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DRAWING
A BEAD ON
A comprehensive primer from

the editors of Microwaves & RF
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MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DRAWING A BEAD ON HIGH-FREQUENCY

AEROSPACE & DEFENSE TECHNOLOGIES
MODERN MILITARY FORCES rely on the latest electronic and used, and that is where this e-book comes into play. It
technologies to literally stay at least one step ahead on an examines the key technologies, such as communications, radar,
adversary. Starting with World War II, and the tactical advantages and electronic warfare (EW), in dedicated chapters, and provides
provided to the allies by early radar systems, the importance of designers with insights on different measurement techniques
electronic technology has increased in an almost logarithmic for each technology and system at the end of each chapter. For
fashion, with military forces now relying more heavily on engineers involved in aerospace and defense system design and
electronic systems and technologies than ever before. Of course, integration, this is the one information source not to be without.
with the growing number of aerospace and defense systems and Notes: Each chapter will begin with a tutorial review of each topic
technologies, it can be challenging for any electronic engineer to and its importance to military applications, followed by more
keep track of how different military systems are being designed in-depth explanation of the various technologies and components
needed to create a successful block diagram for that area, then
a review of some examples of the latest systems embodying
that technology, and concluding with current measurement
requirements and, where applicable, a military wish list for test
and measurement solutions.
Its 10 chapter are as follows:
CHAPTER 1: COMMUNICATIONS (INCLUDING SDRs).............. 2

CHAPTER 2: ELECTRONIC WARFARE
(INCLUDING COGNITIVE EW)........................... 7
CHAPTER 3: RADAR (INCLUDING PHASED ARRAYS).............. 12
CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC COUNTER MEASURES (ECM).......... 17
CHAPTER 5: THE VIEW FROM SPACE (SATELLITES, ET AL.)........ 22
CHAPTER 6: DEFENDING AGAINST DIRECTED ENERGY

(HIGH-ENERGY LASERS)................................. 28
CHAPTER 7: ROBOTICS AND UNMANNED
AERIAL SYSTEMS (UAS).................................. 33
CHAPTER 8: SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES
(ANALOG AND DIGITAL)................................ 38
CHAPTER 9: SURVEILLANCE (SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES)......... 42
CHAPTER 10: SYSTEM-LEVEL INTEGRATION AND SIMULATION.. 48
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JACK BROWNE, Technical Contributor
CHAPTER 1:
COMMUNICATIONS
ARE VITAL Modern military communications
FOR COORDINATED systems must maintain

compatibility with different
DEFENSE EFFORTS
branches of the armed forces
while ensuring security through
advanced encryption.
C
oordinating the actions of diversified fighting system must not only thwart jammers and surveillance attempts,
forces on the ground, at sea, and in the air but be fully interoperable among the different branches of the
requires secure, reliable communications systems, military, whether on the ground, at sea, or in the air. A failure
especially when an adversary is trying to get in to communicate can result in an inappropriate response to a
the way. Effective communications may be the threat or, worse still, loss of life. In terms of electronic technology,
most challenging segment of electronic defense, military communications systems may be as densely packed as any
requiring the most innovative electronic technologies in both electronic defense system, with constant demands to make those
hardware and software forms. Modern military communications systems smaller and lighter.
Although all military
communications equipment
is vital to a successful
mission, portable or
manpack radios may be
among the most essential
communications devices
since they link individual
warfighters to a command
center, and they must operate
under harsh environmental
conditions and under hostile
electromagnetic (EM)
1. Portable manpack
radios are key pieces of
equipment in modern
military network-
based communications
systems. [Courtesy of
Persistent Systems (www.
PersistentSystems.com)]

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 1: COMMUNICATIONS
SDR technology, can quickly switch between narrowband and

wideband communications techniques, including the secure
narrowband channels used in the MUOS satellites.
The AN/PRC-117G(V)1(C) radios feature an embedded GPS
receiver and secure voice and data communications through
Top Secret (TS) classification by means of a Sierra II encryption
module. The module supports all JTRS COMSEC and TRANSEC
requirements for full secure interoperability with all branches
of the military. The software programmability of the latest
military radio designs simplifies the task of command, control,
and communications (C3) personnel to achieve
2. The Falcon III AN/PRC-117G(V)1(C) is an interoperability with older hardware in the field,
example of a portable tactical radio that is capable such as legacy Single-Channel Ground and Radio
of terrestrial LOS and satellite-based non-LOS Airborne System (SINCGARS) radios, since
secure communications. [Courtesy of Harris Corp., many single-channel radios are still fielded and
RF Communications (www.harriscorp.com)] operational.
With somewhat less bandwidth, the Falcon III
conditions (Fig. 1). Such portable, manpack radios AN/PRC-152A handheld radio (Fig. 3) from Harris
have evolved over the years from simple, single- Corp. is also designed for simultaneous voice and
band high-frequency (HF) superheterodyne radio data transmissions with full networking capabilities.
architectures to todays multiple-band radios capable It has a frequency range of 30 to 870 MHz and
of changing frequency bands and modulation can operate in narrowband and wideband modes
formats through the use of programmable software- with the encryption capabilities of the larger AN/
defined-radio (SDR) technology. PRC-117G(V)1(C). It also provides the capabilities
The radios have also shrunk in size and weight of beyond-LOS communications with the MUOS
over the years, starting as hefty systems that would satellites. Models with GPS receiver weigh about 2.7
fill a backpack to more portable, energy-efficient lbs. with antenna and battery.
units that can be easily carried or fit in the pocket of
a knapsack. Designers of modern military manpack 3. The Falcon III AN/PRC-152A hand-held radio
radios have learned lessons from their commercial- has a frequency range of 30 to 870 MHz and can
counterpart smartphones in terms of energy operate in narrowband and wideband modes.
efficiency and the use of on-board microprocessors [Courtesy of Harris Corp., RF Communications
to serve as embedded computers for the radio (www.harriscorp.com)]
system.
Modern military radios such as the Falcon
III AN/PRC-117G(V)1(C) from Harris Corp.
(Fig. 2) are equipped for terrestrial line-of-
sight (LOS) communications as well as satellite
communications (satcom), using software
communications architecture (SCA) technology.
The radios are compliant with Joint Tactical Radio
System (JTRS) standards and include hardware for
communications with the Mobile User Objective
System (MUOS) satellite network. They cover a
total frequency range of 30 to 200 MHz and, with
4. The Rifleman AN/PRC-154 radio operates at

UHF and L-band frequencies with full encryption.
[Courtesy of Thales Communications (www.
thalescomminc.com) and General Dynamics C4
Systems (www.gdmissionsystems.com)]

Similarly, the Rifleman radio from Thales Communications and

General Dynamics C4 Systems, also known as the AN/PRC-154
(Fig. 4), is extremely compact but capable. It operates at UHF (224
to 400 MHz) and L-band frequencies with full encryption and
offers networking connectivity in the field. The radio weighs less
than 2.2 lb. with battery and antenna and is designed to run for
10 hours on a battery charge. The JTRS-compliant radio transmits
voice and data simultaneously via the Soldier Radio Waveform
(SRW). It is a self-contained networking device that allows
interconnections with anyone in a battlefield communications
network, by means of the Warfighter Information Network-
Tactical (WIN-T) backbone. 5. As much a portable computer as a radio, the MPU5 smart
As tactical radios leverage some of the design strategies used in military radio supports the creation of secure MANETs in the
modern commercial cellular smart phones, the military radios field. [Courtesy of Persistent Systems (www.PersistentSystems.
become smarter and more like portable, battlefield computers com)]
connected to radios. An example of this latest-generation of
portable military radios is the MPU5 radio (Fig. 5) from Persistent
Systems (www.PersistentSystems.com), an SDR which supports
the rapid creation of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). It uses
the firms Wave Relay transmission algorithms for advanced
mobile networking.
The radio integrates an Android Computer for in-field
processing power, with 1-GHz quad-core ARM, 2 GB random-
access memory (RAM), and 128 GB of flash memory storage.
The MPU5 is somewhat unique among portable military radios
in that it switches frequency bands by means of interchangeable
modules, with plug-in modules available for L-band, S-band,
and C-band frequencies. The radios support the growing tactical
use of software defined networking (SDN), a means of quickly
establishing a secure network in the field that allows the use of
many different types of radios and communications devices. The
MPU5 features Cloud Relay networking capability to establish a
MANET in the field at any time. As with most modern military
radios, the MPU5 has an integrated GPS receiver for geographical
situational awareness.
In pursuit of evolutionary enhancements to portable tactical
radios, the RF Communications division of Harris Corp. is
working under DoD contract on the Special Operations Forces
Tactical Communications Next Generation Manpack (STC
NGMP) radio. As part of the Special Operations Commands
Capital Equipment Replacement Program, the contract is meant to
replace legacy man-portable radios such as the AN/PRC-117F and
AN/PRC-117G radios with more compact radios with increased
functionality. These new radios will provide communications as
well as intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance capabilities.
They will be capable of simultaneously operating over two channels
and, like many of the news man-portable communications devices,
include GPS receivers. In addition, they will be capable of receiving
real-time full-motion video and readily operate with older legacy 6. This recently launched satellite serves as a spare for the
(single-channel) systems. MUOS military satcom system. [Courtesy of Lockheed Martin
Many of these newer, programmable man-pack radios share (www.lockheedmartin.com)]

capabilities of operating in non-LOS conditions by means of the Defense Information Systems Network (DISN). Each WGS
the MUOS satellite system. The MUOS systems provide secure satellite provides more satcom capacity than the legacy Defense
narrowband UHF communications for mobile ground troops using Satellite Communications System (DSCS) constellation. Additional
an Internet-Protocol (IP) type system. Each MUOS satellite has military satellite systems include the Enhanced Polar System
two payloads to support legacy narrowband UHF communications satellites which provide secure communications at extremely high
and newer wideband-code-division-multiple-access (WCDMA) frequency (EHF) bands in the polar regions, and the Air Forces
waveforms. The system consists of four operational satellites and a Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) system in support
recently added spare (Fig. 6). of secure communications for the joint forces and allies.
In contrast to the narrowband UHF communications of
the MUOS satellites, the U.S. Air Force has established its Satcom Simplified
wideband Global satcom (WGS) system at higher, X- and Ka-band Satellites are used by military, commercial, and industrial
frequencies, for high-capacity communications, as a supplement users, with a growing number of satellite orbiting Earth for
to existing military X-band satcom systems. The WGS system communications but also for surveillance and other applications
now consists of seven geosynchronous satellites (WGS-1 through (see Chapter 9). For communications purposes, both active and
WGS-7) with transponders and 125-MHz digital channels. The passive satellites can be used, although passive satellites rely
satellites use electronically steerable phased-array antennas on high-power signals from the ground (the uplink) that are
for X-band frequencies and mechanically steered antennas for reflected back to Earth (the downlink) by the satellite, whereas
Ka-band frequencies. active satellites carry active electronics which can provide signal
The WGS satellites provide long-haul, high-data-rate gain to low-level signals from the ground and perform filtering,
communications not just for the armed forces but for the U.S. State frequency conversion, and other signal-processing functions.
Department and other government users. Each satellite supports For any satcom link, the data rate between a satellite and Earth
communications in both frequency bands for connectivity to station depends on the gain of the satellite dish, a parabolic
WHERE IS GWEN NOW?
AT ONE TIME, the threat of a nuclear in the very-low-frequency (VLF) range and control messages to each node as
war was very real, to the extent that between 150 and 175 kHz (below the well as to Strategic Air Command (SAC)
military leaders feared the effects of frequency range of AM radios) as well as ground stations within range. These
a nuclear explosion even beyond the at UHF. Unfortunately, due to this type of messages were also communicated by
radiation. The greatest concern was that signal propagation, ground attenuation is means of UHF signals from 224 to 400
the electromagnetic pulse (EMP) from high and the communications distances MHz, to both the relay nodes and to
a high-altitude nuclear explosion might are limited, even at high transmit power the satcom network. The thinking was
totally disable tactical command and levels. In order to provide extensive that even in the event of an EMP, which
control communications systems and coverage and long communications could potentially cause a large-enough
prevent the transmission of command distances, the GWEN system was energy surge to damage sensitive radio
orders for a retaliatory response. Because configured with about 300 broadcast receivers, some of the receivers would
of this concern, an EMP-resistant stations referred to as relay nodes survive and the use of ground-wave
communications network, the Ground spread around the country, each with an communications would help transfer vital
Wave Emergency Network (GWEN), was antenna tower of 300 to 500 ft. high and command and control messages.
designed and partially erected to provide with 360-deg. coverage of about 250 to But those early fears of nuclear
a U.S. president of his survivors with the 300 miles as a result of transmit power invasion eventually faded, and the full
means of communicating launch orders levels of 2 to 3 kW. The plan was to GWEN system was never completed:
to remaining military forces in the event have enough GWEN towers for complete 58 towers were built, and by 1994,
of a nuclear attack. coverage of the U.S. funding was terminated for the system
Designated AN/URC-117, the GWEN The GWEN system was designed as and the U.S. Air Force cancelled the
system was designed in the late 1980s a ground-based adjunct to the existing GWEN system. The U.S. Coast Guard
to use radio frequencies that would rely UHF satcom capabilities of that time. did manage to make use of some of the
more on propagation along the ground The unmanned GWEN relay nodes would GWEN towers for the national differential
than through the air. The system operated receive and communicate command GPS system.

antenna. The gain of the antenna increases with the square of the simulator provides the means of connecting different analog and
ratio of the width of the antenna aperture to the wavelength of digital, active and passive components to better understand the
the operating frequency. For a fixed antenna size, the gain as well interactions between components and to achieve a system-level
as the data rate increases with frequency. A satellite operating specification, such as receiver sensitivity, through a combination
at X-band frequencies will therefore achieve higher data rates of different components, such as antennas, amplifiers, filters,
than at UHF or L-band frequencies, although signal-processing and mixers. (See Chapter 10 for more on system-level software
components, such as amplifiers and filters, are typically lower in simulation.)
cost at the lower frequencies. Communications systems testing requires the expected array
Satellites that remain in the same location above Earth are of analysis equipment, such as oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers,
known to be in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) at an altitude and vector network analyzers (VNAs) capable of operating over
of 19,300 nautical miles. Just above Earths surface, in low Earth a frequency range of interest. But testing also requires signal
orbit (LEO), LEO satellites orbit at an altitude of 200 nautical generation capabilities that are well beyond the performance levels
miles. In between, medium-Earth-orbit (MEO) satellites orbit at of traditional test signal generators. In fact, it may be more accurate
an altitude of 500 to 12,000 nautical miles. At less than the altitude to refer to test signal sources as signal emulators rather than
of a GEO, a satellite will not move as Earth rotates and remain generators, since they must be capable of producing a wide range
fixed above one spot on the planet but will move relative to Earth; of continuous-wave (CW), pulsed, and modulated waveforms
the lower the orbit, the faster the satellite will move relative to that may be frequency hopped, coded, and synchronized in other
Earth. Because the satellite is lower in the sky, the transmit/receive ways. In addition, Testing will typically require multiple signal
distance is less than for LEO satellites (LEOSs), and less power sources or emulators, to re-create potential battlefield conditions
is needed for communications. At the same time, the satellite with jammers and other interference sources. Test generators such
ground station must be capable of tracking a moving target, and as vector signal generators (VSGs), direct-digital synthesizers
more satellites are needed in a constellation to cover a given area (DDSs), and arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs) provide the
on Earth. Satellites in lower orbits are also more vulnerable to necessary capabilities to emulate the signals needed to properly
threats, such as laser-guides surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). exercise a military communications system and its components
The growing use of autonomous, unmanned vehicles (see and subsystems. n
Chapter 7) is creating a demand for increased satcom bandwidth
in order to maintain communication links with those unmanned BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
vehicles, whether on land, at sea, or in the air. The latest generation
of high-throughput-satellite (HTS) technology is providing the
long-distance communications links needed for remote control
of autonomous vehicles, including at and beneath the sea. The
use of maritime operations centers (MOC) connected by HTS
SDR RESEARCH
communications systems enables the control of these unmanned HANDBOOK
vehicles for long periods of time and for distances as great as
thousands of nautical miles.
Simulation and Test

Designing military communications equipment involves
meeting long lists of software and hardware requirements, not
to mention the use of military grade components that will
provide the necessary durability and expected performance under
Download the Next-Generation Wireless
environmental extremes. Different software simulation tools are
Systems handbook to see research
available to ease the process, including circuit and system- examples from around the world and across
level simulators. Circuit simulators work with models of active a wide range of advanced wireless research
semiconductor devices and passive circuit elements to create the topics.
analog and digital circuits needed for different components within a
military communications system. In a system-level simulator, such
as the Visual System Simulator contained within the Microwave
Office suite of design tools from National Instruments Applied
Wave Research, models are not for transistors or circuit elements
but for components built from those circuit elements. A system

LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor
CHAPTER 2:
ELECTRONIC
WARFARE:
GUARDING THE EM SPECTRUM
Military electronic strategies typically begin and end with electronic warfare, which provides the
means of monitoring and defending against an adversary with similar electronic equipment.
E
lectronic warfare (EW) is the military use of electron-
ics to disrupt or disable enemy offensive or defensive EW
systems using communications techniques. All mili-
tary personnel and equipment use some form of wire-
less technologies for communications and to direct
weapons or thwart the use of an adversarys weapons. ES EA EP
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum has become a form of battle-
Radar warning Jamming Radar countermeasures
ground where the goal is to optimize the use of the radio spectrum Data intercept ARMs LPI communications
and deny its use by the bad guys. The equipment used attempts to Communications intercept Chaff/flares
worsen the enemys signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) and disable com-
munications and radar systems while protecting against electronic 2. The major subdivisions of EW are electronic support (ES),
attacks from an enemy. EW uses a wide range of electronic com- electronic attack (EA), and electronic protection (EP), with
munications equipment and techniques, and is deployed in dif- examples.
ferent ways by the U.S. Air Force, Navy, Army, and Marines. This
chapter is a primer on EW that summarizes the core techniques systems use the radio spectrum covering VHF, UHF, microwave,
commonly used today and outlines current threats and issues. and millimeter-wave frequencies (Fig. 1). In addition, the infrared
EW systems use a wide range of the EM spectrum. The goal (IR), visible light, and ultraviolet (UV) portions of the spectrum
is to dominate the spectrum over rival forces. A majority of EW also come into play (see tables 1-3).
The field of electronic warfare
Wavelength (m) is made up of the following core
segments illustrated in Figure 2. Here
100 km 10 km 1000 m 100 m 10 m 1m 100cm 10cm 1 cm 104 is a general description of each.
VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF THF IR Optical UV
3 kHz 30 kHz 300 kHz 3 MHz 30 MHz 300 MHz 3 GHz 30 GHz 300 GHz 3 THz Electronic Warfare Support
Frequency (Hz)
(EWS or just ES)
Microwaves The goal of ES is to search for,
Millimeter Terahertz intercept, identify, and locate sources
1 GHz
waves region of intentional and non-intentional
1. Within the complete EM spectrum, primary EW activity is from 300 MHz to 30 GHz. radiations. This allows threats to be

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 2: ELECTRONIC WARFARE
recognized so that plans can be made for targeting or other to extract useful information such as locations, troop sizes,
future operations. Immediate threats can be dealt with quickly. weapons, and other critical information.
A complete picture of an electromagnetic battle field can be
determined to provide situational awareness. Another objective is Electronic Protection (EP)
to capture any useable intelligence that can be used to advantage to Electronic protection (EP) refers to the actions that equipment
engage appropriate countermeasures when necessary. An example and personnel can take to prevent enemy attack, neutralize enemy
of a widely used ES system is a radar warning receiver (RWR). EW efforts, and deny the enemy any advantage over friendly EW
The two basic forms of ES are radar ES and communications ES. systems. Some examples include frequency-agile radios, variable
ES systems provide immediate warnings and responses. pulse rate radars, equipment shielding, and electronic counter
Similar to ES is the field of signals intelligence (SIGINT). measures (ECM). The use of low probability of intercept (LPI)
The objective of SIGINT is to monitor and record signals modulation schemes is an EP measure.
not for immediate response but for storage, analysis and future
use. The two main components of SIGINT are electronic Electronic Attack (EA)
intelligence (ELINT) and communications intelligence Electronic attack (EA) is the use of weapons and other
(COMINT). ELINT systems capture radar and other non- equipment to attack personnel, facilities, and equipment to
communications signals to analyze the enemys capabilities degrade or neutralize enemy EW equipment. One example is
and weapons. COMINT systems gather voice and data signals the use of directed energy such as lasers, rail guns, or high-
speed antiradiation missiles such as the HARM, which target
Table 1: Military applications the enemy radar site directly (see Chapter 6). All forms of signal
within the EM spectrum jamming are also variants of EA. Deception techniques are also
Frequency range Applications included in this category with the goal of confusing the enemy
with false targets or similar techniques. Chaff and flares are
30 kHz to 300 kHz (LF) Surveillance, weather
alternative methods used by aircraft and naval vessels to distort
300 kHz to 3 MHz (MF) Tracking, weather
or confuse enemy radar. Both EA and EP fall under the category
3 to 30 MHz (HF) Voice communications, long-range
of ECM techniques, covered in Chapter 4. In this chapter, the
communications
emphasis is on ES, those actions and equipment that make all
30 to 300 MHz (VHF) 2-way radios, ground, mobile, marine,
other EW processes possible.
aircraft;
0.3 to 3.0 GHz (UHF) 2-way radios, voice, cell phones, GPS
satellites, wireless data networks, some
Electronic Support Equipment and Techniques
radar Electronic warfare begins with the capability to detect, identify,
3 to 30 GHz (SHF) Radar, satellites, network radios and locate enemy EM radiation. EW uses the fundamentals and
principles of radio communications in advanced ways to achieve
30 to 300 GHz (EHF) Radar, satellites, network radios
spectrum superiority. There are three key factors involved: Signal
Table 2: Designated IEEE radar bands Table 3: NATO radar bands

