How To Write An Academic Journal

How to Write An Academic Journal
#1. Titles
#2. Abstracts
#3. Introduction
#4. Literature Review
#5. Methods
#6. Results
#7. Discussion
#8. Conclusions
Ibham Veza
ibham.veza@yahoo.com
Ibham Veza
Chapter One
Writing an Excellent Title

- short, representative & stand out -
Make your title more dynamic

Every word should add significance. Remove redundant
words such as analysis, evaluatoin, investigation, etc.
A study of some psychological aspects Some psychological aspects of English

of English pronunciation. pronunciation.
Ibham Veza - Titles

Shorten your title
Titles are often constricted by the number of characters.
Replace the non-key words with shorter synonyms.
demonstrate show improvement advance

guarantee ensure fundamental basic
require need advantage benefit
support aid accurate exact
utilize use primary main
Ibham Veza - Titles
Replace the word novel
Words such as novel and innovative give no indication as to
how something is novel. Use more explicit adjectives.
A novel method for leaning English. A low-cost method for learning English.
Ibham Veza - Titles

Use ing form
Avoid abstract nouns and use ing form. It can make
your title more readable and shorter.
The Specification and the Evaluation of Specifying and Evaluating Educational

Educational Software in Primary Software in Primary School.
Schools.
Ibham Veza - Titles
Break string of nouns
A long string of nouns is confusing. Consider using some
prepositions (by, for, from, in, of) to break it.
New archaeological research and New technologies for research and

teaching technologies. teaching in archaeology.
Ibham Veza - Titles

Use question to attract attention
Although it sounds informal, question-type title can be
used for abstracts submitted to conferences.
Does the ocean-atmosphere system have more

stable mode of operation?
Ibham Veza - Titles
Use A for appropriate noun
Singular countable noun must be preceeded by an article.
An A is needed when the noun is singular and countable.
Survey of improving design of A survey of improving design of

internal systems. internal systems..
Ibham Veza - Titles

Avoid declarative title
The article the is used to describe a definite thing that we are
100% sure. Make your title less arrogant by avoiding
conclusive and definitive the.
The factors that determine customer Factors that determine customer

satisfaction. satisfaction.
Ibham Veza - Titles

Remove the before uncount. N
The is not needed to precede uncountable nouns such as
lack, feedback, equipment, temperature etc. Generally, the is used
to describe a definite countable noun.
The lack of protective immunity Lack of protective immunity against

against hepatitis C virus. hepatitis C virus.
Ibham Veza - Titles

Ibham Veza
Chapter Two
Writing an Abstract That Attracts

Readers Attention
It is like an advertisement
Editors, readers, and librarians have to decide quickly, whether
your paper is relevant or not. Make your Abstract stand out.
First impressions are important. Sell your paper by:

Attracting curiosity and stimulating the readers to
read the whole paper.
Writing very clear and short sentences (max 25
words/sentence).
Ibham Veza - Abstract
Write the Abstract last
Always write the Abtract when you have finished writing
the whole paper. This reflects the research process itself.
The first thing you write about is:

what you found
how this can be interpreted

What to write in your Abstract
Use the answers to these questions to structure your
abstract. The order can make a different impression.
Why did I carry out this project? How important?

What did I do, and how? What were my results?
What was new compared to previous research?
What are the implications/contributions of my findings?
What are my conclusions and recommendations?
How to structure your Abstract
Here are some typical sections in a structured abstract.
Background and Purpose - The gap to fill

Design/Methodology/Approach
Findings & Originality
Implications & Contribution
Conclusions & Recommendation
Keywords
Go straight to the point
Abstract is like advertisements for your paper.
Dont delay the big thing in your findings
In this paper, a highly innovative A highly innovative software

