Chapter 2

Diffraction
Subimal Deb

Contents
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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2.2
2.2.1 De
Fraunhofer diffraction from a single slit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Positions of maximas and minimas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
31
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2.2.2 Intensity distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
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2.3 Diffraction due to N-slits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

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2.4 Determination of wavelength using a grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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2.5 Resolving power of a grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

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2.6 Dispersive power of a grating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

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2.1 Introduction
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Diffraction is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of obstacles (with dimensions
comparable to the wavelength of incident light) or encroachment of light within the geometrical shadow.
Wavefronts passing by the edge of an opaque object are modulated leading to a redistribution of energy
within the wavefront. It leads to the formation of closely spaced bright and dark bands at the edge of
the geometrical shadow.
Interference and diffraction are phenomena that are exhibited exclusively by waves of all kinds -
electromagnetic, acoustic, waves on the surface of water, etc. Particles do not show interference and
diffraction.
The diffraction phenomenon can be classified into two categories:

Fraunhofer diffraction The source and screen are effectively at infinite distances from the aperture.

Fresnel diffraction The source and screen are at finite distances from the aperture.

29
Introduction Diffraction

Table 2.1: Differences between interference and diffraction.

Interference Diffraction
Interaction takes place between two dif- Interaction takes place between sec-
ferent wavefronts from two coherent ondary wavelets originating from differ-
sources ent parts of the same wavefront.
The regions of minimum intensity can the regions of minimum intensity are
be almost perfectly dark never perfectly dark.
Fringe widths may be equal. Fringe widths are never equal.
The maxima are of equal intensity. The maxima are of unequal intensities.

Table 2.2: Differences between Fraunhofer and Fresnel diffraction.

Fraunhofer diffraction Fresnel diffraction
The source and screen are effectively The source and screen are at finite dis-
at infinite distances from the diffract- tances from the diffracting element.
ing element.
The incident and diffracted wavefronts The incident and diffracted wavefronts
are plane. are either cylindrical or spherical.
Angular inclination of the rays is an im- Distances of the source or screen from

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portant parameter compared to the dis- the diffracting element are more impor-
tances of the source or screen. De
tant parameters than the angular incli-
nation of the rays.
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The analytical results can be discussed It can be studied with approximate re-
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with better accuracy. sults only.

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Convex lenses are used to produce plane Lenses are not used for producing par-
wavefronts from a source and to focus allel rays or for converging them.
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the diffracted wavefront on the screen

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R1 P
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A
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R2
a C
O P0

R3

Figure 2.1: Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit.

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Diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction from a single slit

2.2 Fraunhofer diffraction from a single slit

A slit is a rectangular opening of very small width and large length. In Fig. 2.1 a plane parallel beam of
light of wavelength is incident on a slit of width a. All parts of the incident wavefront except the part
upon the aperture are blocked. Every point on the aperture is in the same phase of oscillation since the
incident wavefront is plane. By Hyugens principle, every point of the incident wavefront is a source of
secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets form sets of parallel rays. For example, the rays travelling
at a diffraction angle = 0 (solid lines in the figure) represent a plane wavefront travelling normally
to the slit. The group of rays indicated by the dashed lines represent another wavefront travelling in a
different direction. Each group of rays emanating parallel to each other converge to a unique point on
the focal plane of the lens. The intensity pattern thus formed is observed by placing a screen on the
focal point of the lens.

2.2.1 Positions of maximas and minimas

The positions of the minimas and maximas on the screen can be calculated by dividing the slit into parts
such that the corresponding rays from each of the parts have a path difference of /2.