Band designation Frequency range Band designation Frequency range
HF 3 to 30 MHz A 0 to 250 MHz
VHF 30 to 300 MHz B 250 to 500 MHz
UHF 300 to 1000 MHz C 500 to 1000 MHz
L 1 to 2 GHz D 1 to 2 GHz
S 2 to 4 GHz E 2 to 3 GHz
C 4 to 8 GHz F 3 to 4 GHz
X 8 to 12 GHz G 4 to 6 GHz
Ku 12 to 18 GHz H 6 to 8 GHz
K 18 to 27 GHz I 8 to 10 GHz
Ka 27 to 40 GHz J 10 to 20 GHz
V 40 to 75 GHz K 20 to 40 GHz
W 75 to 110 GHz L 40 to 60 GHz
Millimeter wave 110 to 300 GHz M 60 to 100 GHz

Tx power Effective radiated power (ERP) receiver noise figure and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) are in dB.
Tx antenna Rx antenna kTB is the receiver noise floor.
gain gain Other factors that may be involved are two ray loss caused
Received
by signal cancellation from ground or water and knife edge
signal power refraction loss caused by signal encountering terrain that deflects
Signal strengthdBm
the signal. Also keep in mind that a radar signal will experience
a double path loss as it travels to the target then is reflected for a
return signal.
Path loss
Rx sensitivity Assortment of Antennas
Dozens of different types of antennas are used in EW. Antenna
type depends upon the equipment. The important antenna
Tx power
specifications to know are gain and the related directional
3. This is a graphical illustration of how EM signals propagate capability, polarization, bandwidth, and frequency range. Most
in a communications system. antennas are designed for a specific frequency but some types
can cover a limited range. Listed below are several widely used
propagation knowledge, appropriate antennas, and sensitive antenna types.
receivers. Vertical whip: quarter-wave or half-wave electrical length, gain of
2.15 dBi, vertical polarization, omnidirectional radiation pattern
Understanding Signal Propagation for full 360 coverage.
Most EW signals fall into the VHF to millimeter-wave frequency Bicone: gain to 4 dBi, vertical polarization, omnidirectional
range. Signal propagation is predominantly line of sight (LOS), coverage, wide bandwidth.
that is, directly from transmit antenna to receive antenna. There Yagi: gain to 15-20 dBi, vertical or horizontal polarization
could be signal reflections from ground or water and diffraction depending on mounting, highly directional, narrow bandwidth.
from objects in the LOS signal path. The most important factor to Log periodic: vertical or horizontal polarization depending on
understand is the free-space path loss (L): mounting, highly directional, wide bandwidth.
Helix: gain to 10 dBi with wide bandwidth, RHCP or LHCP
L = 32.44 + 20log(f) + 20log(d) polarization depending upon the winding direction of the helix.
Horn: vertical or horizontal polarization depending on mounting,
where L is the loss in dB; f is the frequency in MHz; and d is the highly directional, wide bandwidth, used mainly with microwave
range or distance in km. For example, a 1.5-GHz signal traveling and millimeter-wave signals.
a distance of 0.5 km will experience a loss of: Conical spiral: various forms provide some gain and directionality
with circular polarization and wide bandwidth.
L = 32.44 + 20log(1500) + 20log(0.5) = 32.44 + 63.52 6 = 90 dB Parabolic dish: vertical or horizontal polarization depending on
orientation of antenna at feed point, gain to about 60 dBi, highly
That means that the transmit power and receiver sensitivity directional, narrow bandwidth.
must be sufficient to ensure a recoverable signal. The relationship Phased array: vertical or horizontal polarization depending on
between these factors is given by: orientation of antenna elements, high gain to about 40 dBi,
highly directional, narrow bandwidth.
PR = PT + GT L + GR An important principle to keep in mind is polarization.
Polarization is the position of the signals electric field with respect
where PR is the received power; PT is the transmit power; GT is the to Earth. An antenna with vertical polarization radiates a signal
transmit antenna gain; L is the path loss; and GR is the receiver with a vertically oriented electric field. Some antennas produce
antenna gain. PR and PT are in dBm while GT , L, and GR are in dB. circular polarization where the field rotates in one direction or
Figure 3 shows this relationship graphically. the other. There is right-hand circular polarization (RHCP) and
The receiver sensitivity (R) must be less than the received power left-hand circular polarization (LHCP). Ideally, the transmit and
to ensure that the signal can be demodulated: receive antennas should have the same orientation, otherwise
additional signal loss will occur. Examples are:
R = kTB + NF + SNR V to H or H to V
25 dB loss
The receiver sensitivity and kTB are given in dBm while the V to V or H to H with 45 angle between antennas

3 dB loss
RHCP to LHCP or LHCP to RHCP
LNA Mixer
25 dB loss
Filter ADC
Reviewing Receivers
Receivers (Rx) are the main component LO Memory Processor
of ES systems. Sometimes referred to
as sensors, these receivers that can cover
the wide frequency ranges, modulation Filter DAC
types, and power levels involved. Typically, PA Mixer

multiple receivers of different capabilities 4. A digital RF memory (DRFM) provides signal processing for ECM systems.
are involved. In all cases, the key features
are high sensitivity, low noise, wide dynamic range, and agile providing wider frequency coverage, flexible tuning, filtering
frequency control. While some older analog receivers are still in and demodulation, and signal storage capability. The goal is to
use, most modern systems use digital receivers where the signal capture signals, identify them, and store them for future use
is digitized by means of an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) by other receivers and equipment. Many ELINT systems are
and then processed for filtering, demodulation, and analysis. airborne platforms using many receivers and antennas.
Superhetrodyne receiver architectures are still used for EW and ES D igital RF memory (DRFM). A DRFM is often used in
applications, but other software-defined radio (SDR) architectures ECM systems (Fig. 4). It incorporates a very-wide-bandwidth
such as direct-conversion and direct RF sampling receivers are superhetrodyne receiver, a fast ADC, and memory for storage.
gaining in popularity. Fast digital signal processors (DSPs) or Captured signals can be analyzed by computer in reference to a
field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) perform the signal signal data base for identification purposes or by using machine
processing of the digital signals. learning software. The nature of the signal will trigger a response,
The common types of signals to be received are radar and such as the use of jammer against the source of the signal. The
data. Radar signals are mostly pulses. Data signals may be text, signal is sent back to the DAC for conversion to analog form
video, or other forms of information but also voice, as most voice where it can be re-used for ECM purposes. The signal is then
communications today are achieved by digital means. upconverted in a mixer using the common local oscillator (LO)
The most common types of receivers for EW applications to maintain phase coherence. The end result is sent to a power
include: amplifier (PA) and antenna for transmission towards the source
Radar warning receiver (RWR). This receiver was also referred of the signal.
to as a crystal video receiver because it used a simple diode
detector that demodulated radar signals into their original pulse Learning About Location
form. The RWRs primary function is to detect the presence of A critical part of detecting and identifying an EM threat is
any radar signals and issue an immediate alarm or warning. determining its location. This is handled by DF equipment
Early forms just provided a detection warning and no more. with special receivers and multiple directional antennas. The
Todays versions also provide additional information like range, main process is called triangulation. Triangulation requires two
location or direction of arrival (DOA), and type of radar. The different receiver systems at two different locations. The direction
latter can often be determined by an instantaneous frequency of arrival (DOA) of the signal with respect to true north is
measurement (IFM) function that captures and determines the determined. With this information, the enemy emitter location
frequency of the radar pulse. Electronic support measures (ESM) can be calculated. Triangulation can also be implemented with
receiver. This is a broad category of receiver that usually employs a single receiving system mounted in an aircraft that can make
a superhetrodyne architecture with multiple antennas and front- measurements at two different locations.
ends to cover a wide frequency range. It offers greater sensitivity, Other methods of location are the time difference of arrival
multiple bands, and wider bandwidth. The ESM radio also (TDOA) that measures time delays and computes range and the
performs a variety of functions such as detection of radar signals, frequency difference of arrival (FDOA) that uses Doppler shifts to
determination of location, classification, and identification of determine location.
radar type using a data base. It measures things like pulse width,
pulse amplitude, direction of arrival (DOA), and time of arrival Electronic Attack and Protection
(TOA). The EA and EP sectors of EW are offensive methods to gain an
E lectronic Intelligence (ELINT) receiver. The ELINT EM advantage. The primary technique of EA is jamming and the
receivers are variation of the ESM receivers but go further in main methods of EP are ECM. These areas are covered in detail in

Chapter 4 but are summarized briefly below. the electrical grid and most electronic equipment.
Jamming. Jamming is the process of generating a large signal on A bright spot has been the rapid adoption of the newer and
the same frequency as a threat radar signal for the purpose of improved semiconductor devices like GaAs ICs in receivers,
blocking it or making it less effective. Most jamming is directed at GaN PAs in transmitters, and high-speed digital components
radar systems but is also used on voice, data, satellite, and cellular like ADCs, DACs, and processors. New systems are smaller, less
communications systems. A jammer is essentially a high-power expensive, and ever more improved.
transmitter of the continuous-wave (CW) or pulse type whose Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) are playing an ever-increasing
power and pulse width can be adjusted to optimize its effect on the role in EW as they offer some advantages not possible previously.
desired signal. The goal is to degrade the signal to noise ratio to Techniques like AI and machine learning promise significantly
cancel the radar signal, block cellular up or down links or increase improved EW systems.
the bit error rate (BER) of a satellite link. Equipment and systems testing gain in importance as EW
Countermeasures. Countermeasures are techniques that reduce systems evolve. As equipment has become more complex,
the effectiveness of the enemys EW attempts. One example is the testing and measuring for development, manufacturing, and
use of modulation schemes that have a low probability of intercept field service have become more difficult and expensive. Modular
(LPI). The most difficult modulations to recover are direct test systems using PXI based instruments can solve some test and
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), frequency-hopping spread measurement challenges. Testing EW gear in the real world with
spectrum (FHSS), and chirp. Frequency agility that permits rapid actual missiles, aircraft, and naval ships is rare and expensive.
changing of channels is another common defense. This makes software and hardware simulation and emulation
Cognitive EW. A more recent development is the field of cognitive systems critical to determining the effectiveness of EW systems
EW. Cognitive EW uses advanced artificial intelligence (AI) and before they are deployed.
machine-learning methods in conjunction with a receiver to The concept of global persistent surveillance is beginning to
quickly identify signals and implement a countermeasure. The be adopted and implemented. This is a joint military effort to
best example is an enemys use of adaptive radars where the pulse provide persistent intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance
width and frequency are rapidly changed or special coding and (ISR) by land, air, sea, space, and cyber by developing a data base
modulation techniques are used making identification difficult. that can be accessed in real time or in an archival way. These
By using a DRFM along with a fast processor a machine learning collection systems will detect, locate, identify, characterize, track,
algorithms, the cognitive EW system will quickly recognize any and otherwise manipulate and analyze critical data about the
pattern and generate a best guess for a defensive measure such enemys capability and potential. n
as an appropriate jammer.
BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
Trends and Critical Issues
EW is rapidly evolving as new threats are identified and as
technological advances become available. The following items
have been identified as critical to EWs role in maintaining a
superior defense effort.
Years of military budget cuts and neglect of the overall importance
of a strong military has slowed or even halted developments in
advanced systems. Action is required if the U.S. is to remain
competitive in an increasingly combative world.
Accelerated developments by foreign enemies pose problems for
older EW systems. Missiles and nuclear weapons development
by Iran and North Korea present new challenges that have not
fully been met. Potential adversaries such as China and Russia
maintain hypersonic nonexplosive missiles that can travel in
excess of 4600 mph. These new missiles can knock out a plane
or even a carrier faster than defense systems can identify them
or much less offer resistance. Unknown threats are always a
possibility and must be prepared for with adaptive and predictive
capabilities.
Continuing consideration of defending against electromagnetic
pulse (EMP) produced by a small nuclear device that can destroy

CHRIS DeMARTINO, Technology Editor
CHAPTER 3:
RADAR DEFENDS
ON LAND, IN THE AIR, AND AT SEA
Radar technology, which has been used for many years, remains crucial for todays military service.
R
adar, which is an acronym for radio detection and power level of this received signal is determined by several factors.
ranging, has a history that dates all the way back to It can be mathematically defined by the following equation (also
the early part of the 20th century. Radar technology known as the radar equation):
was originally developed for military services and PtG22
was later utilized in combat in World War II. Since Pr =
(4)3R4
its early days, radar technology has significantly
changed. Today, radar is used not only for military applications, where:
2vfo
but also for many civilian applications. Pt f=d =transmitted power;
c
As stated, radar technology was originally developed for military G = gain of the antenna;
purposes. Today, military services still represent the main area of = wavelength of the transmitted signal;
c * PRI c
usage for radar technology, as military applications on land, in the =Unambiguous
radar cross Range
section;
= =
2 * PRF
2 the antenna
air, and at sea rely on radar. Among these applications are threat R = range (distance) between and the target.
detection, missile guidance, air and marine navigation, and more. This equation implies that the same antenna is used for
Although radar technology has changed over time, its general transmitting and receiving. This type of system is known as a
concept remains the same. A typical radar system consists of both monostatic radar system, which is commonly implemented. A
a transmitter and a receiver. The purpose of the transmitter is to bistatic radar system uses separate antennas for transmitting and
transmit a signal in the direction of a target object. This signal receiving.
must be strong enough to reach the location of the intended target, When a transmitted signal strikes a target, energy is scattered in
which could be located a long distance away from the transmitter. various directions. Some of that energy is reradiated back to the
When the transmitted signal reaches the target, a portion of that radar system. The radar cross section (RCS) is an important radar
signal is reflected and then detected by the radar receiver. This parameter, as it determines the amount of energy reflected from a
reflected signal is also known as an echo. To successfully
detect long-range targets, the radar receiver must be
highly sensitive. Various types of information concerning Transmitted Wave
the target can be obtained once the receiver detects

the reflected signal. This information includes the size,
distance, position, and speed of the target. Figure 1
illustrates a basic radar system.
Radar applications operate at various frequency bands. Target
The table on page 13 presents a list of different radar

frequency bands. Transmitter/
Reflected Wave
Receiver
The Radar Equation

Distance
The detected signal at the receiver input is obviously
significantly weaker than the transmitted signal. The 1. This illustration depicts the operation of a typical radar system.

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 3: RADAR
Pulse Envelope
width
Peak power
Pulse repetition
interval Pulse-modulated CW signal
Pulse width 3. In this figure, a pulse-modulated RF signal is shown.

Duty cycle = PtG22
Pulse repetition interval P =
transmitted
r signal.
(4)3R4 This frequency shift, known as the Doppler
Average power = peak power duty cycle frequency (fd), can be defined by the following equation:
2vfo
2. This figure shows an ideal pulse. fd =
c
target. RCS is often described in mathematical terms as m2. where:
As mentioned, a radar receiver must be very sensitive so that v = radial velocity of the target;
c * PRI c
Unambiguous Range = =
it can detect signals that are reflected from targets at long range. fo = frequency of the transmitted2 signal;2 * PRF
Since all receivers generate some amount of noise, signal-to-noise c = speed of light.
ratio (SNR) is degraded as a signal passes through a receiver. A positive Doppler frequency indicates an approaching target,
Successfully detecting reflected signals requires a minimum SNR while a negative Doppler frequency indicates a target that is
at the receiver output. moving away from the radar system. Thus, the frequency of
The minimum SNR corresponds to the minimum power level the received signal is equal to the frequency of the transmitted
of a signal that can be applied to the receivers input for proper signal plus the Doppler frequency if the target is approaching the
detection. If this minimum power level is known, the radar radar system. The frequency of the received signal is equal to the
equation can be rearranged to determine the radar systems frequency of the transmitted signal minus the Doppler frequency
maximum range. This equation is defined as follows: in the case of a target moving away from the radar.
t Continuous-Wave Radar Signals

Radar systems that transmit continuous-wave (CW) signals can
Pmin
determine the velocity of a target. The velocity is determined due
where: to the Doppler frequency. Although a CW-based radar system
Pmin = minimum power level at the receiver input. can determine target velocity, it cannot obtain information
It should be stated the equation shown concerning the targets range because of its
for maximum target range describes radar lack of a timing reference.
SOME COMMON
performance in simplified terms. Other In contrast to CW signals, a radar system that
RADAR BRANDS
factors, such as propagation effects, can also utilizes frequency-modulated-continuous-
HF 3 to 30 MHz
affect performance. wave (FMCW) signals can determine a
VHF 30 to 300 MHz targets velocity and range. An FMCW signal
Determining Range and Radial UHF 300 to 1000 MHz is essentially a waveform with a frequency
Velocity L-band 1 to 2 GHz that changes. Thus, utilizing an FMCW signal
Range is determined by the time needed for S-band 2 to 4 GHz enables a targets range and velocity to be
a transmitted signal to travel to the target and C-band 4 to 8 GHz determined.
then back to the receiver. The radial velocity X-band 8 to 12 GHz
of the target is related to what is known as the
Ku-band 12-18 GHz
Pulsed Radar Signals
Doppler shift. Essentially, a moving target will Pulsed RF signals are the more common
K-band 18-27 GHz
result in a returned signal with a frequency form of signals used in radar applications. A
Ka-band 27 to 40 GHz
that is different than the frequency of the pulsed RF signal can be described as periodic

bursts of RF energy, as the signal is Frequency 4. The figure illustrates the LFM
essentially turned on for a certain method for pulse compression.
amount of time and then turned off f2
for another period of time. of the transmitted signal. Thus, an

Figure 2 shows an ideal pulse, while important tradeoff exists in terms of
Fig. 3 shows an ideal pulsed RF signal. Time radar performance, as short pulses
Pulses are defined by a number of allow for better resolution, while long
characteristics, such as peak power, pulses allow for longer range.
average power, pulse repetition
frequency (PRF), pulse repetition f1
Pulse Compression
interval (PRI), pulse width, duty Pulse compression is a technique
cycle, rise time, and fall time. Pulse that can be utilized to overcome the
characteristics are important to the tradeoff between range and resolution.
performance of the radar system itself. Pulse compression enables long pulses
The PRF is the rate at which pulses to be transmitted and then compressed
are generated. The PRI, which is at the receiver, thereby allowing a radar
inversely related to the PRF, can be system to simultaneously achieve
described as the time interval between long range and high resolution.
pulses. One important radar parameter Pulse compression can be achieved
is the maximum unambiguous range, by employing different modulation
which is determined by the PRI. The techniques.
maximum unambiguous range can be defined as the maximum One pulse compression technique is based on linear frequency
distance a pulse can travel to reach a target such that the echo modulation (LFM; Fig. 4). With this technique, a pulse begins
22
is received
PtGbefore the next pulse is transmitted. A target that with a certain RF carrier frequency and then linearly ramps in
Pr =
is located(4)
beyond
3R4 this distance can result in an obscured echo frequency throughout the entire duration of the pulse. Matched
response because new pulses are transmitted before previously filtering at the receiver is responsible for compressing the received
transmitted
2vfo pulses are reflected back to the receiver. Thus, signal. LFM pulses are also known as FM chirps. Furthermore,
increasing
fd =
cthe PRI increases the unambiguous range, which is another pulse compression technique is based on nonlinear
mathematically defined by the following equation: frequency modulation (NLFM).
c * PRI c
Unambiguous Range = =
2 2 * PRF Phase
shifters Amplifiers Antennas
where:

c = speed of light.
Resolution is another important radar parameter.
Resolution determines how well a radar system can
differentiate between two separate targets. In other words,
two targets that are close to one another could be located
at some distance away from the radar system. A radar
system with sufficient resolution will be able to distinguish Power
one target from the other. However, if the resolution is divider
insufficient, the radar system would mistakenly only see
one target instead of correctly seeing two separate targets.
Decreasing the pulse width of the

transmitted signal enhances the resolution
of the radar system. However, decreasing 5. This illustration
the pulse width also places limitations depicts a simplified
with respect to the amount of power that block diagram of
can be transmitted, thus restricting the a phased-array
radar systems range. Longer range can be antenna system.
achieved by increasing the pulse width