software application was developed to application was developed to help
help
Give enough context setting
Help the reader by giving enough background
information (max 25% of the whole abstract).
But remember! :
Your readers want new information, not old information
The reader may be a referee who has to read hundreds of
abstracts to decide which journal to include.
You can add more details in the Introduction.
Style: personal or impersonal?
It depends on your dicipline and journal requirements.
Style 1 & 2 focus on the authors opinion. Style 3 is the
most common, while Style 4 is the least popular.
STYLE 1 I found that x = y
STYLE 2 We found that x = y
STYLE 3 It was found that x = y
STYLE 4 The authors found that x = y
Use present simple for
Use present simple (active or passive) to talk about a fact,
general truth or a well-known situation that is widely
accepted in the literature.
Example
The mixture between the air and the fuel
plays an important role in determining
the combustion performance.
Use present perfect for
Use present perfect (active or passive) to talk about a
solution that started in the past and still have an impact
until today (past to present solution).
Example
Diesel spray mechanism has
often been studied using laser
diagnostics methods. (on going
situation)
Use past simple for
Only use past simple (active or passive) to describe what
you did/achieved and what conclusions you reached.
e.g. : A new approach was designed and its effectiveness

was demonstrated.
But remember, some authors also use the present perfect!
e.g. : A new approach has been designed and its
effectiveness has been demonstrated.
How to select your keywords?
Choose your keywords carefully. Google will index your
paper based on your keywords. This will help the readers
find your journal in their initial search.
Remember!
Never repeat the key words more than three times in
the abstract.
If your paper appears on the first page of Google
search engine, your citation numbers will increase.
How about your limitations?
Again! An Abstract is designed to sell your research. But,
at the same time, you have to be honest to the readers.
Solution
Mention the limitations of your research
in the Discussion section.

Aim to have maximum impact
Three ways to do this:
1. Highlight the importance
2. Be as concise as possible
3. Put the best information in the
best possible order
Ibham Veza
Chapter Three
Writing an Introduction That Helps the

Readers Understand Your Contribution
Introduction = Roadmap
You have to chose carefully what important information
should be included in the Introduction. This will allow the
readers to appreciate your findings.
!
Dont just copy and paste what is in Abstract.
Avoid general statements that are already known.
Provide enough background information so that the
readers understand what problem you are trying to solve.
Ibham Veza - Introduction
What to write in your Intro
Use the answers to these questions to structure your Intro.
What is the problem?

Are there any existing solutions?
Which solution is the best?
What gap am I hoping to fill?
What do I hope to achieve
Have I achieved my target?
How to begin your Intro
Remember! Make your research question clear.
You could begin your Intro with the following styles.
1. Topic definition + background

2. General consensus + problem to be solved
3. Authors objectives
4. Introduction to the literature
Whats next?
You could continue by explaining:
5. Survey of related literature

6. Authors contribution
7. Aim of the present work
8. Main results / conclusions
9. Future implications
10. Outline of structure
Never use stock phrases
Stock phrases are typical phrases that everyone uses.
Avoid using these phrases at he beginning of your
Introduction. Begin in a more direct way.
Example of stock phrases to avoid:

Recent advances in
The last few years have seen
In the last decade
Introduction Abstract
Your Introduction is an extension of your Abstract. Dont
just cut and paste your Abstract, expand it. Typical
Introduction consist twice more words than the Abstract.
Solution
Paraphrase your Abstract
Give more enough background information so that
the readers will understand the gap you wish to fill
Ibham Veza
Chapter Four
Writing Literature Review

Like A Story in A Novel
Literature Review (LR)

Provide readers with just amount of literature not too
little and not too much. Give enough sequence of events
leading up to the current situation.
Systematically elaborate the achievements and
limitations of other studies.
Relate your new facts and data to these studies.
Remember! Dont delay giving the new
information for too long.
Ibham Veza Literature Review
What to avoid?
Mention some references just to make the paper longer.
Only cite other papers to support your approach.
Information is not up to date and many references are

cited from one particular country.
Widen your literature search and make your paper looks
international enough.
How to structure your LR?
A Literature Review generally answer the following
questions, and normally in the following order.
1. The most important works on my topic?

2. Progress related to my important works?
3. Relevant recent studies achievements,
limitations, and knowledge gap?
4. Plan to fill the gap?
Remove redundancy
Long sentences are known to be characteristic of
Long sentences are characteristic of
The concept of author-centeredness plays an important role in ..

Author-centeredness plays an important role in ..
In the literature long sentences are not exclusive to English.
Long sentences are not exclusive to English.
How to structure your LR?
A Literature Review generally answer the following
questions, and normally in the following order.
1. The most important works on my topic?

