = more
ice = more flow).Often short bursts of destruction are
checked in natural systems by some limiting variable

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 River System Fluvial system works to maintain equilibrium:
o as thresholds are crossed, fluvial landscapes undergo
change (temporary or permanant)
Agenda - examine:
o stream channel patterns, their formation & associated
landforms
o floodplain formation & characteristics
o fluvial terrace formation
o graded profiles (knickpoints)

STRAIGHT VERSUS MEANDERING

1. Straight channels

These are uncommon in the natural world.They are

A. Introduction
Interaction of:
o driving force of water &
o resisting force of landscape
o results in numerous fluvial landforms at a
variety of scales (spatial & temporal)
usually restricted to stretches of V-shaped valley that are
themselves straight owing to stractural control exerted by
faults or joints.Straight channels in flat valley-floors are
almost invariably artificial.Even in a straight channel,the
thalweg(the trace of the deepest point along the
channel)usually winds from side to side,and the long
profile usually displays a series of deeper and shallower
sections(pools and rifles) much like a meandering or a
braided stream.

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Pools and riffles b. secondary flow patterns: spiral or helical flow

a. characteristics at low discharges outside of bends - water surface is elevated, which generates an
accelerating downward motion, which scours the bank
RIFFLES POOLS
inside of bends - flow is decelerating and moving upwards,

shallow (& wide) deep (& narrow) which results in deposition of material

high velocity low velocity

steep water surface gradient gentle water surface gradient

coarse grained bed material fine grained bed material

divergent flow (facilitates convergent flow (facilitates scour)

deposition) c. formation
velocity reversal hypothesis: pools & riffles form when
discharge exceeds a threshold such that pool velocity
exceeds riffle velocity
as discharge increases, rate of change in:
depth is greater in riffles than in pools
velocity is less in riffles than in pools
water surface slope is less in riffles than in pools
result: as flow increases, pools & riffles become more
similar
above a threshold discharge, critical bed velocity & bed
shear stress are greater in pools than in riffles
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Meandering Channels Braided Channels
Meandering channels wander snake-like across a floodplain.The
Are essentially depositional forms that occur where the flow divides
dividing line between straight and meandering is arbitrary defined by
into a series of braids separated by island or bars of accumulated
a sinuosity of 1.5,calculated by dividing the channel length by the
sediment. The island support vegetation and last a long time, while
valley length or length of meander belt axis.Water flows through
bars are more impermanent. Braided channels tend to form
meanders in a characteristic pattern encourages erosion and
where(1)stream energy is high;(2) the channel gradient is steep;(3)
undercutting of banks on the outside of bends and deposition
sediment supply from hillslopes, tributaries or glaciers is high and a
big portion of coarse material is transported as bed load; and
Alaska
(4)bank material is erodible, allowing the channel to shift sideways
with relative ease. They are common in glaciated mountains (see
figure below), where channel slopes are steep and the channel bed
is very gravelly.

Factors associated with braiding

Meandering is favoured where banks resist erosion, so forming deep easily eroded banks - widespread bank erosion
and narrow channels. However, why rivers meander is not entirely abundant bed load
clear. Ideas centre on: (1) the distribution and dissipation of energy relatively permanent system of multiple sinuous channels

within a river ;(2) helical flow;(3) the interplay of bank erosion, with cohesive banks

sediment load and deposition. A consensus has emerged that rapid & frequent variations in discharge disallows

meandering is caused by the intrinsic instabilities of turbulent water vegetation to establish on bars.

against a movable bank.

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 STREAM FLOW
o Every year streams transport billions of tons of sediment to the
oceans, where it is deposited and can ultimately become part of
A. Introduction the rock record.
o Streams shape the surface of the continental crust. Most of the
Drainage basin: the total area that contributes water to the
Earths landscapes consist of stream valleys separated by
stream, its the basic unit for collection and distribution of
higher ground and are the result of weathering, mass-wasting,
water and sediment.
and stream erosion working in combination.
Stream flow is running water on the earths surface,
Agenda
ultimate end product of runoff generation
o discuss generation of runoff
Why stream flow is an important geological process?
o Stream carries most of the water that goes from land to o examine stream channel geometry
sea, and so area an essential part of the hydrologic o explore the mechanics of flow
cycle.
What is a drainage basin? Why stream flow is an important
geological process?

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 B. GENERATION OF RUNOFF

Surface runoff is a term used to describe the flow of water, from rain,
snowmelt, or other sources, over the land and is a major component of
the water cycle. It can be generated either by rainfall or by the melting
of snow or glaciers in the following ways:
Infiltration excess overland flow (unsaturated overland flow)
This occurs when the rate of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate
at which water can infiltrate the ground, and any depression
storage has already been filled. This more commonly occurs in
arid and semi-arid regions, where rainfall intensities are high and
the soil infiltration capacity is reduced because of surface sealing,
or in paved areas.