Pulse compression can also be based on phase modulation. One

technique employs binary phase shift keying (BPSK) modulation,
using what is known as a Barker code sequence. This method can
be used to create compressible pulses.
Antennas and Phased-Array Systems

One aspect of a radar system that has yet to be discussed in
detail is the antenna. Proper antenna performance is critical
for any radar system. The radar equation, which was presented
earlier, shows how the performance of a radar system depends on
the antennas gain. A larger antenna gain allows the radar system
to achieve longer range. Furthermore, narrowing the antennas
beamwidth increases its gain.
In radar applications, antenna beams are typically steered
dynamically in order to cover the entire area of interest. This
dynamic beam steering is utilized because a static beam would not
have the capability to cover the entire area. Traditionally, steerable
beams were accomplished by using mechanical positioning
systems. However, modern radar systems often utilize phased- 6. The figure illustrates a display seen on a spectrum analyzer
array antenna systems to electronically steer beams. when measuring a pulsed RF signal.
A phased-array antenna system can be defined as an array of
antennas or radiating elements (Fig. 5). These elements could methods. VSGs are certainly one important instrument in terms
be located next to one another in a rectangular grid or even of radar testing. They can generate modulated signals, such as the
just in a line in the simplest case. The individual antenna pulsed RF signals used in radar applications.
beams constructively and destructively interfere with one another, AWGs are also significant test instruments with regard to radar
depending on the phase of the signals being applied to the signal generation. A traditional approach for generating radar
individual antenna elements. Thus, the antenna beams can signals involves using an AWG to generate baseband signals,
combine to create a narrow beam in one specific direction, while which are then applied to an RF modulator. This method results
cancellation occurs in the other directions. The direction of the in a modulated signal that can be used in a radar test environment.
beam can be varied by adjusting the phase of the signals being However, newer AWGs are available that are capable of directly
applied to the antenna elements. generating RF signals for radar testing.
A phased-array system can therefore change the direction of a
beam without the need to physically move the antennas. Moreover, Spectrum Analyzers and Vector Signal Analyzers
these systems can have hundreds or even thousands of individual A spectrum analyzer can be used to analyze a pulsed RF signal
antenna elements. Phased-array systems have several advantages in the frequency domain. Figure 6 is an illustration of a spectrum
in comparison to mechanical systems. For one, they are faster. analyzer display of a pulsed RF signal. The spacing between the
In addition, phased-array systems eliminate the possibility of a spectral components are determined by the PRF. The widths of
mechanical failure. the main lobe and side lobes are related to the pulse width. When
using a spectrum analyzer to measure a pulsed RF signal, the
Instruments for Radar Testing resolution bandwidth (RBW) must be lower than the PRF in order
Radar system testing can be accommodated by various test to differentiate between each spectral component.
instruments for both signal generation and analysis. As radar VSAs offer measurement capabilities beyond that of a spectrum
systems have become more complex, the capabilities of modern analyzer, as they can capture a signals magnitude and phase
test instrumentation have also advanced to meet these needs. information. In addition to frequency-domain analysis, VSAs can
Different types of instruments that can be used to generate and display measurement results in the time and modulation domains.
analyze radar signals include vector signal generators (VSGs), VSAs are highly effective for analyzing todays more complex
arbitrary waveform generators (AWGs), oscilloscopes, power pulsed radar signals.
meters, spectrum analyzers, and vector signal analyzers (VSAs).
Power Meters
Radar Signal Generation A power meter is another instrument that can be used to
Generating radar signals can be achieved by several different measure radar signals. An average power meter can measure the

average power of a pulsed RF signal. The peak power can also

be determined if the duty cycle is known. However, accurate
measurements are possible only for an ideal pulse, as any pulse
anomalies will result in inaccurate measurements. Thus, an
average power meter may not be the best instrument to use to
measure the peak power of a pulsed RF signal.
A peak power meter can be used to directly measure a pulsed RF
signals peak power level. Peak power meters typically have trace
display capabilities to allow one to see the envelope of a pulsed RF
signal. An important parameter is video bandwidth, which must
be sufficient to accurately track the envelope of a pulsed RF signal.
Oscilloscopes
Oscilloscope measurements date all the way back to early
radar pulses. Some of todays oscilloscopes offer measurement
capabilities into millimeter-wave frequencies. Lastly, while VSAs
and oscilloscopes both have many of the same measurement
capabilities, tradeoffs also exist in terms of the measurements
capabilities of each. n

CHAPTER 4:
PREPARING
TO RESPOND
UNDER ANY CIRCUMSTANCE
Electronic countermeasures systems try to prevent an adversarys electronic system from
operating effectively, based on signal intelligence from an adversarys system.
E
lectronic countermea-
sures (ECM) systems are
designed to be disruptive.
They are designed to pro-
vide an electronic response
to signals detected from an
adversarys electronic system, such as a
radar system. The goal of an ECM system
is to render the other system ineffective
or, if the opportunity presents itself, to
make the other system work against an
adversary. By simply transmitting noise
signals in the direction of an adversarys
radar antennas, the radar receivers sen-
sitivity will be degraded; the receivers
target detection effectiveness will de- 1. ECM technology plays a key role in
cline rapidly with increasing amounts of the self-protection capabilities of the U.
noise that is transmitted. A more elab- S. Navys carrier-based F/A-18E/F Super
orate ECM technique involves receiving Hornet attack aircraft. (Courtesy of Boeing)
radar signals from an adversarys trans-
mitter and rebroadcasting them back to
the radar (with minimal delay time) with
some slight modifications to the signals
to deceive the operators of the adversarys radar system as to the must be triggered for an appropriate response based on the
number, position, and direction of the aircraft it is tracking. received EW signal intelligence, such as identify friend or foe (IFF)
ECM systems can be used offensively or defensively. They information.
usually work in tandem with an electronic-warfare (EW) system As with other defense electronics technologies, ECM
which is detecting an adversarys radio signals, whether for technologies must evolve to handle changing warfare situations,
communications, radar, sonar, or other electronic systems, and in particular, the growing use of improvised explosive devices

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 4: ECM TECHNOLOGIES
2. The modular AN/ALR-

67(V)3 ECM system provides
protection for the U.S. Navys
carrier-based F/A-18E/F
Super Hornet tactical aircraft,
using a channelized RWR
architecture. (Courtesy of
Raytheon Co.)
(IEDs) on the battlefield. When IEDs are designed to be triggered all avionics equipment on the F/A-18 A/B/C/D Hornets, as well as
by RF/microwave signals using a wireless detonator, broadband that on the F/A-18E/F Super Hornets (Fig. 2).
noise generators can help prevent the reception of those critical
detonation signals. Effective countermeasure approaches Evolving Threats
combined with aerial surveillance have helped to limit the number The modern battlefield poses many challenges in terms of new,
of casualties from IEDs. unknown, and unexpected threats, including IEDs that can be
ECM systems are usually part of a suite of electronic systems that triggered by commonly available commercial wireless devices,
include radar warning receivers (RWRs) to provide intelligence such as cell phones. Vehicle-mounted electronic jammers and
of potential threats. For example, the AN/ALR-67(V)3 is the integrated ECM systems with signal activity receivers (Fig. 3)
protective ECM system onboard the U.S. Navys carrier-based F/A- have proven their value against such threats by being able to jam
18E/F Super Hornet tactical aircraft (Fig. 1). It uses a channelized signals from cell phones and other wireless devices that were
RWR architecture to detect signals with high pulse density as intended to detonate an IED. The best-designed vehicle-based
well as faint signals that might be surrounded by signals from jammers provide suitable jamming power over a broad frequency
interference sources. The digital receiver is fully integrated with range to handle multiple threats simultaneously. The systems draw
from similar technologies used in modern radio communications
systems (see Chapter 1), with software-defined-radio (SDR)
architectures that allow upgrades and modifications to a jamming
system by means of software rather than hardware changes.
ECM systems are used on land and at sea, but are probably most
closely associated with avionics systems. Most air forces use ECM
to protect their aircraft from attack. Aircraft-based ECM systems
can be embedded within the aircraft or mounted as a detachable
pod on the underside of the wing. Jammers such as the AN/ALQ-
99 system are the typical choice of ECM system for specialized
fighter aircraft such as the E/A-18G aircraft and EA-6B EW planes.
Such aircraft fly in support of other aircraft, to provide ECM
capabilities as needed in response to a threat detected by a nearby
aircrafts EW system. The size and weight required to achieve the
high transmit power of an ECM jammer make it prohibitive to
include jamming equipment on every aircraft, and so specialized
jammer aircraft must fly as companion aircraft to other fighters
and transports.
3. Vehicle-based ECM systems with integrated jammers The Naval Air Systems Command (www.navair.navy.mil) refers
provide a means of protection against remote detonation of to Integrated Defensive Electronic Countermeasures (IDECM)
IEDs. (Courtesy of Harris Corp.) systems as providing a means of protection against surface-to-air

4. An IDECM system is designed to detect, identify, and manage ECM responses to threats and includes the use of towed
decoys. (Courtesy of the Naval Air Systems Command)
missiles (SAMs) and air-to-air radar-guided missiles. An IDECM In addition, tactical jammers or tacjammers are a special class of
system (Fig. 4) is designed to detect, identify, and manage ECM aircraft which are equipped with high-power jamming equipment
responses to threats posed by detected radar signals. IDECM but is designed to invade an enemys tactical air space and jam
block system configurations include the older AN/ALQ-165 an adversarys electronic systems from close range. In spite of the
integrated ECM system, the newer AN/ALQ-214 system, the AN/ added system weight, it must evade enemy aircraft and penetrate
ALE-50 towed decoy, and the AN/ALE-55 fiber-optic towed decoy various types of defense systems (including missile launches) to
(FOTD), which are essentially radio transmitters towed behind an fulfill its mission.
aircraft to serve as a false source of signal returns for an enemy Jammers work by transmitting energy on a single frequency,
radar receiver. known as spot jamming, or by jamming a band of frequencies,
Because attack aircraft such as the U.S. Navys F/A-18E/F known as barrage jamming. Modern tactical communications
aircraft are prime targets for any enemys own attack systems, equipment (see Chapter 1) is typically designed to overcome
ECM technology is essential for providing protection for each the effects of jammers, using what are known as electronic
aircrafts crew, especially when on a mission deep within hostile counter-counter-measure (ECCM) techniques. ECCM methods
airspace. The AN/ALQ-214 Integrated Defensive Electronic include frequency-hopping and spread-spectrum techniques,
Countermeasures (IDECM) Onboard Jammer (OBJ) is a proven which essentially expand the amount of bandwidth used by the
aircraft defensive ECM system that has provided in-air protection communications signals to evade the effects of the jamming
through five versions of the system. As with many updated signals.
defense electronic systems, it is designed in a modular format Even the best-equipped ECM aircraft is not immune to the
(Fig. 5) for flexibility and adaptability to many different airframes. threat of a targeted attack, and an ECM system relies on its
The system consists of a receiver, modulator, and dual transmitter associated EW system for data regarding a potential threat, such as
for negating signals from multiple threat sources. It employs the
Modular Open System Architecture (MOSA) compliant design
approach that enables addition or insertion of new technology
advances as they become available, allowing for performance
improvements as needed.
Not every military aircraft can be equipped with a
countermeasures system as sophisticated as the AN/ALQ-214
IDECM system, or even with a simpler jamming system. As much
as the advances in semiconductor technologies have allowed for
greater solid-state transmit power densities (see Chapter 8), the
sizes and weights of even the most advanced jammers and more
integrated ECM systems prohibit their use on many aircraft. As a
result, ECM pods and jamming equipment are typically included
on select aircraft, and these aircraft will serve as protective 5. The AN/ALQ-214 IDECM with onboard jammer (OBJ) is a
companions to air and ground forces not equipped with ECM proven aircraft defensive ECM system designed in modular
self-protection systems. form. (Courtesy of Harris Corp.)

The traditional method of

recording and retransmitting an
enemys radar returns is by means
of a digital RF memory (DRFM),
which is typically a compact
module containing a dedicated
microprocessor, high-speed analog-
to-to-digital converter (ADC),
digital-to-analog converter (DAC),
field-programmable gate array
(FPGA), digital signal processing
(DSP), and additional filtering (Fig.
6). To accurately replicate detected
and recorded signals, a DRFM
for military ECM applications
must provide minimum levels of
6. This compact DRFM is an essential component in modern ECM systems. It features performance in both the frequency
ADCs capable of sampling at 2.2 GSamples/s and Virtex-5 FPGAs for immense DSP and time domains. It must, at the
capabilities. (Courtesy of Curtiss-Wright) very least, be capable of matching
the frequency range of a detection
a missile launch. Faced with multiple surface-to-air missile (SAM) receivers intermediate-frequency (IF) range and with the
launches, an ECM jammer can attempt to neutralize one missile instantaneous bandwidth (IBW) of the ECM receiver so that
site, but may be defenseless against a second site. it is capable of simultaneously processing all signals within the
DARPA is well aware of its diversity of ECM systems, including receivers detection bandwidth.
many different types of jammers, in the current military inventory, In the time domain, a DRFM for ECM applications must be able
and instituted the precision electronic warfare (PREW) project in to handle the pulse widths and pulse repetition frequencies (PRFs)
an attempt to better coordinate ECM activities. The project hopes of the ECM receiver so that pulsed radar signals are not degraded
to develop a low-cost system that can synchronize the outputs in ways that an enemy radar would detect as a signature of the
of multiple pods/planes to create more complex, higher-power signal processing being performed in the DRFM. The DRFM
avionics jamming signals. One goal of such a synchronized system should also provide a suitable pulse delay range, so that it affects
is to generate jamming signals with enough precision to replicate the distance and location measurements performed by an enemy
the directionality of an active electronically scanned arrays (EASAs) radar on the false radar returns. In addition, due to the Doppler
used on modern radar systems, including ground control intercept signal effects as a result of a moving target, such as an aircraft, a
(GCI) radar systems and their associated communications systems. suitably equipped DRFM should have sufficient control of signal
Doppler characteristics, with adjustable Doppler offset frequency
Generating Smart Noise and high Doppler frequency tuning resolution.
Noise of any kind can be disruptive to an enemys radar or For high accuracy, a DRFM for ECM use should incorporate
surveillance system. Noise is basically broadband signal energy data converters with high bit resolution and it should exhibit a
that is directed towards an enemy receive to obscure the reception high level of spectral purity, with as little self-noise as possible
of other signals. As a counter-countermeasure, an enemy may contributed to the re-generated waveforms. Spurious levels should
attempt to pinpoint the direction of the transmitted jammer noise be low, at typically -45 dBc or better, and the phase noise of
and try to target the source of the noise with a missile strike. For generated signals should, ideally, match the phase-noise levels of
that reason, many modern ECM jammers transmit signals that are the detected and retransmitted signals. Again, minimizing the
considered smart noise or forms of false radar returns that are noise levels helps to minimize the possibility of the DRFM creating
meant to confuse an enemy radar into thinking that those signals a form of signal signature that can be recognized by an enemy
are its own reflected returns. Generating such false radar returns radar receiver.
can be accomplished in a number of ways, by receiving, recording, When programmed with the proper signal code, a direct digital
and retransmitting the radars own transmitted signals, or by newly synthesizer (DDS) can also produce smart noise for use by an
generating radar-return signals with characteristics that closely ECM jammer. Also known as a numerically controlled oscillator
match those of the enemy radars signals (assuming they were (NCO), a DDS generates arbitrary waveforms based on numerical
reflected from a target and returned to the source receiver). representations of those waveforms.

As with a DRFM, it has a set of essential performance parameters Simulation and Testing ECM Systems
that must meet the requirements of an ECM system application, Simulation of ECM systems can be performed at both component
including frequency range, pulse rise time, and PRF. Unlike a (such as a DDS or DRFM) or system levels, although system-
DRFM, however, a DDS generates its own signals rather than level simulation software must have the capability to account
generating them from another source. A DDSs outputs are for the mixed-signal interactions that occur among the various
typically based on signal-intelligence (SIGINT) data which may or analog and digital circuits in an ECM system. Mathematics-based
may not be part of an ECMs signal threat library database. modeling tools are often recruited to study these interactions by
In an ECM application, multiple DDS signal sources may share means of closed-form equations, so that well-established formulas,
the same clock reference source for synchronization, but each DDS such as the radar range equation, can be used as part of a system-
generates original signals that are modeled on the characteristics level simulation.
of the signals captured by an ECM systems receiver. For certain As with many other defense electronics systems, ECM systems
situations, such as trying to replicate the operating characteristics are being designed in modular formats to simplify maintenance
of a frequency-agile radar system, a DDS can provide the frequency and upgrades. The modular approach makes it possible to perform
switching speed required to mimic the waveform characteristics of measurements on an ECM system one piece at a time, typically
the received radar system. As with a DRFM, a DDS that exhibits with an electronic system that is almost a replica of the system
minimal delays between command code and signal generation under test. Any test signal source intended for testing an ECM
offers the best probability of matching the signal characteristics of system, for example, must be at least as frequency agile as the ECM
an enemy radar system. system, with adequate dynamic range (output power level range)
The most versatile DDS sources for ECM use will also provide to exercise the full detection range of the ECM system. Firms that
flexible modulation capabilities, since many search radars rely on supply components for ECM systems, such as DRFMs, often also
waveforms with some form of phase coding, such as binary-phase- provide signal and threat simulators that can double as test-signal
coded pulse compression or quadrature-phase-coded pulsed sources. n
waveforms. In addition, a DDS for ECM applications should be
able to account for Doppler shifting effects in order to generate the BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
most realistic false radar returns.