2. Progress related to my important works?
3. Relevant recent studies achievements,
limitations, and knowledge gap?
4. Plan to fill the gap?
Tenses review
Pay attention to the tenses that you are using. Although this
is relatively flexible, consider the general rules* below:
Simple present fact / accepted theory

Present perfect on going situation
Past simple past event
* This applies to other sections throughout your paper, not only to the literature review.

Be diplomatic
When you want your readers to note the strong features and
the novelty of your work, do it in a constructive ways.
As far as we know, there are no studies on

To [the best of] our knowledge, the literature has not
discussed
We believe that this is the first time that principal agent
theory has been applied to
Use template phrases
If you want to mention the limitations of previous works
by other authors you could adapt one of the following.
Generally speaking patients perceptions are seldom considered.

Results often appear to conflict with each other
So far X has never been applied to Y.
Moreover, no attention has been paid to

Ibham Veza
Chapter Five
Writing Methods that Are

Easy to Follow
How to write good Methods

Describe your materials and methods sufficiently so that
others can easily follow them or even replicate your work.
Write long procedures illogically with Write clear and logical procedures with
more than two steps in one sentences. generally not more than two steps in
one sentence.
Ibham Veza - Methods
Start writing from your Methods
Your Methods are generally the easiest section to write. This is
because they are likely to be the clearest section in your part.
Start writing your manuscript from your Methods

Provide enough quantitative information (duration, time, size etc.)
Use subheadings to explain the various stages of the procedure in
a logical order so that your readers can follow them easily.
Cover every important step. An important step you think is simple
to understand may not be that simple for your readers.
Typical complaints from referees
Your Methods have to be comprehensive and as concise
as possible, for example by referring to other works in the
literature, including your own, that use the same methods.
Below are some of typical complaints from the referees
Methods are not adequately described and are incomplete
(How many samples? Which method was used and why?)
No data treatment and statistical analysis is shown
The authors repeat lots od well known published data, when they
should have been used as a reference.
How to structure Methods
What / Who did I study? What hypotheses was I testing?
Where did I carry out this study and what characteristics did this
location have?
How did I design my experiment / sampling and what
assumptions did I make?
What variable was I measuring and why?
How did I handle / house / treat my materials / subjects? What
kind of care / precautions were taken?
What equipment did I use (plus modifications) and where did this
equipment come from (vendor source)?
Methods structure (contd)
What protocol did I use for collecting my data?
How did I analyze the data? Statistical
procedures? Mathematical equations? Software?
What probability did I use to decide significance?
What references to the literature could I give to
save me having to describe something in detail?
What difficulties did I encounter?
How does my methodology compare with
previously reported methods, and what
significant advances does it make?
Various ways to begin Methods
(a) Making a general statement about your method
The method described here is simple, rapid, sensitive and ...
(b) Referring to another paper

The materials used for isolation and culture are described elsewhere [2]
(c) Stating where you obtained your materials from

Bacterial strains ... were isolated and kindly supplied by ...
(d) Explaining how you found your subjects, i.e. begin with the setting
Subjects were chosen from a randomly selected sample of ...
Ways to begin the Methods
(e) Indicating where your investigation was focused
The study was carried out in four boulevards in Athens (Greece).
(f) Referring the reader to a figure which shows the experimental set up
To highlight the advantages of the system, Fig. 1 shows the ...
(g) Starting directly with the first step in your procedure

Frontal cerebral cortices were dissected from ...

Use past and passive voice
Most Methods section are written in the past simple as the
actions took place and finished before you started to write.
The use of past simple also helps to distinguish what you did from
what others have done (present simple).
The use of passive allows the focus to be on what was done rather
than who did it
You may use the active voice to a certain extent but always avoid
using the first person in this section.

Have two actions in one sentence
Dont write your Methods like a manual, where each
individual action is described in a single sentence.
A first postal invitation to participate in Following a first postal invitation to

the survey was sent to 26 practices in participate sent to 26 practices in
Yorkshire. A total of five practices Yorkshire, five responded positively.
indicated their willingness to participate.
Put the verb directly after subject
Readability is generally increased when the subject and verb
are close together. Never separate the subject from the verb
The four practices, which had been The four practices had a list size
previously identified as having list sizes ranging between 4750 and 8200. They
between 4750 and 8200, comprised comprised:
Use bullets
The four practices had a list size The four practices had a list size
ranging between 4750 and 8200. ranging between 4750 and 8200.
They comprised firstly an inner city They comprised:
practice with an ethnically diverse an inner city practice with an
population(Type 1), secondly two ethnically diverse population
urban practices with average levels two urban practices with average
of socio deprivation (Type 2), and levels of socio deprivation
thirdly, a mixed urban /rural practice
a mixed urban /rural practice
(Type 3).
Describe the process naturally
Avoid a series of lists as it does not sound natural
Factors that affect the chemistry The chemistry of these materials

