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Abstract
Solid waste management (SWM) services have consistently failed to keep up with the vast amount of solid waste produced in urban
areas. There is not currently an eYcient system in place for the management, storage, collection, and transportation of solid waste. Kath-
mandu City, an important urban center of South Asia, is no exception. In Kathmandu Metropolitan City, solid waste generation is pre-
dicted to be 1091 m3/d (245 tons/day) and 1155 m3/d (260 tons/day) for the years 2005 and 2006, respectively. The majority (89%) of
households in Kathmandu Metropolitan City are willing to segregate the organic and non-organic portions of their waste. Overall collec-
tion eYciency was 94% in 2003. An increase in waste collection occurred due to private sector involvement, the shutdown of the second
transfer station near the airport due to local protest, a lack of funding to maintain trucks/equipment, a huge increase in plastic waste, and
the willingness of people to separate their waste into separate bins. Despite a substantial increase in total expenditure, no additional
investments were made to the existing development plan to introduce a modern disposal system due to insuYcient funding. Due to the
lack of a proper lining, raw solid waste from the existing dumping site comes in contact with river water directly, causing severe river con-
tamination and deteriorating the quality of the water.
2007 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
*
Corresponding author. The study was carried out in Kathmandu Metropolitan
E-mail address: rakib_env@yahoo.com (R. Alam). City and included visits to diVerent government, private,
and NGO waste management organizations in the city. The Year Vs Population
study also included a detailed investigation and survey of 1800
1600
several collection points, the transfer station on the pre-
1400
mises of Kathmandu Municipal Corporation, and the Wnal
Population (x 10 )
3
1200
disposal site at Balkhu, located on the banks of Bagmati 1000
River. A detailed survey and investigation were performed 800
to assess the current situation of KMCs solid waste collec- 600
tion system. Data relevant to this study was collected from y = 2E-47e0.057x
400
R2 = 0.9777
several diVerent sources such as Kathmandu Municipal 200
2
The data was analyzed using a variety of tools and meth- 1000
ods. Data collected from the interviews, investigation, sur- 800
veys, and Weld work was processed, reviewed, and edited. 600 y = 1.212x - 29
R2 = 0.9757
The quantitative data was tabulated and relevant statistical 400
Table 1
Population and waste generated for diVerent years
Year 1986 1989 1990 1991 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Population (103) 280.7 338.331 322.9 427.045 594.07 629.714 671.846 707.547 738.173
Waste generated (ton/year) (102) 300.58 346.57 748.16 775.26 779.37 800.72 827.82
Source: KMC (2004), CBS (2001) and SWMB and GTZ1,2 (1985).
1090 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
a 1200
Estimated population 839255 888255
Average daily domestic waste 1 103 1 103 1000 Expon.
tons/y)
generation (m3/person)b (Total)
800 Expon.
Estimated total domestic waste 839.255 888.255
(Organic)
generation (in m3/d) 600
Expon.
Street waste generation (in m3/d)c 83.93 88.83 400 (Plastic)
Commercial waste generation (in m3/d)c 83.93 88.83
200
Waste from institutions neighboring cities 83.93 88.83
and VDCs (in m3/d)c 0
Estimated total daily waste generation (in m3/d) 1091 1155 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012
Time (year)
Loose density (density at source) (ton/m3)b 0.225 0.225
Estimated total daily waste generation (in tons) 245 260 Fig. 3. Trends of total, organic and plastic waste (Karanjit and Shrestha,
Notes: 2005).
a
Prediction from the best-Wtted curve of the previous yearly population.
b
Source: Kathmandu valley mapping project, JICA (2004).
c
Assumed 10% of domestic waste generation as per KMC. Paper/ Metal Vs. Year
160
Paper/Metal (x 10 tons/y)
140
120
2
other two important constituents of the municipal solid 100 Expon.
(Paper)
80
waste stream. The rest of the waste contains glass, rubber, 60
leather, inert materials (dirt, bricks, stones, etc.), wood, 40 Expon.
(Metal)
cloth, and other materials. Quantitative Wgures of the solid 20
0
waste composition of Kathmandu Metropolitan City dur- 1985 1988 1991 1994 1997 2000 2003 2006 2009 2012
ing the years 1988, 1991, 1995, 2000, 2001, and 2003 are Time (Year)
shown in Table 3 (KMC, 2004). In general, organic waste Fig. 4. Trends of paper and metal waste (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).
accounts for 6070% of all solid waste and the percentage
of this waste which is biodegradable is remarkably high.