BARRY MANZ, Technical Contributor
CHAPTER 5:
THE DARK AND MYSTERIOUS

WORLD OF
MILITARY
A SATELLITES
rmageddon may eventually
leave Earth a wasteland. But
whomever or whatever finds
the remains will first pass
through a ring of thousands
of satellites about 5 mi. above
it, preserved forever. As they dissect them, ev-
idence will appear that they delivered entertainment to the masses ple have any details about them. Such is the world of the military
and enabled global communications, but some would seem to be in space and the subject of this chapter.
designed to spy on humanity, which logically they might question. Of all military assets, spacecraft (and submarines) are by far
Unfortunately for the new arrivals, even if some humans remained the most clandestine. Press reports about military satellites are
on the planet, they wouldnt have any answers, as surveillance and typically couched in terms such as may be, thought to be,
reconnaissance satellites are so secret only a small number of peo- appears to be, and it is believed that. What information is
1. The headquarters of the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency occupy the third largest federal building in the Washington
area. (Courtesy of the Cryptome Archive)

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 5: MILITARY SATELLITES
available comes either from rare leaked documents or the small disasters, and arguably has the worlds most comprehensive maps
but intense group of people who spend thousands of hours of every square inch of the planet.
gleaning snippets of information from various sources to piece The NGIA gets its information from its own spacecraft as well as
together something meaningful. Some have done a remarkable from other agencies including NASA, and from private industry.
job, generating huge troves of information dating back nearly 60 To broaden and deepen their knowledge, the agency launched the
years about hundreds of military launches and the satellites they Commercial Initiative to Buy Operationally Responsive GEOINT
placed in orbit. (CIBORG) program, which in March purchased its first high-
However, much widely disseminated information is suspect definition 3D imagery from mapping company Vricon. Since then
because even in todays leaky environment little credible it has added another 10 vendors with another 20 pending.
information about spy satellites seeps through. In short, while its Among its notable contributions, the NGIA helps track
possible to know when and where these spacecraft are launched, terrorists based on communications traffic provided by NSA,
its almost impossible to know where they go and what they do pinpointing the users location on the globe. The agency also
there, and its easy to see why: Only satellites can look down on provided information based on LIDAR and other imagers to
Earth by circling it or remaining fixed at a single point more than create a precision replica of the Abbottabad, Pakistan, compound
5 mi. above. From there, researchers have found ways to generate where Osama bin Laden was hiding, as well as how many people
still images and video of extraordinary resolution and intercept lived there, their gender, and even how tall they were.
RF/microwave signals from civilian and military systems.
While spying is a primary mission of DoD, the National Tapping the New Frontier
Security Agency (NSA), the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), Ever since the space race began in 1955 when the U.S.
National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), National Geospatial- announced it would launch orbiting satellites in the near future
Intelligence Agency (NGIA), and other military organizations and the Soviet Union beat it by first launching Sputnik 1 (Fig.
have launched spacecraft for communications, nuclear detection 2), the number and capabilities of military spacecraft have
and early warning, meteorology, and navigation. continually increased. Today, these two countries and about 15
The NGIA, for example, is the home of Google Earth on steroids. additional nations have launched hundreds of military satellites,
The agency operates from its 2.3 million ft.2 headquarters in Fort and the list grows every year and sometimes monthly.
Belvoir, Va. (Fig. 1), the third largest government building in the Some of these satellites are very large, such as the Keyhole series
Washington metro area after the Pentagon and Ronald Reagan of reconnaissance satellites launched by the U.S. since 1977 and
Building. The agency collects, analyzes, and distributes geospatial others called microsats can are incredibly small. The smallest
intelligence (GEOINT) to support national security and aid in and lightest civilian or military satellite to date was a femtosat
2. This is a recreation of Sputnik 1, the worlds first satellite,

launched by the Soviet Union in 1957 into an elliptical low-Earth- 3. Kalam SAT, the smallest and lightest satellite sent into orbit,
orbit. It beat the U.S. into space, causing the so-called Sputnik was designed by an 18-year-old student and his team in India.
crisis. (Courtesy of the National Air and Space Museum) (Source: Wikipedia, photo by Rifath Sharook)

called Kalam SAT (Fig. 3) launched in June by NASA after being

designed and built by 18-year-old Indian student Rifath Sharook
and his fellow students who won a NASA competition. It measures
3.8 cm, weighs 64 g, was 3D-printed with reinforced carbon fiber,
and even had a nano Geiger counter. It stayed in space 125 min.
and then fell into the sea.
The worlds first communication satellite was Project SCORE
(Signal Communication by Orbiting Relay Equipment) and
it marked the beginning of the militarys staunch tradition of
satellite deniability. It was launched on December 18, 1958, and
operated by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA,
now DARPA) with the goal of determining how space-based
communications relay system would work.
Project SCORE (Fig. 4) It was built by a hand-picked team of
engineers at the U.S. Army Signal Research and Development
Laboratory at Fort Monmouth, N.J., and was so secret that only
88 people knew it existed, of whom shortly before launch 53 were
told the project was canceled and to never to mention it. Even the
launch crew thought the Atlas 10B rocket placing it into space was
only on a test mission and had no payload.
SCORE was the first spacecraft that could receive signals, store
them on tape, and retransmit them to ground receivers. The
message it received and transmitted back to Earth was 57 words
long and spoken by President Dwight Eisenhower, although when
asked if the message would be delivered by Eisenhower ARPA
Deputy Director Admiral John Clark simply said no. The media
quickly found that to be incorrect and everyone else found out
on the evenings news programs.
4. Project SCORE is shown mounted on an Atlas-B rocket The success of Project SCORE quickly led to launch of the
shortly before launched from Cape Canaveral. (Courtesy of the Courier satellite by DoD that was the worlds first within active
U.S. Air Force) repeater and solar cells to recharge its batteries. From this point
on, satellites of increasing capability were frequently launched by
the Air Force, and by 1962 there were 26 in a constellation that
ultimately became the Defense Satellite Communication System
(DSCS). Ironically, Congress in 1964 decided that commercial and
militarys satellite communications systems should be developed
separately as defense applications had unique requirements.
Now, more than 50 years later DoD relies heavily on commercial
satellites as its needs continue to grow.
The DSCS system remains in service but is being replaced by the
Wideband Global Satcom (WGS) system that supports two-way
tactical and one-way global broadcast service (GBS) and will have
more capacity than its predecessor. Higher frequencies also began
to be used, first at X-band and later at Ka-band, and significant
increases were made in data throughput, which enabled higher-
resolution still images and video to be transmitted to Earth.
As analog, digital, and optical technologies rapidly advanced,
it became possible for mobile and tactical systems using small
5. The Navys Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) spacecraft lightweight backpack, handheld, and portable terminals to be
effectively provides a cellular network for war fighters in-theater. used in the field. Its not uncommon for the saddlebags of soldiers
(Courtesy of Lockheed Martin) trekking on horses in remote regions of Afghanistan to hold these

6. The Milstar satellite

constellation built by
Northrop Grumman
was a breakthrough
as satellites could
communicate with each
other using millimeter-
wavelengths, allowing a
single earth station to
control the entire group.
(Courtesy of Northrop
Grumman)
terminals and the laptop computers required to view satellite The Navys Fleet Satellite Communications (FLTSATCOM)
imagery. satellites that operated at UHF frequencies were DODs first
GPS-derived position data, advanced communications, and dedicated to tactical users. Another tactical system, Leasat, was
a variety of space and airborne sensors allow soldiers to gain launched between 1984 and 1990, and by 1991 the Navy was
precise in-theater situational awareness. Collectively they convey operating six FLTSATCOMs and four Leasats.
voice, data, telemetry, imagery, texting, file transfer, remote The UHF Follow-On (UFO) system added higher frequencies
sensing, paging, E-mail and Internet access, facsimile, and video and multiple channels, but will soon be phased out by a constellation
teleconferencing. Theyre also used on aircraft, ships, submarines, of Navy Mobile User Objective System (MUOS) spacecraft. MUOS
small boats, land vehicles, and even on cruise missiles. (Fig. 5) provides more reliable access, higher data rates and signal
quality, and communications-on-the-move
capability. It also doubles the capacity for UHF
voice communications in high-density conflict
zones and uses smaller ground terminals.
The system effectively functions as a cellular
network for warfighters and uses a modified
WCDMA access method. When fully
functional it will consist of four operational
satellites and one in-orbit spare, and take
advantage of the handheld, manpack, and
small portable radios that survived the 2011
cancellation of the Joint Tactical Radio System
(JTRS) program.
The Milstar program (Fig. 6) was a
major breakthrough for defense satellite
communications as the spacecraft operate
independent of ground control, relay stations,
and distribution networks thanks to significant
7. An artist rendering of what a KH-11

reconnaissance satellite May look like along
with its various components. (Courtesy of
Craig Covault, AmericaSpace, LLC)

onboard signal processing and the ability to communicate from and controlled from a single location using a very small antenna.
satellite to satellite. Milstar was designed to function even in the The Milstar satellites were designed for a service life of 10
presence of jamming or nuclear attack and can provide global years although Milstar-1 is still operating after more than 20
connectivity for many different types of earth terminals. years. Nevertheless, the Air Force is replacing them with the
Each of the five spacecraft provides low-data-rate voice Advanced Extremely High Frequency (AEHF) millimeter-wave
and data communications at 75 to 2,400 b/s and medium system comprised of six geostationary satellites that will be used
data rate communications at 4.8 kb/s to 1.544 Mb/s. Earth- by the Air Force as well as Canada, the Netherlands, and the UK.
to-ground communication is accomplished at S-band while In addition to voice and data, the AEHF system will transmit real-
satellite-to-satellite-communication takes place at millimeter- time video, battlefield maps, and targeting data. The AEHF system
wave frequencies, which are extremely difficult to jam. These enhances most communication capabilities, increases bandwidth
cross-links allow the entire satellite constellation to be monitored and available channels, offers even greater jamming protection,
and overall has an order of magnitude greater performance than
Milstar.
Starting with Sensors

The core elements in every military spy satellite are the
sensors that collect the information, and they range from optical
imagers that use a mirror to gather visible light for still images,
to infrared and ultraviolet sensors for video capture, and radar
systems that produce images in conditions that defy optical
technologies. Satellites used for signals and electronic surveillance
have extremely-sensitive receivers covering frequencies from HF
through millimeter wavelengths. These systems intercept, record,
and downlink radio, telephone, and data transmissions as well as
transmissions relayed by communications satellites. Each type of
sensor has advantages and disadvantages in certain conditions so
some military satellites have multispectral imaging capabilities
that include both RF and optical technologies.
The most widely known reconnaissance satellites are the Keyhole
(Fig. 7) and Lacrosse series that have theoretical resolution of
8. Lockheed Martins High-Altitude Airship (HAA) cannot take about 10 cm but cannot image through clouds or remain in orbit
the place of satellites but can complement them. (Courtesy of over a particular area. Earlier versions took photographs and
Lockheed Martin) then ejected canisters of film that would descend to Earth and
be retrieved in mid-air as they
floated down on parachutes.
The Lacrosse satellites use
radar imaging that has lower
resolution than the KH series
optical sensors but are mostly
impervious to weather and
can be used both in daylight
and nighttime hours. These
satellites serve as key resources
9. Russias Savastopol
Naval Base in the Crimea,
imaged at 30-cm resolution
by the WorldView-3 satellite
operated by Satellite
Imaging Corp. (Courtesy
of Satellite Imaging Corp.)

for all intelligence agencies, but theyre just two examples of the assets for military systems, but these resources are formidable and
hundreds that have been built. owing to budget constraints are the only realistic way to rapidly
As the most comprehensive spy satellites cost well over $1 billion, expand defense imaging capabilities in space. As these spacecraft
unmanned aerial systems (UAVs) have become increasingly and imaging services are not owned by the government and are
important, as they are unmanned, much less expensive, can loiter used by many market sectors, the companies themselves arent
over an area for 24 h or so at high altitudes, and can Carrie weapons subject to federal budget scrutiny; the only costs are for retaining
payloads as well. As they operate at lower altitudes than satellites, their services, which is likely far easier to justify than building and
they potentially have greater performance in distinguishing operating billion-dollar satellites.
camouflaged targets. However, UAVs our still expensive, require Like all military systems, space platforms used for gathering
fuel for propulsion, and require frequent maintenance. various types of intelligence data must continually be replaced
To solve these problems, DoD has been exploring the use high- by better-performing satellites. Even though designed for 10-yr.
altitude, long loiter airships, either tethered or untethered, that operating lives, by the time they reach that endpoint something
would be significantly less expensive than satellites or UAVs, new must be available to replace them. This is not only technically
operate at altitudes up to 60,000 ft., could remain aloft for days challenging but extremely expensive, which accounts for the
or months before maintenance. This assumes they can generate increased use of UAVs and development of airships, both of which
enough power using solar cells or other technologies to run the are much less costly. That said, neither one will adequately replace
propulsion system and payloads, and charge a power storage satellites as enormous numbers would be needed and even then
system that keeps everything running when solar energy is not their capabilities couldnt match them. Consequently, builders
available. of advanced military spacecraft have little to worry about being
Lockheed-Martin has been developing various types of lighter- overtaken by competitors with less expensive solutions.
than-air (LTA) systems to the U.S. military for many years, and has
a portfolio of persistent surveillance systems of various types. For further reference
One of the these is used for border patrol in the southwestern U.S., The following sources provide extensive information about military
the only such system in use throughout the country. The High- spacecraft and will be useful for anyone who wishes to dig deeper
Altitude Airship (HAA), for example (Fig. 8), is an unmanned, into the mysterious world of military space surveillance.
untethered LTA that operates autonomously in the stratosphere 1. Gunters Space Page: an extensive compendium built by
to provide a geostationary platform for ISR and communications, Gunter Krebs of spacecraft by type, nation, and missions along
and can provide coverage over an area 600 mi. in diameter. with news hard to find elsewhere about recent space activities.
The company built the High Altitude Long Endurance http://space.skyrocket.de/.
Demonstrator (HALE-D) to test the concept, but after reaching 2. Spaceflight101.com: Another excellent resource about comm
32,000 ft. it experienced problems with its helium levels technical ercial and military space activities, missions, news, and other
problems that forced it to land in the Pennsylvania woods. material compiled by Patrick Blau.
Nevertheless, various efforts continue to explore the potential of 3. Blank Spots on the Map: The Dark Geography of the Pentagons
airships and aerostats. Secret World, 2009, Trevor Paglen. Available on Amazon for
One of the greatest challenges facing all military services in the Kindle, and in hardcover and paperback.
West is the increasing reliance on satellites for communications 4. I Could Tell You But Then You Would Have to be Destroyed
and ISR, which has already exceeded the capabilities of these by Me: Emblems from the Pentagons Black World, 2009, Trevor
agencies to satisfy their needs. As a result, around 80% of all US Paglen. Available on Amazon for Kindle, and in hardcover and
government satellite communications traffic including that used paperback. n
by the military is conducted using commercial satellite systems.
DoD acquired rights to use data produced by the Ikonos BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
spacecraft operated by Satellite Imaging Corp., and has contracts
with DigitalGlobe, which also provides images for Google
Maps, Apple Maps, and many other customers. Its Worldview-4
spacecraft built by Lockheed Martin has panchromatic resolution
of 12 in. using the GeoEye Imaging System-2 built by Exelis
(now part of Harris Corp.) that contributes 640,000 km2 to the
companys library every day (Fig. 9). As noted earlier, the NGIA is
also expanding its mapping capability through partnerships with
private industry.
There is considerable controversy about using commercial

CHAPTER 6:
KEEPING CLEAR SIGHTS ON

DIRECTED-ENERGY
WEAPONS
The nature of weapons is changing, from being based on kinetic energy to using advanced
projectiles and electromagnetic energy for propulsion.
M
ilitary forces have relied throughout much of his- (EM) radiation, such as high-energy lasers (HELs), high-power
tory on kinetic weapons such as guns and explo- microwave weapons, rail guns, and particle-beam weapons. The
sives. Such weapons function by means of a pro- Directed Energy Program, for example, is a highly focused
pellant, such as gunpowder, to provide the force effort on the part of the Office of Naval Research (ONR) Naval
to send projectiles of different weights and sizes Air Warcraft and Weapons Department to develop both high-
through space at an en-
emy. While such weapons have been his-
torically effective, the ongoing materials 1. Current HEL design efforts are pushing for
costs are high, leading military research- lighter-weight systems that can be mounted
ers to seek alternative forms of weapons, on smaller armored vehicles and airframes.
such as those based on directed energy. If (Courtesy of Lockheed Martin)
properly designed and implemented, di-
rected-energy weapons can provide high
accuracy in reaching a target, without the
associated collateral damage of kinetic
weapons. Directed energy weapons also
provide the means of an effective defense
against the growing use of smaller, more
agile weapons, such as armed unmanned
aerial vehicles (UAVs). As the technologies
for directed energy weapons continue to
improve, such weapons can be expected
to move quickly from the laboratory to the
battlefield.
Directed-energy weapons have been in
development for a number of years by
different branches of the military and by
a number of different contractors, based
on various forms of electromagnetic

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 6: DIRECTED-ENERGY WEAPONS
2. This truck target was

destroyed by the ATHENA
solid-state fiber laser weapon
system from a distance of
approximately one mile.
(Courtesy of Lockheed Martin)
A basic HEL system consists

of the laser, beam controller,
power supply, and thermal
management to dissipate
excess heat. The ultimate
goal of several Armys HEL
development programs is to fit
an entire laser weapons system
into a smaller military vehicle,
such as a Stryker, without
and lower-power EM-based weapons for different applications. having to design a new vehicle just to have a maneuverable vehicle
Although it is typically the results of HELs with nicknames such with an HEL.
as tank killers that have captured the imaginations of future- Test results so far have been positive, using high-power solid-state
looking defense strategists, directed-energy weapons such as the lasers. In-field experiments with a 5-kW Mobile Expeditionary
Active Denial System (ADS) developed by Raytheon Co. for the High Energy Laser (MEHEL) mounted on a Stryker armored
U.S. Air Force Research Laboratories (AFRL) have been available vehicle destroyed a UAV from a distance of greater than 0.5 km.
for several years using lower EM power levels at millimeter-wave Testing was performed as part of the Armys Maneuver Fires
frequencies, for applications such as perimeter security and crowd Integrated Experiment, to test the viability of using high-power
control. A short-distance version of ADS is currently available lasers as vehicle-mounted weapons systems.
from Raytheon Co. Much credit in these experiments is due to the pioneering
Several challenges face developers of HELs, such as designers at work of the contractor, Lockheed Martin, with more than 40
Lockheed Martin. In order to effectively direct high energy, that years of research and development on different types of HELs.
energy must first be generated at sufficient power levels to cause The companys successes in developing high laser power levels
damage to a target. The energy must also be generated efficiently come from a technique known as beam combining, adding the
in order to minimize the amount of heat produced as a byproduct. contributions of different fiber-optic energy sources into a single,
No matter how efficient the generation of EM energy, some heat focused mean, in a manner similar to the way that array antennas
will be produced, and that heat must be effectively dissipated are used to create the high-energy focused EM beams in radar
to ensure the long-term reliability of a HEL system. Early HEL systems. The solid-state HEL approach is modular and scalable,
systems have been large and costly. For practical implementation allowing the development of higher-power lasers by adding more
in ground and air vehicles (Fig. 1), HELs must be designed as fiber-optic sources.
smaller, lower-cost systems with the responsiveness and accuracy Lockheed Martins development of HEL technology has come
capable of targeting and destroying fast-moving targets, such as as a result of military funding but also from much of its own
air-to-air missiles and surface-to-air missiles (SAMs). investment in advancing the technology. The companys Advanced
The U.S. Armys HEL weapons are being developed as part of Test high Energy Asset (ATHENA) laser weapon system, for
several directed-energy projects managed by the Armys Space example, gained attention several years ago when a 30-kW fiber
and Missile Defense/Army Strategic Forces Technical Center in laser system disabled a test vehicle from a distance of about 1
Huntsville, AL, especially for their use in mobile systems as anti- mile (Fig. 2). The ATHENA system, with its precision adaptive
UAV weapons. The Armys High Energy Mobile Laser Test Truck optics and line-of-sight stabilization technology, in addition to its
(HELMTT) program intends to mount a HEL on an armored fiber-optic beam-combining methods, demonstrated that effective
military vehicle to shoot down UAVs. Early testing in the program military HELs require more than just generation of high laser
involved the use of lower-power (10 kW) lasers) with the eventual power levelsthe energy must be properly focused and directed
goal being to mount a 100-kW laser on a ground vehicle, without with maximum efficiency to create a weapons system that is
limiting the usefulness of the vehicle for other applications. practical as well as portable.