of these materials include: heat can be affected, for example, by heat
(anthropogenic transformations), (anthropogenic transformations),
humidity, pH, and microbial humidity, pH, and microbial attacks.
attacks.
Reduce the word count
Assume your readers have basic knowledge of
the techniques used in your field, you can thus
delete any superfluous information.
Cite a reference rather than detailing the
procedure again if any of your methods are
fully described elsewhere (in one of your
papers or someone elses)
Use tables and figures to summarize
information
Be concise
Save your readers time
It affects the reading flow when the readers have to go back
to previous section in order to check some terms /
definitions. Help them to save time by:
Avoid designating a numerical concept such as Type 1, Type 2, or
Type 3. This will save your time, but not the readers. As an
alternative, replace those terms in a concise definition such as
inner city practice instead of Type 1.
Inventing an acronym. For instance, you could have written ICP
for inner city practice. Be aware, this could force the reader to
remember what ICP refers to. Ibham Veza - Methods
Have to be in chronological?
You have to present your Methods in a logical manner. The
fact you did something before or after something else may
not be relevant. So, chronology is not important.
Note that within a sentence or paragraph, readers should feel they are
moving forward chronologically. See the following perfect example:
The sample was filtered and acidified at pH 2. It was then

mixed with X, which enabled the resulting solution to
stabilize at ...
Shorten your aim
You often need to explain why you made certain choices.
To do this effectively, avoid any unnecessary phrases.
In order to validate the results, we first had to ...

In an attempt to identify the components, it was decided to ...
Our aim was to get a general picture of ...
Or you could use the verb choose in its passive form
This equipment was chosen for its low cost.
This equipment was chosen (in order) to save money.
Use allow, enable and permit
These three words are very useful when you want to explain
why A give the capability to B to do C.
The equipment allowed us to identify X.

The software enabled X to be identified.
The model permits the analysis of X.

Use thus, therefore, thereby
To indicate the consequences of your choices, you could
use connector to make the sentence more cohesive.
Example 1. An evaluation of this initial data demonstrated that X = Y,
thus giving an insight into the function of Z.
thereby providing a basis for investigating the function of Z.
Example 2. An evaluation of this initial data demonstrated that X = Y.

Consequently the next step was to investigate the function of Z.
The next step was thus / therefore / consequently to investigate ...
Digits or words?
Digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Words one, two, three, four, five
This varies from journal to journal and paper to paper..
1. Some journals recommend all the numbers are
written as digits (2 pulses not two pulses)
2. Others prefer using words for numbers from one

to ten, and then digits. Exception for a
measurement (5 mm, not ten millimeters). Note
that ten millimeters has an s ending when they are
plural, while 5 mm doesnt.
Never begin with a digit
You are not allowed to begin a sentence with a number in
digits. This is to help readers see the numbers more clearly.
2000 respondents have participated. Two thousand respondents have

2879 respondents have participated. participated.
A total of 2879 respondents have
participated.
#21. Avoid ambiguity
Ambiguity forces the reader to stop and interpret the
meaning Help them by adding some words & improving
the punctuation to clarify things (comma, connector, etc.)
Having completed the study, the bacteria Once the study had been completed,
were of no further interest. the bacteria were of no further
interest.
#22. Other points to consider
Use subheadings to help the reader to understand the
various stages or components in your Methods
Point out any precautions taken (this will give you more
credibility as a researcher who conduct his work
accurately and thoroughly)
Discuss any limitations in your method or problems
Highlight the benefits of your methods(perhaps in
comparison to other authors approaches)
Ibham Veza
Chapter Six
Writing An Honest Results
Results vs Discussions
Results = Reporting Objective
Discussions = Interpreting Subjective
Reporting, e.g.:
Seeds exposed to the 2-day treatment had the
highest cumulative germination (84%).
Interpreting, e.g.:
The results suggest that the optimal time for
running-water treatment is 2 days.
Ibham Veza - Results
First thing to remember!
Some journals have a separate Results section, while some
integrate it with Discussion (Result + Discussion)
If you have a separate Results section, present them with little or

no interpretation. Give the interpretation in the Discussions.
Decide what results are representative. Organize them in a
sequence to answer your research questions.
Be prepare to provide a number of figures and tables along with
comments related to those data. Dont forget to mention any
important negative results in this section.
Typical poor results writing
You dont have to include all your results. Decide which
findings are significant and which are not.
Never hide some contradictory findings, they might be helpful.