Saturation excess overland flow (saturated overland flow)

As it flows, the amount of runoff may be reduced in a number of
When the soil is saturated and the depression storage filled, and
possible ways: a small portion of it may evapotranspire; water may
rain continues to fall, the rainfall will immediately produce surface
become temporarily stored in microtopographic depressions; and a
runoff. The level of antecedent soil moisture is one factor affecting
portion of it may become run-on, which is the infiltration of runoff as it
the time until soil becomes saturated. This runoff is saturation
flows overland. Any remaining surface water eventually flows into a
excess overland flow or saturated overland flow.
receiving water body such as a river, lake, estuary or ocean.
With the aid of a diagram, explain how surface runoff is generated
Subsurface return flow (interflow)
After water infiltrates the soil on an up-slope portion of a hill, the water may in different ways.

flow the soil) closer to the channel.

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 Stream Channel Geometry Stream erosion and deposition
channel width: w important factors that determine which operates
channel depth: d velocity
cross sectional area: a speed of flow of water
wetted perimeter: Pw discharge
hydraulic radius: r = a/Pw volume of water passing over a given point at a particular
channel gradient (slope): s time (becomes important during flooding)

Velocity
1. Driving forces
a. gravity: 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.8 m/sec/sec
b. channel gradient
2. Resisting forces
a. viscosity: resistance of a fluid to a change in shape
1) molecular viscosity: resistance due to friction between
Briefly explain the various elements of the geometry of a stream individual water molecules as they collide and slide past one
channel and its velocity profiles. Make use of a diagram to
elucidate your answers. another
affected by temperature and suspended sediment
Discharge 2) eddy viscosity: resistance due to friction along eddy lines flow

Q=wxdxv=axv conditions: laminar or turbulent flow

Show how the discharge of a stream can be quantified.

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Velocity depends on stream gradient, channel shape, channel
roughness. Velocity higher velocities promote erosion; lower
promote deposition.
b. friction with bed and banks
increased roughness causes increased resistance
roughness elements include measures of:
o grain size
o microtopography (e.g. ripples, bars)
o gross channel shape
Write brief explanatory notes on the forces involved in
determining the velocity of a surface stream. Explain the Reynolds
number and how it is calculated to provide an approximation of
the flow condition?
32 | P a g e
Discharge
Volume of water that flows past a given point per unit time
Discharge = stream width x depth x velocity
Stream erosion
Streams cut their own valleys, which deepen and widen over time,
carrying away sediment.
Three mechanisms
1) hydraulic action
flowing water picks up and transports rock/sediment
2) solution
dissolution (dissolving) of rocks, e.g. limestone
3) abrasion
grinding of stream channel by impact and friction
of sediment load (sediment carried by flowing water)
hydraulic action: water picking up material
 STREAM SEDIMENT 4. Agenda:
Explore hydraulic factors and sediment characteristics
A. Introduction
affecting entrainment
1. Types of energy: potential, kinetic, thermal
Examine differences between bed and bank erosion
thermal energy: expended on internal friction & friction
Explore conditions for transportation and deposition of
with channel perimeter
sediment
potential & kinetic energy: mechanical work - erosion,
transportation & deposition B. Hydraulic Factors Affecting Entrainment
2. Entrainment: set of processes that initiate particle motion
competence: size of the largest particle a stream can
entrain under a given set of hydraulic conditions
3. Thresholds: under what conditions will a river do the
mechanical work necessary to modify or maintain channel
morphology?

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1. Critical bed velocity
a. sixth power law: r3 = kv6
b. Hjulstrom diagram
2. Critical bed shear stress
a. shear stress
b. bed shear stress
b = x g x r x s = x r x s
where: = density of water
g = gravity
3. Velocity gradient
r = hydraulic radius
s = slope a. rate of change in velocity with distance from bed or banks
= unit specific weight of water b. velocity gradient creates a vertical pressure gradient, which
results in an upwards force
Exercise. Make use of the Hjulstrom diagram to illustrate and c. velocity gradient steeper for turbulent flow than for laminar
explain the critical velocities of entrainment, transportation and flow for a given discharge and area:
deposition of the clastic load of a stream. wide, shallow channels - steeper gradient along bed
than along banks - promotes bed erosion.
c. Shield diagram narrow, deep channels - steeper gradient along banks
than along bed - promotes bank erosion

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 C. Sediment Characteristics Affecting Entrainment

1. Size and density

2. Sorting of bed material

equal mobility hypothesis

downstream fining

3. Layering or packing
14. What is the velocity gradient of a natural water stream, how
does it vary within the system and how does that affect the work 4. Particle shape and orientation
performed by the stream?

4. Stream power:

= gQs/w

where: = density of water

Q = discharge

s = slope
Which characteristics of a sediment affect its entrainment in a
w = channel width stream?