Lockheed Martins Area Defense Anti-Munitions (ADAM) HEL low-power prototype laser system but has been upgraded to higher
system was developed as a transportable defense against short- power levels (to 30 kW) and has successfully destroyed UAVs
range threats, including UAVs and small boats. When earlier during demonstrations at sea. The system was deployed in the
testing with aerial and maritime targets, the system showed high Persian Gulf and has served as part of a learning experience in how
efficiency in burning through various threats, including military- to maintain high reliability of a laser weapons system in a maritime
grade small boats (Fig. 3), small-caliber rockets, and UAVs. The environment and how to integrate a laser weapons system within
system is capable of tracking moving targets at a range of greater existing combat systems architectures.
than 5 km and can reach targets as far as 2 km away using a 10-kW In addition to developing directed-energy weapons, ONR is
laser beam. The company most recently demonstrated a solid- also well aware of the inevitable need to defend against an
state fiber laser with nominal 60-kW output power for the U.S. adversarys directed-energy weapons. ONRs Counter Directed
Army, with measured beam power of approximately 50 kW Energy Weapons (C-DEW) program is tasked with studying ways
Boeing has also been a major contributor to advances in to counter the effects of directed-energy weapons. The program is
directed-energy weapons, developing High Power Beam Control investigating both materials- and non-materials-based solutions
Subsystem (HP BCSS) for use with solid-state HELs. As part of to counter threats from directed-energy weapons, for surface,
work for the Office of Naval Research (ONR), the goal of this ground, and underwater applications.
subsystem is to maintain laser beam focus on a target long enough
to disable or destroy the target. In contrast to an ground-based- Measuring Lasers
vehicle HEL system, a maritime HEL weapons system must Advances in HEL-based weapons systems require accurate
overcome the variables of a constantly moving weapons platform characterization of experimental systems, and scientists at the
and a challenging operating environment. Boeings work with Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) have contributed a great
HELs for the Navy builds upon the companys efforts with the U.S. deal to those measurements through the development of a reusable
Army on HELs as part of the Armys High Energy Laser Mobile glass target board capable of measuring incident laser energy
Demonstrator (HEL MD) program, which began several years levels and the spatial energy distribution of the laser beam. The
ago. Demonstrations of the HEL MD have successfully acquired, board plays a role not only in measuring the output power of an
tracked, and destroyed moving targets, such as UAVs, even under experimental laser but also the beam quality and how the laser
windy and foggy conditions. energy changes over time.
The ONRs Laser Weapon System (LaWS) started as a relatively The test board was developed by working with OptiGrate, and
3. The Area Defense Anti-Munitions (ADAM) HEL system

was developed as a transportable defense against UAVs
and small military boats. (Courtesy of Lockheed Martin)

4. A railgun is a
weapons system
that uses large
pulses of EM
energy to launch
specialized
projectiles.
(Courtesy of
General Atomics)
using the companys hand-made photo-thermo-refractive glass higher power levels and power densities is possible.
for the target board. The material, which consists of sodium-zinc-
aluminum-silicate glass doped with silver, cerium, and fluorine, Firing EM Railguns
must survive high levels of incident laser energy which impacting While HELs may literally be the most visible directed-energy
the characteristics of the laser beam or suffering changes in its own weapon in many current military arsenals, they are by no means
characteristics. The material is unique in that it is transparent, but the only type of directed-energy weapon under development. The
also photosensitive, allowing it to record laser beam characteristics ONR, for example, has pursued the development of EM railguns,
without distorting the laser beams. especially for use on high-speed vessels. A railgun essentially uses
With support from a U.S. Army research award, the glass test a large pulse of EM energy rather than gunpowder or chemical
board was developed and tested as part of a HEL beam-profiling propellants to launch projectiles at high speed. It consists of a pair
system at Kirtland Air Force Bases Laser Effects Test Facility, of parallel conductors or rails with a sliding armature. As current
using that facilitys 50-kW solid-state fiber laser. The target boards flows through one rail, into the armature, and then back along
enabled measurements at power densities as high as 10 kW/cm2 the other rail, the armature can be accelerated to high speeds for
without damage to the beam profiler or the target boards. Since the launching a projectile. EM railguns can achieve projectile launch
target boards can be readily scaled to larger sizes, measurements of speeds as high as six times the speed of sound (Mach 6).
5. Developmental efforts for railguns are attempting to shrink systems size while increasing pulsed EM power levels for mobile
use. (Courtesy of General Atomics)

In contrast to weapons systems based on gunpowder or chemical many rounds per minute while providing long railgun barrel
propellants, railguns can achieve twice the exit velocities with operating life. The system components are also being developed
rapid firing rates, enabling them to engage multiple threats for smaller size and weight, for use on a wide range of warships.
simultaneously. In addition, by not using gunpowder or chemical High-power-microwave (HPM) weapons have been part of
propellants, the logistics tail of the projectile is eliminated. Due to military planning for some time, although practical HPM weapons
the high exit velocity and high kinetic energy at launch, railgun have yet to reach production. Most HPM research is focused in
systems, can achieve greater firing ranges than weapons systems the area of pulsed signal generation for radar or EW systems, with
with chemical propellants. The high speed at launch eliminates a weapons application focus having considerably lower priority.
the need for high explosives content in the projectile, since it One of the main challenges in designing a practical HPM weapon
is launched with sufficient energy to cause damage without system is the generation of microwave power at higher frequencies,
additional explosives whether by vacuum tubes or solid-state devices, and then the
General Atomics is one of a handful of companies involved need for some form of array antenna system to steer the high-
in developing railgun technology. The General Atomics energy microwave beam to a target. The technologies for an HPM
Electromagnetic Systems Group (GA-EMS) has developed defense weapons system are similar to those for a radar, although typically
electronics systems based on EM railgun technology (Fig. 4) for much higher power levels are required (and difficult and expensive
land, sea, and mobile applications in support of air and missile to generate).
defense, counter battery fire, and precision indirect fire. The At lower power levels, the ADS is an example of a successful
compact systems are designed for shipboard and mobile land use weapons system that has been implemented with microwave, or
(Fig. 5), and feature scalable technology with low cost per projectile more precisely, millimeter-wave technology. It operates by means
launch. The company also produces a variety of projectiles for use of dielectric heating, using an energy beam at 95 GHz to heat the
with the railgun systems. water molecules of a targets skin, causing near-instant discomfort.
Similarly, BAE Systems has developed EM railgun technology The short wavelengths of the millimeter-wave signals used in the
under contract to the U.S. Navy and ONR, starting with a contract ADS penetrate only the top layers of skin, not causing damage
in 2013. Advancing this technology to the stage of practical, to lower skins layers or internal organs. The heating effects are
in-field use also involves the development of different guided significant enough to cause burns to the skin, but are not lethal.
multiple-mission projectile configurations and the various railgun Directed-energy weapons will continue to advance and become
system components, including the pulsed power source, the more widespread among the armed forces. They offer more
launcher, and effective thermal management. practical methods of offensive and defensive responses than
Railgun systems are evolving from early single-shot weapons based on kinetic energy, and will certainly bring about
demonstration systems to more advanced launchers capable of major changes in defensive strategies on land, at sea, and in the air
multiple-shot operation and automatic projectile loading, with an as directed-energy weapons become more commonplace. n
ultimate goal of achieving a range of 110 nautical miles. ONR has
been testing railguns at low muzzle velocities and rapid repetition BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
rates, in pursuit of developing railgun barrels capable of firing

CHAPTER 7:
ROBOTICS AND
UNMANNED
VEHICLES
CONTINUE TO GAIN BATTLE GROUND
Soldiers are learning to view machines more as compatriots than simply just added equipment on
the battlefield, especially when they can bear the brunt of the danger.
M
en and machines have long shared the bat-
tlefield, usually with the men (and women)
at the controls of the machine. But more and
more, the machines are being left on their
own, with a goal of achieving autonomous
systems that use artificial intelligence (AI) to
determine automated responses to different tactical situations.
The use of smart robots on the battlefield brings with it a host
of ethical implications, especially concerning a machines deci-
sion-making capabilities in life-or-death situations. But program-
mable machines, such as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and
unmanned aerial systems (UAS), are already well embedded in
the military environment, and the capabilities of these and other
robotic systems will only increase with time. For now, human sol-
diers share the battlefield with the machines. Eventually, it may be
just the machines.
Robotic systems are being developed for all branches of the 1. The MQ-1 Predator may be the best known of military UAVs,
military, for use on land, at sea, and in the air. Perhaps the best- with its better than 24-hour endurance and surveillance and
known UAV or drone, as they are commonly known, is the MQ-1 attack capabilities. (Courtesy of the U. S. Air Force)
Predator developed by General Atomics Aeronautical Systems
(Fig. 1). Originally designated as the RQ-1 Predator system (in AGM-114 Hellfire missiles, which provide the MQ-1 with remote
1996) because it was nominally designed as a remotely piloted attack capabilities.
reconnaissance aircraft, the UAV was modified (in 2002) to its As of August 2011, the MQ-1 Predator had surpassed a total of
current MQ-1 multiple-role designation with the addition of 1 million hours in development, test, training, and combat time for

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 7: ROBOTICS & UNMANNED VEHICLES
the U.S. Air Force. The medium-altitude aircraft is 27 ft. long with Although it is considered an unmanned aircraft, the MQ-1
a 55-ft. wingspan, powered by a turbocharged 4-cylinder engine Predator requires a human crew consisting of a pilot to control the
capable of 115 hp thrust. The aircraft has maximum weight at aircraft and an aircrew member to operate sensors and weapons
takeoff of 2250 lb. and can carry as much as 100 gallons of fuel for systems. These two human crewmembers operate the aircraft by
long-endurance missions. The MQ-1 Predator can take off and land means of a remote ground control station which appears very much
using a 5000 75 ft. runway (1524 23 m) and can be disassembled like the cockpit of a tactical aircraft (Fig. 2). Communications with
and loaded into a container for transport by a C-130 Hercules or the aircraft is by means of wireless data link for line-of-sight (LOS)
larger transport aircraft for deployment around the world. communications and by satellite-communications (satcom) link
for beyond-LOS missions.
In addition to the two laser-guided
Hellfire missiles, each Predator is equipped
with a Multi-Spectral Targeting System,
which integrates an infrared (IR) sensor,
color/monochrome daylight television
(TV) camera, image-intensified TV camera,
laser designator, and laser illuminator. Full-
motion video from each of the imaging
sensors can be remotely viewed as separate
video streams or fused for simultaneous
viewing of all sensor activity. The MQ-1
Predators on-board electronics equipment
include a compact APX-100 IFF/SIF Mode
S transponder and an ARC-210 radio from
Raytheon Co., for secure voice and data
communications from 30 to 512 MHz.
The MQ-1 Predator has an approximate
range of 770 miles (675 nautical miles) with
a ceiling of about 25,000 ft. It has a cruising
speed of about 84 mph and can reach speeds
2. The flight control center for the MQ-1 Predator UAV very much resembles the to about 135 mph. For those who may
cockpit of an actual military aircraft, since it must coordinate flight controls, sensors, think that the cost of supplementing human
and other on-board systems from a distance. (Courtesy of General Atomics) troops with robotic machines is trivial,
the price tag for a package of four MQ-1
Predator aircraft, complete with sensors
and ground control station, is a hefty $20
million.
Robots at Sea
While the MQ-1 Predator may be
one of the best known military robotic
systems, it is not the only military UAV
and certainly not the only robotic system,
with unmanned systems being developed
for terrestrial and maritime applications as
well. The U.S. Navy has relied on undersea
mine-hunting robots known as unmanned
undersea vehicles (UUVs) for some time,
several supplied by Boeing, including its
3. The Echo Ranger is an 18-ft.-long autonomous UUV capable of diving 10,000 ft. 18-ft.-long Echo Ranger and its 32-ft.-
under the surface of the ocean for undersea surveillance and exploration. (Courtesy long Echo Seeker. The innovative Echo
of Boeing) Ranger (Fig. 3), for example, can reach

4. The Echo Voyager is a 51-ft.-long UUV

that is part of the U.S. Navys efforts
to develop extra-large UUVs (XLUUVs)
for long-range, long-endurance undersea
missions. (Courtesy of Boeing)
undersea depths of 10,000 ft., allowing for

unmanned exploratory missions deep in
the ocean.
An Echo Ranger was used by the National
Oceanic Atmospheric Administration
(NOAA) to study the World War II carrier
U.S.S. Independence, which was scuttled
about 30 miles off the coast of Half
Moon Bay, CA, about 3000 ft. below the
surface of the ocean. Combined with the
Echoscope three-dimensional (3D) sonar
imaging technology from Coda Octopus,
the Echo Ranger recorded detailed images
of the sunken vessel, and provided a hint
at the capabilities of linking advanced
sensor technologies to UUVs such as the
Echo Ranger and its larger, longer-range
counterpart, the Echo Seeker.
Boeings even larger Echo Voyager (Fig.
4) is part of the U.S. Navys efforts to
develop extra-large unmanned undersea
vehicles (XLUUVs). At 51 ft. long, the
battery-powered electric vehicle has longer
endurance than the Echo Ranger and Echo
Seeker. It has passed initial testing in
5. Land robots using dynamic control and modeled on the mechanical motions of land Boeings Huntington Beach, Calif., facility,
animals have shown the capabilities to negotiate even rugged terrain at high speeds. in a large pool of water, but must now
(Courtesy of Boston Dynamics) undergo extensive testing in the Pacific
Ocean before it is deemed ready for active
duty. The autonomy of a UUV is somewhat
different than that of a UAN or unmanned
ground vehicle (UGV) because of the
differences in communications techniques
and the fact that once at a sufficient
distance from the control station, a UUV
is totally on its own.
Unlike an aerial vehicle, or a satellite
where you can communicate with it when
its in trouble, with subsea vehicles you cant
do that because of the communication,
said David Flowers, Boeing Program
Manager of XLUUV Development. So
autonomy is that much more important.
6. The Boston Dynamics LS3 robot can carry as much as 182 kg of equipment and The vehicle has got to understand what
enough fuel for a 24-h mission. (Courtesy of Boston Dynamics) to do if it gets in trouble, make rule-based

decisions and act in a way that allows it to stay safe and complete faced by a terrestrial robot compared to a UUV or UAV, it is fair
its mission. to say that advanced sensing technologies and AI-based software
play larger roles in guiding the motion of terrestrial robotics
Robots on Land systems. For example, Boston Dynamics, which started as a
While sending a robotic submarine to the depths of the ocean spin-off from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),
is a noteworthy achievement, some of the more impressive has shown an uncanny skill at developing terrestrial robots with
developments in military robotics technology have come with impressive agility over uneven ground, by modeling their robots
the design and manufacture of terrestrial drones, especially when on the motion of land animals (Fig. 5). The company combines
witnessing the high-speed maneuvers of these terrestrial robotic the principles of dynamic control and balance with advanced
systems over uneven ground. Given the larger number of obstacles mechanical designs, electronics, and software to create land robots
capable of navigating even difficult terrain.
The Boston Dynamics LS3 robot (Fig. 6) was designed to
accompany foot soldiers, to carry some of the load of equipment
and supplies over rough terrain. An LS3 can carry as much as
182 kg of equipment and enough fuel for a 32-km mission lasting
24 h. The robot automatically follows its leader by means of
computer vision, and can travel to a designed location by means
of terrain sensing, obstacle avoidance, and GPS guidance. The
LS3 robot was developed by means of funding from DARPA
and the U.S. Marine Corps, with a Boston Dynamics design
team that included engineers and scientists from some of the
top contributors in the industry, including the Carnegie Mellon
Institute, NASAs Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Bell Helicopter,
AAI Corp., and Woodward HRT.
Another innovative supplier of land-based robots to the
military, Endeavor Robotics (www.endeavorrobotics.com), has
7. The Endeavor Robotics SUGV robot is man-transportable and fielded more than 1000 of its Small Unmanned Ground Vehicle
remotely controlled by a tablet-style interface for critical tasks, (SUGV) robots for domestic and international defense, law
such as defusing explosives in the field. (Courtesy of Endeavor enforcement, and industrial customers (Fig. 7). The robots are
Robotics) equipped with the companys uPoint Multi-Robot Control System
that works with familiar tablet-based user interfaces to speed
training time and simplify robot control. The uPoint Multi-
Robot control system is integrated across the companys family
of man-transportable robot systems, including its FirstLook and
PackBot robots.
The companys CEO, Sean Bielat, commented on a recent order
of 32 SUGV robots for a military customer: All of us at Endeavor
Robotics are singularly focused on the development, delivery, and
sustainment of life-saving robot technology. The delivery of 32
SUGVs equipped with our uPoint Multi-Robot Control System
advances the entire install base in terms of interoperability across
the family of Endeavor Robotics systems. These systems will
augment the approximately 1,000 SUGVs already in use by our
Armed Forces. He added: We could not be more proud of the
American warfighter and remain a dedicated partner to the United
States Armed Forces.
The SUGV, which meets IP67 ratings, weighs less than 30 lb.
8. The Endeavor Robotics FirstLook robot has been designed (13.6 kg) with battery pack and can be transported by means of
to be thrown into dangerous situations, to perform surveillance a back-pack. The compact robot can lift as much as 22 lb. (10 kg)
while keeping soldiers out of harms way. (Courtesy of Endeavor and reach speeds of 6.2 mph (10 km/hr). It is designed to operate
Robotics) in challenging environmental conditions and integrates a number

IEDs. It is small enough to be used in

confined areas while keeping soldiers
far from the dangers. Through the use
of 3D imaging, the SREHD robot can
maneuver on the battlefield as well as in
civilian landscapes in which explosive
hazards may be present.
The SREHD robot (Fig. 9) is assisted
by an integrated AN/PSS-14 portable,
battery-powered detection system that
employs both ground-penetrating-
radar (GPR) and EM-based sensors.
With the sensors, a single operator can
work the robot in search of metal land
mine and other munitions.
Military efforts are quite focused
on enhancements in AI and robotic
intelligence, recognizing the value
of robotic soldiers in dealing with
9. The semiautonomous SREHD robot is currently used by the U.S. Army for remotely agile, ever-changing threats such
detecting, marking, and neutralizing explosive devices. (Courtesy of the U.S. Army) as terrorists with IEDs. To assist the
development of more advanced
of different sensors and electronic subsystems for reconnaissance UAVs and UAS, the Army Research Laboratories (ARL, www.
and surveillance. The SUGV features an Endeavor Robotics arl.army.mil) has supported the development of the Robotics
uPoint Multi-Robot Control System consisting of an Android- Collaborative Technology Alliance (RCTA). This consortium
based, rugged, tablet controller and communicates by means of of leading manufacturers, schools, and research organizations
an MPU5-based radio network from Persistent Systems, LLC (see is being formed for the creation of future intelligent unmanned
Chapter 1 for more information on the MPU5). The control system systems. Consortium members include General Dynamics Land
allows human operators to control or monitor the activities of Systems, Carnegie Mellon University, Florida State University,
multiple land robots through a common controller interface. the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), Cal Tech/Jet
The SUGV is one of several innovative terrestrial robots Propulsion Lab (JPL), and the University of Pennsylvania. The
developed by the company for different defense and law- RCTA has set some research objectives and goals in different
enforcement applications. The Endeavor Robotics FirstLook robot areas of robotics, including perception, intelligence, human-robot
(Fig. 8) is actually designed to be thrown, such as over a wall for interactions, and dexterous manipulation and mobility in 3D
surveillance and observation by law-enforcement or military environments. n
forces. The miniature robot weighs about 5 lb. and can be thrown
over a wall (and survive impact with concrete) for persistent BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
surveillance or used to investigate IEDs, hazardous environments,
or potentially dangerous conditions while keeping an operator out
of harms way.
Even with its compact weight and size, the FirstLook robot
includes four day and night cameras with zoom and illumination
and two-way audio functionality and can support additional
sensors as needed. It can achieve speeds to 3.4 mph (5.5 km/hr)
and can . It rights itself when flipped over and can climb obstacles
as high as 7 in. (17.8 cm), as required, for example, to climb curbs.
The U.S. Armys compact Standoff Robotic Explosive Hazard
Detection System (SREHD) is a semiautonomous robot that
leverages existing capabilities in sensors, motion control, and AI
technologies to provide a solution capable of detecting, marking,
and neutralizing explosive devices, such as land mines and

LOU FRENZEL, Technical Editor
CHAPTER 8:
SEMICONDUCTOR
TECHNOLOGIES
D
emanding military and aerospace equipment materials as those manufacturing processes become more available
still relies primarily on silicon devices but newer and affordable. Most of these other materials have been around
semiconductor materials are gradually replacing for decades but recent R&D has moved them to the forefront as
silicon and providing significant benefits. Specifi- they make possible the features and benefits of future generations
cally, GaN and GaAs devices are becoming a larg- of equipment. These materials are compound semiconductors like
er percentage of the semiconductor content. This silicon carbide (SiC), silicon germanium (SiGe), indium gallium
chapter discusses these new semiconductor devices and how they phosphide (InGaP), indium phosphide (InP), gallium arsenide
bring about improved performance and the essential attendant de- (GaAs), and gallium nitride (GaN). The latter has emerged as the
fense superiority. real winner as it is beginning to deliver significant benefits where
speed, high frequency, efficiency, thermal tolerance, and high
Defense Needs Challenge Semiconductor Electronics power are needed.
Military and aerospace equipment must not fail, since lives
depend upon it. It must operate in hostile environments where Semiconductor Dominance Is Essential
temperature extremes, shock, vibration, dirt, and radiation are The semiconductor industry is critical to national security.
common. High power consumption is typical yet efficiency is It provides leading-edge technology for many systems. New
important, especially in mobile, portable and spacecraft equipment. threats from Iran and North Korea make it necessary to build our
Over the years, semiconductor manufacturers have developed ways technological advantage. Furthermore, with China aggressively
to make semiconductor devices to meet these needs. boosting investment in its own semiconductor manufacturing
The semiconductor industry has given the military exemplary capabilities, it is increasingly important for the U.S. to invest in
devices with which to work. These include faster processors, more research to maintain its lead.
massive memory, and programmable logic devices all (PLDs) with Recently the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
ever lower power consumption. Newer linear devices can work at (DARPA) announced a $75 million initiative to fund new
higher frequencies with lower noise. And the continuing smaller semiconductor technology as part of the 2018 defense budget. This
transistor geometries let designers put ever-more-complex systems increases the total investment in semiconductor research to more
on a chip. All of these have resulted in significant improvements than $200 million for 2018.
in almost all military and aerospace equipment. Performance is The semiconductor industry is a strategic factor in military
better than ever, but it has to be to maintain defensive advantages leadership and its importance should not be underestimated. The
over our potential enemies. Continued progress in semiconductor U.S. has the best trained soldiers and sailors but it is essential that
technology is a top priority. also we give them the very best weapons and related technology
While improvements and advances are ongoing, keep in mind to ensure their success.
that semiconductor manufacturing is a mature technology. After
nearly 70 years of development, one of the industrys guiding Transistor Refresher
lightsMoores lawis gradually coming to an end. No doubt Improvements in defense equipment continue to come from
silicon will continue to dominate military electronic systems but incremental improvements in silicon devices. However, the real
more and more designers are moving to alternative semiconductor breakthroughs are being realized by the adoption of new circuits