The oYcial Wgures of KMC for the year 2001 indicate
that almost 69.84% (by weight) of the waste generated in form between the two practices. Eighty-four percent of
Kathmandu Metropolitan City is organic, followed by households store waste in a commingled form while the rest
plastic (9.17%) and paper (8.5%). From Figs. 3 and 4 it is segregate the waste and store the organic portion separately
evident that the percentage contribution of most waste con- from other waste. However, the majority (89%) of house-
stituents will remain close to those of present years; how- holds in Kathmandu Metropolitan City have expressed a
ever, there will be a dramatic change in plastic waste willingness to segregate the organic portion of their waste
production from 9110 tons/year in 2003 to 21 400 tons/year from the others and store them separately. Recently, a sepa-
in 2006 due to the increased use of plastic products. rate unit called the Community Mobilization Unit (CMU)
working for KMC has started providing, at an economical
3.3. Waste storage rate, 100 l storage bins called community bins for domes-
tic waste storage. This type of bin was designed in such a
Interviews with solid waste management organizations way that it has the dual function of both storage and com-
indicate that two types of waste storage practices exist in posting. The CMU says that among diVerent bins tested, a
the City, commingled waste storage and segregated waste 100 l perforated hexagonal plastic bin was found to be the
storage. Commingled waste storage is the more prevalent most suitable for a family size of 57 persons. Owing to the
Table 3
Waste composition quantity for diVerent years
Year Waste composition (102 tons/y)
Waste generated Organic Paper Glass Rubber/leather Metal Wood Plastic Cloths Others
1988 259.8 150.2 16.1 4.2 1.0 1.0 1.3 5.2 5.2 76.2
1991 317.0 189.9 21.6 10.1 2.5 1.6 8.2 12.0 71
1995 413.8 216.0 24.8 14.9 9.5 19.9 18.2 22.3 33.5 54.6
2000 775.3 523.3 64.3 12.4 1.9 6.6 4.7 88.4 27.9 45.7
2001 779.4 544.3 66.2 19.5 5.1 7.2 5.7 71.5 23.5 36.3
2003 827.8 562.9 66.2 16.6 91.1 91.1
Source: KMC (2004).
R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097 1091
Table 4
Organizations involved in the waste collection process
Activity Equipment in use Implementation body
Generator Municipality Private sector
Primary collection By Hand F
Handcart F F
Tricycle F
Direct collection Tricycle F
Tractor F
Open truck F
Secondary collection Tractor F
Open truck F F
Container carrier F
Source: KMC (2004).
1092 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
Fig. 6(a). Truck laborer collecting waste from a householder in the block collection system (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).
Fig. 7. Percentage of collected and uncollected waste (Karanjit and Shrestha, 2005).
Table 7
Average number of trips/year
Year Tractors Tipper Skip 4 m3 Skip 4.5 m3 Skip 6 m3 Private 6 m3 Miller 20 m3
1999 29105 19900 5367 1255 2347 2128
2000 33392 15634 3603 1286 1315 3141
2001 33022 15672 3428 927 2352 7247
2002 29825 20017 2425 922 1727 8473 645
Source: Karanjit and Shrestha (2005).
1094 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
Most of the waste collected in these small capacity vehi- 3.9. Transfer station
cles cannot be transported over long distances. Thus, the
waste is taken to the transfer station Wrst and then to the At present, KMC only has one transfer station (TS) at
landWll site in compactors. Teku. All waste dumped along the roadside is swept, col-
R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097 1095
lected, and transferred here in tippers and tractors. The organizations include private limited companies, non-
waste is Wrst sorted out by scavengers and then taken to the governmental organizations (NGOs), and community
landWll site for Wnal dumping. KMC plans to construct based organizations (CBOs). In the past decade, these
more transfer stations in the future. The Teku Transfer Sta- organizations have become increasingly important to the
tion covers an area of 150 100 m and receives 150 tons of overall waste management of Kathmandu Metropolitan
waste per day. Currently, two loaders, four guards, and two City. Except for small CBOs and youth clubs, these orga-
administrative oYcers are employed at this location. Apart nizations provide waste collection services to between
from the Teku Transfer Station, another TS has been pro- 1100 and 4000 households, shops, and institutions. Most
posed across from the golf course near the airport. The pro- prominent among the solid waste management organiza-
posed new TS is planned to be covered in contrast to the tions are the private limited companies and NGOs. On a
present one that is open to the weather. The current area is much smaller scale, several CBOs (tol sudhar samiti) and
not even fenced. Even though the airport did not oppose local youth clubs have also been involved in municipal
the construction of a new TS, local residents raised objec- solid waste collection in the last Wve years while some
tions and work on the new site has since been suspended. have a longer history. The waste collected can be attrib-
Currently, there are seven 14 m3 capacity compactors at uted to the seventeen NGSWMOs (class A and B) out of
work, which make two trips each per day on average. The the nineteen most prominent organizations and other
collected waste is transferred to the Bagmati River landWll smaller community based organizations. The latter orga-
site where scavengers sort the refuse. Sorted refuse is com- nizations dispose of collected waste into KMC containers,
pacted and then covered with soil. The above section which is ultimately counted as waste collected by KMC.