Give the readers the tools to understand the significance of
your findings by providing relevant figures and tables.
But dont just repeat what can be clearly seen and understood
from the figures and tables (avoid reiterating each value).
How to structure the Results
A typical results structure is to follow the order you used
for the procedures in your Methods. The results should
answer the following questions:
What did I find?

What did I not find?
What did I find that I was not expecting
to find? (contradicts my hypotheses)
Advice from an Expert
Maeve OConnor in her book Witing Successfully in
Science, recommends the following structure.
Highlight those results that answer your research

question (arrange relevant figures, tables, etc. in the
most logical order for the readers)
Outline secondary results
Give supporting information in the text
Mention any results that contradict your hypothesis and
explain why they are anomalous.
The first way to begin the Results
Giving a general description of your
simulations, experiments, surveys, etc.
st
(without repeating the details mentioned in
the Methods).
Overall, the results presented below show that
The three key results of this empirical study are:
The emergent themes were identified from the
analysis:

The second way
Going directly to your results, often by inviting
readers to look at one of your figures or tables,
either in the first sentence or very shortly after.
nd
Figure 1 shows the mass spectra obtained from an
analysis of the two residues. The first residue reveals a ..
(Fig. 1a)
A total of 34 wheat genotypes (Table 1) were screened
for Responses to increased sunlight varied
significantly (Figure 1)
An analysis was made to look for To do this, the
average times of x and y were compared Figures 13
show the differences between
Use style flexibly
Either personal (we found) or impersonal style (it was
found) is acceptable. Yet, always follow your journals style
Impersonal style tend to add the objectivity in your

writing, making you as the author remain in the
background and let your results speak for themselves.
Note that when referring to figures and tables, using

active form can make your sentence more dynamic
(Figure 5 shows instead of is shown in Figure 5)
Note for personal style
You can refer to yourself as we although you are the sole
author and conduct the research entirely by yourself.
The use of personal style tend to make your writing

less formal but it will help the reader to become more
involved in the research process.
The result is a paper that reads a little like a story and
will be much more enjoyable to follow and thus
easier to digest. But remember, always follow your
journals requirement.
Never hide your negative results
A negative result is not a waste of time. In fact, you
discovered a very useful piece of information: the thing
that you were testing doesnt work.
!
Dont fall into the trap of thinking that bad data are
not valuable at all. Those are your results and they
need interpretation.
They may be of importance to others too and
remember that many important discoveries can be
traced to bad data. Ibham Veza - Results
Use tenses correctly
Results were found before you started writing the paper.
Use past simple and mix between active and passive forms
When the subject is the most essential factor, use active.

E.g: Workers described
When the object is the most important element, use passive.

E.g: The model was seen.

Who did what?
Make 100% sure that readers will understand whose
findings you are talking about. You could do this by:
Referring to a figure or table that is clearly

your results / findings and not someone elses.
Using past simple as it is a convention to
talk about the authors findings, whereas
the present simple is used to indicate an
established scientific fact.
Show the significance
Dont just tell the reader that a result is significant, show
them how it is significant. Give them what they need to
know (sufficient info) to come to their own conclusion.
The large difference in mean While the mean size generally varies
size between population C and among populations by only a few cm,
population D is particularly the mean size in populations C and D
interesting. differed by 25 cm. Two hypotheses
could account for this, Ibham Veza - Results
Figures: Help the readers
Make your writing worth reading.
The readers may only look at
your figures and tables without
even reading the paper itself.
Avoid telling something that can
be seen directly in the figures or
tables. Help them interpret it.
Also, remove any redundancy!
Let them follow you
Avoid long and unnecessary abstract concept by
eliminating redundancy and by guiding the readers
towards the intrepretaion that you want them to have.
As can be seen in Figure 5 The abundances of species A and B

shows the relationship between were inversely related (Figure 5)
the numbers of species A and
species B
Ibham Veza
Chapter Seven
Writing Discussions
- Objective, Balanced & Unbiased -
Polish your Discussion