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 8: SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGIES
SiN passivation
n+ InGaAs contact
n+ InGaAs graded cap Source Gate Drain

n+ GaAs transition Emitter
nInGaP emitter
Base p+ GaAs base AIGaN
n GaAs collector GaN

Collector 2DEG
Substrate: sapphire or SiC

n+ GaAs sub-collector
2. This is the basic structure of a GaN HEMT. The substrate

is usually sapphire or silicon carbide for best heat reduction
GaAs substrate
although silicon can also be used. The 2DEG means two-
dimensional electron gas, a layer of gas made of electrons that
can move in any direction but vertical.
1. The structure of an InGaP HBT shows a GaAs substrate
with collector, base, and emitter layers. The resulting transistor extra layers of indium to further speed electron movement. These
has high gain and power at the lower microwave frequencies devices work at frequencies to 30 GHz or higher.
below about 20 GHz. More recently, GaN has been used to create standard normally-
off enhancement-mode MOSFETs. These devices can work with
made with GaAs or GaN. These materials have created some voltages up to several hundred volts with very low on-resistance.
interesting new transistor types that should be familiar to more These GaN-on-Si devices target switch-mode power supply
engineers. applications.
GaAs or GaN substrates can be used to make any type
of transistor including the most popular like bipolar junction GaAs
transistors (BJTs) and enhancement-mode MOSFETs. But other There are very few actual discrete GaAs transistors. Most
transistor types have emerged such as heterojunction bipolar GaAs products are integrated circuits, specifically monolithic
transistors (HBTs), MESFETs, HEMTs, and a few others. These microwave integrated circuits (MMIC). These MMICs are
take advantage of the characteristics of the substrate materials to low- signal level gain blocks. Such amplifier blocks use HBTs or
produce the best amplifying and power handling capability. MESFETs but some use pHEMTs. Frequency ranges to 30 GHz
HBTs use the standard BJT configuration but use different are available. The actual high-frequency cutoff (ft) or the unity
materials for the base and emitter. Common arrangements are gain-bandwidth for GaAs devices is in the range to 250 GHz
SiGe, GaAs, InP and a few others. One popular combination is although not many devices or IC amplifiers are available with
a GaAs emitter and an AlGaAs base. The result is very high gain that reach. Such MMICs are widely used in most microwave
at microwave frequencies out to 250 GHz. Figure 1 shows the equipment designs including satellites, radar, and electronic
complex structure of an InGaP HBT. This combination is used in warfare (EW) products because of their high gain and low noise
microwave power amplifiers. characteristics.
A MESFET or metal-epitaxial-semiconductor FET is essentially Replacing all or most of the silicon with GaAs devices in a radar
a JFET with a metal gate that is used to form a Schottky junction set can achieve significant benefits. The radar will be smaller,
with the main conducting channel. It provides depletion-mode lighter and more power efficient. But best of all it has the potential
operation where the device is normally on and is turned off by a to scan at greater distances and cover a considerable more space
applying a negative gate voltage. MESFETs are usually made with volume. Some estimates are as much as 50% farther. In electronic
GaAs and have high gain at microwave frequencies. warfare systems, this ability to detect the enemy sooner is a major
A variation of the MESFET is the high electron mobility advantage that will save lives and equipment.
transistor (HEMT) also called a hetrostructure FET (HFET) GaAs is also used to make power amplifiers for cable TV
or modulation-doped FET (MODFET). It is usually made with distribution systems, cell phone power amplifiers, and some low-
GaAs or GaN with extra layers and a Schottky junction (Fig. 2). power military radios. These are class AB linear amplifiers with
Depletion mode is the most common configuration. An improved- power levels to one watt with maximum power-added efficiencies
performance version is the pseudomorphic or pHEMT that uses (PAEs) in the 20 to 50% range.

GaN include video surveillance links, military UAV, and airborne data/
Gallium nitride transistors have been around for a bit over telemetry.
ten years. Thanks to Department of Defense (DoD) initiatives, There is also considerable interest in GaN for power conversion.
GaN has developed quickly to become the newest star of GaN transistor switches are ideal for high-voltage, high-power
microwave power amplifiers. Initially developed for improvised dc-dc converters and other switch-mode circuitry. GaN switching
explosive device (IED) jammers in Iraq, GaN has emerged as transistors can replace IGBTs in some applications. GaN devices
the technology of choice for all new microwave and millimeter- result in smaller, more efficient, and heat-tolerant circuitry for
wave electronics including radar, satellite, communications, and defense applications.
electronic warfare (EW). GaN is also being adapted to applications other than power
What makes GaN so impressive is its high power density; that is, amplification or conversion. GaN can be used to make several
its capability to dissipate heat from a small package. While GaAs different types of transistors, like MESFET, HBT, and pHEMT
has a basic power density of about 1.5 W/mm, GaN has a power devices. These can be used to make MMIC amplifiers and circuits
density in the 5 to 12 W/mm. It also has high electron mobility, like mixers. As these new devices are improved they will slowly
meaning it can amplify signals well into the upper GHz ranges. replace silicon because of their ability to work at frequencies to
Typical transistor fTs are to 200 GHz. Furthermore, it can do all about 40 GHz.
this at relatively high breakdown voltages levels, to 80 V or so. Work continues on GaN production processes to reduce costs
GaN devices are usually fabricated on two different substrate as volumes increase. GaAs continues to dominate the microwave
materials, GaN on silicon (Si) or GaN on silicon carbide (SiC). space with small-signal MMICs and LNAs as well as low-level
Both types are used but the general consensus is that lower power power amplifiers for cell phones and mobile radios. That will
devices use the less expensive Si substrate. Higher-power devices continue for the future. But as GaN costs decrease and GaN
with a better thermal performance should use the SiC substrate invades the small-signal space, GaAs will no doubt lose market
wafers. share. Other power devices made with silicon (LDMOS), SiGe,
The downside to GaN has been its high cost. Now that cost is and SiC will continue to find niches where their unique benefits
declining as more vendors enter the market and as usage volumes fit the applications.
increase. The materials are expensive and the processes to make
devices are costly. As volume further increases, production costs Critical Devices
will come down but will probably still remain way above the There are several types of integrated circuits (ICs) that can mean
process costs of bulk CMOS or even higher-cost GaAs production. the difference between winning and losing the electronic warfare
(EW) equipment battle. These are the primary components of EW
GaN Applications receivers that search out, detect and intercept signals from radars,
The main focus of GaN technology today is microwave and radios, missiles and cell phones. High-performance receivers are
millimeter-wave power amplifiers. Individual amplifiers can the heart of all EW systems and they must have the sensitivity and
achieve power levels of tens of watts. In other parallel/push pull/ bandwidth necessary to deal with a variety of threats. Today, most
Doherty configurations, power levels of hundreds to thousands of of those receivers are digital. They pick up analog RF signals and
watts are possible. Most applications are military related such as convert them to digital signals. It is the analog-to-digital converter
phased-array radar modules, satellite power amplifiers, jammers (ADC) that makes the difference between a good receiver and a
and other electronic warfare (EW) equipment. superior receiver. EW receivers need ADCs that are extremely fast
In the past, high power was achieved with traveling-wave tubes with low noise, wide bandwidth, and wide dynamic range.
(TWTs). That is still an option today for some applications. Silicon To accompany the ADC are the digital components that analyze
LDMOS FETs came along and provided hundreds and as much as the digitized signals. These are the digital signal processors (DSPs)
thousands of watts for some types of equipment. However, these and field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) that implement
devices cannot be used at frequencies beyond about 6 GHz. This filters, demodulation, fast Fourier transforms (FFTs), and special
need for high power in the microwave and millimeter-wave bands algorithms that identify the threat. Such superior ICs are now
has led to the development of new GaN transistors during the past available but the challenge is continuing to improve them for even
few years that can easily supply tens to hundreds to a few thousand greater performance.
watts of power at RF frequencies to 30 GHz and beyond.
It is predicted that GaN amplifiers will begin to replace TWT Semiconductor Testing
amplifiers in some satellites and radar. TWTs are capable of As GaN and GaAs semiconductors become more widely used,
hundreds even thousands of watts. The expectation is that GaN their high-frequency applications make them increasingly more
power amplifiers may indeed replace TWTs but primarily in difficult and expensive to test. The complexity of some new ICs
lower-power satellites and radars. Some additional applications increases the test time and cost. In addition, the wide range of

3. Modular and are working on even smaller 7 to 5 nm devices. Such chips are
customizable more difficult and expensive to produce, meaning that only the
semiconductor test largest and well-equipped semiconductor manufacturers can
systems based upon afford to develop chips based upon smaller geometries.
the PXI standard offer a Second, how can the semiconductor industry grow and improve?
superior but affordable There will continue to be new opportunities for silicon products.
test solution for the Examples are devices for the automotive and internet of things
future. (IoT) markets. The cell phone industry will continue to require
standard chips as well as those with higher speeds and higher
frequency capability. New materials like GaN will increasingly
applications makes it difficult for one set of traditional bench- be adopted as indicated earlier. As for processors, new RISC
top test instruments to handle all types of devices, even within architectures will be developed and the multiple core trend will
its frequency range. A growing solution is the use of modular continue. n
test instruments such as those using the PXI modular standard.
Figure 3 shows an example. Test engineers can configure the test BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS
instruments to fit the exact equipment resulting in a lower-cost
more compact solution. Typical PXI modules include vector
signal generators (VSGs), vector signal analyzers (VSAs), and
vector network analyzers (VNAs) plus a mix of special modules
like digitizers, digital input/output (I/O) assemblies, and precision
sources. The trend is clearly custom instrumentation that optimizes SMARTER TEST
time and cost savings. Such systems are expected to replace some FROM CHARACTERIZATION
traditional automatic test equipment (ATE) systems now in use.
TO PRODUCTION
Looking Ahead
Since the 1960s, the semiconductor industry has been following
Moores law, an informal declaration that indicates a doubling of
the number of transistors per chip every two years. This was later
modified to a doubling every 18 months. As transistor sizes have
decreased, speed has increased and more circuitry can be put on a Semiconductor technology requirements
smaller chip. Going forward, there are two main problems. First, often outpace the test coverage that
the feature size of the transistors are reaching the sizes of the traditional ATE provides for analog,
mixed-signal, and RF test.
atoms in the materials. That is the ultimate limitation. Already 14
nanometer (nm) chips are being made and some manufacturers

BARRY MANZ, Technical Contributor
CHAPTER 9:
ISR HEADS TOWARD

GREATER
AUTONOMY
Defense electronic systems are being designed with computer intelligence and the processing
power to respond quickly when evaluating data from difference sensors.
I
ntelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) activities wing reconnaissance aircraft was the Wrights Flyer (Fig. 1) that
provide invaluable information regarding an adversarys capa- was placed in U.S. Army inventory in 1909, although Italy was the
bilities. ISR sensors span the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum first to use it. As the world entered a major global conflict in 1914,
from the low-frequency (LF) range through the optical domain, the airplane and the art of air intelligence took on entirely new sig-
and they are being operated with greater autonomy as artificial nificance.
intelligence (AI) and machine learning expand their capabilities The first sensors were the human eye and telescope but camer-
beyond what humans alone can achieve. This chapter describes the as soon followed, although commanders were at first loathe to rely
current state of ISR sensors and platforms and provides insight into on them. Human intelligence (HUMINT) was deemed more re-
the technological advances that will be required to ensure spec- liable, whether gathered from forward-deployed troops, captured
trum dominance for decades to come. documents from defectors and prisoners, and from patrols and
The first use of what is now known as ISR began in the air but not, spies. As one French general was reported to have said: I already
as many believe, by the Wright brothers. Air intelligence first be- have a map; I dont care about your pictures. However, it didnt
came reality 115 years earlier in 1794 when the French defeated the take long for even the greatest doubters to be convinced, and ever
Austrian Army in the Battle
of Fluerus, thanks in part to
the French use of a gas-filled
balloon called LEntreprenant
that let them see enemy troop
movements from above. It
could stay aloft at an altitude
of 1700 ft. for 8 hr, delivering
messages down tether lines to
the ground and providing a
heightened level of situational
awareness not available to the
British troops.
Although this is the first-
known incidence of air intel- 1. The Wright Brothers Flyer was the first fixed-wing aircraft to perform intelligence-gathering.
ligence activity, the first fixed- (Courtesy of www.wright-brothers.org)

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 9: ISR ACTIVITIES
more intelligence in a day than was collectively obtained from all

sources from LEntreprenant through World War I.
The huge array of sensors used in ISR activities are deployed on
the ground, on the seas (and under them), and in space. The intelli-
gence data provided by these ISR systems can take many forms, in-
cluding optical, radar, or infrared (IR) images or electronic signals.
Effective ISR data can provide early warning of enemy threats and
can enhance the effectiveness, coordination, and lethality of a mil-
itary force, so demand for improved ISR capabilities continues to
increase. AeroVironments Mantis i45 electro-optic (EO) payload
is a good example of what can be housed in a relatively small pack-
age (Fig. 2). ISR capabilities have continuously advanced in step
with enhancements in semiconductor, RF and microwave, optical,
signal processing, computer, network, software, and most recently
AI and machine learning technologies.
2. AeroVironments Mantis i45 EO/IR payload for ISR has
ultra-high-resolution electro-optic (EO) and IR imagers, two ISR from Afar
color cameras, a low-light camera, high-power illuminator and Defense organizations dont necessarily care how information is
50 zoom, storage for HD and still images, on-board image received or by what means, whether from a street conversation or
processor, and low-light near-infrared (NIR) to long-wave- billion-dollar space-borne platform. What they do care about is en-
infrared (LWIR) imagers. (Courtesy of AeroVironment Inc.) suring the accuracy and quality of the information, how fast they
can receive it, and whether it is presented in a format from which
since the ability to gain information about the actions of adversar- actionable decisions can be made.
ies using technological means has been essential for commanders This is difficult enough when all relevant resources are in one
of all major defense forces. place. However, the distance between where the information is ob-
Today, ISR is performed by broad array of systems, ranging in tained, where it is analyzed, and where the intended recipients are
size from hand-held devices to satellites. Some collect basic infor- located can span thousands of miles. Unmanned aerial reconnais-
mation for analysis, some acquire data for specific weapons sys- sance systems are an excellent example of the distances between
tems, others are national systems intended primarily to collect operators and systems, as pilots at U.S. facilities in Nevada, Afri-
information of interest to agencies, and still others are tactical ca, Afghanistan, Djibouti, and dozens more throughout the world
systems intended to support military commanders on the battle- (Fig. 3) view audio, video, communications signals, and other traf-
field. As a result, reconnaissance satellites alone probably gather fic transmitted by unmanned platforms thousands of miles away.
Like most activities orchestrated by
the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD),
the proliferation of ISR sensors has re-
sulted in a bewildering array of acro-
nyms that define various levels of com-
mand, and control, within which ISR
resides. For example, there are more
than two dozen levels of command
3. A pilot and air interdiction agent

for the U.S. Customs and Border
Protection control an unmanned
Predator aircraft in the ground
control station at the U.S. Customs
and Border Protection UAS
operations center at Grand Forks Air
Force Base, N.D. (Courtesy of U.S.
Air Force)

4. This is an ENVI Services Engine LiDAR client. (Courtesy of Exelis Visual Information Solutions Inc.)
and control, beginning with C2I (command, control, and intel- government agencies. NITF files include information about the
ligence), to C3 (communications, command, and control), C3I image, the image itself, and optionally overlay graphics containing
(communications, command, control, and intelligence), C4ISR subimages, symbols, labels, and text.
(command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, Fortunately, researchers are discovering ways to solve the im-
surveillance, and reconnaissance), and finally C5ISR (command, age-processing problem, one of which is the ENVI Services Engine
control, communications, computers, and combat systems ISR). (Fig. 4) that performs data analysis and image processing in cloud
The next iteration, C6ISR, will incorporate some other element of data centers. ENVI was developed by a team led by David Stern at
command-and-control that will be appended. Research Systems Institute in 1991. Stern had earlier developed the
Interactive Data Language (IDL) at the University of Colorado in
Smaller Sensors, Bigger Data the 1970s top support the Mariner 7 and 9 space probes. ENVI is
ISR assets and the quality of information they produce results written in IDL. More recently, ENVI demonstrated its ability by
in truly massive amounts of data, and with every advance in reso- transforming a data file from its native sensor format into NITF,
lution, bandwidth, or other metric this data pile grows larger. The performing atmospheric corrections and statistical analysis to
question facing DoD is how to manage the data, considering there produce a usable hyperspectral package. Such a package without
is only so much bandwidth available to transmit and receive it and using ENVI requires 6 minutes to process; ENVI reduced this to
a limited amount of computing power to process it. One way to between 4 and 6 s.
reduce the amount of data to manageable levels is the decimation However, video and still images arent the only sources of large
process, which decreases the sample rate to produce an approxima- data files. A core activity within ISR is spectrum monitoring, often
tion of the original file. If this sounds familiar, its because compact over instantaneous bandwidths of 1 GHz within the sweet spot
disc audio at 44,100 samples/s is decimated by a factor of 5/4, re- of HF through about 18 GHz where most communications traffic,
ducing it to 35,280 samples/s. Other audio formats achieve a simi- EW, and radar systems operate. A 5-min. capture of signals at a
lar result, some preserving the original content better than others. bandwidth of 1 GHz produces a multi-gigabyte file and much lon-
Managing data and communicating it without degradation from ger capture times are often desirable to produce trends and identify
an adversary is one of the greatest challenges faced by DoD, and it when a new emitter goes on the air.
will become more daunting with time. Video and still images are As with its imaging counterpart, spectrum monitoring is also
the most challenging types of data to process, since higher reso- being addressed using advanced algorithms that use various tech-
lution will always be on commanders wish lists. Even very short niques to dramatically reduce file sizes. This is accomplished in
video feeds can produce terabytes of data, with a single still image part by either retaining only certain types of signal data chosen
requiring hundreds of megabytes of memory storage. These data as relevant to what ISR analysts are looking for, by some form of
files must first be converted from their native format to the Nation- decimation, or by slicing the capture bandwidth (and its resulting
al Imagery Transmission Format (NITF) used by DoD and other data) into manageable pieces.

