Life of Tipu Sultan

Contents

1 Kingdom of Mysore 1
1.1 Kingdom of Mysore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.4 Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.1.5 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.1.6 Military technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.2 Origin of the Kingdom of Mysore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.2.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 De facto King 19
2.1 Fatah Muhammad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.1 Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Hyder Ali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.2 Rise to power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.3 Ruler of Mysore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.4 Expansion and relationship with the Mangalorean Catholics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.5 First war with the Marathas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.2.6 First Anglo-Mysore War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.7 Arab, Persian and Turkish relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.8 Second war with the Marathas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.9 Second Anglo-Mysore War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.10 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

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2.2.11 Mysore Navy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

2.2.12 Military rocket innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.13 Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.15 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.17 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Tipu Sultan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.1 Early years of Tipu Sultan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3.2 Ruler of the Mysore State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.3 Death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.4 Leadership, policy, and innovations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.5 Religious policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.3.6 Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.3.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.3.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.3.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

3 Anglo-Mysore Wars 52
3.1 First Anglo-Mysore War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.2 Causes of war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.1.3 Course of the war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1.4 Battles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.5 Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.1.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2 Treaty of Madras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.1 Reference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.2.2 Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3 Second Anglo-Mysore War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.3.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.2 War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.3.3 Treaty of Mangalore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3.4 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.5 Battle Honour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Treaty of Mangalore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
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3.4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4.2 Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4.3 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.4.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5 Third Anglo-Mysore War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.2 Events leading to war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.5.3 Early campaigns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.5.4 First advance on Seringapatam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5.5 Second advance on Seringapatam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.5.6 Peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5.7 Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.5.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.6 Treaty of Seringapatam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.6.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6.2 Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6.3 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.6.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.7 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7.2 Course of Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7.3 Mysorean rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.7.4 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.7.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

4 Mysorean invasion of Kerala 71

4.1 Mysorean invasion of Kerala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.1 Outside forces in Malabar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.1.2 Occupation of Malabar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.1.3 Mysore rule (17661773) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1.4 Cochin accepts Mysores superiority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.1.5 Malabar in Second Anglo-Mysore War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.1.6 Mysore rule between the wars (17841789) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.1.7 Tipu Sultans attacks on Travancore (17891790) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.1.8 British take the Malabar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.9 End of Mysore rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.1.10 Changes in Malabar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.1.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.1.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
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4.2 Anglo-Mysore Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

4.2.1 Rockets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.4 Popular Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3 Battle of Calicut (1790) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.3.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Battle of the Nedumkotta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4.1 Situation in Travancore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.2 Preparations for the battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.3 The battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.4 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.4.7 Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5 Bekal Fort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5.1 Recorded history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.5.2 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5.3 Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.5.4 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.6 Captivity of Nairs at Seringapatam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.6.1 Nairs under Hyder Ali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.6.2 Nairs under Tipu Sultan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.6.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.6.4 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.6.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7 Capture of Cannanore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7.1 Order of battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7.2 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.7.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.7.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.8 Cranganore Fort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.8.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
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4.8.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4.8.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.9 East India Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.9.1 Founding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.9.2 Foothold in India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.9.3 Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.9.4 Forming a complete monopoly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.9.5 Basis for the monopoly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.9.6 Regulation of the companys aairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.9.7 Indian Rebellion and disestablishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.9.8 Establishments in Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.9.9 Legacy and criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.9.10 Flags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.9.11 Coat of arms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.9.12 Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.9.13 Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.9.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.9.15 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.9.16 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.9.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.10 Mysores campaigns against the states of Malabar (1757) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.10.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.11 Nedumkotta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.11.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.11.2 The structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.11.3 Attack of Tipu Sultan and its destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.11.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.11.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.11.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.11.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.12 Palakkad Fort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.12.2 Current status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.12.3 Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.12.4 Related locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.12.5 Satellite image of the fort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.12.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.12.7 Image Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.12.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.12.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.13 Ali Raja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
vi CONTENTS

4.13.1 Arakkal dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

4.13.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.13.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.14 Dharma Raja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.14.1 Early life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.14.2 Succession and initial career . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.14.3 Dharma Raja and Hyder Ali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.14.4 Dharma Raja and Tipu Sultan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.14.5 Treaty with the British . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.14.6 Reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.14.7 Kathakali playwright and composer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.14.8 Demise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.14.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.14.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.14.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.15 Siege of Tellicherry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.15.1 Some of the protagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.15.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.15.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.16 Battle of Tellicherry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.16.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.16.2 Battle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.16.3 Aftermath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.16.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.16.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.16.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.17 Tellicherry Fort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.17.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.17.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.17.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.18 Local resistance to Mysore rule in Malabar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.18.1 Kerala in Hindu mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.18.2 Prehistory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.18.3 Spice Trade ( 3000 BC - 1000 BC ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.18.4 Ancient religions and ethnic groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.18.5 Early medieval period (c.AD 500-1400) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.18.6 Colonial period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.18.7 Modern history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.18.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.18.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.18.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
CONTENTS vii

4.18.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

5 Play 131
5.1 The Dreams of Tipu Sultan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1.1 Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.1.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 132

6.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Chapter 1

Kingdom of Mysore

1.1 Kingdom of Mysore Early history

Main article: Origin of the Kingdom of Mysore

The Kingdom of Mysore was a kingdom of southern In- Sources for the history of the kingdom include numerous
dia, traditionally believed to have been founded in 1399
in the vicinity of the modern city of Mysore. The king-
dom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, initially
served as a vassal state of the Vijayanagara Empire. With
the decline of the Vijayanagara Empire (c. 1565), the
kingdom became independent. The 17th century saw a
steady expansion of its territory and during the rule of
Narasaraja Wodeyar I and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the
kingdom annexed large expanses of what is now southern
Karnataka and parts of Tamil Nadu to become a powerful
state in the southern Deccan.
The kingdom reached the height of its military power and
dominion in the latter half of the 18th century under the
de facto ruler Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. Dur-
ing this time, it came into conict with the Marathas, the
Nizam of Hyderabad, the Kingdom of Travancore and
the British which culminated in the four Anglo-Mysore
Wars. Success in the rst two Anglo-Mysore wars was
followed by defeat in the third and fourth. Following
Tipus death in the fourth war of 1799, large parts of
his kingdom were annexed by the British, which signalled
the end of a period of Mysorean hegemony over south-
ern Deccan. The British restored the Wodeyars to their
throne by way of a subsidiary alliance and the diminished
Mysore was transformed into a Princely state. The Wode-
yars continued to rule the state until Indian independence
in 1947, when Mysore acceded to the Union of India.
Even as a princely state, Mysore came to be counted Kingdom of Mysore (1704) during the rule of King Chikka De-
among the more modern and urbanized regions of India. varaja Wodeyar
This period (17991947) also saw Mysore emerge as one
of the important centers of art and culture in India. The extant lithic and copper plate inscriptions, records from
Mysore kings were not only accomplished exponents of the Mysore palace and contemporary literary sources in
the ne arts and men of letters, they were enthusiastic Kannada, Persian and other languages.[1][2][3] Accord-
patrons as well, and their legacies continue to inuence ing to traditional accounts, the kingdom originated as a
music and art even today. small state based in the modern city of Mysore and was
founded by two brothers, Yaduraya (also known as Vi-
jaya) and Krishnaraya. Their origins are mired in leg-
end and are still a matter of debate; while some histo-
rians posit a northern origin at Dwaraka,[4][5] others lo-
1.1.1 History cate it in Karnataka.[6][7] Yaduraya is said to have married
Chikkadevarasi, the local princess and assumed the feu-

1
2 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE
dal title Wodeyar (lit, Lord), which the ensuing dy-
nasty retained.[8] The rst unambiguous mention of the
Wodeyar family is in 16th century Kannada literature
from the reign of the Vijayanagara king Achyuta Deva
Raya (15291542); the earliest available inscription, is-
sued by the Wodeyars themselves, dates to the rule of the
petty chief Timmaraja II in 1551.[9]
Autonomy: advances and reversals
The kings who followed ruled as vassals of the Vijayana-
gara empire until the decline of the latter in 1565. By this
time, the kingdom had expanded to thirty-three villages
protected by a force of 300 soldiers.[10] King Timmaraja
II conquered some surrounding chiefdoms,[11] and King
Bola Chamaraja IV (lit, Bald), the rst ruler of any po-
litical signicance among them, withheld tribute to the
nominal Vijayanagara monarch Aravidu Ramaraya.[12]
After the death of Aravidu Ramaraya, the Wodeyars be-
gan to assert themselves further and King Raja Wodeyar
I wrested control of Srirangapatna from the Vijayana-
gara governor (Mahamandaleshvara) Aravidu Tirumalla
a development which elicited, if only ex post facto,
the tacit approval of Venkatapati Raya, the incumbent
king of the diminished Vijayanagar empire ruling from
Chandragiri.[13] Raja Wodeyar Is reign also saw terri-
torial expansion with the annexation of Channapatna to
the north from Jaggadeva Raya[13][14] a development
which made Mysore a regional political factor to reckon
with.[15][16]
Narasaraja Wodeyar II ruled from 1704 to 1714. He was also supremacy in southern India.[23] By the 1720s, with the
called Mookarasu.
Consequently, by 161213, the Wodeyars exercised a ing tribute.[18] The years that followed saw Krishnaraja
great deal of autonomy and even though they acknowl- Wodeyar I tread cautiously on the matter while keeping
edged the nominal overlordship of the Aravidus, tributes the Kodagu chiefs and the Marathas at bay. He was fol-
and transfers of revenue to Chandragiri stopped. This
was in marked contrast to the major chiefs (Nayakas)
of Tamil country who continued to pay o Chandra-
giri well into the 1630s.[13] Chamaraja VI and Kanthi-
rava Narasaraja I attempted to expand further north-
ward but were thwarted by the Bijapur Sultanate and
its Maratha subordinates, though the Bijapur armies un-
der Ranadullah Khan were eectively repelled in their
1638 siege of Srirangapatna.[16][17] Expansionist ambi-
tions then turned southward into Tamil country where
Narasaraja Wodeyar acquired Satyamangalam (in mod-
ern northern Coimbatore district) while his successor
Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar expanded further to capture
western Tamil regions of Erode and Dharmapuri, after
successfully repulsing the chiefs of Madurai. The inva-
sion of the Keladi Nayakas of Malnad was also dealt with
successfully. This period was followed by one of complex
geo-political changes, when in the 1670s, the Marathas
and the Mughals pressed into the Deccan.[16][17]
Chikka Devaraja (r. 16721704), the most notable
of Mysores early kings, who ruled during much of
this period, managed to not only survive the exigen-
cies but further expanded territory. He achieved this
by forging strategic alliances with the Marathas and
the Mughals.[18][19] The kingdom soon grew to include
Salem and Bangalore to the east, Hassan to the west,
Chikkamagaluru and Tumkur to the north and the rest
of Coimbatore to the south.[20] Despite this expansion,
the kingdom, which now accounted for a fair share of
land in the southern Indian heartland, extending from
the Western Ghats to the western boundaries of the
Coromandel plain, remained landlocked without direct
coastal access. Chikka Devarajas attempts to remedy
this brought Mysore into conict with the Nayaka chiefs
of Ikkeri and the kings (Rajas) of Kodagu (modern
Coorg); who between them controlled the Kanara coast
(coastal areas of modern Karnataka) and the intervening
hill region respectively.[21] The conict brought mixed re-
sults with Mysore annexing Periyapatna but suering a
reversal at Palupare.[22]
Nevertheless, from around 1704, when the king-
dom passed on to Muteking (Mukarasu) Kanthirava
Narasaraja II, the survival and expansion of the kingdom
was achieved by playing a delicate game of alliance, ne-
gotiation, subordination on occasion, and annexation of
territory in all directions. According to historians San-
jay Subrahmanyam and Sethu Madhava Rao, Mysore was
now formally a tributary of the Mughal empire. Mughul
records claim a regular tribute (peshkash) was paid by
Mysore. However, historian Suryanath U. Kamath feels
the Mughals may have considered Mysore an ally, a situ-
ation brought about by MughalMaratha competition for
Mughal empire in decline, further complications arose
with the Mughal residents at both Arcot and Sira claim-
1.1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE 3

lowed by Chamaraja Wodeyar VII during whose reign

power fell into the hands of prime minister (Dalwai or
Dalavoy) Nanjarajiah (or Nanjaraja) and chief minister
(Sarvadhikari) Devarajiah (or Devaraja), the inuential
brothers from Kalale town near Nanjangud who would
rule for the next three decades with the Wodeyars rele-
gated to being the titular heads.[24][25] The latter part of
the rule of Krishnaraja II saw the Deccan Sultanates being
eclipsed by the Mughals and in the confusion that ensued,
Haider Ali, a captain in the army, rose to prominence.[16]
His victory against the Marathas at Bangalore in 1758,
resulting in the annexation of their territory, made him
an iconic gure. In honour of his achievements, the king
gave him the title Nawab Haider Ali Khan Bahadur.[25]

Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan

Main articles: Anglo-Mysore wars and MarathaMysore

War
Though illiterate, Haider Ali has earned an important

A portrait of Tipu Sultan, made during the Third Anglo-Mysore

War.

Suren meeting with ally Hyder Ali in 1783. J.B. Morret engrav-
ing, 1789

Mural of the famous Battle of Pollilur in Tipu Sultan's summer

palace in Seringapatam.

continent. While the European powers were busy trans-

forming themselves from trading companies to political
powers, the Nizam as the subedar of the Mughals pursued
his ambitions in the Deccan, and the Marathas, following
their defeat at Panipat, sought safe havens in the south.
The period also saw the French vie with the British for
control of the Carnatic a contest in which the British
The ag of the Sultanate of Mysore at the entrance into the fort would eventually prevail as British commander Sir Eyre
of Bangalore. Coote decisively defeated the French under the Comte
de Lally at the Battle of Wandiwash in 1760, a water-
place in the history of Karnataka for his ghting skills and shed in Indian history as it cemented British supremacy in
administrative acumen.[26][27] The rise of Haidar came South Asia.[28] Though the Wodeyars remained the nom-
at a time of important political developments in the sub- inal heads of Mysore during this period, real power lay in
4 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE

befriended the French and made peace with the Marathas

and the Nizam.[35] However, Haider Ali was betrayed
by the Marathas and the Nizam, who made treaties with
the British as well. In July 1779 Haider Ali headed an
army of 80,000, mostly cavalry, descending through the
passes of the Ghats amid burning villages, before lay-
ing siege to British forts in northern Arcot starting the
Second Anglo-Mysore War. Haider Ali had some initial
successes against the British notably at Pollilur, the worst
defeat the British suered in India until Chillianwala, and
Arcot, until the arrival of Sir Eyre Coote, when the for-
tunes of the British began to change.[36] On 1 June 1781
Sir Eyre Coote struck the rst heavy blow against Haider
Ali in the decisive Battle of Porto Novo. The battle was
won by Sir Eyre Coote against odds of ve to one, and
Lord Cornwallis hastily retreats after his unsuccessful Siege of is regarded as one of the greatest feats of the British in
Seringapatam (1792). India. It was followed up by another hard-fought battle
at Pollilur (the scene of an earlier triumph of Haider Ali
over a British force) on 27 August, in which the British
the hands of Haider Ali and his son Tipu.[29] won another success, and by the rout of the Mysore troops
at Sholinghur a month later. Haider Ali died on 7 De-
By 1761, the Maratha menace had diminished and by cember 1782, even as ghting continued with the British.
1763, Haider Ali had captured the Keladi kingdom, de- He was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan who continued
feated the rulers of Bilgi, Bednur and Gutti, invaded the hostilities against the British by recapturing Baidanur and
Malabar in the south and conquered the Zamorin's cap- Mangalore.[31][37]
ital Calicut with ease in 1766 and extended the Mysore
kingdom up to Dharwad and Bellary in the north.[30][31] By 1783 neither the British nor Mysore were able to ob-
Mysore was now a major political power in the subcon- tain a clear overall victory. The French withdrew their
tinent and Haiders meteoric rise from relative obscurity support of Mysore following the peace settlement in Eu-
and his deance formed one of the last remaining chal- rope.[38] Undaunted, Tipu, popularly known as the Tiger
lenges to complete British hegemony over the Indian sub- of Mysore, continued the war against the British but lost
continent a challenge which would take them more than some regions in modern coastal Karnataka to them. The
three decades to overcome.[32] Maratha-Mysore War occurred between 1785 to 1787
and consisted of a series of conicts between the Sul-
In a bid to stem Haidars rise, the British formed an al- tanate of Mysore and the Maratha Empire.[39] Following
liance with the Marathas and the Nizam of Golconda, cul- Tipu Sultan's victory against the Marathas at the Siege of
minating in the First Anglo-Mysore War in 1767. Despite Bahadur Benda, a peace agreement was signed between
numerical superiority Haider Ali suered defeats at the the two kingdoms with mutual gains and losses.[40][41]
battles of Chengham and Tiruvannamalai. The British ig- Similarly, the treaty of Mangalore was signed in 1784
nored his overtures for peace until Haider Ali had strate- bringing hostilities with the British to a temporary and
gically moved his armies to within ve miles of Madras uneasy halt and restored the others lands to the status
(modern Chennai) and was able to successfully sue for quo ante bellum.[42][43] The treaty is an important doc-
peace.[28][31][33] In 1770, when the Maratha armies of ument in the history of India, because it was the last oc-
Madhavrao Peshwa invaded Mysore (three wars were casion when an Indian power dictated terms to the British,
fought between 1764 and 1772 by Madhavrao against who were made to play the role of humble supplicants for
Haider, in which Haider lost), Haider expected British peace. A start of fresh hostilities between the British and
support as per the 1769 treaty but they betrayed him French in Europe would have been sucient reason for
by staying out of the conict. The British betrayal and Tipu to abrogate his treaty and further his ambition of
Haiders subsequent defeat reinforced Haiders deep dis- striking at the British.[44] His attempts to lure the Nizam,
trust of the Britisha sentiment that would be shared by the Marathas, the French and the King of Turkey failed
his son and one which would inform Anglo-Mysore ri- to bring direct military aid.[44]
valries of the next three decades. In 1777, Haider Ali re-
Tipus successful attacks in 1790 on the Kingdom of Tra-
covered the previously lost territories of Coorg and Mal-
abar from the Marathas.[34] Haider Alis army advanced vancore, a British ally, was an eective victory for him,
towards the Marathas and fought them at the Battle of however it resulted in greater hostilities with the British
which resulted in the Third Anglo-Mysore War.[45] In the
Saunshi and came out victorious during the same year.[34]
beginning, the British made gains, taking the Coimbatore
By 1779, Haider Ali had captured parts of modern Tamil district, but Tipus counterattack reversed many of these
Nadu and Kerala in the south, extending the Kingdoms gains. By 1792, with aid from the Marathas who at-
area to about 80,000 mi (205,000 km).[31] In 1780, he
1.1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE
tacked from the north-west and the Nizam who moved
in from the north-east, the British under Lord Corn-
wallis successfully besieged Srirangapatna, resulting in
Tipus defeat and the Treaty of Srirangapatna. Half
of Mysore was distributed among the allies, and two
of his sons were held to ransom.[42] A humiliated but
indomitable Tipu went about re-building his economic
and military power. He attempted to covertly win
over support from Revolutionary France, the Amir of
Afghanistan, the Ottoman Empire and Arabia. How-
ever, these attempts to involve the French soon became
known to the British, who were at the time ghting the
French in Egypt, were backed by the Marathas and the
Nizam. In 1799, Tipu died defending Srirangapatna in
the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, heralding the end of the
Kingdoms independence.[46] Modern Indian historians
consider Tipu Sultan an inveterate enemy of the British,
an able administrator and an innovator.[47]
Princely state
Palace of the Maharajah of Mysore, India, from the Illustrated
London News, 1881 (with modern hand coloring)
Following Tipus fall, a part of the kingdom of Mysore
was annexed and divided between the Madras Presidency
and the Nizam. The remaining territory was transformed
into a Princely State; the ve-year-old scion of the Wode-
yar family, Krishnaraja III, was installed on the throne
with chief minister (Diwan) Purnaiah, who had earlier
served under Tipu, handling the reins as regent and Lt.
Col. Barry Close taking charge as the British Resident.
The British then took control of Mysores foreign policy
and also exacted an annual tribute and a subsidy for main-
taining a standing British army at Mysore.[48][49][50] As
Diwan, Purnaiah distinguished himself with his progres-
sive and innovative administration until he retired from
service in 1811 (and died shortly thereafter) following the
16th birthday of the boy king.[51][52]
The years that followed witnessed cordial relations be-
tween Mysore and the British until things began to sour in
the 1820s. Even though the Governor of Madras, Thomas
Munro, determined after a personal investigation in 1825
that there was no substance to the allegations of nancial
5
Mysore Palace built between 1897 and 1912
impropriety made by A. H. Cole, the incumbent Resi-
dent of Mysore, the Nagar rebellion (a civil insurrection)
which broke out towards the end of the decade changed
things considerably. In 1831, close on the heels of the in-
surrection and citing mal-administration, the British took
direct control of the princely state.[53][53][54] For the next
fty years, Mysore passed under the rule of successive
British Commissioners; Sir Mark Cubbon, renowned for
his statesmanship, served from 1834 until 1861 and put
into place an ecient and successful administrative sys-
tem which left Mysore a well-developed state.[55]
In 187677, however, towards the end of the period
of direct British rule, Mysore was struck by a devastat-
ing famine with estimated mortality gures ranging be-
tween 700,000 and 1,100,000, or nearly a fth of the
population.[56] Shortly thereafter, Maharaja Chamaraja
X, educated in the British system, took over the rule of
Mysore in 1881, following the success of a lobby set up
by the Wodeyar dynasty that was in favour of rendition.
Accordingly, a resident British ocer was appointed at
the Mysore court and a Diwan to handle the Maharajas
administration.[57] From then onwards, until Indian in-
dependence in 1947, Mysore remained a Princely State
within the British Indian Empire, with the Wodeyars con-
tinuing their rule.[57]
After the demise of Maharaja Chamaraja X, Krishnaraja
IV, still a boy of eleven, ascended the throne in 1895. His
mother Maharani Kemparajammanniyavaru ruled as re-
gent until Krishnaraja took over the reins on 8 February
1902.[58] Under his rule, with Sir M. Vishweshwariah as
his Diwan, the Maharaja set about transforming Mysore
into a progressive and modern state, particularly in in-
dustry, education, agriculture and art. Such were the
strides that Mysore made that Mahatma Gandhi called
the Maharaja a saintly king (Rajarishi).[59] Paul Brun-
ton, the British philosopher and orientalist, John Gun-
ther, the American author, and British statesman Lord
Samuel praised the rulers eorts. Much of the pioneer-
ing work in educational infrastructure that took place dur-
ing this period would serve Karnataka invaluably in the
coming decades.[60] The Maharaja was an accomplished
musician, and like his predecessors, avidly patronised the
development of the ne arts.[61] He was followed by his
nephew Jayachamaraja whose rule came to an end when
he signed the instrument of accession and Mysore joined
6 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE

the Indian Union on 9 August 1947.[62] bandry, judiciary and education. The judiciary was hi-
erarchical with the commissioners court at the apex, fol-
lowed by the Huzur Adalat, four superintending courts
1.1.2 Administration and eight Sadar Munsi courts at the lowest level.[69]
Lewin Bowring became the chief commissioner in 1862
Main article: Administration of the Kingdom of Mysore and held the position until 1870. During his tenure, the
property Registration Act, the Indian Penal code and
There are no records relating to the administration of the Code of Criminal Procedure came into eect and the
Mysore territory during the Vijayanagara Empire's reign judiciary was separated from the executive branch of
(13991565). Signs of a well-organised and independent the administration.[69] The state was divided into eight
administration appear from the time of Raja Wodeyar I districts Bangalore, Chitraldroog, Hassan, Kadur, Ko-
who is believed to have been sympathetic towards peas- lar, Mysore, Shimoga, and Tumkur.[70]
ants (raiyats) who were exempted from any increases in After rendition, C. V. Rungacharlu, was made the Di-
taxation during his time.[16] The rst sign that the king- wan. Under him, the rst Representative Assembly of
dom had established itself in the area was the issuing of British India, with 144 members, was formed in 1881.[71]
gold coins (Kanthirayi phanam) resembling those of the He was followed by K. Seshadri Iyer in 1883 during
erstwhile Vijayanagara Empire during Narasaraja Wode- whose tenure gold mining at the Kolar Gold Fields began,
yars rule.[63] the Shivanasamudra hydroelectric project was initiated in
The rule of Chikka Devaraja saw several reforms were 1899 (the rst such major attempt in India) and electric-
eected. Internal administration was remodeled to suit ity and drinking water (the latter through pipes) was sup-
the kingdoms growing needs and became more ecient. plied to Bangalore.[72] Seshadri Iyer was followed by P.
A postal system came into being. Far reaching nancial N. Krishnamurti, who founded The Secretariat Manual
reforms were also introduced. A number of petty taxes to maintain records and the Co-operative Department in
were imposed in place of direct taxes, as a result of which 1905,[72] V. P. Madhava Rao who focussed on conser-
the peasants were compelled to pay more by way of land vation of forests and T. Ananda Rao, who nalised the
tax.[64] The king is said to have taken a personal interest in Kannambadi Dam project.[73]
the regular collection of revenues the treasury burgeoned Sir M. Visveshwarayya, popularly known as the Maker
to 90,000,000 Pagoda (a unit of currency) earning him of Modern Mysore, holds a key place in the history of
the epithet Nine crore Narayana (Navakoti Narayana). Karnataka.[74] An engineer by education, he became the
In 1700, he sent an embassy to Aurangazebs court who Diwan in 1909.[73][75] Under his tenure, membership of
bestowed upon him the title Jug Deo Raja and awarded the Mysore Legislative Assembly was increased from 18
permission to sit on the ivory throne. Following this, he to 24, and it was given the power to discuss the state
founded the district oces (Attara Kacheri), the central budget.[73] The Mysore Economic Conference was ex-
secretariat comprising eighteen departments, and his ad- panded into three committees; industry and commerce,
ministration was modeled on Mughal lines.[65] education, and agriculture, with publications in English
During Haider Ali's rule, the kingdom was divided into and Kannada.[76] Important projects commissioned dur-
ve provinces (Asos) of unequal size, comprising 171 ing his time included the construction of the Kannambadi
taluks (Paraganas) in total.[66] When Tipu Sultan be- Dam, the founding of the Mysore Iron Works at Bhadra-
came the de facto ruler, the kingdom, which encom- vathi, founding of the Mysore University in 1916, the
passed 160,000 km2 (61,776 sq mi) (62,000 mi), was University Visvesvaraya College of Engineering in Ban-
divided into 37 provinces and a total of 124 taluks (Amil). galore, establishment of the Mysore state railway depart-
Each province had a governor (Asof), and one deputy ment and numerous industries in Mysore. In 1955, he
governor. Each taluk had a headman called Amildar and was awarded the Bharat Ratna, Indias highest civilian
a group of villages were in charge of a Patel.[49] The cen- honor.[76][77]
tral administration comprised six departments headed by Sir Mirza Ismail took oce as Diwan in 1926 and built
ministers, each aided by an advisory council of up to four on the foundation laid by his predecessor. Amongst his
members.[67] contributions were the expansion of the Bhadravathi Iron
When the princely state came under direct British rule Works, the founding of a cement and paper factory in
in 1831, early commissioners Lushington, Briggs and Bhadravathi and the launch of Hindustan Aeronautics
Morrison were followed by Mark Cubbon, who took Limited. A man with a penchant for gardens, he founded
charge in 1834.[68] He made Bangalore the capital and the Brindavan Gardens (Krishnaraja Sagar) and built the
divided the princely state into four divisions, each un- Kaveri River high-level canal to irrigate 120,000 acres
der a British superintendent. The state was further di- (490 km 2
) in modern Mandya district.[78]
vided into 120 taluks with 85 taluk courts, with all lower In 1939 Mandya District was carved out of Mysore Dis-
level administration in the Kannada language.[68] The of- trict, bringing the number of districts in the state to nine.
ce of the commissioner had eight departments; revenue,
post, police, cavalry, public works, medical, animal hus-
1.1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE
1.1.3 Economy
Main article: Economy of the Kingdom of Mysore
The vast majority of the people lived in villages and agri-
culture was their main occupation. The economy of the
kingdom was based on agriculture. Grains, pulses, veg-
etables and owers were cultivated. Commercial crops
included sugarcane and cotton. The agrarian population
consisted of landlords (gavunda, zamindar, heggadde)
who tilled the land by employing a number of landless
labourers, usually paying them in grain. Minor cultivators
were also willing to hire themselves out as labourers if the
need arose.[79] It was due to the availability of these land-
less labourers that kings and landlords were able to ex-
ecute major projects such as palaces, temples, mosques,
anicuts (dams) and tanks.[80] Because land was abundant
and the population relatively sparse, no rent was charged
on land ownership. Instead, landowners paid tax for culti-
vation, which amounted to up to one-half of all harvested
produce.[80]
Tipu Sultan is credited to have founded state trading de-
pots in various locations of his kingdom. In addition,
he founded depots in foreign locations such as Karachi,
Jeddah and Muscat, where Mysore products were sold.[81] 1.1.4 Culture
During Tipus rule French technology was used for the
rst time in carpentry and smithy, Chinese technology Religion
was used for sugar production, and technology from
Bengal helped improve the sericulture industry.[82] State
factories were established in Kanakapura and Taraman-
delpeth for producing cannons and gunpowder respec-
tively. The state held the monopoly in the production of
essentials such as sugar, salt, iron, pepper, cardamom, be-
tel nut, tobacco and sandalwood, as well as the extraction
of incense oil from sandalwood and the mining of silver,
gold and precious stones. Sandalwood was exported to
China and the Persian Gulf countries and sericulture was
developed in twenty-one centres within the kingdom.[83]
This system changed under the British, when tax pay-
ments were made in cash, and were used for the main-
tenance of the army, police and other civil and public
establishments. A portion of the tax was transferred to
England as the Indian tribute.[84] Unhappy with the
loss of their traditional revenue system and the problems
they faced, peasants rose in rebellion in many parts of
south India.[85] After 1800, the Cornwallis land reforms
came into eect. Reade, Munro, Graham and Thack-
eray were some administrators who improved the eco-
nomic conditions of the masses.[86] However, the home-
spun textile industry suered during British rule, with
the exception of the producers of the nest cloth and the
coarse cloth which was popular with the rural masses.
This was due to the manufacturing mills of Manchester,
Liverpool and Scotland being more than a match for the
traditional handweaving industry, especially in spinning
and weaving.[87][88]
7
The economic revolution in England and the tar-
i policies of the British also caused massive de-
industrialization in other sectors throughout India and
Mysore. For example, the gunny bag weaving business
had been a monopoly of the Goniga people, which they
lost when the British began ruling the area. The import
of a chemical substitute for saltpetre (potassium nitrate)
aected the Uppar community, the traditional makers of
saltpetre for use in gunpowder. The import of kerosene
aected the Ganiga community which supplied oils. For-
eign enamel and crockery industries had an impact on the
native pottery business and mill-made blankets replaced
the country-made blankets called kambli.[89] This eco-
nomic fallout led to the formation of community-based
social welfare organisations to help those within the com-
munity to cope better with their new economic situation,
including youth hostels for students seeking education
and shelter.[90] However, the British economic policies
created a class structure consisting of a newly established
middle class comprising various blue and white-collared
occupational groups, including agents, brokers, lawyers,
teachers, civil servants and physicians. Due to a more
exible caste hierarchy, the middle class contained a het-
erogeneous mix of people from dierent castes.[91]
Temple pond constructed by King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar at
Shravanabelagola, an important Jain temple town
The early kings of the Wodeyar dynasty worshipped the
Hindu god Shiva. The later kings, starting from the 17th
century, took to Vaishnavism, the worship of the Hindu
god Vishnu.[92] According to musicologist Meera Ra-
jaram Pranesh, King Raja Wodeyar I was a devotee of
the god Vishnu, King Dodda Devaraja was honoured with
the title Protector of Brahmins (Deva Brahmana Pari-
palaka) for his support to Brahmins, and Maharaja Krish-
naraja III was devoted to the goddess Chamundeshwari
(a form of Hindu goddess Durga).[93] Wilks (History
of Mysore, 1800) wrote about a Jangama (Veerashaiva
saint-devotee of Shiva) uprising, related to excessive
8 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE

and their descendants came to be known as Mappillas.[103]

By the 14th century, Muslims had become a signi-
cant minority in the south, though the advent of Por-
tuguese missionaries checked their growth.[103] Haider
Ali, though a devout Muslim, did not allow his faith to
interfere with the administration of the predominantly
Hindu kingdom. Historians are, however, divided on the
intentions of Haider Alis son, Tipu Sultan. It has been
claimed that Tipu raised Hindus to prominent positions in
his administration, made generous grants to Hindu tem-
ples and brahmins, and generally respected other faiths,
and that any religious conversions that Tipu undertook
were as punishment to those who rebelled against his
authority.[104] However, this has been countered by other
historians who claim that Tipu Sultan treated the non-
Muslims of Mysore far better than those of the Malabar,
Raichur and Kodagu regions. They opine that Tipu was
responsible for mass conversions of Christians and Hin-
dus in these regions, either by force or by oering them
tax incentives and revenue benets to convert.[105][106]

