Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
to teaching
Keith Weber
T
rigonometry is an important subject in the little research has focused on this subject. This arti-
high school mathematics curriculum. As one cle will present lessons learned from research inves-
of the secondary mathematics topics that are tigating the learning and teaching of trigonometric
taught early and that link algebraic, geometric, and functions (Weber 2005). It will report difficulties
graphical reasoning, trigonometry can serve as an that students have in understanding trigonometric
important precursor to calculus as well as college- functions and describe tested instructional strategies
level courses relating to Newtonian physics, archi- to help students overcome their difficulties.
tecture, surveying, and engineering. Unfortunately,
many high school students are not accustomed to TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AS RATIOS
these types of reasoning (Blackett and Tall 1991), AND FUNCTIONS
and learning about trigonometric functions is What does it mean to understand a trigonometric
initially fraught with difficulty. Trigonometry function? Just as taking a square root or cubing a
presents many first-time challenges for students: It number can be thought of as operations applied to
requires students to relate diagrams of triangles to numbers, the terms sine, cosine, and tangent can be
numerical relationships and manipulate the sym- thought of as mathematical operations applied to
bols involved in such relationships. Further, trigo- angles. These trigonometric functions are generally
nometric functions are typically among the first presented in two ways. First, they are presented as
functions that students cannot evaluate directly by ratios that can be applied to labeled right triangles.
performing arithmetic operations. For instance, students can use a ratio understand-
Despite the importance of trigonometry and stu- ing of the trigonometric functions to determine that
dents potential difficulties in learning it, relatively sinA = 3/5, cosA = 4/5, and tanA = 3/4 (see fig. 1).
Using calculators, students can use a ratio under-
This department consists of articles that bring research insights and findings to
standing of sine and cosine to determine the missing
an audience of teachers and other mathematics educators. Articles must make lengths (a and b) of the triangle (see fig. 2). Such an
explicit connections between research and teaching practice. Our conception of understanding is obviously useful; it is sufficient to
research is a broad one; it includes research on student learning, on teacher think- solve various types of word problems and perform
ing, on language in the mathematics classroom, on policy and practice in math- other tasks. For instance, adding vectors in physics
ematics education, on technology in the classroom, on international comparative requires this type of trigonometric reasoning.
work, and more. The articles in this department focus on important ideas and
However, a ratio understanding is also limited.
include vivid writing that makes research findings come to life for teachers. Our
goal is to publish articles that are appropriate for reflection discussions at depart-
Principles and Standards for School Mathematics
ment meetings or any other gathering of high school mathematics teachers. For argues that understanding an operation involves
further information, contact the editors. being able to estimate the result of that operation
(NCTM 2000, pp. 3233). For example, under-
Libby Knott, knott@mso.umt.edu standing fractions involves knowing that 7/8 +
University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812 13/12 should be approximately 2 because each
fraction is approximately 1. By itself, a ratio
Thomas A. Evitts, taevit@ship.edu
Shippensburg University, Shippensburg, PA 17257
understanding of sine would not permit students
to approximate sin15, because sin15 could be
10 a
5 3
30
A b
Fig. 2 A right triangle with a given angle, a given side, and
4 two missing sides
Fig. 1 A labeled right triangle opportunity to apply this process. The exercises they
are asked to complete rarely require a process under-
found only if two sides of a right triangle having an standing of trigonometric operations; most simply
angle of 15 were given. A ratio understanding of require using a ratio conception of the trigonometric
sine would also not permit students to determinea operations or applying algebraic techniques. Other
10
in which quadrants sine was increasing or to graph researchers note that traditional instruction empha-
sin2x. Many calculus tasks, such as determining sizes understanding trigonometric functions as ratios
the derivative of sinx, make little sense with a ratio and does not enable students to understand them as (0, 1)
understanding30of sine. functions (Kendal and Stacey 1997).