5. The U-2S is the

latest U-2 variant with
more than 10,000 ft.
higher ceiling, 100
mph faster speed, and
faster communications
speeds than previous
versions. (Courtesy
of Kable Intelligence
Limited)
Stars of ISR which stoked the fires of the Cold War and caused the US consid-
While there are some new contenders for the title, the two most erable embarrassment. While Powers aircraft was not the only U-2
widely acclaimed ISR platforms are the U-2 Dragon Lady and to be shot down, it caused the most notoriety.
SR-71 Blackbird, both of which have played long-term pivotal roles The U-2 (Fig. 5) is an impressive aircraft, with a ceiling of great-
in intelligence gathering. Lockheeds U-2 system was first deployed er than 70,000 ft., range of 6,400 mi., and capability to remain in
in 1957 and is still in service, a testament to its initial design and flight for 12 hr. It has at one time or another included sensors such
capabilities. Its operated by the U.S. Air Force, the Central Intelli- as the cameras shown in Fig. 6 to IR, side-looking radar, synthet-
gence Agency (CIA), and NASA, and is probably best known for ic-aperture radar (SAR), EW and ECM systems (see Chapters 2 and
being shot down in 1960 by a surface-to-air missile (SAM) over So- 4, respectively), EO sensors including CCD cameras, surveillance
viet airspace while performing photographic reconnaissance. Pilot receivers covering HF through millimeter-wave frequencies, and
Gary Powers ejected and parachuted into the arms of the Russians, numerous other sensors. Todays U-2S flies more than 10,000 ft.
6. The U-2s massive camera system is on display at the

National Air and Space Museum. (Courtesy of National Air and 7. The SR-71 Blackbird is still impressive, even designed more
Space Museum) than half century ago. (Courtesy of U.S. Air Force)

air space. The program is funded through the Air Force black
budget but various details have emerged such as the likelihood of
it using very-high-resolution active electronically scanned array
(AESA) radar powered by gallium nitride (GaN) monolithic mi-
crowave integrated circuits (MMICs), passive electronic surveil-
lance equipment, and the capability to perform electronic attack
(EA). It is larger, has a lower radar cross-section (RCS), and lon-
ger-range than the RQ-170, with endurance time of 24 h (twice
that of the RQ-170) and range of 1,400 mi.
Putting ISR to the Test

Testing the performance of ISR systems has always been a chal-
lenging task and is becoming more difficult, from the subsystem
level through the complete system. Its also extremely expensive, as
no sensor can be deployed before it has been subjected to batteries
8. The mysterious Northrop Grumman RQ-180 UAV is designed of tests that become more comprehensive as a concept moves from
for use in contested air space and is funded through the Air the design stage through prototypes, verification, and ultimately
Force black budget. (Courtesy of Northrop Grumman) validation.
Logic dictates that the earlier a design and prototype can be sub-
higher, 100 mph faster, provides intelligence to troops within min- jected to the conditions it will experience in service, changes can be
utes of collection, and has greater bandwidth communication links made more quickly and at less cost, and the less expensive the en-
than any other high-altitude ISR platform. tire test process will be. This approach is leading to benchtop-level
Although it was designed in the late 1950s and early 1960s, combinations of hardware and software that are increasingly real-
the Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird (Fig. 7) is still an astonishingly istic. It is also one of driving forces behind modular test platforms
fresh-looking aircraft. Only 32 were ever built and it was officially in which functions can be performed using one or slots in a chassis
retired in 1998, but it was the worlds fastest, highest flying oper- rather than requiring the addition of more expensive benchtop in-
ational manned aircraft throughout its service life. It achieved an struments.
altitude record of 85,000 ft. in sustained flight, set a speed record of This approach is already being used to evaluate EW and radar
2,193 mph, and holds the record for flying from New York to Lon- systems, which require some of the most rigorous test regimes,
don, covering 3,461 mi. at 1,800 mph in just less than 2 hr. and flew which increase dramatically in cost as the system moves through
from Los Angeles to Washington DC at an average speed of 2,144 various stages of development. The last stage of testing, for ex-
mph in 64 min. The SR-71 could carry 3,500 lb. of sensors, includ- ample, requires the complete system to be taken to a test range,
ing EO/IR imagers, side-looking radar, electronic intelligence gath- mounted in the intended airborne platform, and flown through a
ering systems, data recorders, tracking and IR cameras, and SAR dense electromagnetic environment consisting of actual threats,
systems among others. atmospheric and propagation effects, and other impediments. This
A successor to the SR-71 (the SR-72) has been rumored for near- testing costs hundreds of thousands of dollars per hour, so achiev-
ly two decades and unconfirmed reports beginning in 2007 claim ing acceptable performance the first time is obviously highly desir-
that Lockheed Martin was developing the aircraft with the goal able. Equipment subjected earlier to fewer but nevertheless repre-
of reaching a maximum speed of 4,000 mph at altitudes to 80,000 sentative environments can make this far more likely.
ft., with or without a pilot. The program continues, with a scaled ISR has always required humans in the loop, from such as spies,
version expected to be revealed in 2018 and demonstration flights pilots, and analysts, but machines can provide ISR results beyond
beginning in 2023. the capabilities of humans. Over their operating lives, machines
The U.S. DoD is increasingly focusing on ISR platforms that can are much less expensive, can perform many functions faster and
operate in contested airspace and preferably without pilots, mak- more precisely, and basically are more expendable than humans.
ing UAVs are the likely candidates. One such aircraft, Lockheed Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) already have a formidable re-
Martins RQ-170, of which comparatively little is known, has al- cord of accomplishment performing ISR functions, so the next step
ready established an impressive record in Afghanistan, Pakistan, is allowing them to perform on their own. This presents technical,
and Iran, and was used to collect intelligence before and during the political, and moral challenges, the latter arguably being the rea-
operation that led to the death of Osama bin Laden. son fire-control systems on most weapons systems can perform all
Even less is known about its potential successor, the Northrop steps up to but not including pulling the trigger.
Grumman RQ-180 UAV designed exclusively for use in contested However, the capabilities of AI and machine learning are con-

tinuously increasing, and they are certain to become mandatory

in most types of ISR systems as well as for analyzing data. Analysts
are highly-skilled and extensively trained, and there arent enough
to meet demand, and AI and machine vision and learning will ul-
timately fulfill this role as well, in battle and or processing intelli-
gence.
Even though autonomous weapons systems may save lives,
ethical questions will arise when critical decision-making is left
in the hands of a machine. In the future, the same platforms that
perform ISR may also be used as warfighters, detecting and ana-
lyzing potential threats, determining if they should be destroyed,
and then taking action. This hyperwar scenario is what defense
planners are hoping to achieve, almost entirely removing human
decision-making from this sequence.
ISR can quickly transition from observation and analysis to at-
tack, often by the same platform. The response times from data
analysis to action will be much shorter than possible by humans.
Nevertheless, humans will (thankfully) still be needed for both ISR
and decision making on actionable items, with the goal to achieve
an intelligent balance between men and machines. n

CHAPTER 10:
MAKING THE WHOLE

GREATER THAN
THE PARTS
Systems integration requires making it possible for many different systems, their hardware, and
their software to communicate and work together seamlessly.
M
ilitary systems are highly integrated and quite rely on software simulation tools such as the Visual System
complex, with many different functions linked Simulator (VSS) from NI/AWR. It is compatible with the same
together. Designing a military system involves companys LabVIEW test software to provide a means of modeling
setting performance goals for each of the sub- and testing an electronic design at the system level, and then
systems, such as the sensitivity of a receiver, model and predict the interactions between different systems on
and then combining the subsystems so that a hardware level. Of course, such software simulation tools rely
they complement, rather than interfere with, each other. Systems heavily on the accuracy of measurements and component and
integration involves all systems, such as radar, communications, subsystem models based on those measurements. For example, the
surveillance, and ECM, are working together with minimal delays receiver in a communications or radar receiver may be experiencing
and conflicts (Fig. 1). Because each of these systems is designed, lack of low-level signal sensitivity due to excessive noise levels. The
simulated, constructed, and tested separately, interoperability of noise may be a result of any number of radio front-end components,
the systems is not automatic. Rather, it is a process that military such as an RF low-noise amplifier (LNA), a frequency mixer, or
systems designers refer to as sys-
tem of systems (SoS) integration.
Summon the Software

In terms of predicting the
performance of an electronic
system, system designers usually
1. The AN/TPQ-50 radar system

is an example of one of the
many critical sensor systems
that must be integrated in a
modern battlefield to work with
a wide range of other systems.
(Photo courtesy of U.S. Army
Acquisition Support Center)

MICROWAVES & RF LIBRARY CHAPTER 10: SYSTEM-LEVEL INTEGRATION & SIMULATION
even the local oscillator (LO) that feeds

the mixer for frequency downconversion.
By interchanging different component
models for these front-end components
in a system simulation, it is possible to
find the source of the noise problem and
ultimately improve the noise performance
and signal sensitivity of the receiver (and
the communications or radar systems as
a whole).
This is one example of one type of
system simulation software that is used
in achieving military system integration.
Software packages are available for
such functions as terrain analysis,
satellite signal analysis, electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) analysis and testing,
and radar system performance analysis. 2. The modern battlefield relies on networked communications among manned and
Radar simulation programs can provide unmanned systems. (Photo courtesy of U.S. Army)
great detail on how performance changes
due to antenna aperture size, radar transmit power, radar receiver the radar system within its typical operating environment, which
sensitivity, and variations in key signal parameters, such as pulse may include clutter, ground noise, and jammers.
width and pulse repetition frequency (PRF).
The initial goal of many system simulation programs is to Starting with the Network
optimize the performance of a system design using models based The modern electronic battlefield relies on real-time networking
on measured data for the components in the system. Higher-level and sharing of information to be effective (Fig. 2). All electronic
system simulators can then use the model of one system, such devices, whether they are stationary sensor stations, soldiers with
as a communications system, to evaluate how the interactions portable radios, vehicles with radios, or even unmanned aerial
of another system, such as a radar might interfere with the vehicles (UAVs), are connected by wireless signals using line-
performance of the first system. Software code modeling involves of-sight (LOS) and non-LOS radio technologies, including on
studying the interactions of the different systems on a software orbiting satellites. Many different networks may be involved at one
basis, the better understand how to improve the efficiency of the time, but for all of the electronic systems to be fully interoperable,
operating code. the networks must also form seamless links.
In all cases, a link with test equipment adds to the effectiveness The growing use of UAVs (see Chapter 7) and unmanned
of any system simulation program. Once the simulation and ground vehicles (UGVs) as part of military strategy presents
optimization of a system has been performed, tests will need to several different challenges in terms of systems integration. Each
be run on the actual hardware version of the system. The test UAV represents a system of systems, since it may be used for
routines can be developed while still in the simulation stage of a intelligence, reconnaissance, and surveillance (ISR) and may also
system development. In addition, such software test capabilities, carry explosive devices when needed to attack a remote location.
when used to control programmable test equipment, can help The UAV must also provide secure communications within a
develop automated test routines that can greatly speed the testing battlefield network as well as with monitoring stations and must
of systems, such as wideband radios, that require a large number integrate the necessary communications systems to ensure reliable,
of data points for analysis. always-on communications. Depending upon the size of a UAV,
Many system simulators with links to test equipment and the size, weight, and power (SWaP) requirements, some of
programmability will include useful measurement routines that can the multiple-system functionality can be achieved through the use
be used as part of a system optimization and integration process. of system-on-chip (SoC) technology, which packs a great deal of
The VSS software, for example, works with the LabVIEW software signal processing capability into the size of a packaged integrated
to perform analysis and measurement routines on radar systems, circuit (IC). An SoC may house multiple-core microprocessors,
based on various models, including a radar-cross-section (RCS) computer memory, and RF/microwave circuitry to provide, for
model, a phased-array antenna model, and Doppler and clutter example, several encrypted radio-communications channels. It
channel models. Such models help to evaluate the performance of may also function as a system controller in a compact radar system

within an UAV. In all cases, UAVs are a growing part of electronic Network Modernization late in 2016. As noted in Chapter 1,
defense strategies, and they represent added users to a military communications is a starting point for any military effort, and
communications network. in-field networking capabilities are being incorporated into all
In support of the SoS integration of UAVs into a total defense new communications systems equipment. Of necessity, that
electronics scenario, the U.S. Armys Program Executive Office communications networking capability must also extend to all
for Intelligence Electronic Warfare & Sensors (PEO IEW&S, systems within the defense electronics lineup for fully coordinated
www.peoiews.army.mil) is dedicated to designing and delivering defense and attack control of the systems.
advanced technologies on the battlefield, including electronic C4ISR & Network Modernization is a research and development
protection, persistent surveillance, and information gathering via program within the U.S. Armys Research, Development and
electronic sensors and radar systems. Part of that task is formatting Engineering Commands communications-electronics center
an enormous amount of data that is collected by those sensors. (CERDEC). It is responsible for evaluating present and emerging
An example of an accomplishment by the PEO IEW&S is the technologies for networking, sensors, and C4ISR systems so that
STARLite lightweight small tactical radar developed for UAVs such any useful new capabilities can be integrated into existing systems
as the MQ-1C Gray Eagle. The synthetic aperture (SAR), moving- on a timely basis.
target-indicator (MTI) radar system provides near-real-time, Network modernization is the most complex part of achieving
wide-area reconnaissance, surveillance, and target acquisition any system-of-systems performance enhancements, given the
(RSTA) sensor capability for UAVs with high resolution. It allows complexity of different communications networks schemes and
a UAV with network access to pass invaluable intelligence to the need to achieve interoperability among the different systems.
different locations for analysis and response measures. Current activities include exploring how cellular communications
To emphasize the importance of network communications as technology can be integrated into military communications
part of system of systems integration, the U.S. Army changed systems, how to increase the capabilities of Single Channel Ground
the name of its systems integration program from Command, and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS) radios, and evaluating
Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance the effectiveness of the soldier radio waveform (SRW) in secure,
and Reconnaissance On-the-Move, (C4ISR OTM) to C4ISR & modern communications networking schemes.
A Mosaic Future
DARPAs Strategic Technology Office
(STO) has developed a systems integration
approach called mosaic warfare, in
contrast to traditional SoS approaches. U.S.
military planners have realized for some
time that the armed forces no longer enjoy
technological superiority due to the global
access of commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS)
components that can be integrated into
systems with performance levels competitive
to heavily funded U.S electronic systems.
As a result, the STO is suggesting a
departure from highly focused military
platforms, such as attack aircraft, and
developing less-expensive systems solutions
that can be assembled in response to
the needs of a threat, using composable
solutions as part of a mosaic-like approach
to electronic warfare (Fig. 3). It requires the
development of lower-cost military systems
that can be linked together in different ways
to meet the battle requirements of different
3. DARPA is pursuing a mosaic-like approach to future systems integration, using engagements. The thinking is that even if an
lower-cost, modular system pieces that can be connected together on the fly to adversary manages to destroy pieces of the
achieve desired functionality. (Photo courtesy of DARPA, www.darpa.mil) mosaic total system structure, enough of the

whole structure will remain to be effective. system. The mosaic strategy is also expected to change the
This mosaic warfare concept goes well beyond the monolithic way the military thinks about designing and procuring future
system-of-systems approach to functional integration. Military systems, buying smaller function blocks that can be assembled into
electronic systems have traditionally been designed and developed complete systems solutions, rather than complex, sophisticated
by single contractors, often with each type of system, such as complete systems.
radar, surveillance, and communications systems, developed by
a different contractor. Compatibility between systems was not an Integrating the Robots
inherent function of any of the systems, and had to be engineered
DARPA strongly believes that unmanned and robotic systems
separately to achieve interoperability among the different systems.
will come to play significant roles on future battlefields, but to
A quick review of the many different radio types used by the be effective, UAVs and other robotic systems must be properly
military (see Chapter 1) provides evidence of the challenges in
integrated into a total electronic battlefield scenario. DARPAs SoS
achieving compatibility among different types of equipment andIntegration Technology and Experimentation (SoSITE) program
systems. has been established to maintain U.S. air superiority and to
Attempts at achieving systems integration and interoperability
demonstrate rapid integration of mission systems into existing
have included the development of open standards, although and new architectures, possible by means of the mosaic approach.
creating such standards requires agreement from many different The SoSITE program is attempting to achieve system-level
industry members and the processing can be extremely difficultperformance improvements through the rapid integration of new
technologies as they are developed, without requiring significant
and time consuming. Also, while open standards do work, they are
often rendered obsolete by some new technological development modifications to existing systems. It is hoped that these system-
level enhancements can be achieved more cost-effectively and in
or discovery, and the process of creating a new open standard must
begin. shorter times than adversaries, in order to maintain a strategic and
The goals of the mosaic warfare approach include the technological advantage in contested airspaces.
development of equipment that is backs-compatible with legacy The SoSITE program is also focused on the use of UAVs on the
systems. The approach should allow for the rapid assembly and battlefield and is attempting to leverage advances in algorithms,
disassembly of diverse military systems that can provide the software, and hardware so that functionality is distributed across
performance and functionality needed for different scenarios. By
manned and unmanned platforms in such a way that capabilities
using a mosaic systems strategy, DARPA anticipates enhanced and costs are well balanced. The program is aiming at full system
effectiveness across all domains, on land, at sea, in the air, and
adaptability so that manned and unmanned warriors can combine
in cyberspace, as well as with the growing use of unmanned forces in a logical and efficient manner for the most effective results.
DARPA is conducting much of
System of systems (SoS) integration technology and experimentation (SoSITE) this same planned coordination of
manned and unmanned systems
at sea as part of the Cross-Domain
Maritime Surveillance and
Targeting (CDMaST) program,
which includes the use of long-
range, unmanned submarines (see
Chapter 7 for more details).
The Human Side

Intelligence, surveillance, As defense electronic systems
and reconnaissance (ISR)
grow in complexity, one challenge
Radar
for system designers and
Electronic attack
integrators is to ensure that the
systems are usable by the ultimate
customer, the soldier in the field.
Platform centric Distributed functionality The U.S. Army has adopted the
Vulnerable to countermeasures Robust to countermeasures
Limited number of costly platforms Numerous low-cost platforms term human systems integration
Multi-decade development cycles Rapid development tools
(HSI) to refer to the process of
incorporating human usability into
the initial definition of a system. Properly executed, Army

HSI can also enhance the efficiency of a system by enabling a user

to gain access more quickly and easily to as much of a systems
functionality as possible.
As much as designing a systems user interface for ease of use, part
of any Army HIS initiative involves understanding the capabilities
of a human operator, since some may have better aptitudes and
cognitive processing capabilities for certain systems than others.
Of course, it is not possible to design a perfect user interface for
all systems, and training is an important part of making an human
operator proficient at using many defense electronic systems.
But, ironically, the graphical user interfaces (GUIs) of many
commercial video games have prepared many current soldiers for
what to expect from different military electronic systems.
The Armys HSI efforts are meant to ensure that a soldiers skills
and capabilities are designed into any systems acquisition process.
Put another way, a systems user interface cannot be so complex
that only a handful of soldiers can operate the system; it must
be designed and built so that, with proper training, any number
of soldiers can make effective use of the system. As far back as
1986, with the MANPRINT directorate, the Army recognized that
systems were becoming complex and the human interface part
of certain systems was being ignored. In 1987, the office of the
secretary of defense adapted the basic concepts of the MANPRINT
initiative and named it HSI. The MANPRINT program has
worked to coordinate Army capability developers and acquisition
program managers on the requirements for new system usability.
The Army is also working to develop a DoD military standard on
how to apply HSI best practices.n

AUTOMATED TEST OUTLOOK 2017 - THROUGH THE EYES OF NIS COFOUNDER
Editors Note: Three years after this article ran in the 2010 Automated Test
Outlook, NI introduced the Vector Signal Transceiver, a PXI module that
revolutionized RF instrumentation and created a new class of software-
designed instruments that users can reprogram. At first, others in the industry
called it cute and dismissed the notion that users would want to own the
functionality of their instruments at that level. But the VST became the most
instrumentation. If your organization isnt considering software-designed

instrumentation yet, I strongly recommend it.
Dr. James Truchard
Reconfigurable Instrumentation
Software-defined instrumentation, also known as virtual (DUT). In these cases, the software defined architecture
instrumentation, is based on a modular architecture that needs to be flexible enough to incorporate user-
programmable hardwareoften a field-programmable
defined instruments consist of modular acquisition/ gate array (FPGA)to place the necessary intelligence
generation hardware whose functionality is characterized inside the instrument. User-programmable instruments
through user-defined software running on a host create an architecture where data can be acted upon
in real time on the FPGA and/or processed centrally
automated test applications in use today, but new by the host processor (see figure). FPGAs are a key
enabling technology because they combine the best
parts of ASICs and processor-based systems. At the
The ability to customize the measurement
hardware itself represents yet another Using prebuilt logic blocks and programmable routing
milestone in the path toward a completely resources, engineers can configure these chips to
implement custom hardware functionality. They can
software-defined test system. In 10 years, we develop digital computing tasks in software and compile
will wonder how we ever programmed test them down to a configuration file or bit stream that
programs the FPGA components. In addition, FPGAs
systems effectively without this capability. are completely reconfigurable and instantly take on
Mike Santori, Business and Technology Fellow, a new personality when recompiled with a different
configuration of circuitry.
technologies and test methodologies on the horizon Beyond being user-programmable, FPGAs offer
hardware-timed execution speed as well as high
to the hardware to achieve required performance. One determinism and reliability. They are truly parallel so
example of this is testing a modern RF receiver, where different processing operations do not have to compete
coding/decoding, modulation/demodulation, packing/ for the same resources. Each independent processing
unpacking, and other data-intensive tasks may need task has its own dedicated section of the chip, and each
to occur inside a clock cycle of the device under test task can function autonomously without any influence
A SPECIAL ISSUE GUEST-EDITED BY DR. JAMES TRUCHARD
from other logic blocks. As a result, adding more This new software-defined architecture can meet
processing does not affect the performance of another application challenges that are impossible to solve
part of the application. with traditional methods such as the previous example
that requires real-time decision making by the host to
While FPGAs have been used inside instruments for properly test the device. Instead, engineers can fully
over a decade, test engineers were seldom given access deploy the intelligence to the FPGA embedded on the
to embed their own algorithms on them. To be useful instrument for pass/fail guidance. This is often the only
in a software-defined instrumentation context, FPGAs way to supply the intense timing and determinism
must be reprogrammable by the engineer in software; required by the DUT. Examples of this type of device
in other words, they should be used to push software include RFID tags, memory, microcontrollers, and engine
programmability down into the hardware itself. In the control units (ECUs). For some applications, engineers
past, FPGA technology was available only to engineers also perform the communication over a protocol
with a deep understanding of digital hardware design wireless or wiredwhich requires a significant layer of
software, such as hardware description languages like coding and decoding before making a decision.
Verilog or VHDL, which use low-level syntax to describe
hardware behavior. Most test engineers do not have Reconfigurable instruments will continue to find more
expertise in these tools. However, the rise of high-level mainstream applications as test engineers continue to
design tools is changing the rules of FPGA programming, look for creative ways to reduce test time and system
with new technologies that convert graphical block cost. Take, for example, a digitizer that has an FPGA
diagrams or even C code into digital hardware circuitry. inline with an analog-to-digital converter. An engineer
These system-level tools that abstract the details of can deploy functions to the FPGA such as filtering, peak
FPGA programming can bridge this gap. detection, fast Fourier transforms (FFTs), or custom
triggering. Not all data is created equal, but an FPGA-
Clearly, there are advantages to performing different based digitizer can make quick decisions on which
types of processing on a host processor versus an data is worthless and can be discarded and which data
FPGA. For example, an FPGA is generally well-suited for has value. This can ultimately reduce measurement
inline analysis such as simple decimations on point-to- time substantially. Test engineers in the military
point I/O, whereas complex modulation might achieve and aerospace industry have been early adopters of
better performance running on a multicore processor FPGA-based instrumentation through their synthetic
due to the large amount of floating-point calculations instrumentation initiatives, but this technology also has
required. The ideal solution for developing a software- potential for telecommunications, automotive, medical
defined test system is a single graphical system design device, and consumer electronics applications.
development environment that provides the ability
to quickly partition the processing on the host or an
Common Software Development Tools
Modular Instrument
Multicore Processor User-Programmable FPGA I/O (ADCs, DACs)
Reconfigurable instruments provide a Host + FPGA configuration that delivers both performance and flexibility.
ni.com/ato
Fundamentals of Building a Test System
Modeling the Total Cost of Ownership

of an Automated Test System
C O N T EN T S
Introduction
Development Costs
Deployment Costs
Operation and Maintenance Costs
Financial Analysis Approaches
Practical Scenario
Conclusion
ni.com/automatedtest
2 Modeling the Total Cost of Ownership of an Automated Test System
Introduction
Most organizations do not consider production test a top priority, but it is a necessity to prevent
major quality issues in the products that represent the company brand in the hands of customers.
The costs, however, can be significant and are often greatly misunderstood, especially when
theres no easy way to quantify the positive business impact of high-quality products or shortened
time to market. But best-in-class organizations are unfazed by this necessary evil viewpoint,
because they seek to understand the total cost of developing, deploying, and maintaining test
systems to get ahead of this perception. And the cost of automated test, in reality, is far more
complex than the capital cost of a test rack or even the operators hourly rate.
In this guide, learn about the tools and insight you need to evaluate your test organization,
propose changes where significant cost savings are available, and improve the profitability of
your company year over year with smarter investment decisions.
Development DePLOYment OPERATIONAL Total Cost