Society

Main article: Society of the Kingdom of Mysore

Shweta Varahaswamy temple (16731704) in the Mysore Palace
Prior to the 18th century, the society of the kingdom fol-
grounds

taxation, which was put down rmly by Chikka De-

varaja. Historian D.R. Nagaraj claims that four hundred
Jangamas were murdered in the process but claries that
Veerashiava literature itself is silent about the issue.[94]
Historian Suryanath Kamath claims King Chikka De-
varaja was a Srivaishnava (follower of Sri Vaishnavism,
a sect of Vaishnavism) but was not anti-Veerashaiva.[95]
Historian Aiyangar concurs that some of the kings in-
cluding the celebrated Narasaraja I and Chikka Devaraja
were Vaishnavas, but suggests this may not have been the
case with all Wodeyar rulers.[96] The rise of the modern
day Mysore city as a centre of south Indian culture has The Crawford Hall on Mysore University campus, houses the
university oces
been traced from the period of their sovereignty.[97] Raja
Wodeyar I initiated the celebration of the Dasara festival
in Mysore, a proud tradition of the erstwhile Vijayana-
gara royal family.[98][99]
Jainism, though in decline during the late medieval pe-
riod, also enjoyed the patronage of the Mysore kings, who
made municent endowments to the Jain monastic order
at the town of Shravanabelagola.[100][101] Records indi-
cate that some Wodeyar kings not only presided over the
Mahamastakabhisheka ceremony, an important Jain reli-
gious event at Shravanabelagola, but also personally of-
fered prayers (puja) during the years 1659, 1677, 1800,
1825, 1910, 1925, 1940, and 1953.[102]
The contact between South India and Islam goes back to
the 7th century, when trade between Hindu kingdoms and
Islamic caliphates thrived. These Muslim traders settled
on the Malabar Coast and married local Hindu women, Mysore painting depicting the Hindu Goddess Lakshmi
1.1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE
lowed age-old and deeply established norms of social in-
teraction between people. Accounts by contemporaneous
travellers indicate the widespread practice of the Hindu
caste system and of animal sacrices during the nine-day
celebrations (called Mahanavami).[107] Later, fundamen-
tal changes occurred due to the struggle between native
and foreign powers. Though wars between the Hindu
kingdoms and the Sultanates continued, the battles be-
tween native rulers (including Muslims) and the newly ar-
rived British took centre stage.[66] The spread of English
education, the introduction of the printing press and the
criticism of the prevailing social system by Christian mis-
sionaries helped make the society more open and exible.
The rise of modern nationalism throughout India also had
its impact on Mysore.[108]
With the advent of British power, English education
gained prominence in addition to traditional education
in local languages. These changes were orchestrated
by Lord Elphinstone, the governor of the Madras Pres-
idency. His plan became the constitution of the cen-
tral collegiate institution or University Board in 1841.[109]
Accordingly, a high school department of the univer-
sity was established. For imparting education in the
interior regions, schools were raised in principal towns
which eventually were elevated to college level, with
each college becoming central to many local schools
(zilla schools).[110] The earliest English-medium schools
appeared in 1833 in Mysore and spread across the
region. In 1858, the department of education was
founded in Mysore and by 1881, there were an esti-
mated 2,087 English-medium schools in the state of
Mysore. Higher education became available with the
formation of Bangalore Central College in Bangalore
(1870), Maharajas College (1879), Maharanis College
(1901) and the Mysore University (1916) in Mysore and
the St. Agnes College in Mangalore (1921).[111]
Social reforms aimed at removing practices such as
sati and social discrimination based upon untouchability,
as well as demands for the emancipation of the lower
classes, swept across India and inuenced Mysore
territory.[112] In 1894, the kingdom passed laws to abolish
the marriage of girls below the age of eight. Remarriage
of widowed women and marriage of destitute women was
encouraged, and in 1923, some women were granted the
permission to exercise their franchise in elections.[113]
There were, however, uprisings against British author-
ity in the Mysore territory, notably the Kodagu upris-
ing in 1835 (after the British dethroned the local ruler
Chikkaviraraja) and the Kanara uprising of 1837.[114]
The era of printing heralded by Christian missionaries,
notably Hermann Mgling, resulted in the founding of
printing presses across the kingdom. The publication of
ancient and contemporary Kannada books (such as the
Pampa Bharata and the Jaimini Bharata), a Kannada-
language Bible, a bilingual dictionary and a Kannada
newspaper called Kannada Samachara began in the early
19th century.[115] Aluru Venkata Rao published a con-
9
solidated Kannada history glorifying the achievements of
Kannadigas in his book Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava.[116]
Classical English and Sanskrit drama,[117] and native
Yakshagana musical theater inuenced the Kannada
stage and produced famous dramatists like Gubbi Veer-
anna.[118] The public began to enjoy Carnatic music
through its broadcast via public address systems set
up on the palace grounds.[119] Mysore paintings, which
were inspired by the Bengal Renaissance, were created
by artists such as Sundarayya, Ala Singarayya, and B.
Venkatappa.[120]
Literature
Main articles: Kannada literature in the Kingdom of
Mysore and Modern Kannada literature
The era of the Kingdom of Mysore is considered a
Opening page of the musical treatise Sritattvanidhi proclaiming
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III as the author
golden age in the development of Kannada literature. Not
only was the Mysore court adorned by famous Brahmin
and Veerashaiva writers and composers,[101][121] the kings
themselves were accomplished in the ne arts and made
important contributions.[122][123] While conventional lit-
erature in philosophy and religion remained popular,
writings in new genres such as chronicle, biography, his-
tory, encyclopedia, novel, drama, and musical treatise
became popular.[124] A native form of folk literature
with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained
popularity.[125][126] A remarkable development of the
later period was the inuence of English literature and
classical Sanskrit literature on Kannada.[127]
Govinda Vaidya, a native of Srirangapatna, wrote Kan-
thirava Narasaraja Vijaya, a eulogy of his patron King
Narasaraja I. Written in sangatya metre (a composition
meant to be rendered to the accompaniment of a mu-
sical instrument), the book describes the kings court,
popular music and the types of musical compositions of
the age in twenty-six chapters.[128][129] King Chikka De-
varaja was the earliest composer of the dynasty.[25][130]
To him is ascribed the famous treatise on music called
Geetha Gopala. Though inspired by Jayadevas San-
skrit writing Geetha Govinda, it had an originality of its
own and was written in saptapadi metre.[131] Contempo-
rary poets who left their mark on the entire Kannada-
speaking region include the brahmin poet Lakshmisa
and the itinerant Veerashaiva poet Sarvajna. Female
10 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE

poets also played a role in literary developments, with and Travancore courts also extended great patronage and
Cheluvambe (the queen of Krishnaraja Wodeyar I), Hela- emphasised preservation of the art, the unique combina-
vanakatte Giriyamma, Sri Rangamma (1685) and Sanchi tion of royal patronage of individual musicians, found-
Honnamma (Hadibadeya Dharma, late 17th century) ing of music schools to kindle public interest and a pa-
writing notable works.[132][133] tronage of European music publishers and producers set
A polyglot, King Narasaraja II authored fourteen Yak- Mysore apart.[142] Maharaja Krishnaraja III, himself a
shaganas in various languages, though all are written in musician and musicologist of merit, composed a num-
Kannada script.[134] Maharaja Krishnaraja III was a pro- ber of javalis (light lyrics) and devotional songs in Kan-
nada under the title Anubhava pancharatna. His com-
lic writer in Kannada for which he earned the honoric
Abhinava Bhoja (a comparison to the medieval King positions bear the nom de plume (mudra) Chamundi'"
or '"Chamundeshwari'", in honour of the Wodeyar family
Bhoja).[135] Over forty writings are attributed to him, of
which the musical treatise Sri Tatwanidhi and a poetical deity.[143] His successor Chamaraja X founded the Orien-
tal Library in 1891 to house music books and also com-
romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two ver-
sions, a sangatya and a drama, are most well known.[136] missioned phonograph recordings of several musicians
for the palace library.
Under the patronage of the Maharaja, Kannada literature
began its slow and gradual change towards modernity. Under Krishnaraja IV, art received further patronage. A
Kempu Narayanas Mudramanjusha (The Seal Casket, distinct school of music which gave importance to raga
1823) is the earliest work that has touches of modern and bhava evolved.[120][144][145] The Royal School of Mu-
prose.[137] However, the turning point came with the his- sic founded at the palace helped institutionalise teach-
torically important Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) and Ra- ing of the art. Carnatic compositions were printed and
maswamedham (1898) by Muddanna, whom the Kan- the European sta notation came to be employed by
nada scholar Narasimha Murthy considers a Janus like royal musicians. Western music was also encouraged
gure of modern Kannada literature. Muddanna has Margaret Cousins' piano concerto with the Palace Or-
deftly handled an ancient epic from an entirely modern chestra marked the celebrations of Beethovens cente-
viewpoint.[138] nary in Bangalore.[141] Maharaja Jayachamaraja, also a
Basavappa Shastry, a native of Mysore and a luminary renowned composer of Carnatic kritis (a musical com-
in the court of Maharaja Krishnaraja III and Maharaja position), sponsored a series of recordings of Russian
Chamaraja X, is known as the Father of Kannada the- composer Nikolas Medtner and others.[141] The court en-
atre (Kannada Nataka Pitamaha).[139] He authored dra- sured that Carnatic music also kept up with the times.
Gramophone recordings of the palace band were made
mas in Kannada and translated William Shakespeare's
Othello to Shurasena Charite. His well-known trans- and sold commercially.[146] Attention was paid to tech-
nology of the concert. Lavish sums were spent on ac-
lations from Sanskrit to Kannada are many and include
Kalidasa and Abhignyana Shakuntala.[140] quiring various instruments including the unconventional
horn violin, theremin and calliaphone, a mechanical mu-
sic player.[147]
Music The Mysore court was home to several renowned experts
(vidwan) of the time. Veena Sheshanna, a court musician
Main article: Musicians of the Kingdom of Mysore during the rule of Maharaja Chamaraja X,[148] is consid-
Under Maharaja Krishnaraja III and his successors ered one of the greatest exponents of the veena.[149] His
achievements in classical music won Mysore a premier
place in the art of instrumental Carnatic music and he was
given the honoric Vainika Shikhamani by Maharaja Kr-
ishnaraja Wodeyar IV.[150][151] Mysore Vasudevacharya
was a noted musician and composer in Sanskrit and
Telugu from Mysore.[152] He holds the unique distinc-
tion of being patronised by four generations of Mysore
kings and rulers and for being court musician to three
of them.[153][154] H.L. Muthiah Bhagavatar was another
musician-composer who adorned the Mysore court.[155]
Considered one of the most important composers of the
post-Tyagaraja period,[156] he is credited with about 400
compositions in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil
Legendary Vainikas Veene Subbanna and Veene Sheshanna under the pen name Harikesha. Among violinists, T.
(photographed in 1902) Chowdiah emerged as one of the most accomplished ex-
ponents of the time. He is known to have mastered the
Chamaraja X, Krishnaraja IV and the last ruler, Jay- seven-stringed violin.[118][157] Chowdiah was appointed
achamaraja, the Mysore court came to be the largest and court musician by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV in
most renowned patron of music.[141] While the Tanjore
1.1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE 11

1939 and received such titles as Sangeeta Ratna and the kingdom underwent profound changes during British
Sangeeta Kalanidhi. He is credited with compositions rule a mingling of European traditions with native ele-
in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit under the pen name ments. The Hindu temples in the kingdom were built in
Trimakuta.[158] typical South Indian Dravidian style a modest version
of the Vijayanagara building idiom.[159] When in power,
Tipu Sultan constructed a palace and a mosque in Sriran-
1.1.5 Architecture gapatna, his capital. However, it is the city of Mysore that
is best known for its royal palaces, earning it the nickname
Main article: List of religious buildings and structures of City of Palaces. The citys main palace, the Mysore
the Kingdom of Mysore Palace, is also known as the Amba Vilas Palace. The
The architectural style of courtly and royal structures in original complex was destroyed by re and a new palace
was commissioned by the Queen-Regent and designed
by the English architect Henry Irwin in 1897.[160] The
overall design is a combination of Hindu, Islamic, Indo-
Saracenic and Moorish styles, which for the rst time
in India, used cast iron columns and roof frames. The
striking feature of the exterior is the granite columns that
support cusped arches on the portico, a tall tower whose
nial is a gilded dome with an umbrella (chattri) on it, and
groups of other domes around it.[161] The interior is richly
decorated with marbled walls and a teakwood ceiling on
which are sculptures of Hindu deities. The Durbar hall
leads to an inner private hall through silver doors. This
opulent room has oor planels that are inlaid with semi-
precious stones, and a stained glass roof supported cen-
Mysore Palace trally by columns and arches. The marriage hall (Kalyana
mantapa) in the palace complex is noted for its stained
glass octagonal dome with peacock motifs.[162]

The Jaganmohan Palace at Mysore now an art gallery which

is home to some of Raja Ravi Varma's masterpieces

The Lalitha Mahal Palace was built in 1921 by E.W.

The Gopura (tower) of the Chamundeshwari Temple on the
Chamundi Hills. The temple is dedicated to Mysores patron de-
ity.
Fritchley under the commission of Maharaja Krishnaraja
IV. The architectural style is called Renaissance and
exhibits concepts from English manor houses and Italian
palazzos.[163] The central dome is believed to be mod-
elled on St. Pauls Cathedral in London. Other impor-
tant features are the Italian marble staircase, the polished
wooden ooring in the banquet and dance halls, and the
Belgian cut glass lamps.[163] The Jaganmohan Palace was
commissioned in 1861 and was completed in 1910. The
three-storeyed building with attractive domes, nials and
cupolas was the venue of many a royal celebration. It is
12
Tipu Sultan's tomb at Srirangapatna
Lalitha Mahal at Mysore now a ve-star hotel, plays host to
visiting dignitaries and VIPs
now called the Chamarajendra Art Gallery and houses a
rich collection of artifacts.[164]
The Mysore University campus, also called Manasa
Gangotri, is home to several architecturally interesting
buildings. Some of them are in European style and were
completed in the late 19th century. They include the
Jayalakshmi Vilas mansion, the Crawford Hall, the Ori-
ental Research Institute (built between 1887 and 1891)
with its Ionic and Corinthian columns, and the district
oces (Athara Kutchery, 1887). The Athara Kutchery,
which initially served as the oce of the British com-
missioner, has an octagonal dome and a nial that adds
to its beauty.[165] The maharajas summer palace, built
in 1880, is called the Lokaranjan Mahal, and initially
served as a school for royalty. The Rajendra Vilas Palace,
built in the Indo-British style atop the Chamundi Hill, was
commissioned in 1922 and completed in 1938 by Ma-
haraja Krishnaraja IV.[163] Other royal mansions built by
CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE
the Mysore rulers were the Chittaranjan Mahal in Mysore
and the Bangalore Palace in Bangalore, a structure built
on the lines of Englands Windsor Castle.[166] The Central
Food Technical Research Institute (Cheluvamba Man-
sion), built in baroque European renaissance style, was
once the residence of princess Cheluvambaamani Avaru,
a sister of Maharaja Krishnaraja IV. Its extensive pilaster
work and mosaic ooring are noteworthy.[167]
Most famous among the many temples built by the Wode-
yars is the Chamundeshwari Temple atop the Chamundi
Hill. The earliest structure here was consecrated in the
12th century and was later patronised by the Mysore
rulers. Maharaja Krishnaraja III added a Dravidian-style
gopuram in 1827. The temple has silver-plated doors
with images of deities. Other images include those of
the Hindu god Ganesha and of Maharaja Krishnaraja III
with his three queens.[168] Surrounding the main palace in
Mysore and inside the fort are a group of temples, built
in various periods. The Prasanna Krishnaswamy Temple
(1829), the Lakshmiramana Swamy Temple whose earli-
est structures date to 1499, the Trinesvara Swamy Tem-
ple (late 16th century), the Shweta Varaha Swamy Tem-
ple built by Purnaiah with a touch of Hoysala style of ar-
chitecture, the Prasanna Venkataramana Swami Temple
(1836) notable for 12 murals of the Wodeyar rulers.[169]
Well-known temples outside Mysore city are the yali
(mythical beast) pillared Venkataramana temple built
in the late 17th century in the Bangalore fort, and the
Ranganatha temple in Srirangapatna.[170]
Tipu Sultan built a wooden colonnaded palace called
the Dariya Daulat Palace (lit, garden of the wealth of
the sea) in Srirangapatna in 1784. Built in the Indo-
Saracenic style, the palace is known for its intricate wood-
work consisting of ornamental arches, striped columns
and oral designs, and paintings. The west wall of
the palace is covered with murals depicting Tipu Sul-
tans victory over Colonel Baillies army at Pollilur, near
Kanchipuram in 1780. One mural shows Tipu enjoy-
ing the fragrance of a bouquet of owers while the bat-
tle is in progress. In that painting, the French soldiers
moustaches distinguish them from the cleanshaven British
soldiers.[171][172] Also in Srirangapatna is the Gumbaz
mausoleum, built by Tipu Sultan in 1784. It houses the
graves of Tipu and Haider Ali. The granite base is capped
with a dome built of brick and pilaster.[173]
1.1.6 Military technology
See also: Congreve rocket
The rst iron-cased and metal-cylinder rocket artillery
were developed by Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali,
in the 1780s. He successfully used these metal-cylinder
rockets against the larger forces of the British East India
Company during the Anglo-Mysore Wars. The Mysore
rockets of this period were much more advanced than
1.1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE 13

what the British had seen, chiey because of the use of [7] Wilks, Aiyangar in Aiyangar and Smith (1911), pp. 275
iron tubes for holding the propellant; this enabled higher 276
thrust and longer range for the missile (up to 2 km (1 mi)
[8] Aiyangar (1911), p. 275; Pranesh (2003), p. 2
range). After Tipus eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-
Mysore War and the capture of the Mysore iron rockets, [9] Stein (1989), p. 82
they were inuential in British rocket development, in-
spiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use [10] Stein 1987, p. 82
in the Napoleonic Wars.[174] [11] Kamath (2001), p. 227
According to Stephen Oliver Fought and John F. Guil-
[12] Subrahmanyam (2001), p. 67
martin, Jr. in Encyclopdia Britannica (2008):
[13] Subrahmanyam (2001), p. 68
Hyder Ali, prince of Mysore, developed [14] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), p. 200
war rockets with an important change: the use
of metal cylinders to contain the combustion [15] Shama Rao in Kamath (2001), p. 227
powder. Although the hammered soft iron he
[16] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), p.201
used was crude, the bursting strength of the
container of black powder was much higher [17] Subrahmanyam (2001), p. 68; Kamath (2001), p. 228
than the earlier paper construction. Thus a
greater internal pressure was possible, with a [18] Subrahmanyam (2001), p. 71
resultant greater thrust of the propulsive jet. [19] Kamath (2001), pp. 228229
The rocket body was lashed with leather thongs
to a long bamboo stick. Range was perhaps [20] Subrahmanyam (2001), p. 69; Kamath (2001), pp. 228
up to three-quarters of a mile (more than a 229
kilometre). Although individually these rock-
[21] Subrahmanyam (2001), p. 69
ets were not accurate, dispersion error became
less important when large numbers were red [22] Subrahmanyam (2001), p. 70
rapidly in mass attacks. They were particu-
larly eective against cavalry and were hurled [23] Subrahmanyam (2001), pp. 7071; Kamath (2001), p.
229
into the air, after lighting, or skimmed along
the hard dry ground. Tipu Sultan, contin- [24] Pranesh (2003), pp. 4445
ued to develop and expand the use of rocket
weapons, reportedly increasing the number of [25] Kamath (2001), p. 230
rocket troops from 1,200 to a corps of 5,000. [26] Shama Rao in Kamath (2001), p. 233
In battles at Seringapatam in 1792 and 1799
these rockets were used with considerable ef- [27] Quote:"A military genius and a man of vigour, valour and
fect against the British.[175] resourcefulness (Chopra et al. 2003, p. 76)

[28] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), p. 207

1.1.7 See also [29] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 71, 76

List of Indian princely states [30] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 55

Mysore invasion of Kerala [31] Kamath (2001), p. 232

Political integration of India [32] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 71

[33] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 73

1.1.8 Notes [34] Jacques, Tony. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Green-
wood Press. p. 916. ISBN 978-0-313-33536-5.
[1] Kamath (2001), pp. 1112, pp. 226227; Pranesh
(2003), p. 11 [35] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 74

[2] Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23 [36] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 75

[3] Subrahmanyam (2003), p. 64; Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89 [37] Chopra et al. 2003, p. 75

[4] Kamath (2001), p. 226 [38] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), p. 211

[5] Rice B.L. (1897), p. 361 [39] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 175.
[6] Pranesh (2003), pp. 23 ISBN 9788131300343.
14 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE

[40] Mohibbul Hasan, History of Tipu Sultan, pp. 105107 [70] Meyer, Sir William Stevenson, et al. The Imperial
Gazetteer of India. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 19081931.
[41] Sailendra Nath Sen, Anglo-Maratha Relations, 178596, v. 18, p. 228.
Volume 2, p. 55
[71] Kamath (2001), p. 254
[42] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 7879; Kamath (2001), p. 233
[72] Kamath (2001), pp. 254255
[43] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 7576
[73] Kamath (2001), p. 257
[44] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 77
[74] Kamath (2001), p. 259
[45] Mohibbul Hasan (2005), History of Tipu Sultan, Aakar
Books, p. 167 [75] Indian Science Congress (2003), p. 139
[46] Chopra et al. (2003), pp. 7980; Kamath (2001), pp. [76] Kamath (2001), p. 258
233234
[77] Indian Science Congress (2003), pp. 139140
[47] Chopra et al. (2003), pp. 8182
[78] Kamath (2001), p. 260
[48] Kamath (2001), p. 249
[79] Sastri (1955), p. 297298
[49] Kamath (2001), p. 234
[80] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 123
[50] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), p. 225
[81] M.H.Gopal in Kamath 2001, p. 235
[51] Quote:"The Diwan seems to pursue the wisest and the
most benevolent course for the promotion of industry and [82] Kamath (2001), pp. 235236
opulence (Gen. Wellesley in Kamath 2001, p. 249)
[83] Kamath (2001), pp. 236237
[52] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), pp. 226229
[84] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 124
[53] Kamath (2001), p. 250
[85] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 129
[54] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), pp. 229231
[86] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 130
[55] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), pp. 231232
[87] Kamath (2001), p. 286
[56] Lewis Rice, B., Report on the Mysore census (Bangalore:
Mysore Government Press, 1881), p. 3 [88] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 132

[57] Kamath (2001), pp. 250254 [89] Kamath (2001), p. 287

[58] Rama Jois, M. 1984. Legal and constitutional history [90] Kamath (2001), pp. 288289
of India ancient legal, judicial and constitutional system.
[91] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 134
Delhi: Universal Law Pub. Co. p. 597
[92] Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89
[59] Puttaswamaiah, K. 1980. Economic development of Kar-
nataka a treatise in continuity and change. New Delhi: [93] Pranesh (2003), p. 5, p. 16, p. 54
Oxford & IBH. p. 3
[94] Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 379
[60] The Mysore duo Krishnaraja Wodeya IV & M. Visves-
varaya. India Today. Retrieved 23 October 2007. [95] Kamath (2001), p. 229
[61] Pranesh (2003), p. 162 [96] Aiyangar and Smith (1911), p. 304
[62] Kamath (2001), p. 261 [97] Pranesh (2003), p. 17
[63] Kamath (2001), p. 228; Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. [98] Aiyangar and Smith (1911), p. 290
(1975), p. 201
[99] Pranesh (2003), p. 4
[64] Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975), p.203
[100] Pranesh (2003), p. 44
[65] Kamath (2001), pp. 228229; Venkata Ramanappa, M.
N. (1975), p. 203 [101] Kamath (2001), pp. 229230

[66] Kamath (2001), p. 233 [102] Singh (2001), pp. 57825787

[67] Kamath (2001), p. 235 [103] Sastri (1955), p. 396

[68] Kamath (2001), p. 251 [104] Mohibul Hassan in Chopra et al., 2003, p. 82, part III

[69] Kamath (2001), p. 252 [105] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 82

 1.1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE 15

[106] Kamath (2001), p. 237 [141] Weidman (2006), p. 66

[107] Sastri (1955), p. 394 [142] Weidman (2006), p. 65

[108] Kamath (2001), p. 278 [143] Pranesh (2003), p. 54

[109] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 185 [144] Pranesh (2003), p. xiii in authors note
[110] Chopra et al. (2003), p. 186 [145] Kamath (2001), p282
[111] Kamath (2001), pp. 278279 [146] Weidman (2006), p. 67
[112] Chopra et al. (2003), pp. 196197, p. 202 [147] Weidman (2006), p. 68
[113] Kamath (2001), p. 284 [148] Pranesh (2003), p. 110
[114] Kamath (2001), p. 275 [149] Bakshi (1996), p. 12; Kamath (2001), p. 282
[115] Kamath (2001), pp. 279280; Murthy (1992), p. 168 [150] Pranesh (2003), pp. 110111
[116] Kamath (2001), p. 281; Murthy (1992), p. 172 [151] Satish Kamat (11 July 2002). The nal adjustment.
[117] Murthy (1992), p. 169 Metro Plus Bangalore. The Hindu (Chennai, India). Re-
trieved 10 October 2007.
[118] Kamath (2001), p. 282
[152] Subramaniyan (2006), p. 199; Kamath (2001), p. 282
[119] Pranesh (2003), p163
[153] Pranesh (2003), p. 135
[120] Kamath (2001), p. 283
[154] Pranesh (2003), p. 140
[121] Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 2327
[155] Subramaniyan (2006), p. 202; Kamath (2001), p. 282
[122] Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Narasimhacharya (1988), p.
23, p. 26 [156] Pranesh (2003), p. 170

[123] Kamath (2001), pp. 229230; Pranesh (2003), preface [157] Pranesh (2003), p. 214, 216
chapter p(i)
[158] Pranesh (2003), p. 216
[124] Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 2326
[159] Michell, p. 69
[125] Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
[160] Manchanda (2006), p. 158
[126] Kamath (2001), p. 281
[161] Manchanda (2006), pp. 160161
[127] Murthy (1992), p. 168171; Kamath (2001), p. 280
[162] Manchanda (2006), p. 161
[128] Rice E.P. (1921), p. 90; Mukherjee (1999), p. 119
[163] Raman (1994), pp. 8788
[129] Kamath (2001), p. 227; Pranesh (2003), p. 11
[164] Raman (1994), pp. 8384, pp. 9192
[130] Pranesh (2003), p. 20
[165] Raman (1994), p. 84
[131] Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Pranesh (2003), p. 21
[166] Bradnock (2000), p. 294
[132] Mukherjee (1999), p. 143, p. 354, p. 133, p. 135;
Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 2425 [167] Raman (1994), pp. 8182

[133] Pranesh (2003), pp. 3334; Rice E.P. (1921), pp. 7273, [168] Raman (1994), p. 85
pp. 8388, p. 91
[169] Raman (1996), p. 83
[134] Pranesh (2003), pp. 3738
[170] Michell p. 71
[135] Pranesh (2003), p. 53
[171] Raman (1994), p. 106
[136] Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 26; Murthy (1992), p. 167;
Pranesh (2003), p. 55 [172] Abram et al. (2003), p. 225

[137] Murthy (1992), p. 167 [173] Abram et al. (2003), pp. 225226

[138] Murthy (1992), p. 170 [174] Roddam Narasimha (1985). Rockets in Mysore and
Britain, 17501850 A.D. National Aeronautical Labora-
[139] Pranesh (2003), p. 81 tory and Indian Institute of Science.

[140] Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077; Pranesh (2003), p. 82 [175] Encyclopdia Britannica (2008), rocket and missile
16 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE

1.1.9 References Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003) [2003]. Musical

Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (16381947
Abram, David; Edwards, Nick; Ford, Mike; Sen, A.D.). Bangalore: Vee Emm.
Devdan; Wooldridge, Beth (2003). South India.
Rough Guides. ISBN 1-84353-103-8. Raman, Afried (1994). Bangalore Mysore: A
Disha Guide. Bangalore: Orient Blackswan. ISBN
Aiyangar, Krishnaswami S. (1911). Ancient India:
0-86311-431-8.
Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History
of Southern India. New Delhi: (Facsimile Reprint
Rice, E. P. (1921). Kannada Literature. New Delhi:
2004) Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-
(Facsimile Reprint 1982) Asian Educational Ser-
1850-5.
vices. ISBN 81-206-0063-0.
Bakshi, Shiri Ram (1996). Gandhi and the
Congress. New Delhi: Sarup and Sons. ISBN 81- Rice, B.L. (2001) [1897]. Mysore Gazetteer Com-
85431-65-5. piled for Government-vol 1. New Delhi, Madras:
Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0977-8.
Bradnock, Robert (2000) [2000]. South India
Handbook The Travel Guide. Footprint Travel Sastri, Nilakanta K.A. (2005) [1955]. A history of
Guide. ISBN 1-900949-81-4. South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vi-
jayanagar. New Delhi: Indian Branch, Oxford Uni-
Chopra, P. N.; Ravindran, T. K.; Subrahmanian, N.
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-560686-8.
(2003). History of South India (Ancient, Medieval
and Modern) Part III. New Delhi: Sultan Chand and
Singh, Nagendra Kr (2001). Encyclopaedia of Jain-
Sons. ISBN 81-219-0153-7.
ism. Anmol Publications. ISBN 81-261-0691-3.
Indian Science Congress Association (various au-
thors), Presidential Address, vol 1: 19141947 Stein, Burton (1987). Vijayanagara (The New Cam-
(2003). The Shaping of Indian Science. Orient bridge History of India). Cambridge and New York:
Blackswan. ISBN 81-7371-432-0. Cambridge University Press. Pp. 156. ISBN 0-521-
26693-9.
Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise
history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2001). Warfare and State
the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN Finance in Wodeyar Mysore. In Subrahmanyam,
80905179. OCLC 7796041. Sanjay. Penumbral Visions. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press. pp. 161193. ISBN 978-0-472-
Manchanda, Bindu (2006) [2006]. Forts & Palaces
11216-6.
of India: Sentinels of History. Roli Books Private
Limited. ISBN 81-7436-381-5.
Subramaniyan, V.K. (2006) [2006]. 101 Mystics of
Michell, George. Temple Architecture: The Kan- India. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 81-7017-471-6.
nada and Telugu zones. The New Cambridge His-
tory of India: Architecture and Art of Southern India. Various (1988) [1988]. Encyclopaedia of Indian lit-
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-44110-2. erature vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-
1194-7.
Mukherjee, Sujit (1999) [1999]. A Dictionary of
Indian Literature. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 81-250- Venkata Ramanappa, M. N. (1975) [1975]. Outlines
1453-5. of South Indian history : with special reference to
Karnataka. Delhi : Vikas Pub. House ; London
Murthy, K. Narasimha (1992). Modern Kannada
(38 Kennington La., SE11 4LS) : [Distributed by]
Literature. In George K.M. Modern Indian Litera-
Independent Pub. Co.,. ISBN 0-7069-0378-1.
ture:An Anthology Vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN
81-7201-324-8.
Weidman, Amanda J (2006) [2006]. Singing the
Nagaraj, D.R. (2003) [2003]. Critical Tensions in Classical, Voicing the Modern. Duke University
the History of Kannada Literary Culture. In Shel- Press. ISBN 0-8223-3620-0.
don I. Pollock. Literary Cultures in History: Recon-
structions from South Asia. Berkeley and London:
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22821- 1.1.10 Further reading
9.
India. Life (Time, Inc.): 94103. 12 May 1941.
Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1934]. History of Kan-
nada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Ser-
vices. ISBN 81-206-0303-6. Coordinates: 1218N 7639E / 12.30N 76.65E
1.2. ORIGIN OF THE KINGDOM OF MYSORE
Flag of the former princely state of Mysore.
1.2 Origin of the Kingdom of
Mysore
The Kingdom of Mysore (Kannada
,maisuru samsthana) (1399 - 1947 CE)
was a kingdom of southern India founded in 1399 by
Yaduraya in the region of the modern city of Mysore.
The Wodeyar dynasty, as the ruling family is known,
ruled the southern Karnataka region until Indian inde-
pendence in 1947, when the kingdom was merged with
the Union of India.
1.2.1 Origin
Main article: Kingdom of Mysore
Sources for the history of the kingdom include numer-
Mysore palace lit up at night
ous lithic (stone) and copper plate inscriptions, written
records in the Mysore palace and contemporary literary
sources in the Kannada language such as the Kanthirava
Narasaraja Vijaya, describing the achievements of King
Kanthirava Narasaraja I, court music and composition
forms in vogue; Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali, describing
the Wodeyar family history; Chikkadevaraja Binnapam,
on the achievements of King Chikka Devaraja; and Ke-
ladinripavijayam. Information about Haider Ali and Tipu
Sultan are available from various linguistic sources in-
cluding Nishan-i-Haidari in Persian and Haider Name in
Kannada.[1][2] Other historical sources are Apratimavira
Charite, Chikkadevaraja Vijaya and Chikka Devaraja
Yaso-bhushana, on the achievements of King Chikka De-
varaja; Kanthirava Narasaraja Charitra, on the life of
King Kanthirava Narasaraja I; Deva Raja Vijaya, on the
17
reign of Dodda Devaraja; Maisuru Arasugala Purvabhyu-
daya; Kalale Doregala Vamshavali; documentation per-
taining to the Dutch East India Company relations with
Mysore for the 17621790 period; Portuguese sources on
the life of Haider Ali; and written documents by catholic
missionaries from the mid-17th century.[3][4][5]
According to legend, when the city of Dwaraka (in mod-
ern Gujarat state) had drowned in the ocean, the Hindu
god Krishna asked Parvati (consort of the Hindu god
Shiva) to protect his descendants and make them rulers
of the southern region of Yadushaila (modern Melkote in
Karnataka state). As per his wishes, Parvati brought Kr-
ishnas descendants to the Chamundi hills in Mysore and
made them rulers there.[6]
The historical origins of the kingdom are obscure.
The kingdom is rst mentioned in early 16th-century
Kannada literature from the time of the Vijayanagara
King Achyuta Deva Raya, while the kingdoms own ear-
liest available inscriptions date from the rule of a petty
chieftain, Timmaraja II, in 1551.[7] It is known that the
kingdom originated as a small state based in the modern
city of Mysore and that it was established by two broth-
ers, Yaduraya (also known as Vijaya) and Krishnaraya.
The origin of the brothers is, however, contested. Some
historians claim a northern origin, saying that they came
from Dwaraka, while others argue that they were origi-
nally from the Karnataka region. The earliest mention of
their origin in the city of Dwaraka and their journey down
to the Mysore region is found in the writings of Govinda
Vaidya (17th century), court poet of Narasaraja Wode-
yar, and is later repeated in the writings of Tirumalarya,
court poet of Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar.[8][9] According
to these texts, the two brothers arrived at Mysore in 1399,
for reasons which dier by text. At that time, the in-
cumbent King Chamaraja died, leaving behind his queen,
Devajammanni, and a princess, Chikkadevarasi, but no
male heir to the throne. Yaduraya killed Maranayaka, the
army commander who tried to assert his power over the
royal family, married princess Chikkadevarasi, and was
crowned with the feudal title "Wodeyar", which the ensu-
ing dynasty retained.[8][10]
This theory has been rejected by other historians, who
counter that it is farfetched to believe that two broth-
ers could arrive there from a distant city and begin rul-
ing as kings. Instead they claim that the founders of the
kingdom were descendents of the local Tonnur Hoysalas.
According to this theory, when the Hoysala Empire suc-
cumbed to the Mogul invasion in 1327 (and the capital
Halebidu was sacked), the Hoysala family withdrew to
the Tonnur region (modern Tondanur near Melkote in
modern Mandya district) and continued to rule from there
as petty chieftains under the Vijayanagara Empire. The
historians claim that Yaduraya, the chieftain of Melkote,
rescued the queen of Mysore by killing the comman-
der Maranayaka, married princess Chikkadevarasi, and
launched the new Wodeyar dynasty.[11] According to an-
other theory, the brothers were most likely Yadava fugi-
18 CHAPTER 1. KINGDOM OF MYSORE

tives from the Vijayanagara Empire court who took ad-
vantage of the upheaval caused by the kings death to
gain control of the Mysore region.[12] It is known that the
Mysore feudal family initially controlled no more than a
handful of villages and grew into a kingdom only after
the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565.[7]
Aiyangar, Krishnaswami S. (1911). Ancient India:
Collected Essays on the Literary and Political History
of Southern India. New Delhi: (Facsimile Reprint
2004) Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-
1850-5.

1.2.2 Notes
[1] Kamath (2001), pp. 1112, pp. 226227; Pranesh
(2003), p. 11

[2] Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23

[3] Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23; p. 89; Kamath (2001),

p. 12

[4] Subrahmanyam (2003), p. 64

[5] Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89

[6] Pranesh (2003), p1

[7] Stein (1989), p82

[8] Pranesh (2003), p2

[9] Kamath (2001), p226

[10] Rice B.L. (1897), p361

[11] Pranesh (2003), p3

[12] Wilks and Aiyangar in Aiyangar (2004), p275-276

1.2.3 References
Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) [1980]. A concise
history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to
the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. LCCN
80905179. OCLC 7796041.
Narasimhacharya, R (1988) [1934]. History of Kan-
nada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Ser-
vices. ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003) [2003]. Musical
Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (16381947
A.D.). Bangalore: Vee Emm.
Rice, E. P. (1921). Kannada Literature. New Delhi:
(Facsimile Reprint 1982) Asian Educational Ser-
vices. ISBN 81-206-0063-0.
Stein, Burton (1987). Vijayanagara (The New Cam-
bridge History of India). Cambridge and New York:
Cambridge University Press. Pp. 156. ISBN 0-521-
26693-9
Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2001). Warfare and State
Finance in Wodeyar Mysore. In Subrahmanyam,
Sanjay. Penumbral Visions. Ann Arbor: University
of Michigan Press. pp. 161193. ISBN 978-0-472-
11216-6.
Chapter 2

De facto King

2.1 Fatah Muhammad sons Hyder Ali and Shahbaz to enter the service of
Mysore instead of the Nawab of the Carnatic.
Later entered the service of the Raja of Mysore, who
granted him the title of Naik. Next entered the service
of the Nawab 'Abdu'l Rasul Khan of Sira and granted the
rank of a 400 foot and 200 horse, the title of Khan, the ja-
gir of Dodballapur (Budikote), and appointed as Faujdar
of Sira, 1721.
He was killed in battle, before 9th September 1725 and
buried in Kolar.