describes the predominant forms of transportation of Thus, for the year 2003, the seventeen NGSWMOs col-
municipal waste in the city. A portion of the waste is never lected on average around 1169 tons of waste each (Karan-
collected and is transported to a Wnal disposal site where, in jit and Shrestha, 2005).
most cases, it is haphazardly and permanently disposed of
in rivers and open spaces. According to the oYcial Wgures 4. Financial aspects of solid waste collection and
of KMC for the year 2002, 8% (17.6 tons) of the total waste transportation in Kathmandu
generated remained uncollected. Similarly, early Wgures for
the year 2003 indicate that around 13% (29.5 tons) of the 4.1. Kathmandu municipal corporation
waste from the transfer station remains uncollected.
In the year 2002, the KMC spent 123200000 NRs for the
3.10. Vehicle servicing, repair, and maintenance management of solid waste generated in Kathmandu
Metropolitan City (Table 9). The largest portion of the
The Mechanical Section is responsible for the mainte- money was spent on street sweeping, waste collection, and
nance and repair of all vehicles used by KMC. For primary waste transportation. The waste collection costs of KMC
collection, eighty diVerent types of vehicles are used. Teku were 20% and 25% of total expenditure in the years 2002
Transfer Station uses twelve vehicles and the Bagmati and 2004, respectively. The cost of street sweeping and
River landWll site uses three units. Currently, twenty-Wve waste collection increased by 6% and 40% between 2002
excavators at the landWll site, one dumper placer used for and 2004 to handle the increased volume of street refuse
primary collection, two roll oV tippers at Teku Transfer and municipal waste in Kathmandu City. Although total
Station, and one crane are out of operation due to the lack expenditure increased by 12% in 2004, no additional invest-
of spare parts and insuYcient funds to purchase them. This ments were made to the transfer station, transportation sys-
problem has greatly aVected the normal functioning of the tem, or the two current development projects of the solid
SWM Section. The Section chief reports that it is a normal waste management system. The introduction of a modern
phenomenon for vehicles to breakdown at any time. More- disposal system such as landWlling or incineration was not
over, the spare parts of German donated vehicles are feasible due to insuYcient funding.
expensive and not readily available in the local market.
Similarly, the hydraulic systems of a compactor and Table 9
dumper placer donated by the Indian Government are also Operational cost of KMC for solid waste in the year 2002/2004
out of service. In fact, there is a long list of vehicles requir-
Items 2002 2004 % increase in
ing immediate repair. At any given moment, ten vehicles sit expenditure
Expenditure Expenditure
at the workshop awaiting repair and maintenance, whereas SWM
(NRs.) (NRs.)
the workshop can barely handle six vehicles at a time. The
Street sweeping 85 200 000 90 000 000 6
vehicles are mostly parked outside in the open air.
Collection 25 000 000 35 000 000 40
Transfer Station 3 000 000 3 000 000 0
3.11. Non-government solid waste collection organizations Transportation 10 000 000 10 000 000 0
Note: $1 D NRs. 78.34 and NRs. 71.35 (in December 2002 and December
There are many non-government solid waste collection 2004, respectively).
organizations in Kathmandu Metropolitan City. These Source: KMC (2004).
1096 R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097
4.2. Non-government solid waste management organizations Located on the banks of the Bagmati River, the landWll
is a huge source of environmental contamination because it
The non-government solid waste organizations collect is not lined and the leachate is not treated. Due to the lack
service charges from their customers for solid waste related of a proper lining, raw solid waste comes in contact with
services. Every organization has its own rate. The service river water directly, causing severe contamination and dete-
charges levied by the organizations range from 20 NRs to riorating the quality of the river water. The natural color of
500 NRs per month per household. For some prominent the river has changed and turned blackish. Consequently,
waste generators, such as large hotels, the service charge Wsh and other aquatic organisms are endangered. A very
can reach up to 20000 NRs per month. serious problem in the transfer area is the generation of
The oYcial Wgures of KMC for 2003 indicate that wastewater since no facility has yet been developed to treat
NGSWMOs collect around 242 m3 (i.e. 54.45 tons) of waste it. During temporary closures of the landWll, the storage
per day or 19874 tons per year. The current annual operat- time at the transfer station is lengthened and, as a result,
ing cost of the NGSWMOs is around 1577143 NRs. Thus, organic waste begins to decay, causing a foul smell in the
it is safe to assume that the total cost from collection to local area. As the transfer station is an open area, plastics
Wnal disposal for each ton of waste managed by the non- and other light materials are blown away into the com-
governmental sector (excluding the cost of landWll manage- pounds in the surrounding neighborhood.