40
To address the latter tasks, students need to
b
have a function-based understanding of trigono- THE EFFECT OF TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTION
metric operations (Weber 2005). They need to ON STUDENTS UNDERSTANDING OF
understand operations such as sine as a process TRIGONOMETRIC OPERATIONS
that takes an angle as an input and maps this angle To investigate students understanding of trigono-
to a real number. To understand a trigonometric metric operations, I conducted a study of thirty-one
operation as a function, students need to know a students who were completing a college trigonom-
process they can use to evaluate that function for etry class. I asked them to take a test without using
any given angle, and they must be able to anticipate a calculator and then invited four students for
the approximate result of that method and reason an interview. The teacher of the class, who was
about the properties of that result without actually unaffiliated with my study, described his teaching
performing the steps of the process. as traditional; in particular, he claimed to teach
primarily by lectures based largely on the course
TRADITIONAL INSTRUCTION OF TRIGONO- textbook, with an emphasis on students develop-
METRIC OPERATIONS 40 ing procedural skills. The textbook for the course
Too often trigonometry instruction emphasizes was Lial, Hornsby, and Schneider (2001), which
procedural, paper-and-pencil skills at the expense of was structured similarly to the textbooks described
deep understanding (Hirsch, Weinhold, and Nichols Thefull
earlier. The intersection
results and methodology of this
1991). An inspection of several popular high school point
study are0.75 is about
reported in Weber (2005). The purpose
to the right
algebra, geometry, and trigonometry textbooks (e.g., of reporting these
of the results here is to illustrate the
y-axis.
Hollowell, Schultz, and Ellis 1997; Schoen 1990; 40
limited understanding of trigonometric functions
Larson 2004) reveals that students are typically many students have after completing 70 a trigonom- 160
first taught trigonometric operations as ratios (e.g., etry course.
sinq is defined as y/r in a labeled right triangle or Two of the test questions were these:
as opposite over hypotenuse). Students are asked
to use these ratios to accomplish tasks such as those 1. Approximate cos340. The intersection
point is about
suggested in figures 1 and 2 and then solve word 2. For what values of x is sinx decreasing? Why? the
0.65 above
problems. After several sections devoted to these x-axis.
topics, the textbooks introduce the unit circle model Only six of the thirty-one students estimated
of trigonometric functions. At this point, the texts that cos340 was between 0.5 and 1.0. Nine stu-
sometimes ask students to imagine applying a pro- dents correctly noted that sinx was decreasing for
cess to find sine and cosine of a particular angle 90 < x < 270, and six offered a convincing expla-
The intersection
(such as walking r units around the unit circle and nation for why this was the case. These results sug-
point is about
locating the
0.75 and
y-to thex-values,
right respectively, of the stop- gest that these students had difficulty understand-
ping point). However,
of the y-axis. students are not given the ing trigonometric functions.
40
85
Vol. 102, No. 2 September 2008 | Mathematics Teacher 145 230
My interviews with a subset of the students a protractor and a unit circle drawn on graph paper
revealed some reasons why. Consider the tran- and marked with Cartesian coordinates such that ten
scripts below (all students names are pseudonyms): tick marks constituted one unit. I then described and
modeled a procedure for computing sines and cosines
Interviewer: Describe sinx for me in your own by using a protractor to draw an angle with vertex
words. at the origin and one ray along the x-axis, marking
Steve: To find sine, it would depend on the problem where the other ray intersected the circle, and using
that was given to me. If I was given a triangle, the tick marks to estimate the x- or y-coordinate of
I would divide y and r. If I were given one of that point. This procedure was also fully described
the special angles, like 30, 45, or 60, I would in a student handout. Students worked in groups on
have this number memorized. There are other a series of classroom activities in which they found
problems which can be solved by reference the sines and cosines of six angles by using the proce-
angles, or using formulas, like sinq + cosq = 1 dure. While they worked, I circulated among them to
[sic]. How you find the answer depends on how answer any questions they might have and make sure
the problem is worded. they were applying the procedure correctly.
Interviewer: What can you tell me about sin170? Can Students were next asked to evaluate the sines
you give me an approximation for this number? and cosines of some angles by anticipating the
Steve: I dont ... I would need the triangle. Maybe if you results of the procedure without applying the
told me what some other value of sine would be, or, procedure itself. For instance, students could find
like, what cos170 would be, I could find what sine sin270 by realizing that they needed to examine
is. Otherwise, I would need to use a calculator. where the bottom half of the y-axis intersected
the unit circle. Students were also asked to make
Steves responses were representative of those judgments about the procedures output without
of the four students I interviewed. Steve seemed actually applying it. For instance, they were asked
to view sine and cosine as algorithms (based on to determine which was greatersin23 or sin37.
ratios or on algebraic manipulations) that could These tasks helped students reason about the
be applied but only if other information, such as a process in general and make judgments about sines
labeled right triangle, was also provided. Without and cosines without applying each step.
this information, Steve could not conceive of how I used lessons of this type throughout the course.