2.1.1 Children

Wali Sahib

Sketch of Fath Muhammads mausoleum in Kolar Ali Sahib

Bihiluli Sahib
Fath Muhammad Ali Khan Kolari (6 May 1704 9
September 1725), Fath Muhammad or Nadim Sahib Shahbaz Ali (Ismail Sahib)
was a General of Mysore. he was the father of Hyder Ali
his fth child and the prestigious founder of the Sultanate Wali Muhammad
of Mysore, who was born in the year 1720, from his third
wife.[1][2] Hyder Ali
Born in the city of Kolar, he later migrated to
Devanahalli. Fath Muhammad eventually settled in
Mysore and began serving as a soldier with the rank of 2.1.2 See also
naik in the army.
Nawab of the Carnatic
At an early age he served as a commander of 50 men in
the Rocket artillery of the army of the Nawab of Carnatic, Zulqar Ali Khan
It is believed that he served alongside Zulqar Ali Khan
the rst Nawab of the Carnatic during the Siege of Jinji, Mughal Empire
which was maintained under the command of the Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb in order to kill or capture a renegade Siege of Jinji
Maratha leader named Rajaram.[3]
He served in the armies of the Sa'adatu'llah Khan, and
received the rank of Jamadar, 200 foot and 50 horse, pro- 2.1.3 References
moted to command 600 foot, 500 horse.
[1] de la Tour, p. 34
Because he was from Mysore Fath Muhammad was
among those chosen by the third Nawab of the Carnatic [2] Bowring, p. 12
Saadatullah Khan I to collect tribute from the Wodeyar
rulers of Srirangapatnam and eventually encouraged his [3] name=Narasima120

19
20 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

2.2 Hyder Ali accounts, his grandfather was descended from a line of
Muslims tracing their lineage back to Persia,[5] while an-
For the cricketer, see Hyder Ali (cricketer). For the other traces his lineage instead to the area of present-
footballer, see Haider Alo Ali. For the Indian actor, see day Afghanistan.[5] In a third account, written by one
Haidar Ali (actor). of his French military ocers, Hyder himself claimed
descent from the Quraysh tribe of Arabs, the tribe of
the prophet Muhammad.[6] His father, Fath Muham-
Hyder Ali Khan (Kannada: ), Haidarl mad, was born in Kolar, and served as a commander
(Kannada: ) (1721 7 December 1782) of 50 men in the bamboo rocket artillery (mainly used
was the sultan and de facto ruler of the Kingdom of for signalling) in the army of the Nawab of Carnatic.[7]
Mysore in southern India. Born Hyder Naik, he distin- Fath Muhammad eventually entered the service of the
guished himself militarily, eventually drawing the atten- Wodeyar Rajas of the Kingdom of Mysore, where he rose
tion of Mysores rulers. Rising to the post of Dalavayi to become a powerful military commander. The Wode-
(commander-in-chief) to Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, he yars awarded him Budikote as a jagir (land grant), where
came to dominate the titular monarch and the Mysore he then served as Naik (Lord).[4] Hyder Ali was born
government. He became the de facto ruler of Mysore in Budikote; he was Fath Muhammad's fth child, and
as Sarvadhikari (Chief Minister) by 1761.[2] He oered the second by his third wife.[4] His early years are not
strong anti-colonial resistance against the military ad- well documented; he entered military service along with
vances of the British East India Company during the First his brother Shahbaz after their father died in combat.[8]
and Second AngloMysore Wars, and he was the innova- After serving for a number of years under the rulers of
tor of military use of the iron-cased Mysorean rockets. Arcot, they came to Seringapatam, where Hyders un-
Though illiterate, Hyder Ali earned an important place in cle served. He introduced them to Devaraja, the dal-
the history of southern India for his administrative acu- wai (chief minister, military leader, and virtual ruler)
men and military skills. He concluded an alliance with the of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, and his brother Nanjaraja,
French against the British and used the services of French who also held important ministerial posts.[9] Hyder and
workmen in raising his artillery and arsenal. His rule of his brother were both given commands in the Mysorean
Mysore was characterised by frequent warfare with his army; Hyder served under Shahbaz, commanding 100
neighbours and rebellion within his territories. This was cavalry and 2,000 infantry.[10]
not unusual for the time as much of the Indian subcon-
tinent was then in turmoil. He was a shrewd leader and
left his eldest son, Tipu Sultan, an extensive kingdom bor- 2.2.2 Rise to power
dered by the Krishna River in the north, the Eastern Ghats
in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west.[3]
In 1748, Qamar-ud-din Khan, Asaf Jah I, the longtime
Nizam of Hyderabad, died. The struggle to succeed him
2.2.1 Early life is known as the Second Carnatic War, and pitted Asaf
Jahs son Nasir Jung against a cousin, Muzaar Jung.
Both sides were supported by other local leaders, and
French and British forces were also involved. Devaraja
had started vesting more military authority in his brother,
and in 1749 Nanjaraja marched the Mysorean army in
support of Nasir Jung. The army went to Devanhalli,
where the Mysoreans participated in the Siege of De-
vanahalli Fort. The fort was held by Muzaar Jungs
forces and the siege was conducted by the Marquis de
Bussy.[11] During the successful eight-month siege, the
Naik brothers distinguished themselves, and were re-
warded by the dalwai with enlarged commands.[10] By
1755 Hyder Ali commanded 3,000 infantry and 1,500
cavalry, and was reported to be enriching himself on cam-
paigns by plunder.[12] In that year he was also appointed
Faujdar (military commander) of Dindigul.[13] In this po-
Mausoleums of Hyder Alis ancestors, including his father Fath sition he rst retained French advisers to organise and
Muhammad in the city of Kolar. train his artillery companies. He is also known to have
personally served alongside de Bussy, and is believed to
The exact date of Hyder Alis birth is not known with have met both Muzaar Jung and Chanda Shahib.[14] In
certainty. Various historical sources provide dates rang- these early wars he also came to dislike and mistrust
ing between 1721 for his birth.[4] There are also some Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah, the Nawab of the Car-
variations in reports of his ancestry. According to some natic. In fact Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah and the
2.2. HYDER ALI
The dominions of the Sultanat-e-Khudad of Mysore ruled by Hy-
der Ali, in the year 1780.
Mysorean leaders were long at odds with each other, seek-
ing territorial gains at the others expense.[15] Muhammad
Ali Khan Wallajah had by then formed an alliance with
the British, and he was accused by Hyder Ali in later years
of eectively preventing him from making any sort of
long-lasting alliances or agreements with the British.[16]
Throughout the Carnatic Wars, Hyder Ali and his Mysore
battalions served alongside French commanders such as
Joseph Francois Dupleix, Count de Lally and de Bussy,
he also assisted Chanda Sahib on various occasions. Hy-
der Ali supported the claims of Muzaar Jung and later
sided with Salabat Jung.
Early in his career, Hyder Ali retained as one of his chief
nancial assistants a Brahmin named Khande Rao. Hy-
der Ali, who was illiterate, was reported to be blessed
with a prodigious memory and numerical acumen. Hyder
Ali could rival or outperform expert accountants with his
great arithmetic skills and worked to develop a system,
with Rao, that included checks and balances so sophis-
ticated that all manner of income, including plunder of
physical goods of all types, could be accounted for with
little possibility for fraud or embezzlement.[17] This nan-
cial management may have played a role in Hyder Alis
rise in power.[17]
In 1757 Hyder Ali was called to Seringapatam to sup-
port Devaraja against threats from Hyderabad and the
Marathas. Upon his arrival he found the Mysorean army
in disarray and near mutiny over pay. While Devaraja
21
bought his way out of the threats to Seringapatam, Hy-
der Ali arranged for the army to be paid and arrested
the ringleaders of the mutiny.[18] Hyder Ali then led the
Mysorean campaigns against the Nairs of Malabar (the
west coast of India).[19] For his role in these activities
Hyder Ali was rewarded by Devaraja with the jaghir (re-
gional governorship) of Bangalore.[20] In 1758 Hyder Ali
successfully forced the Marathas to lift a siege of Ban-
galore. By 1759 Hyder Ali was in command of the en-
tire Mysorean army.[18] The young raja Krishnaraja re-
warded Hyder Alis performance by granting him the ti-
tle Fath Hyder Bahadur or Nawab Hyder Ali Khan.[21][22]
Because of the ongoing conicts with the Marathas the
Mysorean treasury was virtually bankrupted, prompting
the queen mother to force into exile Nanjaraj, who had
assumed the position of dalwai upon his brothers death
in 1758.[19][20] Hyder Ali was a beneciary of this action,
rising in inuence in the court.[20]
In 1760 the queen mother conspired with Khande Rao,
who had gone into the rajas service, to oust Hyder Ali.
He was precipitously forced out of Seringapatam, leaving
his family, including his son Tipu Sultan, under house
arrest.[20][23] The sudden departure left Hyder Ali with
few resources. He may have been fortuitously aided at
this time by the faraway Third Battle of Panipat, in which
the Marathas suered a major defeat, Jan 1761. Because
of this loss, the Marathas withdrew forces from Mysore
and Hyder Alis brother-in-law Makdum Ali chased them
into Bidnur and Sunda.[24][25] Hyder Ali soon consoli-
dated his strength by placing Mirza Sahib as the com-
mander of Sira, Ibrahim Ali Khan in Bangalore and Amin
Sahib his cousin in Basnagar. Soon afterward Hyder Ali
marched alongside Makdum Alis forces, which num-
bered about 6,000, along with the 3,000 men from his
garrison at Bangalore, toward Seringapatam.[23]
They clashed with Khande Raos forces before reaching
the capital. Khande Rao, with 11,000 men, won the bat-
tle, and Hyder Ali was forced to apply to the exiled Nan-
jaraj for support. Nanjaraj gave him command of his
army, and the title of Dalwai.[25][26] With this force Hy-
der Ali again moved out against Khande Rao. The two
armies faced each other again, but a deception by Hyder
Ali convinced Khande Rao to ee instead of engaging in
battle. Hyder Ali sent letters appearing to be from Nan-
jaraj to some of Khande Raos commanders, conrm-
ing their agreement to hand Khande Rao over to Hyder
Ali. Fearing a conspiracy, Khande Rao ed into Seringa-
patam. After a minor battle against the now-leaderless
army, Hyder Ali took over most of its remnants and sur-
rounded Seringapatam.[27] The ensuing negotiations left
Hyder Ali in nearly complete military control of Mysore.
Concessions that he extracted included the surrender of
Khande Rao, who Hyder Ali imprisoned in Bangalore.[28]
22 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

2.2.3 Ruler of Mysore The taking of Bednore included several ports on the Mal-
abar coast, including Mangalore.[35] Hyder used these
After overthrowing Khande Rao, Hyder Ali founded the ports to establish a small navy. The documentary record
Sultanate of Mysore and formally styled himself Sultan on the navy is fragmentary;[36] Portuguese records indi-
Hyder Ali Khan in his correspondence with the Mughal cate that the eet was launched sometime between 1763
Emperor Shah Alam II. He was very cautious in his diplo- and 1765.[37] It was apparently ocered by Europeans,
macy with the Nizam of Hyderabad, who was, according and its rst admiral was an Englishman;[37] by 1768 its
to an ocial Mughal rman, the sovereign of all Muslim- admiral was a Mysorean cavalry ocer named Ali Bey
ruled territories in southern India.[19] (or Lutf Ali Beg),[38] apparently chosen by Hyder because
he did not trust the European captains.[37]
Seal of Mysore. Hyder had amicable relations with the Christian popu-
lation in Mangalore, which had long been under Por-
The ag of the Sultanate of Mysore at the entrance tuguese inuence and had a sizeable Roman Catholic
into the fort of Bangalore. population,[39] and with Christians in general. He had
a very close friendship with two Goan Catholic clergy-
[40]
2.2.4 Expansion and relationship with the men, Bishop Noronha and Fr. Joachim Miranda, and
allowed a Protestant missionary to live at his court.[41]
Mangalorean Catholics Hyders army also included Catholic soldiers, and he
allowed Christians to build a church at Seringapatam,
where French generals used to oer prayers and priests
used to visit. Mangalorean historian A. L. P. D'Souza
mentions that Hyder also had Christians in his admin-
istration. Pursuant to treaties concluded with the Por-
tuguese, he also allowed Portuguese priests to settle dis-
putes among Christians.[42] However, many Mangalore-
ans (not just Christians) disliked him for the heavy tax
burden he imposed on them.[43]

2.2.5 First war with the Marathas

Lal Bagh Gardens of Bangalore were originally laid out by Hy-
der Ali and were modelled on Mughal and French gardening
techniques.
Over the next few years Hyder expanded his territories
to the north. Two key acquisitions were Sira, taken from
the Marathas, and the kingdom of Bednore, where as a
casus belli he agreed to support a claimant to its throne
against usurpers.[29] In 1763 he took its capital, Ikkeri,
which included a large treasury.[30] He renamed the cap-
ital Haidernagar, and began styling himself Hyder Ali
Khan Bahadur, a title that had been bestowed on him
by Salabat Jung as reward for his taking of Sira.[31] He
moved most of his family to Ikkeri, a natural fortress, in
the hopes that it would serve him for a safe refuge.[32]
He assumed the trappings of the ruler of Bednore, be-
gan issuing coins, and established a system of weights and
measures. He made sure his son Tipu received a quality
education, employing learned tutors and appointing a
suitable hand of attendants to see to his upbringing.[33]
He cultivated a suspicion of foreigners, specically refus-
ing to allow the British to have a resident at his court.[33]
His security, however, was not assured in Bednore: a bout
of illness and a widespread conspiracy against him con-
vinced him that it would not make an ideal capital for his
domain, and he returned to Mysore.[34]
The Rani of Bednore had appealed to the Nawab of
Savanur for assistance when Hyder invaded. Hyder
consequently threatened the Nawab, attempting to ex-
tort tribute from him.[44] Failing in this, he overran
that territory, reaching as far as Dharwad, north of the
Tungabhadra River.[45] Since Savanur was a tributary of
the Marathas, the Peshwa countered with a strong force,
and defeated Hyder near Rattihalli. The Maratha victory
forced Hyder to retreat; he had to abandon Bednore, al-
though he was able to remove its treasures to Seringap-
atam. Hyder paid 35 lakhs rupees in tribute to end the
war, and returned most of his gains, although he did re-
tain Sira.[45][46]
In 1766 Hyder Ali returned to the Malabar, this time at
the invitation of the raja of Cannanore, who sought in-
dependence from the Zamorin, the ruler of Calicut who
held sway over Cannanore. Hyder also claimed a debt of
tribute from the Zamorin, who had supported Hyders op-
ponents in earlier campaigns. After a dicult campaign,
Hyder reached Calicut, where the Zamorin, after promis-
ing to make payment, failed to deliver. Hyder placed the
Zamorin under house arrest and had his nance minister
tortured. Fearing similar treatment, the Zamorin set re
to his palace and perished in the ames, ending Eradi dy-
nastic rule of Calicut.[47][48] After establishing control of
Calicut, Hyder departed, but was forced to return several
months later when the Nairs rebelled against the rule of
2.2. HYDER ALI
Hyder Ali in 1762, incorrectly described as the The head of his
army in the war against the British in India. (French painting)
his lieutenant, Reza Sahib. Hyders response was harsh:
after putting down the rebellion, many rebels were exe-
cuted, and thousands of others were forcibly relocated to
the Mysorean highlands.[47]
Mysores titular ruler Krishnaraja died in April 1766,
while Hyder was in Malabar. Hyder had left orders that
Krishnarajas son Nanjaraja Wodeyar be invested should
that happen, and he only later came to formally pay his
respects to the new rajah. He took advantage of this op-
portunity to engage in a sort of house cleaning: the rajas
palace was plundered, and its sta reduced to the point
where virtually everyone employed there was also a spy
for Hyder Ali.[49]
2.2.6 First Anglo-Mysore War
In 1766 Mysore began to become drawn into territorial
and diplomatic disputes between the Nizam of Hyder-
abad and the British East India Company, which had
by then become the dominant European colonial power
on the Indian east coast. The Nizam, seeking to de-
ect the British from their attempts to gain control of
the Northern Circars, made overtures to Hyder Ali to
launch an invasion of the Carnatic. Company repre- In early 1768, the British Bombay Presidency in Bombay
sentatives also appealed to Hyder Ali, but he rebued organised an expedition to Mysores Malabar coast terri-
them.[50] The Nizam then ostensibly struck a deal with tories. Hyder Alis eet, which the British reported as
23
Kishangiri fort was besieged in the rst Anglo-Mysore war in
1768, and nally surrendered to the English, who held it briey
the British Madras Presidency for their support, but ap-
parently did so with the expectation that when Hyder Ali
was prepared for war, the deal with the British would
be broken. This diplomatic maneouvring resulted in the
start of the First Anglo-Mysore War in August 1767
when a company outpost at Changama was attacked by
a combined Mysore-Hyderabad army under Hyder Alis
command.[51][52] Despite signicantly outnumbering the
British force (British estimates place the allied army
size at 70,000 to the British 7,000), the allies were re-
pulsed with heavy losses. Hyder Ali moved on to cap-
ture Kaveripattinam after two days of siege, while the
British commander at Changama, Colonel Joseph Smith,
eventually retreated to Tiruvannamalai for supplies and
reinforcements.[51][53] There Hyder Ali was decisively re-
pulsed on 26 September 1767.[54] With the onset of the
monsoon season, Hyder Ali opted to continue campaign-
ing rather than adopting the usual practice of suspending
operations because of the dicult conditions the weather
created for armies.[55] After over-running a few lesser
outposts, he besieged Ambur in November 1767, forc-
ing the British to resume campaigning.[56] The British
garrison commander refused large bribes oered by Hy-
der Ali in exchange for surrender, and the arrival of a
relief column in early December forced Hyder Ali to
lift the siege.[57] He retreated northward, covering the
movements of the Nizams forces, but was disheartened
when an entire corps of European cavalry deserted to the
British.[58] The failures of this campaign, combined with
successful British advances in the Northern Circars and
secret negotiations between the British and the Nizam
Asaf Jah II, led to a split between Hyder Ali and the
Nizam. The latter withdrew back to Hyderabad and even-
tually negotiated a new treaty with the British company
in 1768. Hyder Ali, apparently seeking an end to the
conict, made peace overtures to the British, but was
rebued.[59]
24
numbering about ten ships, deserted en masse, appar-
ently because the captains were unhappy with the ouster
of their British admirals and some even demanded the re-
turn of Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II, but Hyder Ali chose a
cavalry commander Lutf Ali Beg as eet commander.[60]
Owing to a British deception, Lutf Ali Beg also withdrew
much of the Mangalore garrison to move on what he per-
ceived to be the British target, Onore. The British con-
sequently occupied Mangalore with minimal opposition
in February.[61] This activity, combined with the loss of
the Nizam as an ally, prompted Hyder Ali to withdraw
from the Carnatic, and move with speed to Malabar. Dis-
patching his son Tipu with an advance force, Hyder Ali
followed, and eventually re-took Mangalore and the other
ports held by the over-extended British forces.[61][62] He
also levied additional taxes as punishment against rebel-
lious Nair districts that had supported the British.[62]
Asaf Jah II opposed the East India Company in 1766,[63] and
initially allied himself with Hyder Ali during the First Anglo-
Mysore War, particularly during the Battle of Chengam,[51][52]
then Battle of Rakshasbhuvan,[64] but later abandoned (in 1768)
and later intervened in favor of Mysore during the Battle of
Kharda in 1795.
After his reconquest, Hyder Ali learned that the Manga-
lorean Catholics had helped the British in their conquest
of Mangalore, behaviour he considered treasonous.[65]
He summoned a Portuguese ocer and several Christian
priests from Mangalore to suggest an appropriate punish-
ment to impose on the Mangalorean Catholics for their
treachery. The Portuguese ocer suggested the death
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
penalty for those Catholics who helped the British as a
typical punishment for the betrayal of ones sovereign.
But Hyder Ali exhibited a diplomatic stance and instead
imprisoned those Christians who were condemned for
treachery.[66] He afterwards opened negotiations with the
Portuguese, and reached an agreement with them that re-
moved suspicion from the clergy and other Christians.[67]
The Mangalorean Catholic community ourished during
the rest of Hyder Alis reign.[68]
During Hyder Alis absence from the Carnatic, the British
recovered many places that Hyder Ali had taken and
only weakly garrisoned, and advanced as far south as
Dindigul.[69] They also convinced the Marathas to en-
ter the conict, and a large force of theirs, under the
command of Morari Rao, joined with Colonel Smith at
Ooscota in early August 1768.[70] This army then be-
gan preparations to besiege Bangalore, but Hyder Ali
returned to Bangalore from Malabar on 9 August, in
time to harass the allies before the siege could begin.[71]
On 22 August, Hyder Ali and his Mysore forces at-
tacked the Maratha camp during the Battle of Ooscota,
but was repulsed when faced with the large Maratha
reinforcements.[72] Hyder Ali was then foiled in an at-
tempt to prevent the arrival of a second British col-
umn at the allied camp; the strength of these combined
forces convinced him to retreat from Bangalore toward
Gurramkonda, where he was reinforced by his brother
in law.[73] He also attempted diplomatic measures to pre-
vent a siege of Bangalore, oering to pay ten lakhs rupees
and grant other land concessions in exchange for peace.
The British countered with an aggressive list of demands
that included payments of tribute to the Nizam and larger
land concessions to the British East India Company. Hy-
der Ali specically refused to deal with Muhammed Ali
Khan Wallajah, his nemesis in the Carnatic. The negoti-
ations failed to reach common ground.[73]
On 3 October, Hyder Ali, while moving his army from
Guuramkonda back toward Bangalore, surprised a small
garrison of Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah's men at a
rock fort call Mulwagal, near Ooscota. British reinforce-
ments were sent, and Colonel Wood was able to recover
the lower fort but not the upper. The next day he went
out with a few companies of men to investigate move-
ments that might have been cover for enemy reinforce-
ments. This small force, numbering four companies, was
surrounded by Hyder Alis entire army in the Battle of
Mulwagal.[74] A strategem by another ocer, Colonel
Brooks, prevented the loss of this detachment; Colonel
Brooks and another two companies dragged two can-
nons to the top of a nearby rise, and Brooks called out
Smith! Smith!" while ring the cannons.[75] Both sides
interpreted this to mean that Colonel Smith was arriving
in force, and Hyders troops began to retreat. This en-
abled Colonel Wood to join with Brooks and other re-
inforcements from Mulwagal before Hyder Ali realised
his tactical error.[75] Hyder Ali renewed his attack, but
was eventually repulsed with heavy losses: he was es-
2.2. HYDER ALI
timated to lose 1,000 men while the British lost about
200.[76] The severity of the conict convinced Colonel
Smith that he would be unable to eectively besiege Ban-
galore without rst inicting a major defeat on Hyder Ali
in open battle.[77] Company ocials blamed Smith for
the failure to decisively defeat Hyder Ali, and recalled
him to Madras. Hyder Ali took the opportunity to be-
siege Hosur, and Colonel Wood marched in relief of the
town. As Wood approached, Hyder Ali raised the siege,
sneaked around Woods column, and attacked his bag-
gage train in a battle near Bagalur. Hyder Ali successfully
captured supplies and arms, and drove Wood in disgrace
toward Venkatagiri.[78] Wood was consequently recalled
and replaced by Colonel Lang.[79]
Hyder Ali then raised additional forces in Mysore and
went on the oensive. In November 1768 he split
his army into two, and crossed the ghats into the Car-
natic, regaining control of many minor posts held by
the British.En route to Erode Hyder Ali overwhelmed
one contingent of British, who were sent as prisoners
to Seringapatam when it was established that one of
its ocers was ghting in violation of a parole agree-
ment. After rapidly establishing control over much of
the southern Carnatic, his march approached Madras.[79]
This prompted the British to send an envoy to discuss
peace; because of Hyder Alis insistence that the Nawab
of the Carnatic be excluded from the negotiations,they
went nowhere. Hyder Ali then surprised Company au-
thorities by taking a picked force of 6,000 cavalry and a
small number of infantry, and made in three days a forced
march of 130 miles (210 km) to the gates of Madras.[80]
This show of force compelled the Company to negotiate
further. Hyder Ali, who was seeking diplomatic leverage
against the Marathas, wanted an alliance of mutual de-
fence and oence.[81] The Company refused to accede to
an oensive military treaty; the treaty signed at Madras
on 29 March 1769,restored the status quo ante bellum, ex-
cept for Mysores acquisition of Karur, and also included
language that each side would help the other defend its
territory. In summarising Hyder Alis conduct of the
war, biographer Lewin Bowring notes that he evinced
high qualities as a tactician and the sagacity of a born
diplomatist.[82]
2.2.7 Arab, Persian and Turkish relations
When Hyder took over the Malabar territories, he took
advantage of the coastal access to develop relations with
trading partners overseas. To this end he established port
taris that were biased against European traders and pref-
erential for Mysorean and Arab traders. Beginning in
1770 he sent ambassadors to Abu Hilal Ahmad bin Said
in Muscat and Karim Khan in Shiraz, then the capital
of Persia, seeking military and economic alliances. In
a 1774 embassy to Karim Khan, the ruler of Persia, he
sought to establish a trading post on the Persian Gulf.
Karim responded by oering Bandar Abbas, but nothing
25
further seems to have passed between them on the sub-
ject. Karim Khan later did send 1,000 troops to Mysore
in 1776 in response to another embassy in 1775. Nur-
sullah Khan, Hyders ambassador, had more success in
Muscat, where a trading house was established in 1776.
During the nal years of his reign Hyder Ali also planned
to send an embassy to the Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III,
but it was his son Tipu Sultan who succeeded in making
direct contact with Istanbul.[83]
Hyder Ali sent ambassadors to Abu Hilal Ahmad bin
Said in Muscat.
Hyder Ali sent ambassadors to Shah of Persia Karim
Khan.
Hyder Ali sent letters to Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III.
2.2.8 Second war with the Marathas
Hyder, believing he would be supported by the British
in conict with the Marathas, began demanding trib-
ute payments from smaller states on the frontiers be-
tween Maratha and Mysore territories, and refused to pay
tributes demanded by the Marathas. The Marathas re-
sponded in November 1770 with an invasion by an army
of 35,000 men.[84] Pursuant to their treaty, Hyder re-
quested British assistance. The Company refused,and
Hyder retreated, slashing and burning as he went to deny
the bounty of the land to the Marathas.[85] The Marathas
captured much of north-eastern Mysore,and consolidated
their gains during the monsoon season. Hyder oered
to pay some of the tribute demanded,but his oer was
rejected as insucient,and the Marathas renewed the
oensive after the monsoons.[86] They advanced to the
vicinity of Seringapatam, and then feinted a withdrawal
to the north. When Hyder followed, they turned in force,
and claimed to inict serious casualties on Hyders army,
and captured most of its baggage.[87] They then fruitlessly
besieged Seringapatam for ve weeks, before abandoning
the eort and instead took Bangalore. Hyder again ap-
pealed to the British for help, but their pre-conditions and
proposed terms were unacceptable to him, and an attempt
by Hyder to get them to go on the oensive scuttled the
negotiations.[88] In 1772 Hyder nally sued for peace. He
agreed to pay 3.6 million rupees in tribute arrears, and 1.4
million rupees in annual tribute, and ceded territory all
the way to Bangalore.[89] Upon his return to Seringapatam
after the peace was concluded, Hyder learned that Nan-
jaraja, the titular ruler of Mysore, had been engaged in se-
cret communications with the Marathas. Hyder ordered
Nanjaraja strangled, and placed his brother Chamaraja on
the throne.[90]
The peace with the Marathas was short-lived. The
Peshwa Madhavrao I died late in 1772, beginning a strug-
gle for his succession. In 1773, Hyder used this op-
portunity to send Tipu with an army to recover terri-
tories lost to the Marathas to the north, while he de-
26 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

Mysorean army.[97]

2.2.9 Second Anglo-Mysore War

Main article: Second Anglo-Mysore War
During the lengthy conict with the Marathas, Hyder had

Hyder Alis melee forces in battle.

scended into Coorg, which provided a more secure route

to the Malabar territories he wanted to recover from the
Marathas.[91] A claimant to the Coorg throne had asked
for Hyders assistance in 1770 when he was pre-occupied
with the Marathas.[92] He quickly captured Coorgs cap-
ital, Merkara, imprisoning Raja Vira Rajendra. He in-
stalled a Brahmin (a caste unpopular with the Coorgs) as
Governor to collect revenues before continuing to Mal-
abar, where by the end of 1774 he had recovered all his
lost territory.[93] The Coorgs rose in rebellion against his
Governor, upon which Hyder returned to Coorg, crushed
the rebellion, and hanged most of the ring-leaders.[94]
This did not stop the restive Coorgs from becoming a
continuing problem for Hyder, and for, Tipu after his
death.[95] Theater map for the First and the Second Anglo-Mysore Wars
In 1776 the young Raja Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII died.
To choose a successor, Hyder had all of the children of the several times requested the assistance of the British East
royal family brought together, and watched them play. A India Company, and it had each time been refused, in
child, also named Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, chose to play part due to the inuence at Madras, of Hyders enemy,
with a jewelled dagger, and was supposedly selected on the Nawab of Arcot.[98] The British had also angered the
that basis as the new Raja of Mysore.,[94] Marathas by repudiating treaties, with whom they were at
[99]
By March 1775, the leadership situation at Poona, the war for much of the 1770s, and they had also upset the
Maratha capital, had stabilised, and the Marathas joined Nizam of Hyderabad Asaf Jah II over their occupation of
[100]
an alliance with the Nizam of Hyderabad to oppose Hy- Guntur.
der. The Maratha army was routed by one of Hyders In 1771, Maratha envoys had approached Hyder with a
Generals in 1776, and Hyder either bribed or suciently proposal to unite against the British, with the goal of
threatened the Nizams military leaders so that they with- wresting control of eastern India from their inuence.
drew from the campaign.[96] This only temporarily halted Since Hyder was at the time still attempting alliance
the conict, which was fought with renewed vigor until with the British, he informed them of this oer, not-
1779. Hyder successfully extended his domain to the ing that he thought the Marathas would gain too much
Krishna River after a lengthy siege of Dharwad. In a power and even threaten his own position under those
controversial action, Hyder in 1779, dealt harshly with circumstances.[101] The Marathas, still at war with the
Madakari Nayaka, the ruler of Chitradurga. Madakari British, renewed an oer of alliance in 1779. In this
had supported Hyder in earlier conicts, but in 1777 case, the alliance was to include the Nizam.[99] His de-
had changed allegiance to the Marathas. After seizing cision to join this alliance was prompted by two British
Chitradurga, Hyder sent Madakari Nayaka to Seringap- actions. The rst was the British capture by capitulation
atam as a prisoner, where he died. Hyder further sent of the west-coast port of Mah, part of a concerted ef-
20,000 of Madakaris followers to Seringapatam, where fort by the British to take all French out-posts following
the boys among them were allegedly forcibly converted the 1778 French entry into the American Revolutionary
to Islam and formed into so-called chela battalions in the War. Hyder received much of his French-supplied equip-
2.2. HYDER ALI 27