When referees reject a paper, it is very often due to a
poorly written Discussion. Therefore, you have to be
both convincing and credible at the same time.
Repeat your results using the same Interpret your results without repeating
words and phrases and accept your them (paraphrase) and be positive about
limitation in a negative manner. your own limitations
Ibham Veza - Discussion
How to structure Discussion?
1. Do my data support what I set out to demonstrate at the
beginning of the paper?
2. How do my findings compare with what others have found?
How consistent are they?
3. What is my personal interpretation of my findings?
4. What other possible interpretations are there?
5. What are the limitations of my study? What other factors
could have influenced my findings? Have I reported everything
that could make my findings invalid?
structure the Discussion (contd)
6. Do any of the interpretations reveal a possible flaw (i.e. defect,
error) in my experiment?
7. Do my interpretations contribute some new understanding of
the problem? Suggest a shortcoming, or an advance on, in the
work of others?
8. What external validity do my findings have? How could my
findings be generalized to other areas?
9. What possible implications and applications? Any support?
10. What further research? Will I do it myself ? Ibham Veza - Discussion
Note from the previous slide
Question 8-10 should be answered in Conclusions section
if you have separate Discussion and Conclusions sections.
If your result was that A = B, give in-depth explanations
and try to relate your findings to other relevant studies.
If you claim better efficiency of a new system, show
your results explaining how fast this would work
compared to the traditional method.
Be constructive when discussing what you believe to be
the limitations of others.
Various ways to begin Discussion
1. Remind readers of your goals in a single sentence
e.g.: One of the main goals of this experiment was to attempt
to find a way to predict who shows more task persistence.
2. Refer back to the questions in Intro (hypotheses, predictions)

e.g.: These results both negate and support some of the
hypotheses. It was predicted that greater perfectionism
scores would result in greater task persistence.
Ways to begin Discussion
3. Refer back paper you cited in Literature Review
e.g.: Previous studies conflict with the data presented in the
Results: it was more common for (Shanab et al., 1981)
4. Briefly restate the most important points from your Results

e.g.: While not all of the results were significant, the overall
direction of results showed trends that could be helpful to
learning about who is more likely to persist.
Tell a story!
To build up your theory, tell a story by making your
variables, data or findings are like characters in a novel.
Isolate these characters (variables, Describe how your characters relate to

data, findings) and explain them as a each other and explain them logically.
separate individuals.
Compare with others
Comparative discussions tend to create better-
substantiated understanding of the problem
Make a general statement regarding your findings
Mention another authors work that relate directly
to your findings
Make a link between his work and your work
Clearly state how your work differs from his work
State the conclusions that can be drawn from your
results in light of these considerations
If there is no Conclusion section
In this case, your Discussion section should end with a
summary of the main points for the readers to remember
Explain how your findings could be extended to other areas. If
done in different context, would you get the same result?
Suggest ways that your hypothesis (model, device, etc.)
could be improved on. Say if you ignored some specific areas.
Admit what you have not been able to do and as a consequence
cannot provide conclusions on.
Give your recommendations and explain how your research
could be continued. Ibham Veza - Discussion
Clarify who the author is
You will constantly be comparing your work with others.
You know what you did, but the reader doesnt.
Comment
Readers cannot know who made the
suggestion until they find Ref. 25. So,
to avoid ambiguity, where possible
In 2010, it was suggested that complex use active sentence. But, always check
sentences could also lead to high levels with the journals style guide.
of stress for the reader [25].
Prepare for objections
Anticipate possible interpretaion by:
Admitting that you might be wrong

Putting forward an alternative
interpretation
Explaining that your data could be used
to confirm alternative interpretation
Giving reasons for not agreeing with this
alternative interpretation
Proposing your own conclusion
Bring a little excitement
Use emotive adjectives (convincing, exciting, massive) and
powerful nouns (advance, breakthrough, proposition) to
make your Discussion quite animated
E.g.: The possibility of contributing to change the way we

communicate with machines is a very exciting proposition.
Note : Use this emotive language wisely and very infrequently.