Corresponding rays: Let the slit be imagined being divided into two equal parts AO and OB of
width a/2 each (see Fig 2.1). Rays R1 and R2 starting from the top of each of these parts have a path

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difference of (a/2) sin . For any ray emanating from the upper half of the slit at an angle with the
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normal to the slit, there is a parallel ray from the lower half of the slit at a distance a/2 that has a path
difference of (a/2) sin . Such pairs of rays from consecutive parts of the slit with a fixed phase difference
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are called corresponding rays. is called the angle of diffraction.
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Central maxima: For = 0, any pair of rays have no path difference and superpose constructively.
This results in a maxima at P0 .
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First minima: For = 2 such that (a/2) sin 2 = /2, any pair of corresponding rays from the
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upper and lower halves of the slit superpose destructively. This results in a minima at P as the upper
and lower halves cancel each others amplitudes.
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One can imagine the slit being divided into three equal parts of width a/3 each. For
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First maxima:
= 3 such that (a/3) sin 3 = /2, any pair of corresponding rays from the upper and middle parts of
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the slit will superpose destructively. However the amplitude of a corresponding ray from the lowest part
of the slit is not cancelled. Thus the lower one-third of the slit contributes to the intensity on the screen
at the point where rays emanating at = 3 from the slit converge.

General condition for a minima: One can imagine the slit to be divided into 2n (even number)
equal parts. The corresponding rays from two consecutive parts of the slit diffracted at an angle 2n
a
such that sin 2n = will cancel each other. One thus obtains the n-th order minima when
2n 2
a sin 2n = n (n = 1, 2, 3, ) (2.1)

General condition for higher order maximas: One can imagine the slit to be divided into 2n + 1
(odd number) equal parts. The corresponding rays from two consecutive parts of the slit diffracted at an
a
angle 2n+1 such that sin 2n+1 = will cancel each other. Rays from the remaining unpaired
2n + 1 2

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Fraunhofer diffraction from a single slit Diffraction

part of the slit are not cancelled and contribute a non-zero intensity on the screen. This intensity
corresponds to a maxima. The intensity decreases as the angle of diffraction increases till a minima is
reached. One thus obtains the n-th order maxima when

a sin 2n+1 = (2n + 1) (n = 1, 2, 3, ) (2.2)
2

An n-th order minima or maxima is formed on either side of the central maxima since there can be
two sets of parallel rays difffracted at an angle .

2.2.2 Intensity distribution

The intensity distribution of the diffraction pattern of a single slit as a function of the diffraction angle can
be calculated by considering the contribution of an elemental portion of the slit to the overall amplitude
on the screen. Let the amplitude of the normally incident parallel beam per unit width of the slit be A.
The net contribution to the oscillation of the light wave by an elemental portion of the slit of width dx
at a distance x from the point A on the slit is

b
dy = (Adx) sin (kz t + ) (2.3)
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where k = 2/ is the wavenumber and is the angular frequency of incident light. The contribution
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to the oscillation by an elemental portion of the slit will be proportional to its width. The incident light
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propagates along the z-axis (the normal to the slit). is the phase difference of the ray emanating from
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the elemental portion of the slit with respect to the ray from A. Therefore, for rays diffracted at an
angle , we get
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2
= x sin (2.4)
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The total disturbance at a point P due to all elemental parts of the slit from A to B (that is, x = 0
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to x = a) is given by
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Za
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y = dy
0
Za
= A sin (kz t + )dx
0
Za  
2
= A sin kz t + x sin dx

0
  x=a
2

cos kz t + x sin
= A
2
sin
x=0
A x=a 2
= [cos (kz t + x)]x=0 where = sin

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Diffraction Fraunhofer diffraction from a single slit

A
= [cos (kz t + a) cos (kz t)]

    
A a a
= 2 sin kz t + sin
2 2
 
a
2A sin  
2 a
= sin kz t +
2
 
a
Aa sin  
2 a
= sin kz t +
a 2
2
 
a
sin  
2 a
= A0   sin kz t +
a 2
2
Here A0 = Aa represents the contribution to the amplitude from the entire slit at = 0. The amplitude
of the total disturbance is therefore

b
   
a a sin

A =
sin
2
A0   = A0 
a
sin
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a sin

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2
sin a sin
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= A0 where =

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The intensity distribution is given as

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sin2
I = I0 (2.5)
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2
Here I0 is the intensity at the central maximun, that is, = 0.
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Width of the central maximum

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Angular width The angular width of the central maximum is the angular separation between the
first minima on either side of the central maximum. Since the angular position of the first minima is 2 ,
the angular width of the central maxima is
 

22 = 2 sin1
a
.