ment through this French-controlled port, and had pro-

vided troops for its defence.[102] Furthermore, the British
action had provoked the Nairs on the Malabar coast to rise
in rebellion again, although Hyder had quickly put this
down. The second oence was the movement of British
troops through territory under his control (and also other
territory controlled by the Nizam) from Madras to Gun-
tur. There was a skirmish in the hills, and the British
detachment ended up retreating to Madras.[103]
Hyder Ali began rebuilding his navy in 1778.Employ-
ing Joze Azelars,a Dutchman,he had built 8 Ketches each
containing 3 masts and 40 cannons and 8 smaller Dhows.
When the war broke out in 1779, Joze Azelars noted that
the Brahmans and their allies made every possible ef-
fort to halt progress of the newly rebuilt navy based at
Bhatkal.[104]
The allies planned to make virtually simultaneous at-
tacks on British holdings all throughout India, while the
Marathas agreed to honour Hyders claims to territories
he currently held north of the Tungabhadra River and re-
duced the amount of tribute he was required to pay under
earlier agreements. Hyder expected to receive assistance
from the French, especially in the Carnatic, the territory
he sought to conquer.[105] However, diplomatic actions
by Governor Warren Hastings and the Company success-
fully convinced both the Nizam and the Marathas not to Hyder Alis military experience during the Carnatic Wars allowed
take up arms, and Hyder ended up ghting the war on his him to ght a series of wars against the British East India Com-
own.[106] He successfully gained alliances with Ali Raja pany during the Anglo-Mysore Wars.
Bibi Junumabe II of Cannanore and the Muslim Mappila
community and later even met with Muslim Malays from
Melacca, who were under Dutch service. (14 km) away were seen in Madras.[108] Hyder himself or-
ganised the Siege of Arcot, while detaching his son Karim
Khan Sahib to take Porto Novo. The movement in Au-
A British illustration of Sayed Sahib leading Hyder
gust of Sir Hector Munro with a force of over 5,000 from
Alis forces during the Siege of Cuddalore.
Madras to Kanchipuram (Conjeevaram) prompted Hy-
The Battle of Pollilur, where the forces of Hyder der to lift the siege of Arcot and move to confront him.
Ali eectively used Mysorean rockets and Rocket Word then arrived that Munro was awaiting the arrival of
artillery against closely massed British forces. reinforcements from Guntur under Colonel William Bail-
lie, so he sent a detachment under Tipu to intercept them,
Pierre Andr de Suren ally of Hyder Ali. and eventually followed in strength himself, when Munro
sent a force from his army to meet Baillie.[109] Tipu and
Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau ally of Hyder Ali. Hyder surrounded Baillies force, and compelled the sur-
render of about 3,000 men in the Battle of Pollilur on 10
French Admiral Suren (with the support of Hyder September; it was the worst defeat of British troops in In-
Ali) comes to the aid of Reynier van Vlissingen's dia to date.[110] Hyder then renewed the siege of Arcot,
Dutch forces against the British Admiral Hughes. which fell in November.[111]
Shortly after the outbreak of hostilities, Governor Hast-
Descent upon the Carnatic ings had sent General Sir Eyre Coote south from Ben-
gal to take charge of British forces opposing Hyder. He
The army Hyder assembled was one of the largest arrived at Madras in November to take command from
seen in southern India, estimated to number 83,000.[107] Munro.[111] Coote marched into the Carnatic, and even-
Carefully co-ordinating the actions of his subordi- tually occupied Cuddalore.[112] After being re-supplied
nate commanders, he swept down the Eastern Ghats there, he besieged Chidambram, where an assault on the
onto the coastal plain in July 1780, laying waste the fort was repulsed.[113]
countryside.[107] Due to Hyders secrecy and poor British Hyder had in the mean-time descended into Tanjore, with
intelligence, ocials in Madras were unaware of his severe consequences. After extracting the allegiance of
movements until the res of burning villages just 9 miles the Maratha king Thuljaji, Hyder plundered the country,
28
Baille surrenders to Hyder Ali.
destroying cattle and crops.[114] The economic output of
Tanjore is estimated to have fallen by 90% between 1780
and 1782.[115] Hyders ravages were followed by alleged
expeditions of plunder launched by the Kallars. The eco-
nomic devastation wrought by these attacks was so severe
that Tanjores economy did not recover until the start of
the 19th century; the era is referred to in local folklore as
the Hyderakalam.[114]
With General Coote at Cuddalore, Hyder then made
a forced march to interpose his army between Chi-
dambram and Cuddalore, cutting Cootes supply line.
Coote marched to face him, and won a decisive victory in
the Battle of Porto Novo on 1 July 1781; Coote estimated
that Hyder lost 10,000 men in the battle.[116] Hyder then
dispatched Tipu in an attempt to prevent the junction of
Cootes army with reinforcements from Bengal.[117] This
failed, and in late August the two armies met again at
Pollilur, chosen by Hyder as a place to make a stand, be-
cause it was the site of his victory over Baillie the previ-
ous year.[118] Hyder was however defeated this time, but
the battle was not decisive.[119] While Coote re-grouped
and searched for provisions, Hyder took the opportu-
nity to besiege Vellore.[120] Madras authorities convinced
the ageing Coote to put o his retirement and relieve
the fortress there.[121] Hyder and Coote met in battle at
Sholinghur, near Vellore. Hyders artillery was ineec-
tive, and the re-provisioned Vellore, which had been on
the brink of surrender.[122]
Lord Macartney, who had recently arrived to take the
Governorship of Madras, also brought news that Britain
was at war with the Dutch.[123] Consequent to this, the
Company was instructed to seize Dutch holdings in India,
and Macartney had ordered a detachment from Tanjore,
under Colonel Braithwaite, to capture the main Dutch
post at Negapatam. Hyder made an agreement with the
Dutch to provide troops for its defence, but was himself
forced away from Negapatam by Braithwaite.[124] The
British took Negapatam after three weeks of siege in Oc-
tober and November 1781.[125] This setback forced Hy-
der to withdraw from most of Tanjore.[126]
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
In January 1782, General Coote, his health failing,
again set out to re-provision Vellore. Hyder did
not prevent the re-supply, but shadowed the British
back toward Tripassore, oering battle near Sholinghur.
Coote successfully manoeuvred away from Hyder with-
out battle.[127] In February, Hyder detached Tipu with a
sizeable force to recover Tanjore. Intelligence failures
led the main British garrison to become surrounded by
this superior force; Colonel Brathwaite and 2,000 men
surrendered. Hyder was also pre-occupied by bad news
from the west. A Mysorean force that had been besieg-
ing Tellicherry was broken, with its commander and his
siege guns captured, and Coorg and Malabar were also
descending into open rebellion. Hyder consequently sent
forces west to deal with these matters, and was preparing
to follow himself when word arrived on 10 March that
a French force had landed at Porto Novo. Hyder imme-
diately sent Tipu from Tanjore to meet with them, and
followed himself from Arcot. At this time he had a cele-
brated meeting with the French Admiral Suren, and the
allies agreed on a plan to establish Cuddalore as a French
base. Cuddalore was occupied without resistance on 8
April, and Hyders army,joined by the French, marched
toward Permacoil, which fell in May. Coote responded
by marching toward Arni, where Hyder had a major sup-
ply depot. Hyder and the French had been considering
an assault on Wandiwash, but abandoned that idea and
marched to face Coote. They skirmished there on 2 June.
In August the British landed a force on the Malabar coast,
to which Hyder responded by sending additional troops
under Tipu to the west. The onset of the monsoon sea-
son then suspended most military activity on the eastern
plain, and Hyder established his camp near Chittoor.
2.2.10 Death
He was a bold, an original, and an enterprising comman-
der, skilful in tactics and fertile in resources, full of en-
ergy and never desponding in defeat. He was singularly
faithful to his engagements and straightforward in his pol-
icy towards the British...his name is always mentioned in
Mysore with respect, if not with admiration.
Bowring,[128]
Hyder, who had suered from a cancerous growth on his
back, died in his camp on 6 December 1782. Some other
accounts record it as 7 December 1782 and some his-
torical accounts in the Persian language record the death
in dates ranging from Hijri 1 Moharram 1197 to Hijri
4 Moharram 1197 in the Islamic calendar. The dier-
ences in recorded dates may be due to the lunar calendar
and the dierences in moon sightings in the surrounding
kingdoms.
Hyders advisers tried to keep his death a secret until Tipu
could be recalled from the Malabar coast. Upon learn-
ing of his fathers death Tipu immediately returned to
Chittoor to assume the reins of power. His accession
2.2. HYDER ALI
Tomb of Hyder Ali.
was not without problems: he had to put down an at- British were unable to stop Suren's eet in 1781.[135]
tempt by an uncle to place Tipus brother Abdul Karim
on the throne.[14] The British learned of his death within
48 hours of its occurrence, but the dilatory attitude of 2.2.12 Military rocket innovations
Cootes replacement, James Stuart, meant that they were
unable to capitalise on it militarily.
Hyder Ali was buried at the Gumbaz in Seringapatam, Hyder Ali was an innovator in the military use of rockets,
the mausoleum raised by his son Tippu Sultan in 1782
84.[129]
2.2.11 Mysore Navy
French Admiral Suren meeting with Hyder Ali in 1782, J.B.
Morret engraving, 1789.
In 1763, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan established their rst
Navy eet on the Malabar Coast,under the command of
Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II a large and well armed eet con-
sisting of 10 dhows and 30 larger ketches in the Indian
Ocean, in his attempts to conquer islands that had with-
stood the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.[130] In 1763 his
eet sailed from Lakshadweep and Cannanore carrying
on board sepoys and on its pennons the colours and em-
blems of Hyder Ali, and captured the Maldives.
Ali Raja returned to Mysore to pay homage to Hyder Ali,
presenting him the captured and blinded Sultan of the
Maldives Hasan 'Izz ud-din. Outraged at this excess, Hy-
der Ali stripped Ali Raja of the command of his eet.[131]
29
Hyder Ali, like his son Tipu Sultan protected foreign mer-
chantss ships,and the Mysore navy is even known to have
protected and convoyed Chinese merchantss ships in the
region.[132][133][134]
In 1768, Hyder Ali lost 2 garbs and 10 gavilats to the
British East India Company's naval attack. He was left
with 8 garbs and 10 galivats, most of them damaged be-
yond repair.[135]
On 19 February 1775, two of Hyder Alis ketches at-
tacked the HMS Seahorse, which drove them o after a
brief exchange of re.
On 8 December 1780 Edward Hughes attacked Hy-
der Alis eet causing considerable damage once again.
Mysore is known to have lost some of the best ships it ever
constructed in that naval-battle at Mangalore.[136] But the
Main article: Mysorean rockets
The Mysore rockets utilised eectively during the Anglo-Mysore
Wars, and were later updated by the British into the Congreve
rockets, which were successively employed during the Napoleonic
wars and the War of 1812.
which were used against positions and territories held
by the British East India Company during the Anglo-
Mysore Wars. Although rocket technology originated
in China and had made its way to India and Europe by
the 13th century, development of accurate cannons had
sidelined rockets as a military technology in Europe.[137]
Rocket technology was already in use when Hyders fa-
ther served (he commanded a company of 50 rocketmen),
but it was Hyder who improved them and signicantly
expanded their use in the military. Technological inno-
vations included the use of high-quality iron casing (bet-
ter than was then available in Europe) for the combus-
tion chamber, enabling the use of higher-powered explo-
sive charges. He also organised companies of rocketmen
who were experienced in aiming rockets based on the
size of the rocket and the distance to the target. Rock-
ets could also be mounted on carts that improved their
30 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

mobility and made possible the ring of large numbers [12] Bowring, p. 26
of them all at once.[7] Rockets developed by Hyder and
[13] Bowring, p. 27
Tipu led to a renaissance of interest in the technology in
Britain, where William Congreve, supplied with rocket [14] Brittlebank, p. 22
cases from Mysore, developed what became known as
Congreve rockets in the early 19th century.[138] [15] Ramaswami, p. 183

In Hyders time the Mysorean army had a rocket corps of [16] Ramaswami, pp. 182,204209
as many as 1,200 men, which Tipu increased to 5,000.
[17] Wilks, pp. 217218
At the 1780 Battle of Pollilur, during the second war,
Colonel William Baillies ammunition stores are thought [18] Bowring, p. 29
to have been detonated by a hit from one of Hyders rock-
ets, contributing to the British defeat.[139] [19] Rao Punganuri, p.5

[20] Brittlebank, p. 19

2.2.13 Family [21] Bowring, p. 30

Details are sketchy on Hyders personal life. He had [22] Rao Punganuri, p. 6
at least two wives. His second wife was Fakhr-un- [23] Rao Punganuri, p. 8
nissa, the mother of Tipu, his brother Karim, and a
daughter.[140][141] He may have also married the sis- [24] Marathas and the English Company 17071818 by
ter of Abdul Hakim Khan, the Nawab of Savanur; Sanderson Beck. San.beck.org. Retrieved on 4 March
Bowring describes it as a marriage, but Punganuri Raos 2012.
translator, citing Wilks, claims this was a concubine [25] Bowring, p. 32
marriage.[140][142] Karim and the daughter were both
married to Abdul Hakims children to cement an alliance [26] Rao Punganuri, p. 9
in 1779.[142] [27] Bowring, p. 33

[28] Rao Punganuri, p. 10

2.2.14 See also
[29] Bowring, p. 34
Muslim warriors
[30] Bowring, p. 38
Joseph Franois Dupleix [31] Bowring, pp. 34,39
Mughal weapons [32] Brittlebank, pp. 2021

[33] Brittlebank, p. 21
2.2.15 Notes
[34] Bowring, p. 39
[1] Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar [35] Rao Punganuri, p. 13
Books. p. 21. ISBN 8187879572. Retrieved 19 January
2013. [36] Sen, p. 147
[2] KHUDADAD The Family of Tipu Sultan GENEALOGY [37] Sen, p. 149

[3] Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar [38] Sen, p. 148
Books. p. 24. ISBN 8187879572. Retrieved 19 January
2013. [39] Machado, p. 167

[4] Bowring, p. 13 [40] Farias, p. 65

[5] Bowring, p. 12 [41] Silva, p. 99

[6] de la Tour, p. 34 [42] D'Souza, p. 28

[7] Narasimha et al, p. 120 [43] Christianity in Mangalore. Diocese of Mangalore.

Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved
[8] Rao Punganuri, p. 1 30 July 2008.

[9] Brittlebank, p. 18 [44] Chitnis, pp. 5355

[10] Rao Punganuri, p. 2 [45] Bowring, p. 41

[11] Bowring, p. 23 [46] Rao Punganuri, p. 15

2.2. HYDER ALI 31

[47] Bowring, pp. 4446 [83] Hasan, pp. 114

[48] Lethbridge, p. 94 [84] Du, p. 669

[49] Wilks, p. 294 [85] Du, p. 670

[50] Du, p. 652 [86] Du, p. 671

[51] Bowring, p. 49 [87] Du, p. 672

[52] Wilks, p. 312 [88] Du, p. 673

[53] Wilks, p. 311 [89] Du, p. 674

[54] Bowring, p. 50 [90] Bowring, p. 63

[55] Wilks, p. 322 [91] Bowring, p. 64

[56] Wilks, p. 323 [92] Bowring, p. 65

[57] Wilks, p. 324 [93] Bowring, pp. 66,68

[58] Wilks, p. 326 [94] Bowring, p. 68

[59] Wilks, pp. 328329 [95] Journal of the United Service Institution, p. 165

[60] Sen, pp. 147148 [96] Bowring, pp. 6971

[61] Wilks, p. 331 [97] Bowring, pp. 7275

[62] Bowring, p. 51 [98] Bowring, p. 82

[63] Regani, p. 130 [99] Bowring, p. 80

[64] HISTORY MARATHA PERIOD. Nasik District [100] Bowring, p. 81

Gazetteer. Archived from the original on 31 August 2010.
Retrieved 4 September 2010. [101] Bowring, p. 83

[65] Silva, p. 90 [102] Bowring, p. 84

[66] de la Tour, p. 236 [103] Bowring, p. 85

[67] Silva, pp. 103104 [104] War, Culture, Society in Early Modern South
Asia, 17401849 Kaushik Roy Google Books.
[68] Silva, p. 105 Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved on 4 March 2012.

[69] Bowring, p. 52 [105] Bowring, p. 87

[70] Wilks, p. 340 [106] Bowring, p. 100

[71] Wilks, pp. 341342 [107] Bowring, p. 88

[72] Wilks, p. 342 [108] Bowring, pp. 8889

[73] Bowring, p. 53 [109] Bowring, pp. 9091

[74] Wilks, p. 346 [110] Bowring, p. 92

[75] Wilks, p. 347 [111] Bowring, p. 93

[76] Wilks, p. 348 [112] Wilks pp. 470474

[77] Bowring, p. 54 [113] Wilks, p. 475

[78] Bowring, p. 55 [114] Subramanian, p. 64

[79] Bowring, p. 56 [115] Subramanian, p. 65

[80] Bowring, p. 57 [116] Bowring, pp. 9495

[81] Du, p. 668 [117] Wilks, p. 482

[82] Bowring, p. 58 [118] Bowring, p. 96

 32
[119] Wilks, pp. 488
[120] Bowring, p. 97
[121] Wilks, pp. 489490
[122] Bowring, pp. 9798
[123] Bowring, p. 99
[124] Wilks, p. 501
[125] Wilks, pp. 501502
[126] Wilks, p. 502
[127] Wilks, p. 504
[128] History Raghunath Rai Google Books.
Books.google.com.pk. Retrieved on 4 March 2012.
[129] Joseph, Baiju (21 July 2012). Gumbaz The Burial
Chamber of Tipu Sultan, the Tiger of Mysore. The Home
of Nostalgic Moments A Photographic Journey & Book
Mark of Memories. Retrieved 21 September 2015.
[130] de la Tour, p. 63
[131] de la Tour, p. 64
[132] https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=Foreign+
merchants+were+granted+protection%2C+and+
the+Mysore+navy+protected+the+Chinese+merchants+
ships+from+piracy.&oq=Foreign+merchants+were+
granted+protection%2C+and+the+Mysore+navy+
protected+the+Chinese+merchants+ships+from+piracy.
&aqs=chrome..69i57.1767j0j7&sourceid=chrome&
es_sm=93&ie=UTF-8#q=Foreign+merchants+
were+granted+protection,+and+the+Mysore+navy+
protected+the+Chinese+merchants+ships+from+piracy.
&tbm=bks
[133] https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=
OT9uAAAAMAAJ&q=Mysore+navy+Chinese&
dq=Mysore+navy+Chinese&hl=en&sa=X&
ei=Dm9aVb7ZKtGouwSO_IHYBg&ved=
0CCYQ6AEwAg
[134] https://www.google.com.pk/search?q=Foreign+
merchants+were+granted+protection%2C+and+
the+Mysore+navy+protected+the+Chinese+merchants+
ships+from+piracy.&oq=Foreign+merchants+were+
granted+protection%2C+and+the+Mysore+navy+
protected+the+Chinese+merchants+ships+from+piracy.
&aqs=chrome..69i57.1767j0j7&sourceid=chrome&
es_sm=93&ie=UTF-8#tbm=bks&q=Mysore+navy+
Chinese
[135] https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=
zp0FbTniNaYC&pg=PA21&dq=mysore+navy&hl=
en&sa=X&ei=2GRaVaiaCdO4uASw2oG4Cw&ved=
0CDQQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=mysore%20navy&f=
false
[136] https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=
zcEcBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA169&dq=mysore+navy&
hl=en&sa=X&ei=D2VaVZDpItahugTtlIK4BQ&ved=
0CB0Q6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=mysore%20navy&
f=false
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
[137] Narasimha et al, p. 118
[138] Narasimha et al, p. 122
[139] Narasimha et al, pp. 120121
[140] Bowring, p. 77
[141] Punganuri Rao, p. 3
[142] Punganuri Rao, p. 28
2.2.16 References
Bowring, Lewin (1899). Haidar Al and Tip
Sultn, and the Struggle with the Musalmn Pow-
ers of the South. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC
11827326.
Brittlebank, Kate (1999). Tipu Sultans Search for
Legitimacy. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-563977-3. OCLC 246448596.
Chitnis, Krishnaji Nageshrao (2000). The Nawabs
of Savanur. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and
Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7156-521-4. OCLC
231937582.
D'Souza, A. L. P (1983). History of the Catholic
Community of South Kanara. Mangalore: Desco
Publishers. OCLC 11536326.
Du, James Grant (1878). History of the Mahrattas,
Volume 1. London and Bombay: Times of India.
OCLC 23116888.
Farias, Kranti K (1999). The Christian Impact on
South Kanara. Mumbai: Church History Associa-
tion of India. OCLC 46399552.
Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). Waqai-i Manazil-i Rum:
Tipu Sultans Mission to Constantinople. New Delhi:
Aakar Books. ISBN 978-81-87879-56-5. OCLC
70065314.
Lethbridge, Sir Roger (1893). The Golden Book
of India: A Genealogical and Biographical Dictio-
nary of the Ruling Princes, Chiefs, Nobles, and Other
Personages, Titled or Decorated, of the Indian Em-
pire. London and New York: Macmillan. OCLC
3104377.
Machado, Alan (1999). Sarasvatis Children: A
History of the Mangalorean Christians. Bangalore:
I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-25-8.
Narasimha, Roddam; Srinivasan, Jagannathan;
Biswas, S. K (2003). The Dynamics of Technol-
ogy: Creation and Diusion of Skills and Knowl-
edge. New Delhi: Sage Publications. ISBN 978-
0-7619-9670-5. OCLC 231988745.
2.3. TIPU SULTAN 33

Ramaswami, N. S (1984). Political History of Car- Tipu Sultan ( Urdu: , Kannada :

natic Under the Nawabs. Abhinav Publications. ) (20 November 1750 4 May 1799), (Sultan
ISBN 978-0-8364-1262-8. OCLC 234299187. Fateh Ali Khan Shahab[2] ) also known as the Tiger of
Mysore, and Tipu Sahib,[3] was a ruler of the Kingdom
Rao Punganuri, Ram Chandra; Brown, Charles of Mysore. He was the eldest son of Sultan Hyder Ali
Philip (trans, ed) (1849). Memoirs of Hyder and of Mysore.[4] Tipu introduced a number of administra-
Tippoo: Rulers of Seringapatam, Written in the tive innovations during his rule, including his coinage,
Mahratta Language. Madras: Simkins. OCLC a new Mauludi lunisolar calendar,[5] and a new land
123942796. Rao Punganuri was, according to revenue system which initiated the growth of Mysore
Brown, in the employ of both Hyder and Tipu. silk industry.[6] Tipu expanded the iron-cased Mysorean
rockets and wrote the military manual Fathul Mujahidin,
Sen, Surendra Nath (1993). Studies in Indian His-
considered a pioneer in the use of rocket artillery.[7] He
tory: Historical Records at Goa. New Delhi: Asian
deployed the rockets against advances of British forces
Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0773-6.
and their allies in their 1792 and 1799 Siege of Sriranga-
OCLC 257994044.
patna.
Shastry, Bhagamandala Seetharama (2000). Goa- Napoleon, the French commander-in-chief who later be-
Kanara Portuguese relations, 14981763. New came emperor, sought an alliance with Tipu. In al-
Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 978- liance with the French in their struggle with the British,
81-7022-848-6. OCLC 231906384. and in Mysores struggles with other surrounding pow-
ers, both Tipu and his father used their French trained
Silva, Severine (1957). History of Christianity in army[8] against the Marathas, Sira, and rulers of Malabar,
Canara. Kumta, Uttara Kannada: Star of Kanara Kodagu, Bednore, Carnatic, and Travancore. During
Press. OCLC 39000665. Tipus childhood, his father rose to take power in Mysore,
Subramanian, K. R (1928). The Maratha Rajas of and upon his fathers death in 1782, Tipu succeeded to a
Tanjore. Mylapore, Madras: self-published. OCLC large kingdom bordered by the Krishna River in the north,
249773661. the Eastern Ghats in the east, and the Arabian Sea in the
west.[9] He won important victories against the British in
Tour, Maistre de la; Mohammed, Gholam (1855). the Second Anglo-Mysore War, and negotiated the 1784
The History of Hyder Shah, Alias Hyder Ali Khan Treaty of Mangalore with them after his father Hyder Ali
Bahadur. London: W. Thacker. OCLC 65664006. suddenly died from cancer in December 1782 during the
Biography of Hyder and memoir by one of his Second Anglo-Mysore War.
French ocers; coauthor Gholam Mohammed was Tipu engaged in expansionist attacks against his neigh-
Tipu Sultans son. bours. He remained an implacable enemy of the British
East India Company, bringing them into renewed conict
Wilks, Mark (1869). Historical Sketches of the
with his attack on British-allied Travancore in 1789. In
South of India, in an Attempt to Trace the history
the Third Anglo-Mysore War, Tipu was forced into the
of Mysoor (Second ed.). Madras: Higginbotham.
humiliating Treaty of Seringapatam, losing a number of
OCLC 460735564.
previously conquered territories, including Malabar and
Journal of the United Service Institution of India, Mangalore. He sent emissaries to foreign states, includ-
Volume 32. New Delhi: United Service Institution ing the Ottoman Turkey, Afghanistan, and France, in an
of India. 1903. OCLC 1770956. attempt to rally opposition to the British. In the Fourth
Anglo-Mysore War, the forces of the British East India
Company, supported by the Marathas and the Nizam of
2.2.17 Further reading Hyderabad, defeated Tipu and he was killed on 4 May
1799 while defending his fort of Srirangapatna. Tipu Sul-
Gidwani, Bhagwan S (1976). The Sword of Tipu tans image in India is complicated where he is regarded
Sultan: a historical novel about the life and legend both as a secular ruler who fought against British colo-
of Tipu Sultan of India. Allied Publishers. OCLC nialism as well as an anti-Hindu tyrant.
173807200.

2.3.1 Early years of Tipu Sultan

2.3 Tipu Sultan Childhood

For the mosque in Calcutta, India, see Tipu Sultan Tipu Sultan was born on 20 November 1750 (Friday,
Mosque. For the ships of the Pakistan Navy, see PNS 20th Dhu al-Hijjah, 1163 AH) at Devanahalli,[1] in
Tippu Sultan. present-day Bengaluru Rural district, about 33 km (21
mi) north of Bengaluru city. He was named Tipu Sul-
34
Tipu Sultan confronts his opponents during the Siege of Sriran- feet and hands; he had large full eyes, small arched eye-
gapatna.
tan after the saint Tipu Mastan Aulia of Arcot. Tipu was
also called Fath Ali after his grandfather Fatah Muham-
mad. Tipu was born at Devanhalli, the son of Haidar Ali.
Himself illiterate, Haidar was very particular in giving his
eldest son a princes education and a very early exposure
to military and political aairs. From the age of 17 Tipu
was given independent charge of important diplomatic
and military missions. He was his fathers right arm in
the wars from which Haidar emerged as the most power-
ful ruler of southern India.
Tipus father, Hyder Ali, was a military ocer in ser-
vice to the Kingdom of Mysore; he rapidly rose in power,
and became the de facto ruler of Mysore in 1761. Hy-
der himself claimed descent from the Quraysh tribe of
Arabs, the tribe of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Hy-
ders father, Fatah Muhammad, was born in Kolar, and
served as a commander of 50 men in the bamboo rocket
artillery (mainly used for signalling) in the army of the
Nawab of Carnatic. Fatah Muhammad eventually en-
tered the service of the Wodeyar Rajas of the Kingdom
of Mysore. Tipus mother Fatima Fakhr-un-Nisa was the
daughter of Mir Muin-ud-Din, the governor of the fort of
Kadapa. Hyder Ali appointed able teachers to give Tipu
an early education in subjects like Hindustani language
(Hindi-Urdu), Persian, Arabic, Kannada, Quran, Islamic
jurisprudence, riding, shooting and fencing. Tipus wife
was Sindh Sultan and grandson was Sahib sindh Sultan.[1]
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
Early military service
A intlock blunderbuss, built for Tipu Sultan in Srirangapatna,
179394. Tipu Sultan used many Western craftsmen, and this
gun reects the most up-to-date technologies of the time.[10]
Tipu Sultan was instructed in military tactics by French
ocers in the employment of his father. At age 15, he
accompanied his father against the British in the First
Mysore War in 1766. He commanded a corps of cavalry
in the invasion of Carnatic in 1767 at age 16. He also
distinguished himself in the First Anglo-Maratha War of
17751779.[11]
Alexander Beatson, who published a volume on the
Fourth Mysore War entitled View of the Origin and Con-
duct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun, described Tipu Sul-
tan as follows: His stature was about ve feet eight
inches; he had a short neck, square shoulders, and was
rather corpulent: his limbs were small, particularly his
brows, and an aquiline nose; his complexion was fair, and
the general expression of his countenance, not void of
dignity.[12]
Second Anglo-Mysore War
Main article: Second Anglo-Mysore War
In 1779, the British captured the French-controlled port
of Mah, which Tipu had placed under his protection,
providing some troops for its defence. In response, Hy-
der launched an invasion of the Carnatic, with the aim of
driving the British out of Madras.[13] During this cam-
paign in September 1780, Tipu Sultan was dispatched
by Hyder Ali with 10,000 men and 18 guns to intercept
Colonel Baillie who was on his way to join Sir Hector
Munro. In the Battle of Pollilur, Tipu decisively defeated
Baillie. Out of 360 Europeans, about 200 were captured
alive, and the sepoys, who were about 3800 men, suered
very high casualties. Munro was moving south with a sep-
arate force to join Baillie, but on hearing the news of the
defeat he was forced to retreat to Madras, abandoning his
artillery in a water tank at Kanchipuram.[14]
Tipu Sultan defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi
near Tanjore on 18 February 1782. Braithwaites forces,
consisting of 100 Europeans, 300 cavalry, 1400 sepoys
and 10 eld pieces, was the standard size of the colonial
armies. Tipu Sultan seized all the guns and took the en-
tire detachment prisoner. In December 1781 Tipu Sultan
successfully seized Chittur from the British. Tipu Sultan
2.3. TIPU SULTAN 35

Mural of the Battle of Pollilur on the walls of Tipus summer

palace, painted to celebrate his triumph over the British.

had thus gained sucient military experience by the time

Hyder Ali died on Friday, 6 December 1782 some his- Tipu Sultan seated on his throne, by Anna Tonelli
torians put it at 2 or 3 days later or before, (Hijri date
being 1 Muharram, 1197 as per some records in Persian started by his father Hyder Ali, and built roads, public
there may be a dierence of 1 to 3 days due to the Lu- buildings, and ports in his kingdom. His dominion ex-
nar Calendar). Tipu Sultan realised that the British were tended throughout North Bangalore including the Nandi
a new kind of threat in India. He became the ruler of Hills and Chickballapur. His trade extended to countries
Mysore on Sunday, 22 December 1782 (The inscriptions such as Sri Lanka, Oman, Durrani Afghanistan, France,
in some of Tipus regalia showing it as 20 Muharram, Ottoman Turkey and Iran. Under his leadership, the
1197 Hijri Sunday), in a simple coronation ceremony. Mysore army proved to be a school of military science
He then worked to check the advances of the British by to Indian princes. The serious blows that Tipu Sultan in-
making alliances with the Marathas and the Mughals. icted on the British in the First and Second Mysore Wars
The Second Mysore War came to an end with the 1784 aected their reputation as an invincible power.
Treaty of Mangalore. It was the last occasion when an
Indian king dictated terms to the British, and the treaty is
a prestigious document in the history of India.

Tanjore abductions The war is also remembered for

alleged excesses committed by Hyder Ali and Tipu Sul-
tan in Tanjore.[15] During the period of occupation which
lasted six months, Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan are believed
to have impoverished the country, destroying crops and
cattle.[15] As late as 1785, the Dutch missionary Christian
Friedrich Schwarz describes Tipus alleged abduction of
12,000 children from the region.[15] The economic output
of Tanjore is estimated to have fallen by 90% between
1780 and 1782.[16] The ravages of Hyder and Tipu were
followed by alleged expeditions of plunder launched by Tipu Sultans summer palace at Srirangapatna, Karnataka
the Kallars. The economic devastation wrought by these
attacks was so severe that Tanjores economy did not re- Dr APJ Abdul Kalam, the former President of India, in
cover until the start of the 19th century; the era is referred his Tipu Sultan Shaheed Memorial Lecture in Bangalore
to in local folklore as the Hyderakalam.[15] (30 November 1991), called Tipu Sultan the innovator of
the worlds rst war rocket. Two of these rockets, cap-
tured by the British at Srirangapatna, are displayed in the
2.3.2 Ruler of the Mysore State Royal Artillery Museum in London. According to histo-
rian Dr Dulari Qureshi Tipu Sultan was a erce warrior
Muhammad Falak Ali taught Tipu how to ght. While king and was so quick in his movement that it seemed to
leading a predominantly Hindu country, Tipu remained the enemy that he was ghting on many fronts at the same
strong in his Muslim faith, going daily to say his prayers time.[18] Tipu managed to subdue all the petty kingdoms
and paying special attention to mosques in the area.[17] in the south. He defeated the Nizams and was also one
During his rule, he completed the project of Lal Bagh of the few Indian rulers to have defeated British armies.
36 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

He is said to have started a new coinage, calendar, and and a new conict with the Russian Empire had begun,
a new system of weights and measures mainly based on for which Ottoman Turkey needed British alliance to keep
the methods introduced by French technicians. He was o the Russians, hence it could not risk being hostile to
well versed in Kannada, Urdu, Persian, Arabic, English the British in the Indian theatre. Due to the Ottoman-
and French. Tipu was supposed to become a Su, but his inability to organise a eet in the Indian Ocean, Tipu
father Hyder Ali insisted he become a capable soldier and Sultans ambassadors returned home only with gifts from
leader. their Ottoman allies, this event caused his defeat and loss
of much territory by the year 1792. Nevertheless, Tipu
Sultans correspondence with the Ottoman Turkish Em-
Foreign relations
pire and particularly its new Sultan Selim III continued
till his nal battle in the year 1799.[23]
Tipu sought support from the French, who had been his
traditional allies, aimed at driving his main rivals, the
British East India Company, out of the subcontinent. But
back in France, the French revolution had broken out,
the ruling Bourbon family was executed and the coun-
try was in chaos, hence the French did not support him.
Napoleon, while still not the Emperor of France, sought
an alliance with Tipu Sultan. Napoleon came as far as
In his attempts to junction with Tipu Sultan, Napoleon annexed conquering Egypt in an attempt to link with Tipu Sultan
Ottoman Egypt in the year 1798. against the British, their common enemy. In February
1798, Napoleon wrote a letter to Tipu Sultan appreci-
Both Hyder Ali ismaael and Tipu Sultan were indepen- ating his eorts of resisting the British annexation and
dent rulers of Mysore, but claimed some degree of loy- plans, but this letter never reached Tipu and was seized
alty to the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II. Both of them by a British spy in Muscat. The idea of a possible Tipu-
are known to have maintained correspondence with the Napoleon alliance alarmed the British Governor General
Mughal emperor. Unlike the Nawab of Carnatic, neither Sir Richard Wellesley (also known as Lord Wellesley) so
owed any allegiance to the Nizam of Hyderabad and often much that he immediately started large scale preparations
instead chose direct contact and relations with the Mughal for a nal battle against Tipu Sultan.
emperor.[19]
Immediately after his coronation, Tipu Sultan sought the
investiture of the Mughal emperor. Nizam Ali Khan,
the Nizam of Hyderabad, clearly expressed his hostil-
ity by dissuading the Mughal emperor and laying false
claims onto Mysore. Disheartened but not disappointed,
Tipu Sultan began to establish contacts with other Mus-
lim rulers of that period.[20]
After the eunuch Ghulam Qadir had Shah Alam II
blinded on 10 August 1788, Tipu Sultan is believed to
have broken into tears.[21] After facing substantial threats
from the Marathas, Tipu Sultan began to correspond with
Zaman Shah Durrani, the ruler of the Afghan Durrani
Empire, so they could defeat the British and Marathas.[22]
Initially, Zaman Shah agreed to help Tipu, but the Per- Tipu Sultans forces during the Siege of Srirangapatna.
sian attack on Afghanistans Western border diverted its
forces, and hence no help could be provided to Tipu. Both Tipu Sultan and Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte were
In the year 1787, Tipu Sultan sent an embassy to the defeated by the same person. In the Final siege and fall
Ottoman capital Istanbul, to the Ottoman Sultan Abdul of Srirangapatna in 1799, General Arthur Wellesley led
Hamid I requesting urgent assistance against the British the British army into the City after the fall of Tipu Sul-
East India Company and had proposed an oensive and tan. Arthur was the younger brother of Richard Welles-
defensive consortium. Tipu Sultan requested the Ot- ley, and was one of the British Generals in the Fourth
toman Sultan to send him troops and military experts. Mysore War. Several years later in Europe, the same
Furthermore, Tipu Sultan also requested permission from Arthur Wellesley, now the Duke of Wellington, led the
the Ottomans to contribute to the maintenance of the armies of the Seventh Coalition and defeated the Impe-
Islamic shrines in Mecca, Medina, Najaf and Karbala. rial French army led by Napoleon Bonaparte in the Battle
However, the Ottomans were themselves at crisis and still of Waterloo in 1815.
recuperating from the devastating Austro-Ottoman War Like his father before him, Tipu Sultan maintained many
2.3. TIPU SULTAN 37

embassies and made several contacts with Mohammad to the Tungabhadra river. This forced Tipu to open nego-
Ali Khan, ruler of the Zand Dynasty in Persia. Tipu tiations with the Maratha leadership. He sent two of his
Sultan also maintained correspondence with Hamad bin agents to the Maratha capital of Pune. The deal that was
Said, the ruler of the Sultanate of Oman.[24] nalised resulted in the Marathas recovering their terri-
Regional interests and clever British diplomacy left Tipu tories which had been invaded by Mysore. Furthermore,
with more enemies and betrayers, but no allies when he the Nizam of Hyderabad received Adoni and Mysore was
needed them the most the nal showdown with the obligated to pay 4.8 million rupees as a war cost to the
British in the Fourth Mysore War. Marathas, and an annual tribute of 1.2 million rupees; in
return the Marathas recognised the rule of Tipu in the
Mysore region.[26]
War against the Maratha Confederacy
The Malabar Invasion of Sultanate of Mysore (1766
1790)

In 1766, when Tipu Sultan was just 15 years old, he got

the chance to apply his military training in battle for the
rst time, when he accompanied his father on an invasion
of Malabar. After the incident- Siege of Tellicherry in
Thalassery in North Malabar,[27] Hyder Ali started losing
his territories in Malabar. Tipu came from Mysore to re-
instate the authority over Malabar. After the Battle of the
Nedumkotta (1789), due to the monsoon ood, the sti
resistance of the Travancore forces and news about the
attack of British in Srirangapatnam he went back.[28][29]

Third Anglo-Mysore War

Main article: Third Anglo-Mysore War

In 1789, Tipu Sultan disputed the acquisition by

Tipu Sultan like his father before him, opposed the existence of
the Maratha Confederacy.