to apply the sine or cosine operation to an angle, For instance, students learned how to find sines,
except for special cases. (Because my tested sample cosines, and tangents by constructing right trian-
consisted of only one class of students, we must not gles on a Cartesian plane, measuring the lengths of
generalize these results inappropriately.) the sides, and computing ratios. Once the students
understood this procedure, they could perform
AN ALTERNATIVE APPROACH TO tasks like those required in figure 1, because they
TEACHING TRIGONOMETRY understood the essentials; it was as if someone had
The following suggested instruction is based on created a triangle and measured the lengths of the
the idea that trigonometric operations such as sine sides for them. However, students understanding
can be understood as geometric processes. One pro- of the functions was not restricted to reasoning
cess for computing sine is to construct a unit circle from diagrams; they could imagine producing the
on a Cartesian plane, use a protractor to draw a diagrams themselves, if necessary. When studying
ray emanating from the origin such that the angle reference angles, students were first asked to draw
between the positive half of the x-axis and the the desired angle, find the appropriate reference
ray is the input angle, locate the point of intersec- angle themselves, and then compute the sines and
tion between the ray and the circle, and determine cosines by looking at it. Students instructed in this
the y-value, or height, of that intersection. Recent geometric approach understood reference angles
research in mathematics education indicates that easily and did not need to rely on the mnemonic
students have difficulty imagining the application of strategies that trigonometry students commonly
a process without the experience of actually applying use. A more thorough description of this instruc-
it. Instead, students may best develop a deeper tion is provided in Weber (2005).
understanding of processes by first applying them Toward the end of the course, I gave the forty
and then reflecting on their actions (Tall et al. 2000). students in my class the same paper-and-pencil
Here I describe instruction that I designed and test I had given to the students in the lecture-based
then implemented in a college trigonometry class class described earlier. When asked to approximate
that I taught. (One typical lesson is provided in the cos340, thirty-seven of the forty students gave a
appendix.) To involve students kinesthetically in response of some number between 0.5 and 1. When
computing sines and cosines, each student was given asked for those values for which sinx was decreas-
APPENDIX 5 3
Computing Sines and Cosines by Using the Unit Circle
1. Start with a unit circle drawn on a Cartesian graph. A unit circle is a circle with a radius of 1 whose
center is the origin.
A
5 3
A 10 a
4
30
b
10 a 2. Use your protractor to make an angle with respect to the positive part of the x-axis. A 40 angle is
shown here.
(0, 1)
30
b
40
70
40
The intersection
point is about
0.75 to the right
of the y-axis.
40
85
The intersection
point is about
0.65 above the
x-axis.
Classroom Exercises
1. Compute the following sines and cosines by using a protractor and a unit circle:
2. Without explicitly computing these values (i.e., without using a protractor and a ruler), compute
A the following sines and cosines. To get you started, I will do the first exercise for you.
Explanation: A 90 angle is a right angle. I draw a 90 angle inside the unit circle. It intersects the
circle at the top of the circle. This point is (0, 1). So sin90 = 1 and cos90 = 0.
10 a
(0, 1)
30
b
(b)
40 sin0 and cos0 (c) sin180 and cos180
(d) sin270 and cos270 (e) sin360 and cos360
70 160
3. Approximate the sine and cosine of the angles drawn in the diagrams below:
40
10 a
(0, 1)
30
70 160
b
4. Without doing the computations, answer the following questions. Justify your answer.
(a) Is sin140 a positive number or a negative number? (Hint: Draw a unit circle and approximate a
The intersection 140 angle).
point is about
0.75 to the right (b) Is cos200 a positive number or a negative number?
of the y-axis.
40
40 (c) Which is biggersin23 or sin37?
(d) Which is biggercos300 or cos330?
85 230
TheHomework
intersection Questions
point is about
0.65 above the
70
1. Compute
x-axis. the following sines and cosines by using a protractor and160
a unit circle:
2. Approximate the sine and cosine of the angles drawn in the diagrams below:
The intersection
point is about
0.75 to the right
of the y-axis.
40
85 230
The intersection
point is about
0.65 above the
x-axis.
3. Without doing the computations, answer the following questions. Justify your answer.
(a) Is sin240 a positive number or a negative number? (Hint: Draw a unit circle and approximate a
240 angle.)
(b) Is cos300 a positive number or a negative number?
(c) Which is biggersin130 or sin147?
(d) Which is biggercos30 or cos230?
4. In what quadrants will sinx be positive? In what quadrants will cosx be positive?
5. Can you find an angle x so that sinx = 2? If so, what angle is it? If you cannot find such an angle,
why not?