Otherwise, it will lose its effect. Also, check whether such
language is appropriate in your chosen journal.
When you are not 100% sure
There may be some cases that you have not checked. In
such cases, you can use it appears and it seems You
expect it to be true, but you dont claim it.
It appears that stochastic processes for which x = y can

produce finite dimension values.
This completes the proof of Theorem 1. Note how this
enables us to determine all the Xs and Ys at the same time.
Thus it seems that some natural hypotheses can be
formulated as ..
Criticizing others works
The important thing when questioning others work is not
to undermine their credibility. Treat others with respect,
they will treat you with respect.
1. Other works are very general in one specific field.
You want to apply this research to a new area
2. Limitations were found.
You are trying to overcome these limitations.
3. Hypotheses that have never really been tested.
You want to test them.
Lessen your negative impact
When you discuss any limitations and failures, try to do so
in a positive way. You could say that other authors have
experienced similar problems, too. Here are the strategies:
1. Explain the pitfall (the limitation)
2. Give reasons (e.g. insufficient theories
to solve your problem, complex
geometry, not enough data, etc.)
3. Outline consequence of the pitfall
4. Refer to a similar pitfall experienced by
another author Ibham Veza - Discussion
Chose the right words
The limitation of this paper is that the Although the two surveys were not
two surveys were not conducted in the conducted in the same period, this will
same period. This will affect our results only affect our results in terms of
in terms of
The revision is better as it (1) removes the word limitation (2)

introduces although and only (3) combines 2 sentences into just 1
sentence, giving the reader less time to ponder on the negative.
Ibham Veza
Chapter Eight
Writing Conclusions that Are Clear and

Answer Your Reseacrh Question Logically

Polish your conclusions
Most authors find conclusions difficult to write. However,
its not this section is difficult, its just that authors dont
know how to write a good conclusion.
Remember! conclusion section are probably
the last thing that a referee and reader read.
Make it clear and concise and leave them
with a good impression.
Check your spelling and grammar.
Ibham Veza Conclusions
Meet referees expectations
You have to know what referees and readers expect to find
in your conclusions. Avoid repeating the same phrases and
information from Abstract and Introduction.
Dont just give summary of what you have
done, conclude the impact of your findings.
Provide a clear and high-impact take-home
message for your readers and referees.
Answer your research question!.
Conclusions Absract
Unlike your Abstract, the conclusion is not just a summary.
You dont need to provide background details
in the conclusion section.
Rather, you have to give more emphasis to
your contribution and findings (impact,
implication, limitations, etc.)
Provide suggestions for improvements and
recommendations for future work.
Absract vs Conclusions (1/3)
ABSTRACT CONCLUSION
An increase in storm frequency We assessed the risk of soil erosion in the
and intensity is expected for the Trasubbie (Tuscany, Italy) sub-basin
Mediterranean area. This study croplands by using a scenario analysis.
aim to assess the risk of soil
erosion in sub-basin croplands in Note:
Tuscany, Italy. No background information
More Precise location (Trasubbie)

ABSTRACT CONCLUSION
We explored the potential Various combinations for climate change
response..(1) Most soil erosion were evaluated using the SWAT model.
is associated with.(2) Assessing
the spatially-distributed soil loss Note:
.(3) An analysis on a sub-hourly Four points from the abstract are
basis..(4) concluded in just one sentence in
conclusion. If readers want more detail
explanation, they can see your results and
discussions sections

ABSTRACT CONCLUSION
Our analysis highlighted We The result showed a dramatic finding of
predict that these strategies could a possible erosion rate increase of up to
reduce erosion by up to 25% in 25%. We believe that our analysis. We
the studied area over the next ten hope that. Future work will entail
years. refining our model by
The conclusion describes results with much

stronger impact and make recommendation
for future work.