The Maratha Empire, under its new Peshwa Madhavrao

I, regained most of Indian subcontinent, twice defeating
Tipus father, who was forced to accept Maratha Empire
as the supreme power in 1764 and then in 1767. In 1767
Maratha Peshwa Madhavrao defeated both Hyder Ali and
Tipu Sultan and entered Srirangapatna, the capital of
Mysore. Hyder Ali accepted the authority of Madhavrao
who gave him the title of Nawab of Mysore.[25] However
Tipu Sultan wanted to escape from the treaty of Marathas
and therefore tried to take some Maratha forts in south-
ern India. This brought Tipu in direct conict with the
Marathas, who sent an army towards Mysore under lead-
ership of General Nana Phadnavis. The Marathas took
many forts of Tipu Sultan in the Mysore region Badami,
Kittur, and Gajendragad in June 1786. By the victory in
this war, the border of the Maratha territory was extended
Cannon used by Tipu Sultans forces at the battle of
Srirangapatna 1799
Dharma Raja of Travancore of two Dutch-held fortresses
in Cochin. In December 1789 he massed troops at
Coimbatore, and on 28 December made an attack on
the lines of Travancore, knowing that Travancore was
(according to the Treaty of Mangalore) an ally of the
British East India Company. On account of the staunch
resistance by the Travancore army, Tipu was unable to
break through the Tranvancore lines and the Maharajah
of Travancore appealed to the East India Company for
help. In response, Lord Cornwallis mobilised company
38
Very small Cannon used by Tipu Sultans forces now in Govern-
ment Museum (Egmore), Chennai
and British military forces, and formed alliances with the
Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad to oppose Tipu.
In 1790 the company forces advanced, taking control of
much of the Coimbatore district. Tipu counterattacked,
regaining much of the territory, although the British con-
tinued to hold Coimbatore itself. He then descended into
the Carnatic, eventually reaching Pondicherry, where he
attempted without success to draw the French into the
conict.
General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultans sons as
hostages in the year 1793.
In 1791 his opponents advanced on all fronts, with the
main British force under Cornwallis taking Bangalore and
threatening Srirangapatna. Tipu harassed the British sup-
ply and communication and embarked on a scorched
earth policy of denying local resources to the invaders.
In this last eort he was successful, as the lack of provi-
sions forced Cornwallis to withdraw to Bangalore rather
than attempt a siege of Srirangapatna. Following the
withdrawal, Tipu sent forces to Coimbatore, which they
retook after a lengthy siege.
The 1792 campaign was a failure for Tipu. The allied
army was well-supplied, and Tipu was unable to pre-
vent the junction of forces from Bangalore and Bombay 2.3.3
before Srirangapatna. After about two weeks of siege,
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
Tipu opened negotiations for terms of surrender. In the
ensuing treaty, he was forced to cede half his territories to
the allies,[11] and deliver two of his sons as hostages until
he paid in full three crores and thirty lakhs rupees xed
as war indemnity to the British for the campaign against
him. He paid the amount in two instalments and got back
his sons from Madras.
Napoleons attempt at a junction
Louis XVI receives the ambassadors of Tipu Sultan in 1788.
Tipu Sultan is known to have sent many diplomatic missions to
France, the Ottoman Empire, Sultanate of Oman, Zand Dynasty
and Durrani Empire.[30]
Main article: Franco-Indian alliances
In 1794, with the support of French Republican o-
cers, Tipu helped found the Jacobin Club of Mysore for
'framing laws comfortable with the laws of the Republic'
He planted a Liberty Tree and declared himself Citizen
Tipoo.[31]
One of the motivations of Napoleons Invasion of Egypt
was to establish a junction with India against the British.
Bonaparte wished to establish a French presence in the
Middle East, with the ultimate dream of linking with Tip-
poo Sahib.[32] Napoleon assured to the French Directory
that as soon as he had conquered Egypt, he will establish
relations with the Indian princes and, together with them,
attack the English in their possessions.[33] According to
a 13 February 1798 report by Talleyrand: Having occu-
pied and fortied Egypt, we shall send a force of 15,000
men from Suez to India, to join the forces of Tipu-Sahib
and drive away the English.[33] Napoleon was unsuccess-
ful in this strategy, losing the Siege of Acre in 1799, and
at the Battle of Abukir in 1801.[34]
Death
2.3. TIPU SULTAN
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
Main article: Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
After Horatio Nelson had defeated Franois-Paul Brueys
Umdat ul-Umara the Nawab of the Carnatic was a covert ally
of Tipu Sultan.
D'Aigalliers at the Battle of the Nile in Egypt in 1798,
three armies, one from Bombay, and two British (one of
which included Arthur Wellesley), marched into Mysore
in 1799 and besieged the capital Srirangapatna in the
Fourth Mysore War.[35]
There were over 26,000 soldiers of the British East India
Company comprising about 4000 Europeans and the rest
Indians. A column was supplied by the Nizam of Hy-
derabad consisting of ten battalions and over 16,000 cav-
alry, and many soldiers were sent by the Marathas. Thus
the soldiers in the British force numbered over 50,000
soldiers whereas Tipu Sultan had only about 30,000 sol-
diers. The British broke through the city walls, French
Military advisers advised Tipu Sultan to escape from se-
cret passages and live to ght another day but to their as-
tonishment Tipu replied One day of life as a Tiger is far
39
The Last Eort and Fall of Tipu Sultan by Henry Singleton, c.
1800
The spot in Srirangapatana where Tipus body was found
better than thousand years of living as a Sheep. Tipu
Sultan died defending his capital on 4 May. When the
fallen Tipu was identied, Wellesley felt his pulse and
conrmed that he was dead. Next to him, underneath
his palankeen, was one of his most condential servants,
Rajah Cawn. Rajah was able to identify Tipu for the sol-
diers. Tipu Sultan was killed at the Hoally (Diddy) Gate-
way, which was located 300 yards (270 m) from the N.E.
Angle of the Srirangapatna Fort.[36] Tipu was buried the
next afternoon, at the Gumaz, next to the grave of his fa-
ther. In the midst of his burial, a great storm struck, with
massive winds and rains. As Lieutenant Richard Bayly of
the British 12th regiment wrote,
I have experienced hurricanes, typhoons,
and gales of wind at sea, but never in the whole
course of my existence had I seen anything
comparable to this desolating visitation.[37]
Immediately after the death of Tipu Sultan many mem-
bers of the British East India Company believed that
Umdat Ul-Umra, the Nawab of Carnatic, secretly pro-
vided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the war and im-
mediately sought his deposition after the year 1799.
40 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

2.3.4 Leadership, policy, and innovations Mysorean Navy

Tipu introduced a new calendar, new coinage, and seven In 1786 Tipu Sultan, again following the lead of his fa-
new government departments, during his reign, and made ther, decided to build a navy consisting of 20 battleships
military innovations in the use of rocketry. of 72 cannons and 20 frigates of 62 cannons. In the year
1790 he appointed Kamaluddin as his Mir Bahar and
established massive dockyards at Jamalabad and Majid-
Mysorean rockets abad. Tipu Sultans board of admiralty consisted of 11
commanders in service of a Mir Yam. A Mir Yam led 30
admirals and each one of them had two ships. By the year
Main article: Mysorean rockets
1789 most of Tipu Sultans ships had copper-bottoms, an
Tipu Sultans father had expanded on Mysores use of
idea that increased the longevity of the ships and was in-
troduced to Tipu by Admiral Suren.[38]

2.3.5 Religious policy

As a Muslim ruler in a largely Hindu domain, Tipu Sul-
tan faced problems in establishing the legitimacy of his
rule, and in reconciling his desire to be seen as a devout
Islamic ruler with the need to be pragmatic to avoid antag-
onising the majority of his subjects. His religious legacy
has become a source of considerable controversy in the
subcontinent. Some groups proclaim him a great warrior
for the faith or Ghazi, while others revile him as a bigot
Tipu Sultan organised his Rocket artillery brigades known as
who massacred Hindus.[39][40][41]
Cushoons, Tipu Sultan expanded the number of servicemen in In 1780, he declared himself to be the Badshah or Em-
the various Cushoons from 1500 to almost 5000. The Mysorean peror of Mysore, and struck coinage in his own name
rockets utilised by Tipu Sultan, were later updated by the British without reference to the reigning Mughal Emperor Shah
and successively employed during the Napoleonic Wars. Alam II. H. D. Sharma writes that, in his correspon-
dence with other Islamic rulers such as Zaman Shah of the
rocketry, making critical innovations in the rockets them- Afghan Durrani Empire, Tipu Sultan used this title and
selves and the military logistics of their use. He deployed declared that he intended to establish an Islamic empire in
as many as 1,200 specialised troops in his army to operate the entire country, along the lines of the Mughal Empire,
rocket launchers. These men were skilled in operating the which was at its decline during the period in question. He
weapons and were trained to launch their rockets at an an- even invited Zaman Shah to invade India to help achieve
gle calculated from the diameter of the cylinder and the this mission.[42] His alliance with the French was suppos-
distance to the target. The rockets had blades mounted edly aimed at achieving this goal by driving his main ri-
on them, and could wreak signicant damage when red vals, the British, out of the subcontinent. During the early
en masse against a large army. Tipu greatly expanded the period of Tipu Sultans reign in particular, he appears to
use of rockets after Hyders death, deploying as many as have been as strict as his father against any non-Muslim
5,000 rocketeers at a time. The rockets deployed by Tipu accused of collaboration with the British East India Com-
during the Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced pany or the Maratha.[41]
than those the British East India Company had previously
seen, chiey because of the use of iron tubes for holding
the propellant; this enabled higher thrust and longer range Attitude towards Hindus
for the missiles (up to 2 km range).[7]
Conversions of Hindus outside Mysore to Islam
British accounts describe the use of the rockets during Main article: Captivity of Kodavas at Seringapatam
the third and fourth wars. During the climactic battle
at Srirangapatna in 1799, British shells struck a maga-
zine containing rockets, causing it to explode and send
a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of ex- Kodagu (Coorg) The battles between Kodavas and
ploding white light rising up from the battlements. Af- Tippu Sultan is one of the most bitter rivalries in South
ter Tipus defeat in the fourth war the British captured a India. There were repeated attempts to capture Kodagu
number of the Mysorean rockets. These became inuen- by the sultan and his father Hyder Ali before him. The
tial in British rocket development, inspiring the Congreve primary reason for sultans interest in Kodagu because an-
rocket, which was soon put into use in the Napoleonic nexing Kodagu would provide access to Mangalore port.
Wars.[7] The Kodavas knew their lands and mountains very well
2.3. TIPU SULTAN
which made them excellent at guerrilla warfare. Ko-
davas were outnumbered 3 to 1 in most of Tippus at-
tempts to annex Kodagu but they managed to beat back
Tippu most of the times by drawing his army towards hilly
regions of their land. On few occasions Tippus army
managed to reach Madikeri(Capital of Kodagu) but the
Kodavas always ambushed the contingent left behind by
Tippu. Kodavas refusal to bow to the sultan was primar-
ily because throughout their history they enjoyed inde-
pendence, though there were Rajahs ruling over them,
governance of the land mainly rested with Kodavas. Af-
ter capturing Kodagu on another occasion, Tippu pro-
claimed, If you ever dare to ambush my men again, I
will honor everyone of you with Islam, undeterred, the
resilient Kodavas ambushed his men yet again and drove
them back to Mysore. By now Tippu realized conven-
tional warfare would never yield him Kodagu. He devised
a plan to annex Kodagu by oering his friendship. His
oer of friendship was welcomed by Kodavas as the bat-
tles with the Sultan over the years had cost them dearly.
When Kodavas welcomed Sultan to their land in the name
of friendship, the Sultan and his men attacked them and
took thousands as prisoners. Tipu got Runmust Khan,
the Nawab of Kurnool, to launch a surprise attack upon
the Kodava Hindus who were besieged by the invading
Muslim army. 500 were killed and over 40,000 Ko-
davas ed to the woods and concealed themselves in the
mountains.[43] Thousands of Kodavas were seized along
with the Raja and held captive at Seringapatam. Aguably,
they were thought to be subjected to forcible conversions
to Islam, death, and torture.[44]
In Seringapatam, the young men were all forcibly cir-
cumcised and incorporated into the Ahmedy Corps, and
were formed into eight Risalas or regiments.[43] The ac-
tual number of Kodavas that were captured in the oper-
ation is unclear. The British administrator Mark Wilks
gives it as 70,000, Historian Lewis Rice arrives at the g-
ure of 85,000, while Mir Kirmanis score for the Coorg
campaign is 80,000 men, women and child prisoners.[43]
Mohibbul Hasan, Prof. Sheikh Ali, and other histori-
ans cast great doubt on the scale of the deportations and
forced conversions in Coorg in particular. Hassan says
that it is dicult to estimate the real number of Coorgs
captured by Tipu.[45]
In a letter to Runmust Khan, Tipu himself stated:[46]
We proceeded with the utmost speed, and,
at once, made prisoners of 40,000 occasion-
seeking and sedition-exciting Coorgis, who
alarmed at the approach of our victorious
army, had slunk into woods, and concealed
themselves in lofty mountains, inaccessible
even to birds. Then carrying them away from
their native country (the native place of sedi-
tion) we raised them to the honour of Is-
lam, and incorporated them into our Ahmedy
corps.
41
[47]
Kasaragod (near Mangalore) Tipu sent a letter on 19
January 1790 to the Governor of Bekal (near Kasaragod),
Budruz Zuman Khan. It says:
Don't you know I have achieved a great
victory recently in Malabar and over four lakh
Hindus were converted to Islam? I am de-
termined to march against that cursed Raman
Nair (Rajah of Travancore) very soon. Since
I am overjoyed at the prospect of converting
him and his subjects to Islam, I have happily
abandoned the idea of going back to Sriranga-
patanam now.[48]
Malabar Main article: Captivity of Nairs at Seringap-
atam
North Malabar In 1788, Tipu entered into Malabar to
quell a rebellion. Nairs were surrounded with oers of
death or circumcision. Chirakkal's Nair Raja who was re-
ceived with distinctions for surrendering voluntarily was
later hanged. Tipu then divided Malabar into districts,
with three ocers in each district given the task of num-
bering productive trees, collecting revenue and giving re-
ligious orders to Nairs.
Calicut (Kozhikode) In 1788, Tipu ordered his gover-
nor in Calicut Sher Khan to begin the process of convert-
ing Hindus to Islam, and in July of that year, 200 Brah-
mins were forcibly converted.[49]
Inscriptions On the handle of the sword presented
by Tipu to Marquess Wellesley was the following
inscription:[50]
My victorious sabre is lightning for the
destruction of the unbelievers. Ali, the Emir
of the Faithful, is victorious for my advan-
tage, and moreover, he destroyed the wicked
race who were unbelievers. Praise be to him
(God), who is the Lord of the Worlds! Thou
art our Lord, support us against the people who
are unbelievers. He to whom the Lord giveth
victory prevails over all (mankind). Oh Lord,
make him victorious, who promoteth the faith
of Muhammad. Confound him, who refuseth
the faith of Muhammad; and withhold us from
those who are so inclined from the true faith.
The Lord is predominant over his own works.
Victory and conquest are from the Almighty.
Bring happy tidings, Oh Muhammad, to the
faithful; for God is the kind protector and is the
42
most merciful of the merciful. If God assists
thee, thou will prosper. May the Lord God as-
sist thee, Oh Muhammad, with a mighty great
victory.
During a search of his palace in 1795, some gold medals
were found in the palace, on which the following was in-
scribed on one side in Persian: Of God the bestower of
blessings, and the other: victory and conquest are from
the Almighty. These were carved in commemoration
of a victory after the war of 1780.[51] The following is a
translation of an inscription on the stone found at Seringa-
patam, which was situated in a conspicuous place in the
fort:[50]
Oh Almighty God! dispose the whole
body of indels! Scatter their tribe, cause
their feet to stagger! Overthrow their coun-
cils, change their state, destroy their very root!
Cause death to be near them, cut o from them
the means of sustenance! Shorten their days!
Be their bodies the constant object of their
cares (i.e., infest them with diseases), deprive
their eyes of sight, make black their faces (i.e.,
bring shame).
Temples and ocers in Mysore Tipu Sultans trea-
surer was Krishna Rao, Shamaiya Iyengar was his Min-
ister of Post and Police, his brother Ranga Iyengar was
also an ocer, and Purnaiya held the very important post
of Mir Asaf. Moolchand and Sujan Rai were his chief
agents at the Mughal court, and his chief Peshkar, Suba
Rao, was also a Hindu.[52] Editor of Mysore Gazettes
Srikantaiah has listed 156 temples to which Tipu regu-
larly paid annual grants. There is such evidence as grant
deeds, and correspondence between his court and tem-
ples, and his having donated jewellery and deeded land
grants to several temples, which some claim he was com-
pelled to do to make alliances with Hindu rulers. Be-
tween 1782 and 1799 Tipu Sultan issued 34 Sanads
(deeds) of endowment to temples in his domain, while
also presenting many of them with gifts of silver and gold
plate. The Srikanteswara Temple in Nanjangud still pos-
sesses a jewelled cup presented by the Sultan.[53] He also
gave a greenish linga; to Ranganatha temple at Sriranga-
patna he donated seven silver cups and a silver camphor
burner. This temple was hardly a stones throw from his
palace from where he would listen with equal respect to
the ringing of temple bells and the muezzin's call from
the mosque;[54] to the Lakshmikanta Temple at Kalale he
gifted four cups, a plate and Spitoon in silver.[55][56]
Sringeri incident In 1791, Maratha army raided the
temple and matha of Sringeri Shankaracharya, killing
and wounding many, and plundering the monastery
of all its valuable possessions.[57] The incumbent
Shankaracharya petitioned Tipu Sultan for help. A
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
bunch of about 30 letters written in Kannada, which were
exchanged between Tipu Sultans court and the Sringeri
Shankaracharya were discovered in 1916 by the Direc-
tor of Archaeology in Mysore. Tipu Sultan expressed his
indignation and grief at the news of the raid:
People who have sinned against such a
holy place are sure to suer the consequences
of their misdeeds at no distant date in this Kali
age in accordance with the verse: Hasadbhih
kriyate karma rudadbhir-anubhuyate (People
do [evil] deeds smilingly but suer the conse-
quences crying).[58]
He immediately ordered the Asaf of Bednur to supply the
Swami with 200 rahatis (fanams) in cash and other gifts
and articles. Tipu Sultans interest in the Sringeri temple
continued for many years, and he was still writing to the
Swami in the 1790s CE.[59]
Controversial gure In light of this and other events,
B.A. Saletare has described Tipu Sultan as a defender
of the Hindu dharma, who also patronised other tem-
ples including one at Melkote, for which he issued a
Kannada decree that the Shrivaishnava invocatory verses
there should be recited in the traditional form. The tem-
ple at Melkote still has gold and silver vessels with inscrip-
tions indicating that they were presented by the Sultan.
Tipu Sultan also presented four silver cups to the Lak-
shmikanta Temple at Kalale.[60] Tipu Sultan does seem
to have repossessed unauthorised grants of land made
to Brahmins and temples, but those which had proper
sanads were not. It was a normal practice for any ruler,
Muslim or Hindu, on his accession or on the conquest of
new territory. The portrayal of Tipu Sultan as a secular
leader is disputed, and some sources, largely left-leaning
scholars from the 20th century, suggest that he in fact of-
ten embraced religious pluralism.
Historian C. Hayavadana Rao wrote about Tipu in his en-
cyclopaedic court history of Mysore. He asserted that
Tipus religious fanaticism and the excesses commit-
ted in the name of religion, both in Mysore and in the
provinces, stand condemned for all time. His bigotry, in-
deed, was so great that it precluded all ideas of toleration.
He further asserts that the acts of Tipu that were con-
structive towards Hindus were largely political and osten-
tatious rather than an indication of genuine tolerance.[61]
Attitude towards Christians
Main article: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at
Seringapatam
Tipu is regarded to be anti-Christian by some
historians.[62][63][64] The captivity of Mangalorean
Catholics at Seringapatam, which began on 24 February
1784 and ended on 4 May 1799, remains the most
disconsolate memory in their history.[65]
2.3. TIPU SULTAN
The Barcoor Manuscript reports him as having said: All
Musalmans should unite together, and considering the an-
nihilation of indels as a sacred duty, labour to the utmost
of their power, to accomplish that subject.[66] Soon af-
ter the Treaty of Mangalore in 1784, Tipu gained control
of Canara.[67] He issued orders to seize the Christians
in Canara, conscate their estates,[68] and deport them
to Seringapatam, the capital of his empire, through the
Jamalabad fort route.[69] However, there were no priests
among the captives. Together with Fr. Miranda, all
the 21 arrested priests were issued orders of expulsion
to Goa, ned Rupees 200,000, and threatened death by
hanging if they ever returned.[66]
Tipu ordered the destruction of 27 Catholic churches, all
beautifully carved with statues depicting various saints.
Among them included the Church of Nossa Senhora de
Rosario Milagres at Mangalore, Fr Mirandas Seminary at
Monte Mariano, Church of Jesu Marie Jose at Omzoor,
Chapel at Bolar, Church of Merces at Ullal, Imaculata
Conceico at Mulki, San Jose at Perar, Nossa Senhora dos
Remedios at Kirem, Sao Lawrence at Karkal, Rosario at
Barkur, Immaculata Conceio at Baidnur.[66] All were
razed to the ground, with the exception of The Church of
Holy Cross at Hospet, owing to the friendly oces of the
Chauta Raja of Moodbidri.[70]
According to Thomas Munro, a Scottish soldier and
the rst collector of Canara, around 60,000 people,[71]
nearly 92 percent of the entire Mangalorean Catholic
community, were captured; only 7,000 escaped. Francis
Buchanan gives the numbers as 70,000 captured, from a
population of 80,000, with 10,000 escaping. They were
forced to climb nearly 4,000 feet (1,200 m) through the
jungles of the Western Ghat mountain ranges. It was
210 miles (340 km) from Mangalore to Seringapatam,
and the journey took six weeks. According to British
Government records, 20,000 of them died on the march
to Seringapatam. According to James Scurry, a British
ocer, who was held captive along with Mangalorean
Catholics, 30,000 of them were forcibly converted to Is-
lam. The young women and girls were forcibly made
wives of the Muslims living there.[72] The young men
who oered resistance were disgured by cutting their
noses, upper lips, and ears.[73] According to Mr. Silva
of Gangolim, a survivor of the captivity, if a person who
had escaped from Seringapatam was found, the punish-
ment under the orders of Tipu was the cutting o of the
ears, nose, the feet and one hand.[74] Gazetteer of South
India describes Tipu Sultan forcibly circumcising 30,000
West Coast Christians and deporting them to Mysore[75]
Tipus persecution of Christians even extended to cap-
tured British soldiers. For instance, there were a signi-
cant number of forced conversions of British captives be-
tween 1780 and 1784. Following their disastrous defeat
at the 1780 Battle of Pollilur, 7,000 British men along
with an unknown number of women were held captive by
Tipu in the fortress of Seringapatnam. Of these, over 300
were circumcised and given Muslim names and clothes
43
and several British regimental drummer boys were made
to wear ghagra cholis and entertain the court as nautch
girls or dancing girls. After the 10-year-long captivity
ended, James Scurry, one of those prisoners, recounted
that he had forgotten how to sit in a chair and use a knife
and fork. His English was broken and stilted, having lost
all his vernacular idiom. His skin had darkened to the
swarthy complexion of negroes, and moreover, he had de-
veloped an aversion to wearing European clothes.[76]
During the surrender of the Mangalore fort which was
delivered in an armistice by the British and their subse-
quent withdrawal, all the Mestizos and remaining non-
British foreigners were killed, together with 5,600 Man-
galorean Catholics. Those condemned by Tipu Sultan
for treachery were hanged instantly, the gibbets being
weighed down by the number of bodies they carried. The
Netravati River was so putrid with the stench of dying
bodies, that the local residents were forced to leave their
riverside homes.[66]
The Archbishop of Goa wrote in 1800, It is notoriously
known in all Asia and all other parts of the globe of the
oppression and suerings experienced by the Christians in
the Dominion of the King of Kanara, during the usurpation
of that country by Tipu Sultan from an implacable hatred
he had against them who professed Christianity. [66]
Tipu Sultans invasion of the Malabar had an adverse
impact on the Syrian Malabar Nasrani community of
the Malabar coast. Many churches in the Malabar and
Cochin were damaged. The old Syrian Nasrani seminary
at Angamaly which had been the center of Catholic re-
ligious education for several centuries was razed to the
ground by Tipus soldiers. A lot of centuries old reli-
gious manuscripts were lost forever. The church was
later relocated to Kottayam where it still exists to this
date. The Mor Sabor church at Akaparambu and the
Martha Mariam Church attached to the seminary were
destroyed as well. Tipus army set re to the church at
Palayoor and attacked the Ollur Church in 1790. Furth-
ernmore, the Arthat church and the Ambazhakkad semi-
nary was also destroyed. Over the course of this invasion,
many Syrian Malabar Nasrani were killed or forcibly con-
verted to Islam. Most of the coconut, arecanut, pepper
and cashew plantations held by the Syrian Malabar farm-
ers were also indiscriminately destroyed by the invading
army. As a result, when Tipus army invaded Guruvayur
and adjacent areas, the Syrian Christian community ed
Calicut and small towns like Arthat to new centres like
Kunnamkulam, Chalakudi, Ennakadu, Cheppadu, Kan-
nankode, Mavelikkara, etc. where there were already
Christians. They were given refuge by Sakthan Tambu-
ran, the ruler of Cochin and Karthika Thirunal, the ruler
of Travancore, who gave them lands, plantations and en-
couraged their businesses. Colonel Macqulay, the British
resident of Travancore also helped them.[77]
44 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