15. What are the factors that affect the power of a stream and how is
the stream power calculated?

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 SOILS GEOMORPHOLOGY

1. Decipher sequence of events; relative ages

a. time is critical for profile formation
b. soil forming factors change over time
c. polygenetic soils: profile characteristics reflect more than
one set of soil forming factors
Name the different kinds of sediment load that is transported 2. Guidelines for interpreting soils
by a stream.
a. Law of superposition: younger beds overlie older beds;
G. Summary younger beds truncate older beds
1. Mechanical work: erosion, transportation & deposition b. Law of ascendency & descendency: higher surfaces are
2. Type of work function of: older than lower surfaces
Hydraulic conditions these first two laws allow relative dating of surfaces &
Sediment characteristics help predict the areal distribution of surfaces
Weakening and weathering of bank material
3. Amount of work
Measure amount of sediment transported during any
given flow
Assess conditions under which rivers make
adjustments to or maintain their channel
morphologies
o Dominant discharge
o Recovery time (relaxation time)

36 | P a g e
 c. the composition of surface & subsurface materials and the
geomorphology of a site control the hydrology of the site
3. Paleosols
a. relict soils: soils that have remained at the surface since their initial
formation
b. buried soils: soils formed on an ancient surface & subsequently
buried; not affected by current pedogenic processes
c. exhumed soils: formerly buried, but subsequently exposed to
current pedogenic processes

Summary

five soil forming factors: parent material, time, climate,

organisms, relief 2. Horizons
Affect soil characteristics
Comparisons of soils may allow: O Horizon: litter layer; common in forests
A Horizon: topsoil; dark; nutrient rich
o Relative dating; important for reconstructing past
E Horizon: eluvial horizon
sequences of geomorphic events
o clay, iron & aluminum eluviated most often
o Estimating past environmental conditions that may o sand & silt concentrated here
have influenced geomorphic processes o light colored
B Horizon: illuvial horizon
Processes affecting profile formation o clay, iron & aluminum illuviated here
C Horizon: weathered parent material
Additions R Horizon: consolidated bedrock
transformations: weathering & decomposition of organic
matter
vertical transfers: eluviation and illuviation; capillary rise;
bioturbation
removals: erosion; leaching

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 COURSE/MODULE SUMMARY
Exogenic vs. Endogenic Processes
Processes: how energy is utilized; how driving and resisting forces
interact.
Endogenic(Internally driven processes): All activities
involving changes to rocks in the Earths interior, like
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and the thrusting up of
mountain ranges.
Exogenic(Externally driven processes): all the activities
involved in erosion, and also in the moving around of the
eroded materials. Rocks are broken down physically and
chemically into small fragments and the fragments are then
moved around by wind, water and ice .
Mass Balance: Exogenic vs. Endogenic Processes
1. Exogenic Processes: destructive geomorphic processes that
originate at or above the earth's surface
a. Weathering-erosion-denudation processes
(1) e.g. Chemical/Physical Rock Weathering
(2) e.g. Rilling/Gullying/Fluvial Erosion
(3) e.g. Glacial scouring/erosion
b. Theoretically: if exogenic processes were to operate on a
landscape, unimpeded by opposing forces,
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there would be a tendency to reduce the landscape to a relatively
flat, featureless surface with few topographic.
Climate is an exogenic process that fluctuates and upsets
geomorphic equilibrium in the landscape.
2. Endogenic Processes: internal processes within the earth that
result in uplift and rejuvenation of the landscape
e.g. Tectonic Mountain Building Processes
(1) Rock Folding, Faulting, Uplift
(2) Epeirogeny
(3) Volcanism
Endogenic Processes result in an influx of lithospheric mass
and energy, rejuvenating the landscape and tipping
geomorphic equilibrium out of balance
Endogenic Effects
1. Diastrophism or Tectonism: Collective processes that deform
the earth's crust
a. Epeirogeny: regional uplift or depression of the earth's crust
over large areas with little internal deformation of original
rock structure (broad, regional, gentle uplift).
b. Orogeny: relatively intense deformation of the crust to form
structural mountains (folded, faulted, uplifted terrane).
 c. Isostacy: principle based on density contrasts within the crust of (d) Rates of isostatic rebound decay exponentially as the crust get
the earth. Less dense rock material (e.g. granitic continental closer to equilibrium/stasis. Conversely, rates of isostatic
rocks) will tend to ride at a higher elevation compared to more rebound are high initially as crustal disruption occurs
dense rock material (e.g. basaltic oceanic rocks). 3) Isostacy intimately related to epeirogenic movements of the
1) The driving force of isostacy is gravity, which is responsive earth's crust on a regional scale.
to a heterogenous distribution of rock density.
2) Isostatic Equilibrium: Masses of crustal rock of a given
density will adjust themselves relative to the earth's
gravitational field, density and loading.
(a) As loads are removed from the crust (e.g. melt of ice sheets
or denudation via erosion), the upper mantle should adjust
in combination with the over-riding crust, resulting in net
"bouyant" uplift of the crustal surface.
(b) As loads are added to the crust (e.g. glacial ice advance, or
sediment accumulation in a basin), the upper mantle
should adjust in combination with the over-riding crust,
resulting in net depression or subsidence of the crustal
surface.
(c) Much of the isostatic compensation is likely taken up by
the asthenosphere or "plastic" upper mantle between 60
and 200 km depth beneath the earth's surface.

THE END

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