Linear width The distance between the first minima on either side of the central maximum is called
the linear width of the central maximum. Since the screen is placed on the focal plane of the lens (Fig.
2.1), their separation equals the focal length of the lens f . The angle of diffraction 2 can be written as
x
tan 2 = sin 2 where x is the distance of the first secondary minimum from the central maximum.
f
The linear width of the central maximum will then be
 

2x = 2f sin 2 = 2f
a

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Diffraction due to N-slits Diffraction

I()

-3 -2 0 2 3

Figure 2.2: Intensity distribution due to Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit.

2.3 Diffraction due to N-slits

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We consider a set of equispaced slits separated by a distance d. If each slit has a width a and a gap b
between consecutive slits then d = a + b. Such a device is called a diffraction grating. The spacing d
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between consecutive slits is called the grating period.
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Intensity ditribution
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When N slits of a diffraction grating are illuminated by a parallel beam of monochromatic light of
sin
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wavelength , each of the N wavelets produced by the slits at angle have an amplitude A = A0 .

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The phase difference between successive wavelets is

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2d sin
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=

ct

The resultant amplitude can be expressed as

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y = A [cos (kz t) + cos (kz t + ) + cos (kz t + 2)

+ cos (kz t + 3) + + cos (kz t + (N 1))]

= {A [ei(kzt) + ei(kzt+) + ei(kzt+2) + + ei(kzt+(N 1)) ]}

= {A ei(kzt) [1 + ei + ei2 + + ei(N 1) ]}

iN
 
i(kzt) 1 e
= A e
1 ei
iN /2 iN /2
eiN /2
 
i(kzt) e e
= A e
ei/2 ei/2 ei/2
N


sin
= A ei[kzt+(N 1)/2] 2

sin


2

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Diffraction Diffraction due to N-slits

The intensity is therefore

2
I = kyk
N 2

sin


= A ei(N 1)/2
2


sin


2
N 2

sin


= A
2


sin

2

2 N
sin
= A2 2
2
sin
2 
2 N d sin
sin

= A2  
d sin
sin2

b
 
N d sin
 2  sin2
or I = I0
sin
2 2

d

sin
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sin

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(2.6)
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sin2 sin2 (N )
 
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= I0
2 sin2 ()
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 2 
d sin sin
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where = . The expression for intensity is a product of two factors. The factor I0
2
2
sin (N )
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represents the intensity distribution due to a single slit. The factor represents the distribution
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sin2 ()
of intensity due to superposition produced by waves from N equispaced point sources.
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Principal maxima
For = n (n = 0, 1, 2, ), we get using L Hospitals rule
sin N
lim = N
n sin
Thus
sin2
 
I = I0 N2
2
The direction of the principal maxima are given by
sin = 0
i.e., = n
or, d sin = n (2.7)
Eq. 2.7 is known as the grating equation.

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Determination of wavelength using a grating Diffraction

Minima
The intensity becomes zero when sin N = 0 or, N = m. We therefore get
N d sin = m (2.8)
where m takes all integral values except 0, N, 2N, 3N, because these correspond to the positions of
principal maxima.

2.4 Determination of wavelength using a grating

A grating can be used to determine the wavelength () of incident light. If the grating period d is known,
the grating equation
d sin = m
can be used to find .