Remind the readers
Remember! The Abstract is like an advertisement for your
paper it has to attract the readers attention. Conclusion,
on the other hand, aims to remind the readers.
Tell the readers again of your most

important points in the paper.
Add value by explaining the implications
and improvement for future works.
Increase your impact
Make it memorable & more direct. Remove redundancy!
In this study We have shown that
It is concluded that It has been suggested in this paper
This work has demonstrated that
In this study it is concluded that The crystal structure of X reveals

the crystal structure of X reveals that
that
Benefits of using passive
A passive style allow you to put your main topic at the
beginning of the sentence thus making it more direct and
avoiding delay of your important findings.
e.g.: A simple method of extracting gold

from plastic has been described.
Note that in the passive sentence above
the subject who did the action is not clear.
Drawbacks of using passive
The readers cannot be 100% sure if the author
is referring to his own work or someone elses.
This can lead to the ambiguity if passive style is
used in the Abstract and Introduction.
However, this problem doesnt appear in the
conclusion as the subject who did the action is
obviously the author himself.
Vary your tenses
Many tenses and constructions are used in the Conclusions
the future, conditionals, modal verbs etc.
Present perfect (what the authors have done in the

paper). E.g.: We have described a method to
Past simple (what they did in the laboratory or
finished action). E.g.: We used this method to
extract 5 kg of gold from 50 kg of plastic.
Present tense in conclusions
The use of present simple would be correct in the Abstract
and Introduction. In Conclusions, you could change the
present simple form into the present perfect.
Abstract & Intro e.g. We consider the robust design of

an extractor for removing gold from plastic. (conclusions:
we have considered)
Abstract & Intro e.g. It is demonstrated that by using an
ad hoc extractor gold can be... (conclusions: it has been
demonstrated)
How to end your Conclusions
1. Show how your work could be applied in another area
e.g.: Our findings could be applied in other engineering fields
2. Suggest future work

e.g.: Future work will involve this proposed algorithm.
3. Make a recommendation
e.g.: We recommend that
In case of no conclusions
If you dont have any clear Conclusions, make them not
sound too negative by:
1. Admitting that you did not achieve all that you had hoped for
e.g.: Regrettably, we did not have the means to
2. Adding some hope
e.g.: Despite this, our work provides support for
3. Using some conditional sentences
e.g.: If we manage to . Then we might be able to
Ibham Veza
Thank you
Source: English for Writing Research

Papers by Adrian Wallwork
ibham.veza@yahoo.com

How To Write An Academic Journal

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How to Write An Academic Journal

Writing an Excellent Title

Make your title more dynamic

A study of some psychological aspects Some psychological aspects of English

Ibham Veza - Titles

demonstrate show improvement advance

Ibham Veza - Titles

The Specification and the Evaluation of Specifying and Evaluating Educational

New archaeological research and New technologies for research and

Ibham Veza - Titles

Does the ocean-atmosphere system have more

Survey of improving design of A survey of improving design of

Ibham Veza - Titles

The factors that determine customer Factors that determine customer

Ibham Veza - Titles

The lack of protective immunity Lack of protective immunity against

Ibham Veza - Titles

Writing an Abstract That Attracts

First impressions are important. Sell your paper by:

The first thing you write about is:

Ibham Veza - Abstract

Why did I carry out this project? How important?

Background and Purpose - The gap to fill

In this paper, a highly innovative A highly innovative software

e.g. : A new approach was designed and its effectiveness

Ibham Veza - Abstract

Writing an Introduction That Helps the

What is the problem?

1. Topic definition + background

5. Survey of related literature

Example of stock phrases to avoid:

Writing Literature Review

Literature Review (LR)

Only cite other papers to support your approach.

Information is not up to date and many references are

1. The most important works on my topic?

The concept of author-centeredness plays an important role in ..

1. The most important works on my topic?

Simple present fact / accepted theory

Ibham Veza Literature Review

As far as we know, there are no studies on

Generally speaking patients perceptions are seldom considered.

Ibham Veza Literature Review

Writing Methods that Are

How to write good Methods

Start writing your manuscript from your Methods

(b) Referring to another paper

(c) Stating where you obtained your materials from

(g) Starting directly with the first step in your procedure

Ibham Veza - Methods

Ibham Veza - Methods

A first postal invitation to participate in Following a first postal invitation to

Factors that affect the chemistry The chemistry of these materials

The sample was filtered and acidified at pH 2. It was then

In order to validate the results, we first had to ...

The equipment allowed us to identify X.

Ibham Veza - Methods

Example 2. An evaluation of this initial data demonstrated that X = Y.

2. Others prefer using words for numbers from one

2000 respondents have participated. Two thousand respondents have

Writing An Honest Results

If you have a separate Results section, present them with little or

Never hide some contradictory findings, they might be helpful.