Treatment of prisoners According to historian Pro- cially recognized by the Government of India as a free-
fessor Sheikh Ali, Tipu took his stand on the bedrock of dom ghter. The 1990 Television Series The Sword of
humanity, regarding all his subjects as equal citizen to live Tipu Sultan directed by Sanjay Khan was based on the
in peace, harmony and concord.[54] However, during the Life and events of Tipu Sultan.
storming of Srirangapatna by the British in 1799, thirteen Tipu Sultan is held in high esteem in Pakistan which con-
murdered British prisoners were discovered, killed by ei- siders Tipu Sultan as a hero of the Indian independence
ther having their necks broken or nails driven into their movement. The country has honoured him by naming
skulls.[78] Pakistan Navy ship PNS Tippu Sultan after Tipu Sultan.
Tipus palace in Seringapatam had a strictly guarded Pakistan television aired a drama on Tipu Sultan directed
Zenana quarters for women. Many of the women in his by Qasim Jalali.
Hareem were daughters of native princes and Brahmins,
who had been abducted in infancy and brought up Mus-
lim. In the same palace, the legitimate Wadiyar king Family
Chamaraja Wodeyar IX was held captive. The prince
having no children had adopted his relative, who was also 1. Shahzada Hyder Ali Sultan (1771 30 July 1815)
imprisoned by the Sultan. The palaces and temples raised 2. Shahzada Abdul Khaliq Sultan (1782 12 Septem-
by the earlier Wadiyar kings were also pulled down by ber 1806)
Tipu, on the pretext of strengthening the fortress.[79]
3. Shahzada Muhi-ud-din Sultan (1782 30 Septem-
ber 1811)
Criticism of British accounts
4. Shahzada Mu'izz-ud-din Sultan (1783 30 March
Brittlebank, Hasan, Chetty, Habib and Saletare, amongst 1818)
others, argue that controversial stories of Tipu Sul-
5. Shahzada Mi'raj-ud-din Sultan (1784? ?)
tans religious persecution of Hindus and Christians are
largely derived from the work of early British authors 6. Shahzada Mu'in-ud-din Sultan (1784? ?)
(who were very much against Tipu Sultans indepen-
dence and harboured prejudice against the Sultan) such 7. Shahzada Muhammad Yasin Sultan (1784 15
as Kirkpatrick [80]
and Wilks, [81]
whom they do not con- March 1849)
[82]
sider to be entirely reliable. A. S. Chetty argues that 8. Shahzada Muhammad Subhan Sultan (1785 27
Wilks account in particular cannot be trusted,[83] Irfan September 1845)
Habib and Mohibbul Hasan argues that these early British
authors had a strong vested interest in presenting Tipu 9. Shahzada Muhammad Shukrullah Sultan (1785 25
Sultan as a tyrant from whom the British had liberated September 1830)
Mysore.[84] This assessment is echoed by Brittlebank in
10. Shahzada Sarwar-ud-din Sultan (1790 20 October
her recent work where she writes that Wilks and Kirk-
1833)
patrick must be used with particular care as both authors
had taken part in the wars against Tipu Sultan and were 11. Shahzada Muhammad Nizam-ud-din Sultan (1791
closely connected to the administrations of Lord Corn- 20 October 1791)
wallis and Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley.[85]
12. Shahzada Muhammad Jamal-ud-din Sultan (1795
13 November 1842)
Promotion of the Urdu language
13. Shahzada Munir-ud-din Sultan (1795 1 December
Tipu strengthened and instituted education in Urdu and 1837)
Persian among Muslims in the Mysore region. However
14. His Highness Shahzada Sir Ghulam Muhammad
the Muslims of North Kanara speak Nawayathi, the Mus-
Sultan Sahib, KCSI (March 1795 11 August 1872)
lims of South Kanara speak Beary and the Muslims of
Kodagu speak Kodava. He made Persian the ocial lan- 15. Shahzada Ghulam Ahmad Sultan (1796 11 April
guage throughout his kingdom. 1824)
16. Shahzada ............. Sultan.... (17971797)
2.3.6 Legacy
Tipu had several wives. Tipu Sultans family was sent to
Tipu Sultan was one of the rst Indian kings to be mar- Calcutta by the British. A descendent of one of Tipu Sul-
tyred on the battleeld while defending his Kingdom tans uncles Noor Inayat Khan was a British Special Op-
against the Colonial British. In India, While many his- erations Executive agent during the Second World War,
torians generally take a favourable view of his reign, oth- murdered in the German Dachau concentration camp in
ers portray him as a Muslim fanatic. Tipu has been o- 1944.
2.3. TIPU SULTAN
Sword and tiger
Main article: Tipus Tiger
Tipu Sultan had lost his sword in a war with the Nairs of
Travancore during the Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789),
in which he was forced to withdraw due to the severe joint
attack from Travancore army and British army.[86] The
Nair army under the leadership of Raja Kesavadas again
defeated the Mysore army near Aluva. The Maharaja,
Dharma Raja, gave the famous sword to the Nawab of
Arcot, from where the sword went to London. The sword
was on display at the Wallace Collection, No. 1 Manch-
ester Square, London.
Tipu was commonly known as the Tiger of Mysore and
adopted this animal as the symbol (bubri/ babri)[87] of his
rule.[88] It is said that Tipu Sultan was hunting in the forest
with a French friend. He came face to face with a tiger.
His gun did not work, and his dagger fell on the ground
as the tiger jumped on him. He reached for the dagger,
picked it up, and killed the tiger with it. That earned him
the name the Tiger of Mysore. He even had French en-
gineers build a mechanical tiger for his palace.[89] The de-
vice, known as Tipus Tiger, is on display in the Victoria
and Albert Museum, London.[90] Not only did Tipu place
relics of tigers around his palace and domain, but also
had the emblem of a tiger on his banners and some arms
and weapons. Sometimes this tiger was very ornate and
had inscriptions within the drawing, alluding to Tipus
faith.[91] Historian Alexander Beatson reported that in
his palace was found a great variety of curious swords,
daggers, fusils, pistols, and blunderbusses; some were of
exquisite workmanship, mounted with gold, or silver, and
beautifully inlaid and ornamented with tigers heads and
stripes, or with Persian and Arabic verses.[92]
The last sword used by Tipu in his last battle, at Sri Ran-
gapatnam, and the ring worn by him were taken by the
British forces as war trophies. Till April 2004, they were
kept on display at the British Museum London as gifts to
the museum from Maj-Gen Augustus W.H. Meyrick and
Nancy Dowager.[93]
At an auction in London in April 2004, Vijay Mallya pur-
chased the sword of Tipu Sultan and some other historical
artefacts, and brought them back to India.[94] 2.3.7
In October 2013, another sword owned by Tipu Sultan
and decorated with his babri (tiger stripe motif) surfaced
and was auctioned by Sothebys.[95] It was purchased for
98,500[96] by a telephone bidder.
In ction
He has a role in G.A.Hentys 1896 book The Tiger of
Mysore,[97] and is also mentioned in Hentys 1902 At
the Point of the Bayonet,[98] which deals with much
the same period.
In Jules Verne's Mysterious Island, Captain Nemo is
described as a nephew of Tipu Sultan.
45
Tipu Sultans life and adventures were the central
theme of a short-running South Indian television
series The Adventures of Tipu Sultan, and of a
more popular national television series "The Sword
of Tipu Sultan".
Naseem Hijazi's novels Muazam Ali and Aur Tal-
var Gaye (And The Sword Broke) describe Tipu
Sultans wars.
Wilkie Collins's novel The Moonstone contains an
account of Tipu Sultan and the fall of Srirangapatna
in the prologue.
In The Surprising Adventures of Baron Munchausen
by Rudolf Erich Raspe, Munchausen vanquishes
Tippoo near the end of the novel.
Sharpes Tiger is a novel in which Napoleonic soldier
Richard Sharpe ghts at Seringapatam, later killing
Tipu Sultan.
The Only King Who Died on the Battleeld: An His-
torical Novel Based on Truth (published in 2006),
was written by a US-Pakistani resident and a young
college student Mohammed Faisal Iftikhar. The
novel claims that in recent history, Tipu Sultan is
the only king who died on the battleeld.
Tipu Sultan appears as a Great Person in the video
game, Sid Meiers Civilization: Revolution.
In his historical novels on the Seringapatam captiv-
ity of Konkani Catholics by the Konkani littrateur
V.J.P. Saldanha, Belthangaddicho Balthazar (Balt-
hazar of Belthangady), Devache Krupen (By the
Grace of God), Sardarachi Sinol (The sign of the
Knights) and Infernachi Daram (The gates of Hell),
Tipu is portrayed as cunning, haughty, hard-hearted,
revengeful, yet full of self-control.[99]
See also
Mughal weapons
Muslim warriors
Mysore invasion of Kerala
PNS Tippu Sultan
Tipu Sultan Mosque
Tipus Tiger
The Dreams of Tipu Sultan by Girish Karnad
46
2.3.8 Notes
[1] Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar
Books. p. 6. ISBN 81-87879-57-2. Retrieved 19 January
2013.
[2] Tipu Sultans 216th death anniversary: 7 unknown facts
you should know about the Tiger of Mysore : Listicles:
Microfacts. Indiatoday.intoday.in. 4 May 2015. Re-
trieved 13 November 2015.
[3] Cavendish, Richard (4 May 1999). Tipu Sultan killed
at Seringapatam. History Today 49 (5). Retrieved 13
December 2013.
[4] Allana, Gulam (1988). Muslim political thought through
the ages: 15621947 (2 ed.). Pennsylvania State Univer-
sity, Pennsylvania: Royal Book Company. p. 78. Re-
trieved 18 January 2013.
[5] Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar
Books. p. 399. ISBN 81-87879-57-2. Retrieved 19 Jan-
uary 2013.
[6] R.k.datta (2007). Global Silk Industry: A Complete Source
Book. APH Publishing. p. 17. ISBN 81-313-0087-0.
Retrieved 22 January 2013.
[7] Roddam Narasimha (1985). Rockets in Mysore and
Britain, 17501850 A.D. National Aeronautical Labora-
tory and Indian Institute of Science.
[8] Kaushik Roy, War, Culture and Society in Early Modern
South Asia, 17401849, (Routledge, 2011), 77.
[9] Hasan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar
Books. p. 24. ISBN 81-87879-57-2. Retrieved 19 Jan-
uary 2013.
[10] Exhibition at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York.
[11] Chisholm 1911.
[12] Beatson, Alexander (1800). Appendix No. XXXIII. A
View of the Origin and Conduct of the War with Tippoo
Sultaun. London: G. & W. Nichol. pp. ciciv.
[13] Fortescue, John William (1902). A history of the British
army, Volume 3. Macmillan. pp. 431432.
[14] The Tiger and The Thistle Tipu Sultan and the Scots in
India. nationalgalleries.org.
[15] Subramanian, K. R. (1928). The Maratha Rajas of Tan-
jore. p. 64.
[16] Subramanian, p. 65
[17] Economic and Political Weekly, Tipu Sultan: Giving the
Devil His Due, p. 2837
[18] Zachariah, Mini Pant. Tipus legend lives on. The
Hindu. Retrieved 18 December 2013.
[19] Brittlebank
[20] zcan, Azmi (1997). Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims,
the Ottomans and Britain, 18771924. ISBN 978-90-
04-10632-1.
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
[21] Kausar, Kabir (1980). Secret correspondence of Tipu
Sultan.
[22] I. M. Muthanna, I. M. Muthanna CHAPTER XIII
TIPU'S FERVENT APPEAL TO MUSLIMS ABROAD
[23] zcan, Azmi (1997). Pan-Islamism: Indian Muslims,
the Ottomans and Britain, 18771924. ISBN 978-90-
04-10632-1.
[24] Bhacker, Mohmed Reda (1992). Trade and Empire in
Muscat and Zanzibar: The Roots of British Domination.
ISBN 978-0-415-07997-6.
[25] Roy, Kaushik (30 March 2011). War, Culture and So-
ciety in Early Modern South Asia, 17401849. ISBN
978-1-136-79087-4.
[26] Naravane, M. S (1 January 2006). Battles of the Hon-
ourable East India Company: Making of the Raj. ISBN
978-81-313-0034-3.
[27] Dictionary of Indian biography. archive.org.
[28] A Survey of Kerala History by a Sreedhara Menon
[29] madur. Tipu Sultan Personalities. Karnataka.com.
[30] Islamic Voice. islamicvoice.com.
[31] Upendrakishore Roychoudhury (101). White Mughals.
[32] Tricolor and Crescent. google.com.
[33] Napoleon and Persia. google.com.
[34] Empires of the Sand. google.com.
[35] The Parliamentary Register; Or, History of the Proceed-
ings and Debates of the [House of Lords and House of
Commons]-J. Almon, 1793
[36] View of the Hoally Gateway, where Tipu Sultan was
killed, Seringapatam (Mysore)". British Library Online
Gallery. Retrieved 14 June 2009.
[37] Description of the Burial of Tipu during a Severe Thun-
derstorm. Macquarie University Library. Retrieved 12
February 2010.
[38] Roy, Kaushik (30 March 2011). War, Culture and So-
ciety in Early Modern South Asia, 17401849. ISBN
978-1-136-79087-4.
[39] Brittlebank, pp. 13
[40] Phillip B. Wagoner Tipu Sultans Search for Legitimacy:
Islam and Kingship in a Hindu Domain by Kate Brittle-
bank (Review The Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 58, No.
2 (May 1999) pp. 541543
[41] Valath, V. v. k. (1981). Keralathile Sthacharithrangal
Thrissur Jilla (in Malayalam). Kerala Sahithya Academy.
pp. 7479.
[42] Sharma, H.D. (16 January 1991). The Real Tipu. Rishi
Publications, Varanasi.
[43] Prabhu 1999, p. 223
2.3. TIPU SULTAN
[44] Cariappa 1981, p. 48
[45] Hassan, Mohibbul (1 December 2005). History of Tipu
Sultan. p. 79. Retrieved 12 February 2014.
[46] Sen 1930, p. 157
[47] Sultan, Tipu (1811). Select letters of Tippoo Sultan to var-
ious public functionaries:. London. p. 228.
[48] K.M. Panicker, Bhasha Poshini, August 1923
[49] Mappila Muslims of Kerala: a study in Islamic trends
(1992), Roland E. Miller, Orient Longman, p. 93
[50] Mysore gazetteer, Volume 2, Issue 4, Conjeeveram
Hayavadana Rao (rao sahib), Benjamin Lewis Rice, Gov-
ernment Press, 1930, p. 2697
[51] Mysore gazetteer, Volume 2, Issue 4, Conjeeveram
Hayavadana Rao (Rao sahib), Benjamin Lewis Rice, Gov-
ernment Press, 1930, p. 2698
[52] Hasan 1971, History of Tipu Sultan, pp. 3578
[53] A. Subbaraya Chetty, 2002, Tipus endowments to Hin-
dus in Habib. 111115.
[54] Ali, Sheikh. Persian script of Tipu Sultan on the gateway
to Krishnaraja Sagar Dam (KRS)". Biography of Tipu Sul-
tan. Cal-Info. Archived from the original on 13 Novem-
ber 2004. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
[55] Habib, Irfan (2002), p118, Confronting Colonialism: Re-
sistance and Modernization Under Haidar Ali & Tipu Sul-
tan, Anthem Press, London, ISBN 1-84331-024-4
[56] Hasan, Mohibbul (1951), p360, History of Tipu Sultan,
Aakar Books, Delhi, ISBN 81-87879-57-2
[57] Vikram Sampath. Why we love to hate Tipu Sultan.
http://www.livemint.com/. External link in |work= (help)
[58] Annual Report of the Mysore Archaeological Department
1916 pp 1011, 736
[59] Hasan, History of Tipu Sultan, p. 359
[60] B.A. Saletare Tipu Sultan as Defender of the Hindu
Dharma in Habib (Ed.) Confronting Colonialism, pp.
1168
[61] Rao, Hayavadana C. History of Mysore 13991799: In-
corporating the latest Epigraphical, Literary and Historical
Researches Vol. 3 pgs 104753. Bangalore Government
Press.
[62] Stephen Conway, The British Isles and the War of Amer-
ican Independence, Oxford University Press, 2000, ISBN
0-19-820659-3, M1 Google Print, p. 342.
[63] N. Shyam Bhat, South Kanara, 17991860: a study in
colonial administration and regional response, Mittal Pub-
lications, 1998, ISBN 81-7099-586-8, M1 Google Print,
p. 2.
[64] J. B. Prashant More, Religion and society in South India:
Hindus, Muslims, and Christians, Institute for Research
in Social Sciences and Humanities of MESHAR, 2006,
ISBN 81-88432-12-1, M1 Google Print, p. 117.
47
[65] Deportation & The Konkani Christian Captivity at
Srirangapatna (1784 Feb. 24th Ash Wednesday)".
Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore. Retrieved 29
February 2008.
[66] Sarasvatis Children, Joe Lobo
[67] Forrest 1887, pp. 314316
[68] The Gentlemans Magazine 1833, p. 388
[69] Christianity in Mangalore. Diocese of Mangalore.
Archived from the original on 22 June 2008. Retrieved
30 July 2008.
[70] John B. Monteiro. Monti Fest Originated at Farangipet
240 Years Ago!". Daijiworld Media Pvt Ltd Mangalore.
Retrieved 28 April 2009.
[71] Bowring, p. 126
[72] Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 103
[73] Scurry & Whiteway 1824, p. 104
[74] Account of a Surviving Captive, A Mr. Silva of Gangolim
(Letter of a Mr. L.R. Silva to his sister, a copy of which
was given by an advocate, M.M. Shanbhag, to the author,
Severino da Silva, and reproduced as Appendix No. 74:
History of Christianity in Canara (1965))
[75] Gazetteer of South India, Volume 2 Mittal Publications,
p. 34
[76] William Dalrymple White Mughals (2006) p.28
[77] K.L. Bernard, Kerala History , pp. 79
[78] Holmes, Richard (2003). Wellington: The Iron Duke.
Harper Collins. p. 60. ISBN 0-00-713750-8.
[79] Corner, Julia (1840). The History of China & India, Pic-
torial & Descriptive (PDF). London: Dean & Co., Thread-
needle St.,. pp. 330331. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
[80] W. Kirkpatrick Select Letters of Tipu Sultan, London 1811
[81] M. Wilks Report on the Interior Administration, Resources
and Expenditure of the Government of Mysore under the
System prescribed by the Order of the Governor-General
in Council dated 4 September 1799, Bangalore 1864, and
Historical Sketches of the South of India in an Attempt to
Trace the History of Mysore, 2 vols, ed. M. Hammick,
Mysore 1930.
[82] C.C. Davies Review of The History of Tipu Sultan by
Mohibbul Hasan in The English Historical Review Vol.68
No.266 (Jan 1953) pp 1445
[83] A. Subbaraya Chetty Tipus endowments to Hindus and
Hindu institutions in Habib (Ed.) Confronting Colonial-
ism p111
[84] Irfan Habib War and Peace. Tipu Sultans Account
of the last Phase of the Second War with the English,
1783-4 State and Diplomacy Under Tipu Sultan (Delhi)
2001 p5; Mohibbul Hasan writes The reasons why Tipu
was reviled are not far to seek. Englishmen were prej-
udiced against him because they regarded him as their
48
most formidable rival and an inveterate enemy, and be-
cause, unlike other Indian rulers, he refused to become
a tributary of the English Company. Many of the atroc-
ities of which he has been accused were allegedly fabri-
cated either by persons embittered and angry on account
of the defeats which they had sustained at his hands, or by
the prisoners of war who had suered punishments which
they thought they did not deserve. He was also misrepre-
sented by those who were anxious to justify the wars of
aggression which the Companys Government had waged
against him. Moreover, his achievements were deliber-
ately belittled and his character blackened in order that
the people of Mysore might forget him and rally round the
Raja, thus helping in the consolidation of the new regime
The History of Tipu Sultan (Delhi) 1971 p368
[85] Brittlebank, pp. 1012. On page 2 she writes it is per-
haps ironic that the aggressive Hinduism of some mem-
bers of the Indian Community in the 1990s should draw
upon an image of Tipu which, as we shall see, was initially
constructed by the Subcontinents colonisers.
[86] The swords of Tipu Sultan. The Hindu. 3 May 2011.
[87] Tipu Sultan and the tiger motif. The Seringapatnam
Times. Toshkhana : wordpress. Retrieved 13 December
2013.
[88] Brittlebank, K. (1995). Sakti and Barakat: The Power
of Tipus Tiger. An Examination of the Tiger Emblem
of Tipu Sultan of Mysore. Modern Asian Studies 29 (2):
257269. doi:10.2307/312813.
[89] James, Lawrence (12 August 2000). Raj: The Making and
Unmaking of British India. MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-312-
26382-9. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
[90] Tippoos Tiger. Victoria & Albert Museum. 11 April
2004. Retrieved 10 December 2006.
[91] Tiger Motif. Macquarie University Library. Retrieved
12 February 2010.
[92] Beatson, Alexander (1800). A View of the Origin and
Conduct of the War with Tippoo Sultaun. London: G. &
W. Nichol.
[93] Ring and sword of Tipu Sultan. Exploring the museum.
The British Museum. Retrieved 13 December 2013.
[94] BBC NEWS South Asia Tipus sword back in Indian
hands. bbc.co.uk.
[95] Sinha, Kounteya (4 October 2013). Another Tipu Sul-
tan sword surfaces, to be auctioned. The Times of India.
Retrieved 13 December 2013.
[96] Nag, Ashoke (21 October 2013). Tipu Sultan memora-
bilia goes under hammer at Sothebys 'The Arts of Impe-
rial India' auction. The Economic Times. Retrieved 13
December 2013.
[97] The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Tiger of Mysore,
by G. A. Henty. gutenberg.org.
[98] The Project Gutenberg eBook of At the Point of the Bay-
onet, by G. A. Henty. ibiblio.org.
[99] Modern Indian literature, an anthology, Volume 2, Sahitya
Akademy, p. 217
CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING
2.3.9 References
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"Tippoo Sahib". Encyclopdia Britannica 26 (11th
ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Bowring, Lewin (1899). Haidar Al and Tip
Sultn, and the Struggle with the Musalmn Pow-
ers of the South. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC
11827326.
Brittlebank, Kate (1999). Tipu Sultans Search for
Legitimacy. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-563977-3. OCLC 246448596.
Hasan, Mohibbul. History of Tipu Sultan. Aakar
Books. ISBN 81-87879-57-2.
Subramanian, K. R (1928). The Maratha Rajas of
Tanjore. Mylapore, Madras: self-published. OCLC
249773661.
William, Logan (1887). Malabar Manual. ISBN
978-81-206-0446-9.
Grose, John Henry; Charmichael; ), John
Carmichael (of the East India Company) (1777). A
Voyage to the East Indies.
Tipu Sultan, The Tyrant of Mysore by Sandeep Bal-
akrishna, Rare Publications
2.3.10 Further reading
Agha, Shamsu. Tipu Sultan, Mirza Ghalib in
London";, Flight Delayed, Paperback, ISBN 0-
901974-42-0
Ali, B Sheik. Tipu Sultan, Nyasanal Buk Trast
Amjad, Sayyid. 'Ali Ashahri, Savanih Tipu Sultan,
Himaliyah Buk Haus
Banglori, Mahmud Khan Mahmud. Sahifah-yi Tipu
Sultan, Himlayah Pablishing H's,
Bhagwan, Gidwami S (1976). The Sword of Tipu
Sultan: a historical novel about the life and legend
of Tipu Sultan of India. Allied Publishers. OCLC
173807200. A ctionalised account of Tipus life.
Buddle, Anne. Tigers Round the Throne, Zamana
Gallery, ISBN 1-869933-02-8
Campbell, Richard Hamilton. Tippoo Sultan: The
fall of Srirangapattana and the restoration of the
Hindu raj, Govt. Press
Chinnian, P. Tipu Sultan the Great, Siva Publications
Habib, Irfan. State and Diplomacy Under Tipu Sul-
tan: Documents and Essays, Manohar Publishers
and Distributors, ISBN 81-85229-52-X
2.3. TIPU SULTAN 49

Hashimi, Sajjad. Tipu Sultan, Maktabah-yi Urdu

Daijast
Home, Robert. Select Views in Mysore: The Country
of Tipu Sultan from Drawings Taken on the Spot by
Mr. Home, Asian Educational Services, India, ISBN
81-206-1512-3
Mohibbul Hasan. Tipu Sultans Mission to Con-
stantinople, Aakar Books, ISBN 81-87879-56-4
Moienuddin, Mohammad. Sunset at Srirangapatam:
After the death of Tipu Sultan, Orient Longman,
ISBN 81-250-1919-7
Pande, B. N. Aurangzeb and Tipu Sultan: Evalua-
tion of their religious policies (IOS series), Institute
of Objective Studies
Sil, Narasingha P. Tipu Sultan: A Re-Vision, Cal-
cutta Historical Journal' (2008) 28#1 pp 123. his-
toriography
Strandberg, Samuel. Tipu Sultan: The Tiger of
Mysore: or, to ght against the odds, AB Samuel
Travel, ISBN 91-630-7333-1
Taylor, George. Coins of Tipu Sultan, Asian Educa-
tional Services, India, ISBN 81-206-0503-9
Wigington, Robin. Firearms of Tipu Sultan, 1783
99, J. Taylor Book Ventures, ISBN 1-871224-13-6
Confronting Colonialism: Resistance and Modern-
ization Under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan (Anthem
South Asian Studies), Anthem Press, ISBN 1-84331-
024-4
Ashfaq Ahmed Mathur " SALTANATH-E-
KHUDADAT and a book by Allama Iqbal ahmed
(RH) Daana e Raaz Diyaar e Dakan mein

2.3.11 External links

Tipu Sultan remembered on his 212th martyrdom
anniversary TCN News
Tipu Sultan: Villain or Hero?
Tipu Sultan: An Essay on Hero
Biography at StoryofPakistan.com
The Tiger of Mysore Dramatised account of
the British campaign against Tipu Sultan by G. A.
Henty, from Project Gutenberg
Biography by Dr. K. L. Kamat
Coins of Tipu Sultan
Illuminated Qurn from the library of Tippoo
ib, Cambridge University Digital Library
5 Things You Did Not Know About The Tyrant
Tipu Sultan

A soldier from Tipu Sultans army, using his rocket as a agsta.

50 CHAPTER 2. DE FACTO KING

The merchants of Calicut seized and chained to a barren rock,

by the order of Tippoo Sahib

The British ocer James Scurry, who was detained a prisoner for
10 years by Tipu Sultan along with the Mangalorean Catholics

Among his many innovations, Tipu introduced new coin denomi-

nations and new coin types, including this handsome copper dou-
ble paisa weighing over 23 gm. The coin on the left also contains
the emblem of the Sultanate of Mysore.
The Jamalabad fort route. Mangalorean Catholics had travelled
through this route on their way to Seringapatam
2.3. TIPU SULTAN 51

The mausoleum housing Tipus tomb is another example of

Islamic architecture. Tipus ag is in the foreground.

The tomb of Tipu Sultan at Srirangapatna. Tipus tomb is adja-

cent to his mothers and fathers graves.

Tipu Sultans Tiger. Victoria and Albert Museum, London

Chapter 3

Anglo-Mysore Wars

3.1 First Anglo-Mysore War particularly important; small numbers of disciplined Eu-
ropean or European-trained forces could defeat signi-
The First AngloMysore War (17671769) was a con- cantly larger Indian armies [3] composed mainly of poorly
ict in India between the Sultanate of Mysore and the East trained infantry and cavalry.
India Company. The war was instigated in part by the
machinations of Asaf Jah II, the Nizam of Hyderabad,
who sought to divert the companys resources from at- 3.1.2 Causes of war
tempts to gain control of the Northern Circars.

3.1.1 Background

The eighteenth century was a period of great turmoil in

the Indian subcontinent. Although the century opened
with much of the subcontinent under the control of
the Mughal Empire, the death in 1707 of Emperor
Aurangzeb resulted in the fracturing of the empire, and
a struggle among viceroys and other local rulers for
territory.[1] In the 1740s and 1750s French and British
colonial companies became more active in these local
conicts, and by the Third Carnatic War (17571763)
the British had not only gained somewhat solid footholds
at Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta, but they had also
marginalised but not eliminated the inuence of other
colonial powers. Their eastern holdings at Madras were
strongly inuenced by treaties with the Nawab of Car-
natic, Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah, whose territory
surrounded Madras. The other major powers in the east
were the Nizam of Hyderabad, formerly a viceroyalty
of the Mughul Empire but declared independent in the
1720s, held in the 1760s by Asaf Jah II, and the Sultanate
of Mysore, which occupied the high plains between the
Eastern and Western Ghats, the mountain ranges separat-
ing the coastal plains of India from the interior. Nomi-
nally ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty, control of Mysore
had in 1761 come into the hands of Hyder Ali, a Muslim
military leader.[2] Each of these powers intrigued with
and against the others, and sought to draw the power
of the French and British colonial companies to serve
their objectives. The colonial powers sought to inu-
ence the local powers to gain either direct control of
territory, or the revenues from territory nominally con-
trolled by a local ruler beholden to them for nancial
and military support. Since European military training
was signicantly better than local practices, the latter was
The ag of the Sultanate of Mysore.
The British East India Company, seeking an overland
connection between its holdings at Madras and Bengal,
sought to gain access to the Northern Circars, a series of
coastal territories held by the French until 1758, when
they were ousted with British military support. They had
applied to the nizam, oering to pay rent well above that
he was currently receiving from the nawab of Arcot; the
nizam rejected their oers.[4] Lord Robert Clive next ap-
plied to Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, who in August
1765 issued a decree granting the company rights to that
territory.[5]
At the same time, the nizam was involved in an al-
liance with the Marathas. Both he and the Marathas rul-
ing peshwa, Madhavrao I were concerned over the ex-
pansionist threat posed by Hyder Ali. After assisting
the Marathas in dealing with one of their confederates
1765, the allies began developing plans to invade Mysore.
When the British began occupying the Northern Circars
in March 1766, the nizam objected, issuing threatening
letters to company authorities in Madras.[6] He consid-

52
3.1. FIRST ANGLO-MYSORE WAR
ered going to war against the company, but his poor -
nancial condition made this impossible.[7] Instead he ne-
gotiated a treaty with the company in November 1766.
Under its terms the company received four of the ve cir-
car immediately (Guntur, the fth, having been granted
to the nizams son as a jaghir, was to be delivered upon
the sons death) in exchange for 7 lakh rupees or military
support to the nizam in his endeavours. One historian
describes the nizams agreement to the treaty as one of
nancial necessity, and that he was resentful of English
power.[8] Pursuant to this treaty, the company provided
two battalions of troops to the nizam. Under the treaty,
there were no limits placed on the number of troops the
nizam could request, nor were there checks on the uses
(oensive or defensive) to which he could put them.[7]
Conict involving Madras authorities, Muhammed Ali
Khan Wallajah and Hyder Ali, was also simmering.
Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajah, allied to the British,
whose territory his surrounded, was upset that Hyder was
harbouring opponents of his, including his older brother
Mahfuhz Khan, and Raja Saheb, the son of Chanda Sa-
heb, a previous contender for the throne of the Carnatic.
Hyder was annoyed that the British had established a for-
tied outpost at Vellore, and that the company had several
times rebued his oers of alliance. An oer he made in
late 1766 was rejected because the local company coun-
cil viewed it as incompatible with the treaty signed with
the nizam.[9]
3.1.3 Course of the war
Kishangiri fort was besieged in the rst Anglo-Mysore war in
1768, and nally surrendered to the English, who held it briey
The war began in January 1767 when the Marathas,
possibly anticipating movements by the nizam, invaded
northern Mysore. They reached as far south as the
Tunghabadhra River, before Hyder entered into negoti-
ations to end the invasion. In exchange for payments of
30 lakhs rupees the Marathas agreed to withdraw north
of the Kistna River; by March, when the nizam began
his invasion, they had already withdrawn. According to
Mysore historian Mark Wilks, this action by the Marathas
53
was a somewhat typical move to acquire wealth that might
otherwise be claimed by other belligerents.[10] The nizam
advanced as far as Bangalore, accompanied by two battal-
ions of company troops under Colonel Joseph Smith.[11]
In May, Smith discovered that the Hyder and the nizam
were negotiating an alliance, and consequently withdrew
most of his troops to the Carnatic frontier.[11] The deal
struck between the two powers called for them to join
against the British. Hyder was to pay 18 lakhs rupees
for the invasion to end, and the nizam was to recognise
Hyders son Tipu Sultan as Nawab of the Carnatic once
that territory was conquered. Despite the agreement the
two sides exhibited little trust for one another; Hyder was
known to place spies in the nizams camp.
This diplomatic maneouvring resulted in an attack against
a company outpost at Changama by the combined
Mysore-Hyderabad army under Hyders command.[12][13]
Despite signicantly outnumbering the British force
(British estimates place the allied army size at 70,000
to the British 7,000), the allies were repulsed with heavy
losses. Hyder moved on to capture Kaveripattinam after
two days of siege, while Colonel Smith, who commanded
at Changama, eventually retreated to Tiruvannamalai for
supplies and reinforcements.[12][14] There Hyder again at-
tacked, and was decisively repulsed on 26 September
1767.[15] With the onset of the monsoon season, Hy-
der opted to continue campaigning rather than adopting
the usual practice of suspending operations because of
the dicult conditions the weather created for armies.[16]
After overrunning a few lesser outposts, he besieged
Ambur in November 1767, forcing the British to re-
sume campaigning.[17] The British garrison commander
refused large bribes oered by Hyder in exchange for
surrender, and the arrival of a relief column in early De-
cember forced Hyder to lift the siege.[18] He retreated
northward, covering the movements of the nizams forces,
but was disheartened when an entire corps of European
cavalry deserted to the British.[19] The failures of this
campaign, combined with successful British advances in
the Northern Circars and secret negotiations between the
British and the nizam, led to a split between Hyder and the
nizam. The latter withdrew back to Hyderabad and even-
tually negotiated a new treaty with the British company in
1768. Hyder, apparently seeking an end to the conict,
made peace overtures to the British, but was rebued.[20]
In early 1768, company authorities in Bombay organised
an expedition to Mysores Malabar coast territories. Hy-
der had established a small eet, based primarily in the
port of Mangalore, in the mid-1760s. This eet, which
the British reported as numbering about ten ships, de-
serted en masse, apparently because the captains were un-
happy with Lutf Ali Beg, a Mysorean cavalry ocer, as
eet commander.[21] Owing to a British deception, Lutf
Ali Beg also withdrew much of the Mangalore garrison
to move on what he perceived to be the British target,
Onore. The British consequently occupied Mangalore
against minimal opposition in February.[22] This activity,
54
Asaf Jah II opposed the East India Company in 1766,[6] and ini-
tially allied himself with Hyder Ali during the First Anglo-Mysore
War, particularly during the Battle of Chengam,[12][13] but later
abandoned Mysores cause in 1768.
combined with the loss of the nizam as an ally, prompted
Hyder to withdraw from the Carnatic, and move with
speed to the Malabar. Dispatching his son Tipu with
an advance force, Hyder followed, and eventually retook
Mangalore and the other ports held by the over-extended
British forces.[22][23] He also levied additional taxes as
punishment against rebellious Nair districts that had sup-
ported the British.[23]
During Hyders absence from the Carnatic, the British
recovered many places that Hyder had taken and
only weakly garrisoned, and advanced as far south as
Dindigul.[24] They also convinced the Marathas to en-
ter the conict, and a large force of theirs, under the
command of Morari Rao, joined with Colonel Smith at
Ooscota in early August 1768.[25] This army then began
preparations to besiege Bangalore, but Hyder returned to
Bangalore from the Malabar on 9 August, in time to ha-
rass the allies before the siege could begin.[26] On 22 Au-
gust Hyder attacked the Maratha camp at Ooscota, but
was repulsed with heavy losses.[27] Hyder was then foiled
in an attempt to prevent the arrival of a second British col-
umn at the allied camp; the strength of these combined
forces convinced him to retreat from Bangalore toward
Gurramkonda, where he was reinforced by his brother in
law.[28] He also attempted diplomatic measures to prevent
a siege of Bangalore, oering to pay ten lakhs rupees and
CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS
grant other land concessions in exchange for peace. The
British countered with an aggressive list of demands that
included payments of tribute to the nizam and larger land
concessions to the British East India Company. Hyder
specically refused to deal with Muhammed Ali Khan
Wallajah, whose lands were where much of the ghting
had taken place, and a man Hyder intensely disliked. The
negotiations failed to reach common ground.[28]
On 3 October, Hyder, while moving his army from Guu-
ramkonda back toward Bangalore, surprised a small gar-
rison of Muhammed Ali Khan Wallajahs men at a rock
fort called Mulwagal, near Ooscota. British reinforce-
ments were sent, and Colonel Wood was able to recover
the lower fort but not the upper. The next day he went
out with a few companies of men to investigate move-
ments that might have been cover for enemy reinforce-
ments. This small force, numbering four companies,
was surrounded by Hyders entire army.[29] A stratagem
by another ocer, Colonel Brooks, prevented the loss
of this detachment; Colonel Brooks and another two
companies dragged two cannons to the top of a nearby
rise, and Brooks called out Smith! Smith!" while r-
ing the cannons.[30] Both sides interpreted this to mean
that Colonel Smith was arriving in force, and Hyders
troops began to retreat. This enabled Colonel Wood to
join with Brooks and other reinforcements from Mul-
wagal before Hyder realised he had been fooled.[30] Hy-
der renewed his attack, but was eventually repulsed with
heavy losses: he was estimated to lose 1,000 men while
the British lost about 200.[31] The severity of the conict
convinced Colonel Smith that he would be unable to ef-
fectively besiege Bangalore without rst inicting a ma-
jor defeat on Hyder in open battle.[32] Company ocials
blamed Smith for the failure to decisively defeat Hyder,
and recalled him to Madras. Hyder took the opportu-
nity to besiege Hosur, and Colonel Wood marched in re-
lief of the town. As Wood approached, Hyder raised the
siege, sneaked around Woods column, and attacked his
baggage train near Bagalur. Hyder successfully captured
supplies and arms, and drove Wood in disgrace toward
Venkatagiri.[33] Wood was consequently recalled and re-
placed by Colonel Lang.[34]
Hyder then raised additional forces in Mysore and went
on the oensive. In November 1768 he split his army into
two, and crossed the ghats into the Carnatic, regaining
control of many minor posts held by the British. En route
to Erode Hyder overwhelmed one contingent of British,
who were sent as prisoners to Seringapatam when it was
established that one of its ocers was ghting in violation
of a parole agreement. After rapidly establishing control
over much of the southern Carnatic, his march turned to-
ward Madras.[34] This prompted the British to send an en-
voy to discuss peace; because of Hyders insistence that
the nawab of the Carnatic be excluded from the negotia-
tions, they went nowhere. Hyder then surprised company
authorities by taking a picked force of 6,000 cavalry and
a small number of infantry, and made a three-day forced
3.1. FIRST ANGLO-MYSORE WAR 55

march of 130 miles (210 km) to the gates of Madras.[35] [9] Regani, p. 129
This show of force compelled the company to negoti- [10] Du, p. 653
ate further, since Madras had been left nearly defence-
less by military movements made to counter those of Hy- [11] Wilks, p. 306
ders main force.[36] Hyder, who was seeking diplomatic
leverage against the Marathas, wanted an alliance of mu- [12] Bowring, p. 49
tual defence and oence.[37] The company refused to ac-
[13] Wilks, p. 312
cede to an oensive military treaty; the Treaty of Madras
signed on 29 March 1769 had terms that each would sup- [14] Wilks, p. 311
port the other if attacked.[38][39]
[15] Bowring, p. 50

3.1.4 Battles [16] Wilks, p. 322

Battle of Chengam (or Chengama, 3 September [17] Wilks, p. 323

1767)
[18] Wilks, p. 324
Battle of Tiruvannamalai (25 September 1767)
[19] Wilks, p. 326
Siege of Ambur (NovemberDecember 1767)
[20] Wilks, pp. 328329
Battle of Ooscota (22 August 1768)
[21] Sen, pp. 147148
Battle of Mulwagul (4 October 1768)
[22] Wilks, p. 331
Battle of Baugloor (2223 November 1768)
[23] Bowring, p. 51

3.1.5 Consequences [24] Bowring, p. 52

Hyder Ali, apparently emboldened by the agreement with [25] Wilks, p. 340
the British, engaged in war with the Marathas in 1770,
[26] Wilks, pp. 341342
and requested British support when the Marathas pene-
trated Mysorean territory.[40] The British refused to as- [27] Wilks, p. 342
sist him, even though they were also drawn into conict
with the Marathas in the 1770s. Hyders battles did not [28] Bowring, p. 53
fully end until 1779, when the Marathas negotiated an al-
liance with him and the nizam for united action against [29] Wilks, p. 346
the British. This led to the beginning of the Second
[30] Wilks, p. 347
Anglo-Mysore War in 1780.[41] This conict devastated
much of the Carnatic, and also failed to decisively resolve [31] Wilks, p. 348
dierences between Mysore and the British. Resolution
occurred in 1799 with the defeat and killing of Hyders [32] Bowring, p. 54
son Tipu, and the restoration of the Wodeyars as British
clients. [33] Bowring, p. 55

[34] Bowring, p. 56
3.1.6 Notes [35] Bowring, p. 57
[1] Bowring, pp. 1923 [36] Wilks, pp. 367369
[2] Bowring, p. 33
[37] Du, p. 668
[3] Du, pp. 607608
[38] Bowring, p. 58
[4] Du, p. 651
[39] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
[5] Du, p. 652 India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp.
[6] Regani, p. 130 172173. ISBN 9788131300343.

[7] Regani, p. 131 [40] Bowring, pp. 5982

[8] Regani, pp. 133134 [41] Bowring, pp. 8084

56 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

3.1.7 References Wilks, Mark (1869). Historical Sketches of the

South of India, in an Attempt to Trace the history
Bowring, Lewin (1899). Haidar Al and Tip of Mysoor (Second ed.). Madras: Higginbotham.
Sultn, and the Struggle with the Musalmn Pow- OCLC 460735564.
ers of the South. Oxford: Clarendon Press. OCLC
11827326. Journal of the United Service Institution of India,
Volume 32. New Delhi: United Service Institution
Brittlebank, Kate (1999). Tipu Sultans Search for of India. 1903. OCLC 1770956.
Legitimacy. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN
978-0-19-563977-3. OCLC 246448596.
Chitnis, Krishnaji Nageshrao (2000). The Nawabs 3.2 Treaty of Madras
of Savanur. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and
Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7156-521-4. OCLC
The Treaty of Madras was a peace agreement signed
231937582.
on 2 April 1769 between Mysore and the British(Lord
D'Souza, A. L. P (1983). History of the Catholic Verelst) East India Company which brought an end to
Community of South Kanara. Mangalore: Desco the First Anglo-Mysore War. Fighting had broken out
Publishers. OCLC 11536326. in 1767 and the forces of Hyder Ali had come close to
capturing Madras at one point.
Du, James Grant (1878). History of the Mahrattas,
Volume 1. London and Bombay: Times of India. The Treaty contained a clause requiring the British to as-
OCLC 23116888. sist Hyder Ali if he was attacked by his neighbours. Hyder
felt this agreement was broken when he didn't receive any
Lethbridge, Sir Roger (1893). The Golden Book help when Mysore went to war with the Marathas in 1771.
of India: A Genealogical and Biographical Dictio- Bad faith arising from the broken clause may have been a
nary of the Ruling Princes, Chiefs, Nobles, and Other reason behind the outbreak of the Second Anglo-Mysore
Personages, Titled or Decorated, of the Indian Em- War a decade later.[1]
pire. London and New York: Macmillan. OCLC
TERMS:-
3104377.
1. Tipu sultans capital Trichonopally and Arcot was
Narasimha, Roddam; Srinivasan, Jagannathan; treated as secular and neutral places.
Biswas, S. K (2003). The Dynamics of Technol-
ogy: Creation and Diusion of Skills and Knowl-
edge. New Delhi: Sage Publications. ISBN 978- 3.2.1 Reference
0-7619-9670-5. OCLC 231988745.
Rao Punganuri, Ram Chandra (1849). Memoirs of [1] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
Hyder and Tippoo: Rulers of Seringapatam, Writ- India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 173.
ISBN 9788131300343.
ten in the Mahratta Language. Editor and Trans-
lator Charles Philip Brown. Madras: Simkins.
OCLC 123942796. Rao Punganuri was, according
to Brown, in the employ of both Hyder and Tipu. 3.2.2 Additional Reading
Regani, Sarojini (1988) [1963]. Nizam-British Re- Turnbull, Patrick. Warren Hastings. New English
lations, 17241857. New Delhi: Concept Publish- Library, 1975.
ing. ISBN 978-81-7022-195-1. OCLC 221315464.
Sen, Surendra Nath (1993). Studies in Indian His-
tory: Historical Records at Goa. New Delhi: Asian 3.3 Second Anglo-Mysore War
Educational Services. ISBN 978-81-206-0773-6.
OCLC 257994044. The Second AngloMysore War (17801784) was a
Subramanian, K. R (1928). The Maratha Rajas of conict between the Kingdom of Mysore and the British
Tanjore. Mylapore, Madras: self-published. OCLC East India Company. At the time, Mysore was a key
249773661. French ally in India, and the FrancoBritish war sparked
AngloMysorean hostilities in India. The great majority
Tour, Maistre de la; Mohammed, Gholam (1855). of soldiers on the company side were raised, trained, paid
The History of Hyder Shah, Alias Hyder Ali Khan and commanded by the company, not the British govern-
Bahadur. London: W. Thacker. OCLC 65664006. ment. However, the companys operations were bolstered
Biography of Hyder and memoir by one of his by Crown troops sent from Britain, and by troops sent
French ocers; coauthor Gholam Mohammed was from Hanover,[1] which was also ruled by Britains King
Tipu Sultans son. George III.
3.3. SECOND ANGLO-MYSORE WAR 57

Following the British seizure of the French port of Mah

in 1779, Mysorean ruler Hyder Ali opened hostilities
against the British in 1780, with signicant success in
early campaigns. As the war progressed, the British re-
covered some territorial losses. Both France and Britain
sent troops and naval squadrons from Europe to assist in
the war eort, which widened later in 1780 when Britain
declared war on the Dutch Republic. In 1783 news of
a preliminary peace between France and Britain reached
India, resulting in the withdrawal of French support from
the Mysorean war eort. The British consequently also
sought to end the conict with Mysore, and the British
government ordered the Company to secure peace with
Mysore. This resulted in the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore,
restoring the status quo antebellum under terms company
ocials such as Warren Hastings found extremely un-
favourable.