ment) is 1349 NRs. When the cost of waste managed in A Weld study revealed that mixed waste kept in uncov-
landWlls (i.e. 136 NRs/ton) is added, the operating cost for ered polythene bags, tubs, or containers for several days
complete management of waste by the private sector causes environmental pollution and is normally a breeding
amounts to 1406 NRs/ton. A comparison of costs between source for mosquitoes, Xies, and other pests in addition to
KMC and NGSWMOs reveal that the latter are more spreading airborne disease in the city. The need for street
eYcient than KMC. sweeping and drain cleaning has increased dramatically in
Kathmandu city due to individuals placing and throwing
4.3. Environmental aspects of solid waste handling in solid waste in roads, footpaths, and drains, aggravating the
Kathmandu pollution problem signiWcantly. Inadequate and unhygienic
collection of solid waste at open dumps causes foul odors,
There are potential health and environmental risks from hazardous dust, and an increase in the population of Xies,
improper handling in the collection, storage, transporta- mosquitoes, and rodents. KMC dustbins usually remain
tion, and transfer of solid waste. Also, traYc accidents can open, increasing the risk of epidemics from infectious dis-
result from spilled toxic waste, causing death and injury to eases such as hepatitis, typhoid fever, anthrax in animals,
people in the vicinity. Improper handling of such waste has tetanus, gas gangrene, pneumonia, and AIDS. Open bins
resulted in the death of men and animals through contami- allow for the easy transmission and spreading of infectious
nation of crops and water supplies. Liquid industrial eZu- pathogens such as Salmonella typhi, Salmonella paratyphi,
ents containing heavy metals are discharged to the drainage Bacillus anthracis, Clostridium tetani, and Clostridium per-
system and contaminate sludge leaving the treatment fringens, many of which are present in health-care waste.
plants. These metals are taken up by the plants growing on
land contaminated by the sludge, creating risks to grazing 4.4. Concluding remarks
animals and subsequently to the people who consume them
(Trivedi and Raj, 1997). Solid waste is a source of contami- The main source of waste in Kathmandu is domestic and
nation and pollution to humans, scavenging animals, and its generation is increasing exponentially due to a lack of
bats. As the organic portion of the solid waste ferments, it public awareness, haphazard urbanization, introduction of
gives oV a foul odor which attracts Xies in addition to caus- environmentally unfriendly materials, and changing con-
ing air and water pollution (Wadood, 1994). sumer consumption patterns.
Waste from operating rooms, pathology and diagnostic Solid waste generation in Kathmandu Metropolitan
laboratories, and kitchens of clinics and hospitals are City is increasing rapidly and is predicted to be 1091 m3/d
dumped into KMC waste bins. All types of hospital waste (245 tons/day) and 1155 m3/d (260 tons/day) for 2005 and
including saline bags, X-ray water, syringes, vials, needles, 2006, respectively. The majority (89%) of the households in
empty packets, and bottles are dumped into KMC dustbins. Kathmandu Metropolitan City are willing to segregate
Syringes, vials, and needles are serious infection hazards to organic and non-organic waste and store them separately.
the waste collectors in Kathmandu City. Non-sterile health- Most of the streets of Kathmandu city are narrow and
care waste from hospitals and clinics that is dumped into waste collection becomes a problem since vehicles cannot
KMC bins exposes waste pickers and collectors to disease easily reach such areas. There is also a lack of proper space
and poses a serious risk of toxic contamination. There is a to place community bins. However, waste collection is satis-
serious lack of knowledge concerning and interest in safe factory (7090%) compared to the processing of collected
waste disposal among most health workers. Adequate waste. The Solid Waste Management Section is consuming
funding is not available for the eVective implementation of a large amount of the total budget of KMC. About half of
safe disposal procedures for medical waste (Rashid, 1996). the budget allocated for this section is used for the waste
R. Alam et al. / Waste Management 28 (2008) 10881097 1097
collection system. Street sweeping is the main form of pri- policies on waste management and include provisions that
mary collection by solid waste management in Kathmandu encourage the participation of private limited companies
Metropolitan City. KMC is not directly involved in door- and NGOs in all aspects of SWM.
to-door household waste collection. Instead, KMC collects Despite a substantial increase in total expenditure, no
the waste from the bins and containers placed at various additional investments were made to the existing develop-
locations in the city where the community dumps its waste. ment plan to introduce a modern disposal system due to
Roadside collection serves as the main collection system for insuYcient funding. Due to the lack of a proper lining, raw
solid waste management in Kathmandu Metropolitan City, solid waste from the existing dumping site comes in contact
contributing about 50% to total collected waste. with river water directly, causing severe river contamina-
KMC has adopted private sector participation (PSP) as tion and deteriorating the quality of the water.
a key strategy for SWM and resource mobilization. Despite
the private sector being limited to waste collection only, its References
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