Costs Costs Costs OF Ownership
Planning
Capital Equipment Labor Quantified Financial
Impact
Training
Assembly Training
Tools

+ Software
+ Maintenance
= Minimized Test TCO
Deployment Improved Cost/Defect
Development Effort
Spares
Shipping Optimized Test
Development System
Installation
Organization
Utilities
Figure 1. Proper modeling of total cost of ownership uncovers all the lifetime costs of certain test assets and provides a financial
framework for justifying future strategic investments.
Development Costs
For most applications, the development costs associated with building a customized automated
test system are the smallest in relation to the deployment and operation and maintenance costs.
This is typically because only one system is built to serve as a proof of concept for performance
benchmarking and test coverage assessment. However, the total cost for developing a test
system can vary significantly, depending on the end goal. An organization that is creating a
new product often develops and compares multiple test systems with different architectures
and instrumentation to identify the optimal approach.
The R&D (engineering) team responsible for a product designs and builds the majority of
development systems, and the costs, therefore, are rolled into this budget or cost center.
More mature test departments work with their R&D teams to influence the design of products,
often referred to as design for test, or DFT, and also work to develop the test systems. This is
a best practice but not always possible for test organizations.
For test systems built to test the functionality of a single device or component, the level of
effort involved with requirements gathering, instrumentation selection, fixturing, and software
development are relatively finite. If, however, a test department is designing a multipurpose,
standardized test system to verify the functionality of multiple devices or components,
development costs can be greater. You must spend more time identifying all permutations of
functionality that the system must accomplish, device under test (DUT) fixturing must be
flexible, and the software must be more scalable to make it easy to implement changes when
adding new devices to the product portfolio.
Other efforts, such as writing a hardware or measurement abstraction layer or mass interconnect
system, require significantly more upfront development cost, but should pay a return on
investment for test organizations that either deal with rapid technology change or face
instrumentation end-of-life (EOL) issues for long life-cycle systems.
The main costs associated with developing an automated test system are:

Planning EffortEntails the time and expenses required to properly identify all viable
options for the test system. It includes time spent at vendor websites, product
demonstration sessions, evaluations, trade shows, and discussion forums.

Developer TrainingIncludes the time and training course fees associated with learning a
new set of software development tools (integrated development environment [IDE] or test
executive) and hardware platforms (for example, rack and stack with SCSI or PXI).

Development ToolsThe cost associated with purchasing development licenses for the
test software (IDE or test executive).

Development EffortThe time associated with the hardware and software development
of a proof-of-concept test system.

Development SystemThe capital cost associated with purchasing the initial proof-of-concept
or demonstrator test system for benchmarking against current or other new systems.
Deployment Costs
When you put a product into production, you must scale up the proof-of-concept or demonstrator
test system to meet the volume demands of the product. The throughput (units tested per
amount of time) of the test system directly impacts the number of systems required to meet
demand, and product management and the sales channel determine the forecasted volume.
Alongside coverage of test functionality, the required number of test systems is the factor that
you should consider most during the development phase because this directly impacts the total
deployment cost.
Another factor that increases a test systems deployment cost is shipping. Smaller organizations
find this less challenging because the manufacturing test and R&D departments can be collocated
in the same building or at least in close geographic proximity. However, even some smaller
companies opt to contract the manufacturing and test of their products if they lack the ability
or expertize to manufacture and test their devices or components. Larger companies, however,
can have manufacturing test and R&D departments located in separate regions within the
same country, and even in a completely different country. This can increase deployment costs
dramatically, especially if the manufacturing test system is large and/or heavy. Slower freight
shipping methods can help to reduce this cost, but only in circumstances where time is not a
factor. A best practice is to consider the physical size and weight of any test system during the
development phase, especially when comparing two options, as this can bear a significant
downstream cost.
Traditional, Box-Instrument Test System PXI Test System
Figure 2. When selecting between two test systems with similar performance, select the smaller, lighter test system to reduce
deployment costs.
The main costs associated with deploying an automated test system are:

Capital EquipmentThe number of test systems required, which is determined by the
product demand and test system throughput, directly impacts this cost.

System AssemblyThe time required to assemble the individual components into a test
system, which includes building a 19 in. or 21 in. instrumentation rack or other mechanical
enclosure, installing all test instrumentation, connecting cabling and wiring, installing switching
and mass interconnect, and fixturing.

Software DeploymentThese costs are associated with compiling or building a collection of
software components and then exporting these components from a development computer
to target machines for execution.

Shipping and LogisticsThe size and weight of the test system as well as the quantity of
test systems required for the production or manufacturing facility directly impact this cost.
The distance travelled and the time window required to receive the shipment also impacts
the cost. Depending on the ruggedness of the system, special packaging may be necessary.

The final and often overlooked or underappreciated costs associated with a test system are
the operation and maintenance costs. These are typically not attributed to the R&D team that
originally designed the product or device but almost always roll up to the manufacturing or
production team; this separation of cost centers makes cross-department collaboration a common
pain-point. In situations where a company chooses to contract out the manufacturing and test
of its products, the contract manufacturer incurs the individual costs and negotiates a flat or
hourly rate for the service.
The costs associated with operating and maintaining an automated test system are:

Hourly OperationThe labor costs for test system operators and support technicians to
ensure the systems are up and running during manufacturing. The number of test systems
and the skill level required to operate the system directly impact this amount.

Operator TrainingThe time required for each operator to learn how to use a test system.
Costs typically are limited to the amount of time that each operator must attend training,
regardless of format (manual, online, or in-person). Companies with a variety of test systems
must decide on their staffing strategy between a model of every operator can operate every
test system and each operator specializes on a single test system.

MaintenanceThe cost associated with keeping the test system and instrumentation in
working order. It often includes the cost for annually calibrating equipment, as well as a
forecasted cost for replacing instrumentation upon failure. How easy the system is to service
can also impact this.

Spare InventoryThe cost required to keep spare instrumentation in the event of unplanned
downtime (for example, instrument failure) or planned downtime (for example, calibration).
Each test system requires spare instrumentation; companies with multiple unique test
systems, because of high product mix, require a larger set of spare instrumentation and
parts for their test fleet to ensure high uptime.

InstallationTest systems that consume a lot of power or produce a lot of heat need special,
high-power electrical work or cooling towers to be installed to ensure proper performance.

UtilitiesThe cost associated with powering, cooling, and housing (floor space) the test
system. The price per square foot of the manufacturing floor and electricity rate can vary
significantly based on geographic location.
Financial Analysis Approaches

Because development and deployment costs are amortized over multiple years and operation
and maintenance costs occur in the future, you must use a financial model to determine the
total cost of ownership for a test system. For traditional investment scenarios, a project will
generate revenue and profit. In this situation, however, there is no revenue or profit but rather
a relative savings of one test system in comparison to another. Consider a similar situation that
involves investing in high-efficiency lighting or building insulation, which costs money upfront
but money will be made through reduced utility expenses in the long run.

Payback Period (PP)This is the amount of time it takes to recuperate the money you invest
in a project. The calculation has two parts. First, you must determine the upfront costs by
finding the difference in developing and deploying the new test system and deploying more of
the old system. Because the old system has already been developed, there are no associated
costs. Second, this difference is divided by the annual savings in operation from the new
systems efficiency (throughput).
Upfront Cost [$]

Payback Period (PP) [yr.] =
Annual Savings [$/yr.]

Return on Investment (ROI)This is the ratio of the money earned to the money invested
over the life of a project, expressed in a percentage. The calculation is more involved as it
requires you to calculate the projected total cost of ownership for both the old and new options,
and then find the difference in the two. You then divide this result by the total cost of the more
cost-effective option, and subtract 1 (100%) from the quotient to find the resulting percentage.
Total Net Savings [$]

Return on Investment (ROI) [%] = -1
Total Cost [$]

Additional ModelsTo determine the viability of projects or financial investments, you can
use many additional financial models such as internal rate of return (IRR), net present value
(NPV), and modified internal rate of return (MIRR). But most of the advanced modeling that
comes with these drops out when comparing two options against one another, and you can
simplify the analysis to PP and ROI.
Practical Scenario
The following practical scenario helps demonstrate how you can use financial analysis of total
cost of ownership to make an informed decision about purchasing a new test system architecture
instead of keeping an old approach.
Overview
Company B is a $200 million manufacturer of IP-based satellite communication systems. Their
current production test system is architected using traditional rack-and-stack box instruments.
Company B develops and deploys these test systems to a contract manufacturer who charges
them a flat rate of $30 per hour to perform product test.
The following best characterizes the current test system:

Fully functional and full test coverage

Moderate capital cost

Organization is fully trained on how to operate

Throughput is less than optimal
Because Company B recently invested in a larger sales channel and was able to enter new
markets for their radar products, their production capacity must increase from 10,000 units to
25,000 units per year.
EXISTING VOLUME FORECASTED INCREASE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Figure 3. Increase in demand of 15,000 products, year-over-year.
Their engineering team worked with NI to specify a new PXI-based test system that should
result in a 3X improvement in test time per DUT. However, a new solution would require upfront
development and deployment costs, so the business impact of the migration must be modeled
relative to purchasing additional testers based on the previous architecture before a decision
can be made.
Existing Rack-and-Stack System

NRE Capital Investment: N/A
NRE Development Time: N/A
Capital Expense: $100,000 per system
# Existing Test Systems: 10
Test Time: 40 minutes per device
Volume/Throughput: 1,000 devices per year
New PXI-Based System

NRE Capital Investment: $90,000
NRE Development Time: $150,000
Capital Expense: $120,000 per system
# Existing Test Systems: N/A
Test Time: 13 minutes per device
Volume/Throughput: 3,000 devices per year
Other Financial Variables

Amortization Schedule: 5 years
Replace Existing Systems: No, keep in operation
Operation Cost per Hour: $30 (contract manufacturer)
Required Throughput: 25,000 units per year
Development and Deployment Costs

The most common assumption during this evaluation process is that it is more economical to buy
additional test systems based on the existing architecture, because the organization is already
fully trained and there are no incurred development costs. The system is already architected,
and it just needs to be replicated. The new system, however, requires planning, architecting,
training, and other nonrecurring engineering (NRE) costs during the development period.
The throughput advantage of the new system, however, cannot be ignored; throughput directly
determines the number of additional or new test systems that must be purchased to reach the
forecasted increase in volume. In this scenario, scaling up the number of existing test systems
requires 15 additional systems whereas buying new PXI-based systems requires only five to
meet the production volume.
VOLUME OF EXISTING TEST SYSTEMS FORECASTED INCREASE IN VOLUME
Scale Existing System
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Buy New PXI System
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Figure 4. The 3X throughput improvement of the new PXI test system greatly reduces the number of systems required to meet
additional product demand.
After determining the number of test systems required for each approach, you can compare
the total cost associated with the development and deployment and directly understand the
impact of throughput, capital expense, and NRE.
Deployment Development and

Costs Deployment Costs
Total: $1.5M USD Total: $0.9M USD
$1.6M
+15
$1.4M
+14
+13
$1.2MK
+12
+11
$1M
+10
+9 System 5
$800K
+8 System 4
+7
$600K System 3
+6
+5 System 2
$400K
+4 System 1
+3
$200K Capital Investment Non-Recurring Engineering
+2
Development Time (NRE) Costs
Additional System 1
0
Figure 5. Even though the new PXI-based test system incurs NRE development costs, the total cost of development and deployment
for the new system is $600,000 less expensive.
For this given scenario, when comparing the development and deployment costs, buying a new
solution is more cost-effective than scaling up the existing test system. The biggest driver of the
inflated costs for scaling up the existing system is the low throughput of the system. Throughput
alone increases the deployment costs by requiring three times as many test systems to meet
the required volume.
But what happens if the variables change? Model different what-if scenarios to ensure that it is a
profitable outcome, even in the worst-case scenario.
Some hypothetical scenarios to model:

What if development time of the new system takes twice a long, and is therefore twice
as expensive?

What if the capital expense increases by 10 percent because of currency inflation?

What if the throughput improvement is only 1.5X instead of 3X?

What if the sales volume is revised from 25,000 to only 20,000 units?

What if additional floor space is limited?

What if additional power or cooling must be installed at the test facility?

What if the previous instrumentation is now EOL?

After you have developed and deployed the required number of test systems, you must operate
and maintain them over the length of the project or product life cycle. The costs associated with
operating and maintaining a test system are normally attributed to the companys manufacturing
group, whereas the development and deployment of a test system are attributed to the R&D
(engineering) group. Without guidance from leadership, the engineering team will likely default
to cost optimize around development and deployment without considering the implications for
the operation and maintenance costs.
In the example above where only development and deployment costs are considered, the new
test system is more economical than purchasing additional test systems based on the previous
architecture. Now analyze the operation and maintenance costs of the two options over the
first five years of the project to understand the impact on the total cost of test.
In this situation, Company B has contracted the manufacturing and test of its products. The
contract manufacturer charges Company B $30 per hour to operate the test system.
Operation and Development and Operation and

Deployment Maintenance Deployment Maintenance
Total: $1.5M USD Total: $1.5M USD Total: $0.9M USD Total: $0.5M USD
$1.6M
+15
$1.4M
+14 Year 5
+13
$1.2MK
+12
+11 Year 4
$1M
+10
+9 System 5+
$800K
+8 Year 3 System 4
+7
$600K System 3
+6
+5 Year 2 System 2 Year 5
$400K
+4 System 1 Year 4
+3 Year 3
$200K Capital Investment
+2 Year 1 Year 2
Additional System 1 Development Time Year 1
0
Figure 6. In addition to having much lower development and deployment costs, the operation and maintenance costs of the PXI-
based test system are much lower than the previous systems.
Total Cost of Ownership

Although in this scenario the PXI option is the best choice, it is still important to determine the
total cost of ownership to effectively model the financial benefit of the new system. This five-year
analysis provides insight into variables such as PP, ROI, total savings, and reduction in cost of
test on a per part basis. For this analysis, the development and deployment costs are amortized
equally (flat) over a five-year period.
Figure 7. The new test system generates a total savings of $1.66 million in five years with a payback period of 11 months in
comparison to scaling up the existing solution.
Scenario Summary
In the case of deciding between these two options for a test system, there are many factors
to consider. The common assumption is that scaling up the old solution is easier and cheaper,
but further analysis reveals that investing in a newer, higher performance system is a superior
financial decision. The biggest factor in the financial advantage of the PXI system is the 3X
improvement in throughputthis allowed Company B to purchase one-third as many test systems
to accomplish the same task, which saves them money on the capital investment. Over the
five-year period, this also reduces the operation and maintenance costs that they pay to the
contract manufacturer significantly, resulting in a PP of 11 months and a 124 percent ROI on
the project.
Conclusion
As device complexity and time-to-market pressures continue to soar, the total cost of ownership
for an automated test system will continue to play an important role in a companys profitability.
To realize this goal, you must look beyond the initial capital cost of the test system to ensure
that all relevant costs are factored into your purchasing decisions. This guide focuses on automated
production test, but you can extrapolate and apply the same concept to other phases of bringing
a product from initial concept to the end user, including R&D, characterization, verification,
and validation.
As the developers of the PXI platform, LabVIEW graphical system design software, and
TestStand test management software as well as a founding member of the PXI Systems
Alliance, NI has 40 years of experience helping companies to develop automated test systems
for industries ranging from semiconductor production to aerospace and defense. Our direct
field engineer team in more than 50 countries worldwide is committed to helping companies,
large and small, ensure the highest product quality while reducing the cost of test. To take the
next step, contact your local NI representative.
2016 National Instruments. All rights reserved. LabVIEW, National Instruments, NI, NI TestStand, and ni.com are trademarks of National Instruments. Other product and company names listed are trademarks or
trade names of their respective companies.

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$59.

A comprehensive primer from

Copyright 2017 by Penton Media,Inc.

DRAWING A BEAD ON HIGH-FREQUENCY

Its 10 chapter are as follows:

CHAPTER 1: COMMUNICATIONS (INCLUDING SDRs).............. 2

CHAPTER 3: RADAR (INCLUDING PHASED ARRAYS).............. 12

CHAPTER 4: ELECTRONIC COUNTER MEASURES (ECM).......... 17

CHAPTER 5: THE VIEW FROM SPACE (SATELLITES, ET AL.)........ 22

CHAPTER 6: DEFENDING AGAINST DIRECTED ENERGY

CHAPTER 9: SURVEILLANCE (SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES)......... 42

CHAPTER 10: SYSTEM-LEVEL INTEGRATION AND SIMULATION.. 48

Included in this e-book:

MODELING THE TOTAL COST OF OWNERSHIP

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Delivering innovative aerospace and defense technologies ahead of the competition

See how at ni.com/aerospace-defense.

JACK BROWNE, Technical Contributor

FOR COORDINATED systems must maintain

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SDR technology, can quickly switch between narrowband and

4. The Rifleman AN/PRC-154 radio operates at

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Similarly, the Rifleman radio from Thales Communications and

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WHERE IS GWEN NOW?

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Simulation and Test

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LOU FRENZEL, Contributing Editor

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Table 2: Designated IEEE radar bands Table 3: NATO radar bands

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types, and power levels involved. Typically, PA Mixer

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CHRIS DeMARTINO, Technology Editor

the target can be obtained once the receiver detects

The table on page 13 presents a list of different radar

The Radar Equation

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Pulse width 3. In this figure, a pulse-modulated RF signal is shown.

t Continuous-Wave Radar Signals

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for another period of time. of the transmitted signal. Thus, an

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Pulse compression can also be based on phase modulation. One

Antennas and Phased-Array Systems

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average power of a pulsed RF signal. The peak power can also

BACK TO TABLE OF CONTENTS

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JACK BROWNE, Technical Contributor

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2. The modular AN/ALR-

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The traditional method of

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BARRY MANZ, Technical Contributor

THE DARK AND MYSTERIOUS