3.3.1 Background
Hyder Ali ruled Mysore (though he did not have the title
of king). Stung by what he considered a British breach
of faith during an earlier war against the Marathas (three
wars he fought and lost between 17641772 against Theater map for the First and the Second Anglo-Mysore Wars
Madhavrao Peshwa), Hyder Ali committed himself to a
French alliance to seek revenge against the British. Upon
the French declaration of war against Britain in 1778,
the British East India Company (then rmly entrenched
in Madras) resolved to drive the French out of India,
by taking the few enclaves of French possessions left
on the subcontinent.[2] The company began by capturing
Pondicherry and other French outposts in 1778. They
then captured the French controlled port at Mah on the
Malabar coast in 1779. Mah was of great strategic im-
portance to Hyder, who received French-supplied arms
and munitions through the port, and Hyder had not only
explicitly told the British it was under his protection, he
had also provided troops for its defence. Hyder set about
forming a confederacy against the British, which, in addi-
tion to the French, included the Marathas and the Nizam The Battle of Pollilur, where the forces of Hyder Ali eec-
tively used Mysorean rockets and Rocket artillery against closely
of Hyderabad.
massed British forces.

3.3.2 War
a long square formation and began to move slowly for-
In July 1780 Hyder Ali invaded the Carnatic with an ward. However, Hyder Alis cavalry broke through the
army of 80,000. He descended through the passes of the formations front, inicting many casualties and forcing
Eastern Ghats, burning villages as he went, before lay- Baillie to surrender. Out of the British force of 3,820
ing siege to British forts in northern Arcot. The British men, 336 were killed. The defeat was considered to be
responded by sending a force of 5,000 to lift the sieges. the East India Companys most crushing loss in India at
From his camp at Arcot Hyder Ali sent part of his army that time. Munro reacted to the defeat by retreating to
under the command of his eldest son, Tipu Sultan, to Madras, abandoning his baggage and dumping his can-
intercept a British force from Guntur sent to reinforce nons in the water tank at Kanchipuram, a small town
Colonel Hector Munro's army 145 miles (233 km) to some 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of Madras.[3] Naravane
the north at Madras.[2] On the morning of 10 September states in fact that it was a massacre with only 50 ocers
1780, the British force from Guntur under the command and 200 men taken prisoner, one of them Baille.[4]
of Colonel William Baillie came under heavy re from Instead of following up the victory and pressing on for
Tipus guns near Pollilur. Baillie formed his force into a decisive victory at Madras, Hyder Ali instead renewed
58 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

the siege at Arcot, which he captured on 3 November. the extent that he felt compelled to do so despite a lack
This decision gave the British time to shore up their de- of sound military footing for the eort. He successfully
fences in the south, and despatch reinforcements under entered Bednore, which surrendered after Matthews suc-
the command of Sir Eyre Coote to Madras.[3] cessfully drove Mysorean force from the ghats. However,
Matthews had so overextended his supply lines that he was
soon thereafter besieged in Bednore by Tipu, and forced
to capitulate. Matthews and seventeen other ocers were
taken to Seringapatam, and from there to the remote hill-
top prison of Gopal Drooge (Kabbal Durga)where they
were seemingly forced to imbibe a lethal poison.[5]
On the east coast, an army led by General James Stu-
art marched from Madras to resupply besieged forti-
cations and to dispute Cuddalore, where French forces
had arrived and joined with those of Mysore. Stuart
besieged Cuddalore even though the forces were nearly
equal in size. The French eet of the Baillie de Suf-
fren successfully drove away the British eet, and landed
marines to assist in Cuddalores defence. However, when
The British Army encamped below the rock of Sholingarh
word arrived of a preliminary peace between France and
Coote, though repulsed at Chidambaram, defeated Hyder Britain, the siege was ended. General Stuart, who was
Ali three times in succession in the battles of Porto Novo, engaged in disputes with Lord Macartney, was eventually
Pollilur and Sholinghur, while Tipu was forced to raise recalled and sent back to England.
the siege of Wandiwash, and besieged Vellore instead. The British captured Mangalore in March 1783, but Tipu
The arrival of Lord Macartney as governor of Madras brought his main army over, and after recapturing Bed-
in the summer of 1781 included news of war with the nore, besieged and eventually captured Mangalore. At the
Dutch Republic. Macartney ordered the seizure of the same time, troops from Stuarts army were joined with
Dutch outposts in India, and the British captured the main those of Colonel Fullarton in the Tanjore region, where
Dutch outpost at Negapatam after three weeks of siege in he captured the fortress at Palghautcherry in November,
November 1781 against defenses that included 2,000 of and then entered Coimbatore against little resistance.
Hyder Alis men. This forced Hyder Ali to realize that he
could never completely defeat a power that had command William Baillie Memorial, Seringapatam
of the sea, since British naval support contributed to the
victory. Plaque of the William Baillie Memorial,
Seringapatam
Tipu also defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Annagudi near
Tanjore on 18 Feb 1782.[4] This army consisted of 100 Memorial for the Battle of Porto Novo, 1781 at
Europeans, 300 cavalry, 1400 sepoys and 10 eld pieces. Porto Novo
Tipu seized all the guns and took the entire detachment
as prisoners. In December 1781 Tipu had successfully
seized Chittur from British hands. These operations gave 3.3.3 Treaty of Mangalore
Tipu valuable military experience. Both Hyder Ali and
Tipu Sultan successfully gained alliances with Ali Raja
Bibi Junumabe II and the Muslim Mappila community
and later met with Muslim Malay from Melacca under
Dutch service.
During the summer of 1782 company ocials in Bom-
bay sent additional troops to Tellicherry, from whence
they began operations against Mysorean holdings in the
Malabar. Hyder Ali sent Tipu and a strong force to
counter this threat, and the latter had successfully pinned
this force at Panianee when he learned of Hyder Alis
sudden death due to cancer. Tipus precipitate depar-
ture from the scene provided some relief to the British
force, but Bombay ocials sent further reinforcements Suren meeting with Hyder Ali in 1782, J.B. Morret engraving,
under General Matthews to the Malabar in late Decem- 1789.
ber to relieve before they learned of Hyder Alis passing.
When they received this news, they immediately ordered During this time, company ocials received orders from
Matthews to cross the Western Ghats to take Bednore, to company headquarters in London to bring an end to the
3.4. TREATY OF MANGALORE
war, and entered negotiations with Tipu. Pursuant to a 3.3.7 Notes
preliminary cease re, Colonel Fullarton was ordered to
abandon all of his recent conquests. However, due to [1] Hanoverians, Germans, and Europeans: Colonial Identity
allegations that Tipu violated terms of the cease re at
Mangalore, Fullarton remained at Palghautcherry. On 30
January the garrison of Mangalore surrendered to Tipu, [2] Barua (p.79)
having lost half its number principally to starvation and
scurvy.
The war was ended on 11 March 1784 with the signing of
the Treaty of Mangalore,[4] at which both sides agreed to
restore the others lands to the status quo ante bellum. The
treaty is an important document in the history of India,
because it was the last occasion when an Indian power
dictated terms to the Company.
The great advantage to Tipu was the psychological impact
of his victory with the British. The mode of conclusion
was highly satisfactory to him. The march of the Com-
missioner all the way from Madras to Mangalore seek-
ing peace made Munro remark that such indignities were
throughout poured upon the British that limited eorts
seemed necessary to repudiate the Treaty at the earliest
time.
3.3.4 Aftermath
This was the second of four AngloMysore Wars, which
ultimately ended with British control over most of south-
ern India. Pursuant to the terms of the Treaty of Man-
galore, the British did not participate in the conict be-
tween Mysore and its neighbors, the Maratha Empire and
the Nizam of Hyderabad, that began in 1785. In Parlia-
ment, the Pitt administration passed the Pitts India Act
that gave the government control of the East India Com-
pany in political matters.[6]
3.3.5 Battle Honour
A battle honour, Carnatic was awarded for two periods:
1780-1784, during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, when
Hyder Ali threatened Madras; and 1790-1792, during the
Third Anglo-Mysore War, up to the siege of Mysore.
Originally awarded to three battalions of Bengal Native
Infantry in 1829, it lapsed after their disbandment due
to participation in the 1857 uprising. In 1889, it was
awarded to twenty units of the Madras Presidency Army.
The battle honour is considered repugnant.[7]
3.3.6 See also
FrancoIndian alliances
Mysore invasion of Kerala
59
in Early British India, Chen Tzoref-Ashkenazi, Central
European History, Vol. 43, No. 2 (JUNE 2010), 222.
[3] Barua (p.80)
[4] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp.
173175. ISBN 9788131300343.
[5] Tim Willasey-Wilsey 'In Search of Gopal Drooge and the
Murder of Captain William Richardson, The Journal of
the Families in British India Society, no 31 Spring 2014
pp. 16-15.
[6] C. H. Philips, The East India Company 'Interest' and the
English Government, 1783-4. Transactions of the Royal
Historical Society (Fourth Series) 20 (1937): 83-101.
[7] Singh, Sarbans (1993). Battle Honours of the Indian Army
1757 - 1971. New Delhi: Vision Books. p. 102. ISBN
8170941156.
3.3.8 Further reading
Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State at War in South
Asia. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0-8032-
1344-1.
Kaliamurthy, G. Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780
84) (Mittal Publications, 1987)
Roy, Kaushik. War, culture and society in early
modern South Asia, 1740-1849 (Taylor & Francis,
2011)
This article incorporates text from a publication now
in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911).
"article name needed ". Encyclopdia Britannica (11th
ed.). Cambridge University Press.
3.4 Treaty of Mangalore
The Treaty of Mangalore was signed between Tipu Sul-
tan and the British East India Company on 11 March
1784. It was signed in Mangalore and brought an end
to the Second Anglo-Mysore War.
3.4.1 Background
Hyder Ali became dalwai of Mysore by force in 1761 dis-
placing the Wodeyar Dynasty which had previously ruled
the Kingdom. In 1766 war with the British broke out and
Hyders forces came close to capturing Madras, before his
attacks began to falter. The war ended three years later
with the Treaty of Madras in April 1769. This provided
60 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

the mutual restoration of all conquests and for mutual aid 3.4.3 Text
and alliance in a defensive war.
The Second Anglo-Mysore war broke out for a number
TREATY OF PEACE WITH THE NAWAB
reasons, primarily though it was because Hyder Ali the
de facto ruler of Mysore considered the British (since TIPU SULTAN BAHADUR.
they provided no aid in Mysores defensive war with Treaty of perpetual peace and friendship between the
the Marathas) in breach of the treaty of April 1769. Honourable the English East India Company and the
War with the British broke out in 1780 when Hyder led Nawab Tipu Sultan Bahadur, on his own behalf; for the
80000-90000 men into the Carnatic region burning and countries of Seringapatam Hyder Nagur etc. and all
destroying much of the countryside around the British his other possessions settled by Anthony Sadlier, George
strongholds of Vellore and Madras. Leonard Staunton and John Hudleston Esquires, on be-
The British sent an army of about 5000 men to raise the half of the Honourable English East India Company for
siege of Arcot by Hyder but Hyder sent an opposing force all their possessions, and for the Carnatic Payen Ghaut,
of about 10000 men under the command of Tipu Sultan, by virtue of powers delegated to the Right Honourable
his son. Tipu led his force to a crushing victory over the the President & Select Committee of Fort St. George
British at Pollilur. The British lost about 4000 men that for that purpose, by the Honourable the Governor Gen-
day, it was the worst defeat of the British East India Com- eral & Council appointed by the King & Parliament of
pany to date in India. Hyder continued his siege and Tipu Great Britain, to direct & controul all political aairs of
continued to menace the British in the Carnatic region. the Honourable English East India Company in India, by
the said Nawab agreeably to the following Articles, which
Tipu won another victory against the Company in 1782
are to be strictly and invariably, observed as long as the
when he defeated Colonel Braithwaite at Tanjore. The
Sun & Moon shall last, by both parties, that is to say, by
entire force of about 2000 men and about 10 eld pieces
the English Company & the three Governments of Ben-
were either killed or captured. By the end of 1781 the
gal, Madras, and Bombay, and the Nawab Tippoo Sultan
British started their counter-attack. In quick succession
Bahadur.
the British won the battles of Porto Novo, 2nd Pollilur and
Sholinghur and the siege of Negapatam. In 1782 Hyder Article 1st.--Peace & friendship shall immediately take
suddenly died and Tipu became king. In 1783 the British place between the said Company the NawabNawab Tip-
took the town of Coimbatore and by January 1784 Tipu poo Sultan Bahadur & their friends, and allies, particu-
retook Mangalore from the British. With neither side in alarly including therein the Rajahs of Tanjore & Traven-
position to win, the war ended in stalemate and was then core, who are friends & allies to the English and the Car-
concluded with the Treaty of Mangalore. natic Payen Ghaut, also Tippoo Sultans friends & allies,
the Biby of Cannanore, and the Rajahs or Zemindars of
the Malabar coast, are included in this treaty, the English
will not directly or indirectly assist the enemies of the
Nawab Tippoo Sultan Bahadur nor make war upon his
3.4.2 Consequences friends or allies, and the Nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahadur
will not directly or indirectly assist the enemies, nor make
The great advantage of the treaty to Tipu (which allowed war upon the friends or allies of the English.
him to claim victory) was the psychological impact of Article 2nd.--Immediately after signing and sealing the
the actual treaty on the British. The Commissioner for Treaty by the Nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahadur and the three
the British East India Company in Madras had to go to English Commissioners, the said Nabob shall send or-
Mangalore, a recent reconquest of Tipus, on the oppo- ders for the complete evacuation of the Carnatic, and
site coast of India, to sign the treaty. The humiliation the restoration of all the forts and places in it, now pos-
of the Treaty (coupled with the recent loss of the Thir- sessed by his troops, the forts of Amboorgur and Satgur
teen Colonies, in America) made the British determined excepted; & such evacuation and restoration shall actually
to defeat and humble Tipu. & eectually be made in the space of thirty days from the
The Treaty of Mangalore in Britain was seen by many as day of signing the treaty, and the said Nabob shall also im-
the beginning of the end of the British East India Com- mediately after signing the treaty send orders for the re-
pany. As a result stock prices in the Company dived and lease of all the persons who were taken & made prisoners
the British East India Company began to fail. This was in the late war, and now alive, whether European or Na-
of great concern to the British government since its trade tive, and for their being safely conducted to & delivered
represented a sixth of the British national income. It was at such English Forts or Settlements, as shall be nearest
decided to x the problems through what is now called to the places where they now are, so that the said release
Pitts India Act. This act solved the issues of corruption & delivery of the prisoners shall actually & eectually be
and it invested powers in the Governor-General to act in made in thirty days from the day of signing the Treaty; the
the interest of King and Country to stop an issue like the Nabob will cause them to be supplied with provisions and
Treaty of Mangalore from happening again. conveyances for the journey, the expense of which shall
3.4. TREATY OF MANGALORE
be made good to him by the Company. The Commis-
sioners will send an ocer or ocers to accompany the
prisoners to the dierent places, where they are to be de-
livered, in particular Abdul Wahab Cawn, taken at Chit-
toor, and his family shall be immediately released, & if
willing to return to the Carnatic shall be allowed to do so.
If any person or persons belonging to the said Nabob, and
taken by the Company in the late war, be now alive, & in
prison in Bencoolen, or other territories of the Company
such person or persons shall be immediately released, and
if willing to return shall be sent without delay to the near-
est fort or settlement in the Mysore country. Baswapa,
late Amuldar of Palicacherry, shall be released & at lib-
erty to depart.
Article 3rd.--Immediately after signing and sealing the
treaty the English Commissioners shall give written or-
ders for the delivery of Onore, Carwar and Sadasewgude,
and forts or Iplaces adjoining thereto, and send a ship or
ships to bring away the Garrisons. The Nabob Tippoo
Sultan Bahadur will cause the troops in those places to
be supplied with provisions and any other necessary as-
sistance for their voyage to Bombay (they paying for the
same). The Commissioners will likewise give at the same
time written orders for the immediate delivery of the forts
& districts of Caroor, Avaracourchy, & Daraporam; and
immediately after the release and delivery of the prison-
ers, as before mentioned, the fort and district of Dindigul
shall be evacuated & restored to the Nabob Tippoo Sul-
tan Bahadur, and none of the troops of the Company shall
afterwards remain in the country of the Nabob Tippoo
Sultan Bahadur.
Article 4th.--As soon as all the prisoners are released
and delivered, the fort & district of Cananore shall be
evacuated and restored to Ali Rajah Biby, the Queen of
that country, in the presence of any one person, without
troops, whom the Nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahadur may ap-
point for that purpose, and at the same time that the orders
are given, for the evacuation and delivery of the forts of
Cananore and Dindigull, the said Nabob shall give writ-
ten orders for the evacuation, and deliver of Amboorgur
and Satgur to the English, and in the meantime none of
the troops of the said Nabob shall be left in any part of
the Carnatic, except in the two forts above mentioned.
Article 5th.--After the conclusion of this treaty the Nabob
Tippoo Sultan Bahadur will make no claim whatever in
future on the Carnatic.
Article 6th.--All persons whatsoever, who have been
taken & carried away from the Carnatic Payen Ghaut
(which includes Tanjore) by the late Nabob Hyder Ali
Cawn Bahadur, who is in heaven, or by the Nabob Tip-
poo Sultan Bahadur, or otherwise belonging to the Car-
natic, and now in the Nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahadurs do-
minions, and willing to return, shall be immediately al-
lowed to return with their families & children, or as soon
as may be convenient to themselves, and all persons be-
longing to the Vencatagerry Rajah, who were taken pris-
61
oners in returning from the fort of Vellour, to which place
they had been sent with provisions, shall also be released
& permitted immediately to return. Lists of the princi-
pal persons belonging to the Nabob Mahomed Ali Cawn
Bahadur and to the Rajah of Vencatagherry shall be de-
livered to the Nabob Tippoo Sultans ministers, and the
Nabob will cause the contents of this article to be pub-
lickly notied throughout his country.
Article 7th.--This being the happy period of general
peace and reconciliation, the Nabob Tippoo Sultan Ba-
hadur as a testimony and proof of his friendship to the En-
glish, agrees that the Rajahs or Zemindars on this coast,
who have favoured the English in the late war shall not be
molested on that account.
Article 8th.--The Nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahadur hereby
renews & conrms all the commercial privileges & im-
munities given to the English by the late Nabob Hyder Ali
Cawn Bahadur, who is in heaven, and particularly stipu-
lated & specied in the treaty between the Company, and
the said Nabob concluded the 8th of August 1770.
Article 9th.--The Nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahadur shall re-
store the factory and privileges possessed by the English
at Callicut until the year 1779 (or 1193 Heggra) and shall
restore Mount Dilly & its district, belonging to the set-
tlement of Tellicherry and possessed by the English, till
taken by Sadar Cawn, at the commencement of the late
war.
Article 10th.--This treaty shall be signed and sealed by the
English Commissioners and a copy of it shall afterwards
be signed & sealed by the President and Select Commit-
tee of Fort St. George, and returned to the Nabob Tip-
poo Sultan Bahadur, in one month, or sooner, if possible,
and the same shall be acknowledged under the hands &
seals of the Governor General & Council of Bengal, &
the Governor & Select Committee of Bombay, as bind-
ing upon all the Governments in India, and copies of the
treaty, so acknowledged, shall be sent to the said Nabob
in three months, or sooner, if possible.
In testimony whereof, the said contracting parties have
signed, sealed, and interchangeably delivered two instru-
ments of the same tenor and date, to wit, the said three
Commissioners on behalf of the Honourable English East
India Company, and the Carnatic Payen Ghaut, and the
said Nabob Tippoo Sultan Bahadur on his own behalf,
and the dominions of Seringapatam and Hyder Nagur &
ca. Thus executed at Mangalore (otherwise called Cor-
dial Bunder) this 11th day of March & year 1784, of the
Christian Era & 16th day of the Moon Rabillasany in the
year of the Heggra 1198.
TIPPOO SULTAN'S Signature.
(A True Copy.)
W. C. JACKSON, Secretary to the Embassy.
Signed:
SANTHONY SADLIER.
62 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

GEORGE LEONARD STAUNTON.

JOHN HUDLESTON.

3.4.4 External links

Treaty of Mangalore between Tipu Sultan and the

East India Company, 11 March 1784

3.5 Third Anglo-Mysore War

The Third AngloMysore War (178992) was a con-

ict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore
and the East India Company and its allies, including the
Maratha Empire and the Nizam of Hyderabad. It was the
third of four AngloMysore Wars.[2]

3.5.1 Background

Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Kingdom of Mysore, and his fa-

ther Hyder Ali before him, had previously fought twice A portrait of Tipu Sultan, made during the Third Anglo-Mysore
War.
with the forces of the British East India Company. The
First Anglo-Mysore War, fought in the 1760s, had ended
inconclusively, with treaty provisions including promises
3.5.2 Events leading to war
of mutual assistance in future conicts. British failure
to support Mysore in conicts with the Maratha Empire
and other actions supportive of Mysores enemies led Hy- In 1788 the company gained control of the Circar of
der to develop a dislike for the British. After the British Guntur, the southernmost of the Northern Circars, which
took the French-controlled port of Mah in 1779, Hy- the company had acquired under earlier agreements with
der, who had been receiving military supplies through that the Nizam. In exchange, the company provided the
port and had placed it under his protection, opened the Nizam with two battalions of company troops.[4] Both of
these acts placed British troops closer to Mysore, but also
Second AngloMysore War. This war also ended some-
what inconclusively in 1784 with the signing of the Treaty guaranteed the Nizam would support the British in the
event of conict.[5]
of Mangalore. Tipu, who gained control of Mysore after
his fathers death in December 1782, maintained an im- The kingdom of Travancore had been a target of Tipu
placable hatred of the British, and declared not long afterfor acquisition or conquest since the end of the previ-
signing the 1784 treaty that he intended to continue bat- ous war. Indirect attempts to take over the kingdom had
tle with them given the opportunity.[3] He refused to free failed in 1788, and Archibald Campbell, the Madras pres-
British prisoners taken during the war, one of the condi- ident at the time, had warned Tipu that an attack on Tra-
tions of the treaty. Tipu Sultan further strengthened his vancore would be treated as a declaration of war on the
alliances with Ali Raja Bibi Junumabe II the Muslim ruler company.[6] The rajah of Travancore also angered Tipu
and the Muslim Mappila community of a region under the by extending fortications along the border with Cochin
Zamorin of Calicut empire,thus expanding the Sultanate into territory claimed by Mysore as belonging to its vassal
of Mysore's sphere of inuence. state,and by purchasing from the Dutch East India Com-
British General Charles, 2nd Earl Cornwallis became the pany two forts in the Kingdom of Cochin, a state paying
Governor-General of India and Commander-in-Chief for tribute to Tipu Sultan.
the East India Company in 1786. While he formally abro- In 1789 Tipu Sultan sent forces onto the Malabar Coast
gated agreements with the Marathas and Hyderabad that to put down a rebellion. Many people ed to Travan-
violated terms of the 1784 treaty,[3] he sought informally core and Cochin, a state paying tribute to Tipu, in the
to gain their support and that of the Nizam of Hyderabad, wake of his advance.[7] To follow them, Tipu began, in the
or at least their neutrality, in the event of conict with fall of 1789 to build up troops at Coimbatore in prepara-
Mysore. tion for an assault on the Nedumkotta, a fortied line of
3.5. THIRD ANGLO-MYSORE WAR
defence built by Dharma Raja of Travancore to protect
his domain. Cornwallis, observing this build-up, reiter-
ated to Campbells successor, John Holland, that an at-
tack on Travancore should be considered a declaration
of war, and met with a strong British response. Tipu,
aware that Holland was not the experienced military o-
cer that Campbell was, and that he did not have the close
relationship that Campbell and Cornwallis had (both had
served in North America in the American War of Inde-
pendence), probably decided that this was an opportune
time to attack.
3.5.3 Early campaigns
On 29 December 1789, Tipu marched 14,000 troops
from Coimbatore and attacked the Nedumkotta. The rst
phase was an embarrassing defeat for Tipu, when the de-
fenders inicted severe losses on the Tipus forces and
drove them back. While the Mysorean forces and their
allies regrouped, Governor Holland, much to Cornwal-
lis dismay, engaged in negotiations with Tipu rather than
mobilising the military. Cornwallis was on the brink of
going to Madras to take command when he received word
that Hollands replacement, General William Medows
was about to arrive. Medows forcibly removed Hol-
land, and set about planning operations against Tipu while
building up troops at Trichinopoly.[8]
Medows campaign, 1790
It was May before Medows was prepared to march. In
the meantime, Tipu had renewed his attack on Travan-
core, and successfully breached the Nedumkotta line in
late April 1790, despite the heavy losses inicted by the
Tranvancorean army.[8] British forces in Travancore were
too few to withstand the assault, and withdrew to the Aya-
cotta fortress and the Travancorean army made a strategic
retreat to the further bank of the Periyar river and pre-
pared to contest the crossing of the river. The monsoon
rains prevented the Mysorean army from fording the river
and as Tipu received the news that the British campaign
from Madras began to take shape as a signicant threat,
he retreated from Travancore.
The plan of attack developed by Medows called for a two-
pronged attack, with the main thrust against the Coimbat-
ore district and a diversionary thrust into Mysore from
the northeast.[9] Cornwallis was unhappy with this plan,
due in part to the lateness of the season (combat being
much more dicult during the monsoon season), and the
lengthy supply lines from Madras that the plan entailed.
However, he was willing to give Medows the opportunity
for independent command.
Medows moved out of Trichinopoly in late May. Ham-
pered by weather and equipment problems, his progress
was slow. He met little resistance, as Tipu had with-
drawn his main forces to the Mysore highlands. On 21
63
July Medows entered Coimbatore unopposed, after hav-
ing taken some of the smaller fortications in the district
by either abandonment or the immediate surrender of the
garrison.[10] His only opposition consisted of 4,000 cav-
alry under Sayed Sahib that Tipu had detached to observe
and harass his operations; most of these were eventually
driven across the Bhavani River by Medows cavalry. Fur-
ther strong points in the district fell, with Palghat and
Dindigul requiring signicant action to capture.
Although the campaign was successful in gaining com-
plete control of the Coimbatore district, Medows had to
divide his forces to hold it, with the largest detachments
at Coimbatore, Palghat, and Sathyamangalam. The at-
tack from Bengal, and a third from Bombay, were late in
getting started when Tipu made his counterattack.[11]
Tipus counterattack
On 2 September, Tipu left Srirangapatnam at the head
of a 40,000-man army. Descending the mountain passes
beginning on 9 September, he began to move toward
Sathyamangalam. While the 2,800-man garrison there
withstood an initial assault from Tipus force on 13
September, Captain John Floyd, the garrison comman-
der, opted to withdraw. Under cover of night, they
crossed the Bhavani and headed for Coimbatore. Tipu,
slowed by heavy rains, sent 15,000 cavalry in pur-
suit. These eventually caught up and captured much of
Floyds baggage train, and continued to pursue the weary
garrison.[11] That evening, the full force of Tipus army
fell upon them as they camped at Cheyoor. A desper-
ate stand by the infantry repulsed repeated assaults, and
only the arrival of reinforcements sent by Medows res-
cued them.
Tipu then embarked on a campaign of harassing the
British supply and communications, while screening the
movements of his main force. In early November he
successfully misled Medows, moving much of his army
north to attack the smaller Bengal force. This force,
about 9,000 men led by Colonel Maxwell, had reached
Kaveripattinam and strongly fortied his position.[12] Un-
able to penetrate the defences, Tipu withdrew to the south
on 14 November after learning that Medows was on his
trail again. Medows and Maxwell joined forces on 17
November, and pursued Tipu, who had decided to make
a move toward Trichinopoly. Unable to do more than pil-
lage the town before Medows arrived, Tipu then moved
on to rampage through the Carnatic, destroying towns and
seizing supplies as he went. He ended up at the French
outpost at Pondicherry, where he attempted to interest
the French in supporting his eorts against the British.
As France was then in the early stages of its Revolution,
these eorts were entirely unsuccessful. Medows at this
point moved toward Madras, where he turned over com-
mand of his army to Lord Cornwallis.
64 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

Allied advances

British forces advance towards Bangalore.

During the summer of 1790, a Maratha army of some

30,000 under the command of Purseram Bhow, accom-
panied by a detachment of British troops from Bom-
bay, began marching toward Mysore. The rst several Earl Cornwallis, portrait by John Singleton Copley
Mysorean outposts surrendered in the face of the large
army, and it made steady if slow progress until it reached
Darwar in September. The fort was weakly and indif- 3.5.4 First advance on Seringapatam
ferently besieged for 29 weeks, with the garrison nally
surrendering on 3 April 1791.[13] The army then contin- See also: Cornwallis in India
ued to advance, reaching the Tungabhadra River in early
May. Cornwallis rst goal was to take the strong point of Ban-
A second army, consisting of 25,000 cavalry and 5,000 galore, which would provide a base for future operations
infantry under the command of Hurry Punt assisted by against Seringapatam. He hoped that this would stimu-
a detachment of British soldiers from the Madras army, late the allies to step up their activity. Anticipating that
left Poona in January 1791, eventually reaching Kurnool Tipu would engage in a scorched-earth campaign in the
without signicant opposition.[14] Hurry Punt went to highlands of Mysore, he made signicant arrangements
confer with the Nizam, who had not crossed into Mysore for provisions. To assist in the hauling of supplies and
in fear that Tipus large army would overwhelm his be- heavy armaments he also retained a signicant number
fore it could be joined to that of one of the other al- of elephants.[16]
lies. On receiving word that Cornwallis had captured
Bangalore and was moving toward the Mysorean capital,
Srirangapatnam, Hurry Punt moved out from Kurnool,
and made junction with Cornwallis on 28 May.
The Nizams army, led by Mahabat Jung, advanced to
Koppal, which they besieged in October 1790. Poor-
quality cannons impeded the conduct of the siege, which
was not successfully concluded until April 1791.

British take the Malabar coast

British forces succeeded in taking control of the Mal-
abar coast late in 1790. One force under Colonel Hartley
gained a decisive victory at Calicut in December, while a
second under Robert Abercromby routed the Mysoreans
at Cannanore a few days later.[15]
Cornwalliss army marching towards Malwakul
Cornwallis took over the main British army at Vellore
on 29 January 1791. A week later he marched west, as
if to pass through the Eastern Ghats at that point. This
prompted Tipu to abandon Pondicherry and make haste
3.5. THIRD ANGLO-MYSORE WAR 65

for Bangalore, where he perceived his harem to be at
some risk. Although Tipu placed defences on some of
the passes, Cornwallis, after a number of feints, turned
sharply north, and crossed the mountains at the Muglee
Pass on 21 February against no opposition.[17] He then
continued to advance, against virtually no resistance, un-
til he was very nearly before the gates of Bangalore on 5
March. Tipu had fortied the city and supplied the gar-
rison, but he stayed with his main force on the outskirts
of the British positions as Cornwallis began siege opera-
tions. After six weeks of siege, in which the British had
to repeatedly beat o attacks and skirmishes from Tipu,
they successfully stormed the citadel.
Cornwallis retreat to Bangalore exposed the Coimbatore
district to Tipus forces. On 11 June, 2,000 Mysorean
forces laid siege to Coimbatore. Lieutenant Chalmers,
the garrison commander, ignored orders from Cornwal-
lis to withdraw if attacked in force, and chose to ght, in
spite of having less than 300 men and inferior gunpow-
der. His defence was spirited, and reinforcements from
Palgautcherry prompted him to sortie and successfully
take the defenders supply train in August. Eight thousand
more Mysoreans then arrived, but Chalmers held out until
6 November. In violation of the agreed terms of surren-
der Chalmers and his men were taken prisoner.[21]

3.5.5 Second advance on Seringapatam

Political cartoon by James Gillray, making fun of Lord Corn-

wallis after his 1791 retreat from Seringapatam Cannon used by Tipu Sultan's forces at the battle of Seringapatam
1799
After securing Bangalore, Cornwallis turned his army
north to meet a supply caravan and to eect a junction
with the Nizams army, which took place on 12 April
about 80 miles (130 km) north of Bangalore. Turning
back toward Bangalore, Cornwallis found the Nizams
men to be noticeably unhelpful. He had hoped that the
addition of native cavalry to the army would assist in o-
setting Tipus advantage in that quarter, but the Nizams
men, commanded by Teige Wunt, were interested in
plunder and in living o the armys supplies instead of
foraging and scouting against Tipu.[18]
The British then embarked on a series of operations to
secure most of the area around Bangalore before moving
on to Seringapatam. When Cornwallis was seeking a ford
at which to cross the Cauvery River, Tipu oered him
battle at a ford near the village of Arakere. In the ensu- The ag of the Kingdom of Mysore at the entrance into the fort
ing battle on 15 May, Cornwallis anked Tipus position of Bangalore.
and drove him to retreat behind Seringapatams walls.[19]
Since the Marathan forces were apparently not nearby, Following the allied retreat to Bangalore, the armies of
and it seemed unlikely that Abercromby would arrive with Purseram Bhow and Teige Wunt left the grand army to
the Malabar forces, and his army was on the verge of star- pursue territorial gains in Mysores northern territories.
vation, Cornwallis then made the dicult decision on 22 Purseram Bhow, desirous of recapturing the Bednore dis-
May to destroy his siege train and retreat.[20] Only three trict that Tipus father Hyder had taken in an earlier war,
days later, the Maratha army arrived, Tipu having suc- captured Hooly Honore and Shimoga, although British
cessfully prevented most of its messengers from reaching forces attached to his army did much of the necessary
Cornwallis before then. work. Only the threatened arrival of a detachment from
66 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

Tipus army prevented him from laying siege to Bednore

itself. Bhow did not return to the grand army until after
peace negotiations began at Seringapatam.
Whereas the earls younger brother, Commodore William
Cornwallis, was engaged in the naval Battle of Tel-
licherry, Charles spent the remainder of 1791 securing
his supply lines to Madras. To this end he laid siege to
Nundydroog in November and Savendroog in December,
both of which fell after unexpectedly modest eorts. He
also ordered a massive supply operation to ensure that ad-
equate supplies and pay for his army and those of the al-
lies would be available. Spies were sent to inltrate Tipus
camps, and he began to receive more reliable reports of
the latters troop strengths and disposition.[22] General Lord Cornwallis receiving Tipoo Sultans sons as
The relations between Cornwallis and the allies were dif- hostages, by Robert Home, c. 1793
cult. The Marathan military leaders, Purseram Bhow
and Hurry Punt, had to be bribed to stay with the
army, and Cornwallis reported the Hyderabadi forces
to be more of a hindrance than a help; one British ob-
server wrote that they were a disorderly rabble and
not very creditable to the state of military discipline at
Hyderabad.[23]
On 25 January, Cornwallis moved from Savendroog to-
ward Seringapatam, while Abercromby again advanced
from the Malabar coast. While Tipus men harassed the
column, they did not impede its progress. Cornwallis es-
tablished a chain of outposts to protect the supply line
from Bangalore. When the massive army reached the
plains before Seringapatam on 5 February, Tipus began
showering the force with rockets. Cornwallis responded
with a night-time attack to dislodge Tipu from his lines.
After a somewhat confused battle, Tipus forces were General Lord Cornwallis receiving Tipu Sultan's sons as hostages.
anked, and he retreated into the city, and Cornwallis
began siege operations. On 12 February Abercromby
arrived with the Bombay army, and the noose began to and to be plundered by its servants.[25] The territories
tighten around Tipu. By 23 February, Tipu began making taken deprived Mysore of much of its coastline; Mysore
overtures for peace talks, and hostilities were suspended was also obligated to pay some of the allied war costs.
the next day when he agreed to preliminary terms.[24] On 18 March 1792 Tipu agreed to the terms and signed
the Treaty of Seringapatam, ending hostilities.[26]

3.5.6 Peace
Among the preliminary terms that Cornwallis insisted on
was the Tipu surrender two of his sons as hostages as a
guarantee for his execution of the agreed terms. On 26
February his two young sons were formally delivered to
Cornwallis amid great ceremony and gun salutes by both
sides. Cornwallis, who was not interested in signicantly
extending the companys territory, or in turning most of
Mysore over to the Mahrattas and Hyderabad, negotiated
a division of one half of Mysorean territory, to be di-
vided by the allies, in which the companys acquisition
would improve its defences. He later wrote, If we had
taken Seringapatam and killed Tippoo, [...] we must ei-
ther have given that capital to the Marattas (a dangerous
boon) or have set up some miserable pageant of our own,
to be supported by the Companys troops and treasures,
3.5.7 Consequences
The war resulted in a sharp curtailment of Mysores bor-
ders to the advantage of the Mahrattas, the Nizam of Hy-
derabad, and the Madras Presidency. The districts of
Malabar, Salem, Bellary and Anantapur were ceded to
the Madras Presidency.[27]
A fourth and nal war was fought between the British and
Mysore in 1799, in which Seringapatam was taken, and
Tipu was killed in its defence. The victors, rather than
partitioning the country, forced Tipus family into exile
and restored control of Mysore to the Wodeyars.[28]
One notable military advance championed by Tipu Sul-
tan was the use of mass attacks with rocket brigades,
called kushoons, in the army. The weapons used by the
3.6. TREATY OF SERINGAPATAM 67

[13] Mills, p. 275

[14] Du, p. 202

[15] Fortescue, p. 561

[16] Fortescue, p. 563

[17] Fortescue, p. 564

[18] Fortescue, p. 570

[19] Fortescue, p. 575

[20] Fortescue, p. 576

[21] Fortescue, p. 578

[22] Wickwire, p. 161

[23] Wickwire, p. 162

[24] Wickwire, p. 170

[25] Wickwire, p. 171

[26] Wickwire, p. 173

1794 Map showing The Territories ceded by Tipu Sultan to the [27] David Eggenberger, An Encyclopedia of Battles, 1985
Dierent Powers
[28] Yadav, p. 2837

kushoons suciently impressed the British during the [29] Wickwire, p. 174
Third and Fourth Mysore Wars to inspire William Con-
greve to develop Congreve rockets.
3.5.9 References
Cornwallis was raised to the title of Marquess for his ac-
tions in the war.[29] Du, James Grant (1921). A history of the Mahrat-
tas, Volume 2. H. Milford, Oxford university press.
ISBN 1-4212-2137-3.
3.5.8 Notes
Wickwire, Franklin & Mary (1980). Cornwallis:
[1] http://books.google.com.pk/books?id= The Imperial Years. Chapel Hill: University of
zp0FbTniNaYC&pg=PA22&dq=tipu{}s+navy& North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-1387-7.
hl=en&sa=X&ei=3hU5T_q7DIml4gSt2KihCw&ved=
0CDYQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=kamaluddin&f=false Fortescue, John William (1902). A history of the
British army, Volume 3. Macmillan.
[2] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp. Mill, James; Wilson, Horace Hayman (1858). The
175178. ISBN 9788131300343. history of British India, Volume 5. London: Piper,
[3] Fortescue, p. 546 Stephenson, and Spence. OCLC 3019507.