Method A spectrometer with a grating of known grating period is mounted. The telescope is focussed
at a distant object such that it produces a sharp image of that object. The collimator is then adjusted
such that a sharp image of the slit is seen through the telescope. This ensures that the collimator
produces a parallel beam and the telescope is focussed to receive the parallel beam. The grating is

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mounted and adjusted for normal incidence, that is, the beam from the collimator is incident at 90 .
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The telescope is rotated to measure the angular positions of the images produced by the grating.
Images of different colours will be produced for each order on either side of the central maxima. Half
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of the difference in the angular positions of a given order m for a particular colour (that is, a given )
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equals the angle of diffraction (). Since every parameter in the grating equation, apart from , is either
known or can be measured, we can use the grating equation to determine .
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2.5 Resolving power of a grating

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Resolving power The ability of an optical instrument to produce distinctly separate images of two
objects located very close to each other is called its resolving power. When two images are formed by
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Figure 2.3: Resolution according to Rayleighs criterion.

two closely spaced wavelengths, they will be just resolved according to Rayleighs criterion if the first
minima of one image falls on the maxima of the other.

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Diffraction Resolving power of a grating

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Figure 2.4: Diffracted light entering a telescope objective.
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The spectral resolving power of a grating is its ability to resolve spectral lines of nearly the same
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wavelength. Its is defined in terms of the smallest wavelength interval that can be resolved by the grating.
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It is the ratio of the average () of the two wavelengths to the wavelength interval (d).
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Resolving power = (2.9)
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d
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Resolving power in terms of the grating parameters

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Resolving power =
d
d
=
d d
d is the change in the diffraction angle due to a change d in the wavelength.
The grating equation
(a + b) sin = m (2.10)
Differentiating the above equation we get

(a + b) cos d = md
d m
= (2.11)
d (a + b) cos

Since diffracted light from the grating enters a telescope objective, the width of the beam must equal

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Dispersive power of a grating Diffraction

the diameter of the telescope. Thus, we get

d =
d

d =
l cos

= l cos (2.12)
d
Thus, the resolving power is

R =
d
d
=
d d
m
= l cos
(a + b) cos
ml
=
(a + b)
= mlN

b
(2.13)

where N =
1 De
is the number of rulings per unit length on the grating.
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(a + b)
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2.6 Dispersive power of a grating

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Definition The dispersive power of a grating is defined as the difference in the angle of diffraction per
unit change in wavelength.
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Alternatively, it can also be defined as the ratio of difference in the angle of difraction of any two
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neighbouring spectral lines to the difference in wavelength between the two spectral lines.
The n-th order principal maximum for a wavelength is given by
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(a + b) sin = n
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Differentiating this equation with respect to and , we get

(a + b) cos d = n d
d n
=
d (a + b) cos
Nn
=
cos
(2.14)

where N = 1/(a + b) is the number of rulings per unit length on the grating.

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Diffraction Dispersive power of a grating

Practice
1. What is diffraction?
2. What is Huygens principle?
3. What are the differences between interference and diffraction?
4. What are the different kinds of diffraction? Differentiate between them.
5. Find the angular positions of
(a) central maxima
(b) principal maxima
(c) minima
for Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit.
6. Derive the expression of intensity distribution of Fraunhofer diffraction by a single slit.
7. From the expression of the intensity distribution of a single slit Fraunhofer diffraction pattern,
obtain
(a) grating equation
(b) conditions for minima
(c) number of secondary minima between two principal maxima
8. Explain the principle of formation of multiple spectra with grating and give the characteristics of

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grating spectra.
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9. How many orders will be visible with the wavelength of incident radiation is 7500A and the number
of lines on the grating is 2500 in one inch.
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10. Give a qualitative explanation of the locations of the maximas and minimas in a single-slit diffrac-
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tion pattern.
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11. What is a grating? How can it be used to determine the wavelength of light?
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12. What is dispersive power of a grating? Derive an expression for it.

13. Define resolving power. Show that for a grating, the resolving power is proportional to
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(a) the order of diffraction

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(b) the number of illuminated slits.

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14. How can a grating be used to determine the wavelength of a monochromatic source?
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