[4] Wickwire, p. 127 Yadav, Bhupendra (1990). Tipu Sultan: Giv-

ing 'The Devil' His Due. Economic and Political
[5] Wickwire, p. 128 Weekly 25 (52, 29 December 1990): 28352837.
JSTOR 4397149.
[6] Fortescue, p. 549

[7] Fortescue, p. 548

3.6 Treaty of Seringapatam
[8] Fortescue, p. 550

[9] Fortescue, pp. 550551 The Treaty of Seringapatam(also called Srirangapati-

nam), signed 18 March 1792, ended the Third Anglo-
[10] Fortescue, p. 552 Mysore War. Its signatories included Lord Cornwallis on
[11] Fortescue, p. 554 behalf of the British East India Company, representatives
of the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Mahratta Empire,
[12] Fortescue, p. 558 and Tipu Sultan, the ruler of Mysore.
68 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

3.6.1 Background

Main article: Third Anglo-Mysore War

The war broke out in late 1789 when Tipu Sultan, the
ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, attacked Travancore, an
ally of the British East India Company. After a little over
two years of ghting, forces of the company led by Lord
Charles, 2nd Earl Cornwallis, along with allied forces
from the Maratha Empire and Hyderabad, laid siege in
February 1792 to Mysores capital, Seringapatam(also
called Srirangapatinam).[1] Rather than attempting to
storm the works at great cost to all sides, Cornwallis en-
tered into negotiations with Tipu to end the conict. The
resulting treaty was signed on 18 March.
Cornwallis had hoped to use the treaty as a wide-ranging
peace settlement that would, in addition to reducing or
removing the threat of Mysore, prevent conict between
Hyderabad and the Marathas. The Marathas had, how-
ever, resisted inclusion of such language.[2]

1800 map by James Rennell showing color-coded political areas,

military campaigns by the British East India Company, and the
3.6.2 Terms
lands acquired by the company through the Treaty of Seringap-
atam

3.6.3 Notes

[1] Dodwell, pp. 336-337

[2] Fortescue, p. 712

[3] Dodworth, p. 337

[4] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East

India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 178.
ISBN 9788131300343.

General Lord Cornwallis receiving Tipoo Sultans sons as

3.6.4 See also
hostages, by Robert Home, c. 1793

Mysore invasion of Kerala

Under the terms of the treaty, Mysore ceded about
one-half of its territories to the other signatories. The
Peshwa acquired territory up to the Tungabhadra River, 3.6.5 References
the Nizam was awarded land from the Krishna to the
Penner River, and the forts of Cuddapah and Gandikota
Dodwell, H. H. The Cambridge History of India:
on the south bank of the Penner. The East India Com-
British India, 1497-1858
pany received a large portion of Mysores Malabar Coast
territories between the Kingdom of Travancore and the
Fortescue, Sir John William. A history of the British
Kali River, and the Baramahal and Dindigul districts.[3]
army, Volume 4, Part 2
Mysore granted the rajah of Coorg his independence,[3]
although Coorg eectively became a company depen- Dirom, Alexander. A narrative of the campaign in
dency. India which terminated the war with Tippoo Sultan,
Tipu Sultan, to guarantee Mysores performance, was re- in 1792: with maps and plans illustrative of the sub-
quired to surrender two of his three sons as hostages of ject, and a view of Seringapatam (contains English
war.[3][4] text of treaty)
3.7. FOURTH ANGLO-MYSORE WAR 69

3.7 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War One notable military advance championed by Tipu Sul-
tan was the use of mass attacks with iron-cased rocket
The Fourth AngloMysore War (17981799) was a brigades in the army. The eect of the Mysorean rockets
conict in South India between the Kingdom of Mysore on the British during the Third and Fourth Mysore Wars
and the British East India Company under the Earl of was suciently impressive to inspire William Congreve
Mornington. to develop the Congreve rockets.

This was the nal conict of the four AngloMysore Many members of the British East India Company be-
Wars. The British captured the capital of Mysore. The lieved that Umdat Ul-Umra, the Nawab of Carnatic,
ruler Tipu Sultan was killed in the battle. Britain took in- secretly provided assistance to Tipu Sultan during the
direct control of Mysore, restoring the Wodeyar Dynasty Fourth AngloMysore War; and they immediately sought
to the Mysore throne (with a British commissioner to ad- his deposition after the end of the conict.
vise him on all issues). Tipu Sultans young heir, Fateh
Ali, was sent into exile. The Kingdom of Mysore became
3.7.3 Mysorean rockets
a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India
and ceded Coimbatore, Uttara Kannada, and Dakshina
During the war, rockets were again used on several occa-
Kannada to the British.
sions. One of these involved Colonel Arthur Wellesley,
The war, specically the Battle of Mallavelly and the later famous as the First Duke of Wellington. Wellesley
Siege of Seringapatam, with many of the key protago- was defeated by Tipus Diwan, Purnaiya, at the Battle of
nists, is covered in the historical novel Sharpes Tiger. Sultanpet Tope. Quoting Forrest,

At this point (near the village of Sultan-

3.7.1 Background
Napoleon's landing in Egypt in 1798 was intended to fur-
ther the capture of the British possessions in India, and
the Kingdom of Mysore was a key to that next step, as
the ruler of Mysore, Tipu Sultan, sought France as an
ally and his letter to Napoleon resulted in the following
reply, You have already been informed of my arrival on
the borders of the Red Sea, with an innumerable and in-
vincible army, full of the desire of releasing and relieving
you from the iron yoke of England. Additionally, Gen-
eral Malarctic, French Governor of Mauritius, issued the
Malarctic Proclamation seeking volunteers to assist Tipu.
Horatio Nelson crushed any help from Napoleon after the
Battle of the Nile. However, Lord Wellesley had already
set in motion a response to prevent any alliance between
Tipu and France.[1]
3.7.2 Course of Events
Three armies one from Bombay and two British (one
of which contained a division that was commanded
by Colonel Arthur Wellesley, the future 1st Duke of
Wellington), marched into Mysore in 1799 and besieged
the capital, Srirangapatnam, after some engagements
with Tipu. On 8 March, a forward force managed to hold
o an advance by Tipu at the Battle of Seedaseer. On
4 May, in the Battle of Seringapatam, broke through the
defending walls. Tipu Sultan, rushing to the breach, was
shot and killed.
Today, the spot where Tipus body was discovered under
the eastern gate has been fenced o by the Archaeological
Survey of India, and a plaque erected. The gate itself was
later demolished during the 19th century to lay a wide
road.
pet, Figure 5) there was a large tope, or grove,
which gave shelter to Tipus rocketmen and had
obviously to be cleaned out before the siege
could be pressed closer to Srirangapattana is-
land. The commander chosen for this opera-
tion was Col. Wellesley, but advancing towards
the tope after dark on the 5 April 1799, he
was set upon with rockets and musket-res, lost
his way and, as Beatson politely puts it, had to
postpone the attack until a more favourable
opportunity should oer.[2]
The following day, Wellesley launched a fresh attack with
a larger force, and took the whole position without losing
a single man.[3] On 22 April 1799, twelve days before
the main battle, rocketeers worked their way around to
the rear of the British encampment, then 'threw a great
number of rockets at the same instant' to signal the begin-
ning of an assault by 6,000 Indian infantry and a corps of
Frenchmen, all directed by Mir Golam Hussain and Mo-
homed Hulleen Mir Miran. The rockets had a range of
about 1,000 yards. Some burst in the air like shells. Oth-
ers, called ground rockets, would rise again on striking
the ground and bound along in a serpentine motion until
their force was spent. According to one British observer,
a young English ocer named Bayly: So pestered were
we with the rocket boys that there was no moving without
danger from the destructive missiles .... He continued:
The rockets and musketry from 20,000 of
the enemy were incessant. No hail could be
thicker. Every illumination of blue lights was
accompanied by a shower of rockets, some of
which entered the head of the column, passing
through to the rear, causing death, wounds, and
dreadful lacerations from the long bamboos of
70 CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS

twenty or thirty feet, which are invariably at-
tached to them.
During the conclusive British attack on Srirangapattana
on 2 May 1799, a British shot struck a magazine of rock-
ets within Tipu Sultans fort, causing it to explode and
send a towering cloud of black smoke with cascades of
exploding white light rising up from the battlements. On
the afternoon of 4 May when the nal attack on the fort
was led by Baird, he was again met by furious musket
and rocket re, but this did not help much; in about an
hours time the fort was taken; perhaps within another
hour Tipu had been shot (the precise time of his death is
not known), and the war was eectively over.[4]
3.7.4 Gallery
3.7.6 Further reading
Bonghi, Ruggero (1869), Chapter-XIX: Lord
Wellesleys administrationFourth and last Mysore
war, 1798, 1799, in Marshman, John Clark, The
History of India from the Earliest Period to the Close
of Lord Dalhousies 2, Longmans, Green, Reader &
Dyer, pp. 71102
Carter, Thomas (1861), The Mysore War and the
Siege of Seringapatam, India, China, etc, Medals
of the British Army: And how They Were Won 3,
Groombridge and sons, pp. 26
Mill, James; Wilson, Horace Hayman (1858),
Chapter-VIII, The History of British India 6 (5
ed.), J. Madden, pp. 50121

Fall of Tippu Sultan (1799)

Tipu Sultans forces during the Siege of Srirangap-

atna.

The Last Eort of Tippu Sahib at Seringapatam

(Corner, 1840, p. 334)[1]

The Last Eort and Fall of Tipu Sultan by Henry

Singleton, c. 1800

British troops examine the body of Tipu Sultan

David Baird, a British ocer, discovering the body

of Tipu Sultan.

British Marker showing the location where Tipus

body was found.

1. ^ Corner, Julia (1840). The History of China & In-

dia, Pictorial & Descriptive (PDF). London: Dean &
Co., Threadneedle St.,. p. 334. Retrieved 23 March
2015.

3.7.5 References
[1] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp.
178181. ISBN 9788131300343.

[2] Forrest D (1970) Tiger of Mysore, Chatto & Windus, Lon-

don

[3] Holmes, Richard (2003). Wellington: The Iron Duke.

Harper Collins. p. 58. ISBN 0-00-713750-8.

[4] Narasimha Roddam (2 April 1985) Rockets in Mysore

and Britain, 17501850 A.D., National Aeronautical Lab-
oratory and Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560017
India, Project Document DU 8503,ir.nal.res.in/2382/01/
tr_pd_du_8503_R66305.pdf
Chapter 4

Mysorean invasion of Kerala

4.1 Mysorean invasion of Kerala pees as indemnity. By 1801, the Madras Presidency was
created by Lord Wellesley, by attaching Malabar along
with Carnatic territories seized form Mysore. Travan-
The Mysorean invasion of Kerala (17661792) was the core was asked by the Company to met the entire expen-
military invasion of Malabar (northern Kerala), including diture of the Third Anglo-Mysore war on the plea that
the territories of the Zamorin of Calicut, by the Muslim the war was undertaken in defence of Travancore. The
de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore Hyder Ali. Af- new treaty of 1795 reduced Travancore from a friend and
ter completing the occupation, Kingdom of Cochin, sit- ally of the English East India Company to that of a pro-
uated south of Malabar, was made a tributary state of tected ally. The King was forced to entertain a subsidiary
Mysore. The major reason for the occupation of Mal- force far beyond his capacity to subsidise. The Company
abar was the desire to have access to the Indian ocean also claimed a monopoly in the black pepper trade of the
ports. The Mysore invasion provided the English East country.[1]
India Company more chances to tighten their grip on the
ancient feudal principalities of Malabar and converting
Travancore, over whom Mysore Sultans attacked after 4.1.1 Outside forces in Malabar
Cochin, to a mere protected ally[1]
By the 18th century, all the petty kingdoms of Kerala See also: ZamorinPalakkad war of 17561757
had been absorbed or subordinated by three big states
of Travancore, Calicut (ruled by Zamorins) and Cochin. Canara forces invaded northern Malabar in 1732 at
Kingdom of Mysore, nominally ruled by the Wodeyar the invitation of the Arakkal. Under the command of
family, rose to prominence in India after the decline of Gopalaji, 30000 strong Canara soldiers, easily overran
the Mughal empire. In 1761, Hyder Ali seized control prince Kunhi Ambus (Cunhi Homo) forts in northern
of all of the reins of power in Mysore by overthrowing Kolathunad. By early 1734 the Canara soldiers captured
a powerful minister and became the de facto head of Kudali and Dharmapatanam. By 1736, the Canara army
Mysore Kingdom. He turned his attention towards ex- was driven out of the whole of northern Malabar with as-
pansion which included the capture of the Kingdoms of sistance from the English East India Company. However,
Bednur (Ikkeri or Keladi[2] ), Sunda, Sera, and Canara. the Prince Regent incurred a huge debt with the Company
In 1766, he descended into Malabar and occupied the factors at Tellichery as a result.[5]
Kingdoms of Chirakkal (former Kolathunad), Kottayam, The Nayaks of the Kingdom of Bednur (Keladi, Ikkeri
Kadathanad, Calicut, Valluvanad and Palghat and King of
Nayak Kingdom) planned another attack on Kolathunad
Cochin accepted his suzerainty and paid him tribute an- in 1737. Prince Kunhi Ambu agreed to sign a peace
nually for from 1766 till 1790. Faruqabad, near Calicut, treaty with the Canara which xed the northern border of
was the local capital of the Mysore-ruled Kerala. Kolathunad on the Madayi. The English factors of Tel-
Hyder Alis attempt to defeat Travancore, a British ally licherry also signed their own treaty with the Nayak of
state[3] south of Cochin, failed in 1767 and second ef- Bedanur which guaranteed the integrity of English trad-
fort by his son Tipu Sultan in 17891790 was incom- ing concessions in Malabar in the event of future conicts
plete. Moreover, Tipu Sultan provoked British invasion between the Canara and Kolathunad.[5]
in the form of Third Anglo-Mysore War by attacking Hyder Ali rst marched to present day Kerala in 1757 as
the Kingdom of Travancore.[3] Thus Travancore was only per request of King of Palghat who was a long-time mil-
part of present-day Kerala state that stood outside Mysoreitary foe of the Zamorin of nearby Kingdom of Calicut.
authority.[4] Hyder Ali, who at that time was the Faujdar of Dindigul
By the treaty of Seringapatam (1792), Tipu ceded half under Kingdom of Mysore, with a force of 2,500 horses
of his territories including Malabar to the English East and 7,500 men supported by Palghat troops, marched
India Company and their allies and paid 33 million of ru- into southern Malabar. The army defeated the Calicut

71
72
army and reached as far as Arabian Sea. The main in-
tention of this movement to Malabar was to capture the
vast treasuries of the rulers of Malabar. Malabar Coast
was famous for its foreign spice trade from ancient times.
Zamorin came to a treaty with Haider Ali, in which he
was demanded to pay twelve hundred thousand rupees as
the war reparations. However, the Zamorin technically
deceived Hyder Ali after the return of the Mysore Army
from Malabar.[6] But, for his role in these activities Hyder
Ali was rewarded by Devaraja with the jaghir (regional
governorship) of Bangalore.
The Calicut army failed because Hyders troops were or-
ganised, armed and trained in the most modern fash-
ion whereas Calicut army, like rest of armies of kings
of Malabar, relied on feudal levies. Zamorin eventually
agreed to pay 1,200,000 as indemnity to Hyder Ali and
so Hyder Ali withdrew. King of Calicut, despite the in-
vasion, did not modernise his army a neglect for which
he paid nine years later.
Map showing Malabar and Cochin under Mysore
4.1.2 Occupation of Malabar
When news of Hyder Alis conquest of Kingdom of Bed-
nur reached Ali Rajah of Cannanore in 1763, he promptly
requested Hyder to invade Kerala and help him deal
with Zamorin of Calicut. This Muslim ruler of Can-
nanore, an old of rival of the neighbouring powerful Ko-
lathiri, was an active ally of Mysore during the years
of occupation.[7][8] Hyder Ali agreed and in 1766 he
marched into Malabar through Mangalore with a force of
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
12,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry and a park of eld guns.
During this time he was desperate for a port which opens
to the Arabian sea, as his French allies were supposed
to transfer weapons, ammunition and horses against the
British. [, Mahe,a French controlled port, lay in the mid-
dle of Malabar. With his modern army, Hyder Ali easily
defeated all the petty kingdoms on the Malabar, begin-
ning with Kolathunad.
Ali Raja of Cannanore, a long rival of Kolathiri, seized
and set re to the palace of Kolathiri Raja. The latter
escaped with his followers to the then-British settlement
at Tellicherry. After the victory, Hyder Ali entered the
Kingdom of Kottayam in present-day North Malabar and
occupied it, with assistance from native Muslims, after
some resistance by the Kottayam army.[9] The rst seri-
ous resistance encountered by Hyder Alis army was in
Kadathanad, followed by a series of atrocities against the
natives.
Thalassery fort, Thalassery
,, After the conquest of Kadathanad, Hyder marched
towards Calicut, the headquarters of Zamorin. Hyder
claimed that his invasion was because Zamorin had failed
to pay him the twelve lakhs as agreed in 1757. When
Hyder approached Calicut, Zamorin sent his kin and kith
to safe-haven in Ponnani and Kottakkal. Zamorin him-
self was kept under house-arrest,as he failed to pay Hy-
ders demanded sum tribute and his nance minister was
imprisoned and tortured to reveal any hidden treasures.
Zamorin was not permitted even to do his routine. Fi-
nally Zamorin decided set re to the gunpowder store of
his palace and thus committed self-immolation.[10][11]
4.1. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
Hyder Ali, with a large amount of money, marched south- tries to Malabar, remained under the central rule from
east and moved towards Coimbatore through Palghat. Mysore. Years later, Kolathunad was given to Kolathiri
Mysore appointed Ali Raja as Military Governor and through some negotiations.
Madanna (a former revenue ocer) as Civil Governor of
the newly acquired province of Malabar.[12]
4.1.3 Mysore rule (17661773)
Shortly after Raza Ali, who was Hyder Alis lieutenant
in command, returned to Coimbatore, Hindus hidden
in the forests[12] rebelled against the Mysore authorities.
They, supported by the English East India Company, re-
occupied forts and large portions of land in the monsoon
season. However, by June 1766, Hyder Ali himself re-
turned to Malabar and imposed his troops on the rebels,
killing many and deporting over 15,000 Nairs to Kanara.
The Gazetteers state that only 200 of 15,000 Nairs be-
ing deported to Kanara survived. One of the most crit-
ical battles occurred at Putiyangadi in the Kingdom of
Tanur (Vettathunad) where the Hindus suered a com-
plete defeat. The Mysore army stormed the village and
re-captured it. Chaotically hundreds of rebels escaped to
the forest hideouts again. After these events, an amnesty
was proclaimed for the Nairs at Palghat.
Sultan Bathery derives its present name from Tipu Sultan of
Mysore who used the Jain temple here and used it as his battery
hence the name Sultans Battery
Mysores response to was harsh, and after putting down
the rebellion, many rebels were executed, and thousands
of others were forcibly relocated to the Mysore highlands.
To prevent another armed uprising, Hyder Ali suggested
anti-Nair laws to the district and levied additional taxes
as punishment against rebellious Nair districts that had
supported the English East India Company.
Eralppad, second line successor to the throne at Calicut,
continued his attacks against the Mysore forces from
southern Malabar. Eventually, forced by continuous in-
stability and rebellions, Hyder Ali agreed cede many parts
of Malabar to local Hindu rulers (as age old customs ex-
isted in Malabar) as tributary states under the Kingdom
of Mysore.[13] Kolathunad and Palakkad, the strategic en-
73
Palakkad Fort
At the start of 1767, the Mysore army unsuccessfully
stormed the Kingdom of Travancore (a British ally state
south of Malabar) from the north.
In 1767, the whole of Malabar again revolted Mysores
army of 4,000 men, who were defeated by 2,000 Kot-
tayam Nairs in Northern Malabar. All baggage, arms
and ammunition of army was looted by the Nair rebels.
Mysorean garrisons were trapped by Nair rebels who
seized the countryside and ambushed Mysore convoys
and communications with great success.[10]
The following year, the English East India Company,
under Captain Thomas Henry, sieged the Sultan Bath-
ery Fort (Avara fort) to interrupt the supply of arms to
Arakkal Kingdom, with a promised help from local king-
doms. But the British were forced to retreat in the retali-
ation.
Mysore army retreated from Malabar temporarily in
1768, successfully crushing the uprisings and build-
ing the strategic Palakkad Fort.[12] The authority over
Kolathunad was now given to the Arakkal Kingdom.
Skirmishes between Arakkal and the Company contin-
ued, and in 1770, the Company reclaimed Randattara.
In 1773, Mysore forces under Said Saheb and Srini-
vasarao marched to Malabar through the Thamarassery
Pass, since the Hindu rulers had broke the earlier treaties
on paying tributes.[12] So, again in the Malabar came un-
der the direct Mysore authority.
4.1.4 Cochin accepts Mysores superiority
Mysore conducted a second military movement in 1774,
concentrating on the rich treasures of the Tranvancore.
Also, Travancore has given refuge to the political enemies
of Mysore from Malabar. Slowly Hyder Ali moved south-
wards with a huge army and negotiated with the Dutch.
He wanted free passage to Travancore through Dutch ter-
74
ritories, which was refused (the Dutch owed Travancore
after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel). As Travan-
core refused to stop the construction of Nedumkotta for-
tication, which formed the northern defences of Tra-
vancore, rumours of a proposed invasion of Travancore
started developing.
The relics of the entrance of travancore lines
Hyder Ali asked the rulers of Cochin and of Travancore
to pay tribute as vassal states. Cochin was asked to pay
a total of Rs. 40 0,000 and ten elephants, while Travan-
core was asked to pay Rs. 1,500,000 and thirty elephants.
The Cochin royals agreed to pay the amount and accepted
the Mysores superiority. Finally, Malabar and Cochin
came under the Mysore rule, opening Malabar Coast to
the kings of Mysore. However the King of Travancore,
who was under the protection of the East India Company,
refused to pay the tribute.
Eventually the Mysore army began to move to Travan-
core from the north. The Dutch military garrison at
Cranganore Fort tried to stall the movement. Hyder Ali
asked his commander Sardar Khan to take an army of
10,000 along the Cochin Kingdom. In August 1776,
Cochin was invaded from the north and the fort at Trichur
was captured.
After the surrender of the ruler of Cochin, Hy-
der advanced to the Travancore Defence Lines (the
Nedumkotta fortications). By this time Airoor and
Chetuva Fort were ceded to Mysore. Meanwhile, the
Dutch, with the help of the Travancore Nair Army, put
down an attempt by the Mysore forces to capture the
Cranganore Fort. The ruler of Cranganore, however sur-
rendered to Hyder Ali, though the Dutch stormed his During the summer of 1782, East India Company of-
palace and captured it in January 1778.
After this incident, Hyders forces engaged in small scale from whence they continued operations against Mysorean
attacks and ambushes throughout Malabar, with the Tra- holdings in the Malabar. Hyder Ali sent his elder Tipu
vancore, English and Dutch forces as well as with root- Sultan and a strong force to counter this threat, and
ing Nair mutineers in northern Malabar. By 1778, the
Mysore allied themselves with the French, who was at
war with the British Empire. In the same year, the En-
glish captured Mah and Pondicherry. The newly ap-
pointed king of Kolathunad was with the Mysore, pro-
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
Relics of Cranganore Fort
viding crucial supplies to the war and by March, Ko-
lathiri had occupied Randattara. Soon, Hyder Ali re-
moved the kings of Kadathanad and Kottayam who were
providing the English in their campaigns. However, af-
ter facing losses in Calicut, Palghat and Tinnevelly, Hy-
der retreated to Mysore before planning another attack
on Travancore.[14][15]
4.1.5 Malabar in Second Anglo-Mysore
War
Main article: Second Anglo-Mysore War
The English East India Company captured the French
controlled port at Mah in Malabar in 1779. Mah was
of great strategic importance to Hyder Ali, who received
French supplied arms and munition through the port, and
Hyder had not only explicitly told the British it was un-
der his protection, he had also provided troops for its de-
fence. Hyder set about forming a confederacy against the
British, which, in addition to the French, included the
Marathas and the Nizam of Hyderabad. On 2 July 1780,
Hyder Ali declared war against the English East India
Company, signalling the start of what was later called the
Second Anglo-Mysore War (17791784).[16] By Febru-
ary 1782, Dharpattom, Nitore, Calicut, and Palakkad
Fort surrendered to the British forces under Major Abing-
ton. Sardar Ali Khan, the Mysore commander, died
later.[16]
cials in Bombay sent additional troops to Tellicherry,
the
[16]
latter had successfully pinned this force at Ponnani.
Tired of continuous setbacks, Hyder Ali then sent an
army unit under Makhdoom Ali to Malabar to restrain the
anti-Mysore activities through south. Meanwhile, Major
Abington and Colonel Humberstone, who were in Cali-
4.1. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA 75

cut, were ordered to prevent the advance of Makhdoom the entire northern Malabar, and Mysore ruled southern
Alis army from the south. In the following battle in Malabar. And General Macleod was forced to move back
Tiroorangadi, more than 400 Mysore soldiers, includ- forces from Cannanore.[16]
ing Makhdoom Ali, were killed. Colonel Humberstone
chased the Mysore army to Ponnani, with the principal
aim of capturing the Palakkad Fort. Due to a thunder- Muhammad Ayaz Khan (Hyat Saheb)
ing torrential storm in Ponnani River, however, Colonel
Humberstone retreated to Calicut. Colonel Humberstone Muhammad Ayaz Khan (born Kumaran Nambiar), a con-
then moved his unit up to Trithala and the neighbour- vert to Islam, was one of the hundreds of Nair boys de-
hoods of Mankeri Fort, but again retreated to Ponnani ported to Mysore after the 1766 invasion of Hyder Ali.
to the fear of a surprise attack from the Mysore-Ali Muhammad Ayaz Khan slowly rose as to the Nawab of
Raja coalition forces intended to siege forces in the ex- Bednore under Hyder Ali. In 1779, Hyder conquered
treme weather conditions. Major Macleod subsequently Chitaldurg had it placed under the command of Muham-
reached Ponnani before taking over the command of mad Ayaz Khan.[17] Historian Mark Wilks states that
British forces on the Malabar Coast.[16] Shortly, Tipus Tipu Sultan, Hyder Alis son, was jealous of and opposed
forces stormed the English camped at Ponnani, but 200 of Khan, since from the very beginning Hyder Ali had con-
his men were killed so he temporarily retreated. Simul- sidered the latter more intelligent. After the ascension
taneously, a naval force under Edward Hughes reached of Tipu Sultan in 1782, Khan moved to the English side
Ponnani, but the Mysore army threatened the struggling and lived rest of his life in Bombay.[18]
English with a dreadful attack at any time. So, Tipu
Sultan was successful pinning the English forces force at
Ponnani.
4.1.6 Mysore rule between the wars (1784
It was here Tipu learned of Hyder Alis sudden death due 1789)
to cancer. Tipu Sultans precipitate departure from the
scene provided some relief to the British force, but Bom- After the Second Anglo-Mysore War, the Mysore ruled
bay ocials had sent further reinforcements under Gen- Malabar which experienced numerous anti-Mysore up-
eral Matthews to Ponnani.[16] risings even by the local Mappila (Muslim) population,
The British captured Mangalore in March 1783, but against the new land taxes. Tipu Sultan, to put an end to
Tipu, now the ruler of Mysore, recaptured Bednorem the land problems appointed the ocer Arshad Beg Khan
before besieging and eventually capturing Mangalore. as the Civil Governor of Malabar. Khan soon retired from
At the same time, in the Tanjore region, Stuarts army service and advised to Tipu to visit the region by his own.
joined with those of Colonel Fullarton before the latter In 1788, Tipu paid an ocial visit to Malabar and talked
marched along the Dindigul-Dharapuram-Palakkad route with the Resident Gribble about the construction of new
[16]
and sieged the Palakkad Fort. Captain Midland and Sir city near Beypore.
Thomas under Colonel Fullarton successfully captured In 1787, the Mysore captured Iruvazhinadu by murder-
Palakkad Fort on 14 November 1783. During this time, ing Kurungothu Nair, the ruler of Iruvazhinadu and an
the Company ocials, having received orders from Lon- old ally of the French.[16] The French then became the
don to bring an end to the war, entered negotiations with closest ally of Mysore, continuing to supply arms to the
Tipu Sultan. Pursuant to a preliminary ceasere, Colonel kingdom. In the meantime, Arakkal Beebi allied with
Fullarton was ordered to abandon all of his recent con- the English and Kolathiri replaced them as the ally of
quests. However, due to allegations that Tipu violated Mysore. Kolathiri captured Randattara and Darmadom
terms of the ceasere at Mangalore, Fullarton remained from the English. Later in 1789, however, the company
at Palakkad Fort. During this time, a prince from the recaptured Darmadom.
Zamorin dynasty emerged and the English retreated con-
ferring the Fort to the prince. But, soon Tipus forces In 1788, Ravi Varma, a rebel hailed from the Zamorin
marched to Palakkad fort and occupied it with the entire dynasty, proclaimed his rule of the region and marched
southern Malabar.[16] to Calicut with his Nair army. Though Tipu conferred on
him a jagir, or vast area of tax-free land, to appease him,
In December 1783, General Macleod, with fresh support the Zamorin prince, after promptly taking charge of the
of the French, captured Cannanore from the Arakkal, jagir, continued his rebellion against the Mysore power.
who was a long time ally of Mysore in Malabar. This The Nair army was defeated under the superior Mysore
was followed by Beebis failed negotiation attempt with lines led by M. Lally and Mir Asar Ali Khan.[16] However,
the British.[16] during the above operations, Ravi Varma assisted not less
The war was ended on 11 March 1784 with the signing than 30,000 Brahmins to ee the country and take refuge
[19]
of the Treaty of Mangalore, in which both sides agreed in Travancore. In 1789, Tipu marched to Kozhikode
to restore the others lands to the status quo ante bellum. with a 60,000-strong army, destroyed the fort, and razed
By this treaty, the British (and the Nair kings) controlled the town to the ground. This event is known as the Fall
of Calicut.
76 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

In August 1788, the ruler of Parappanad, a chieftain of cations.

Nilamboor, Trichera Thiruppad, and many other Hindu In 1789, Tipu sent forces to the Malabar to put down a
nobles who had been carried away earlier to Coimbat- rebellion; many found political asylum in Travancore and
ore by Mysore under Tipu, were forcibly converted to Is- Cochin in the wake of his advance.[23]
lam.[20]
In late 1789, Tipu began to build up troops at Coimbatore
Manjeri Hassan, a native Moslem, led an unsuccessful lo- in preparation for an assault on the Nedumkotta, the for-
cal rebellion of Mappilas against the heavy agricultural
tied line of defence built by Dharma Raja of Travancore
tax imposed by Mysore. The rebels killed Manjeri Tham- To follow the 1789 rebels. Cornwallis, observing this
puran, a local Nair ruler, and captured Arshad Beg Khan. buildup, reiterated to Campbells successor, John Hol-
The rebellion was quickly crushed and Hassan, along with land, that an attack on Travancore should be considered
his son and his followers, were captured and taken as a declaration of war, and be met with a strong British re-
hostages to Srirangapatinam, where they remained until sponse. Tipu, aware that Holland was not the experienced
Tipu Sultans death.[21] military ocer that Campbell was, and that he did not
Almost all female members and many male members of have the close relationship that Campbell and Cornwallis
dierent Royal families such as Chirackal, Parappanad, had (both had served in North America in the American
and Calicut, and chieftains families like Punnathoor, War of Independence), probably decided that this was an
Nilamboor, Kavalapara and Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, opportune time to attack.[16]
found political asylum in Travancore from Mysore under
On 28,29 December 1789, Tipu Sultan attacked the Ne-
Tipu and temporarily settled down in dierent parts of
dunkotta from the north, signalling the start of the Bat-
Travancore. Even after the fall of Tipu Sultan in Sriran-
tle of the Nedumkotta (Travancore-Mysore War). As
gapatanam, many of these families preferred to remain in
the English East India Company promised Battle of the
Travancore.
Nedumkotta was the event lead to the Third Anglo-
Mysore War.[22] Out of his army numbering several tens
4.1.7 Tipu Sultans attacks on Travancore of thousands, about 14,000 along with 500 local Muslims
marched towards the fortications.
(17891790)
By 29 December, a large portion of the right ank of Ne-
See also: Battle of the Nedumkotta (1789) and Third dumkotta was under the control of Mysore army. Only a
Anglo-Mysore War 16 feet (4.9 m)wide and 20 feet (6.1 m) deep ditch sep-
arated the Kingdom of Travancore from Mysore forces.
Tipu Sultan commanded his soldiers to level up the ditch,
Tipu Sultan decided to tighten his grip on the posses-
so that his army can advance, while retreating Travan-
sions in Malabar and to occupy Travancore as he saw
core soldiers and militiamen regrouped on the other side
the control of ports and access of routs to them highly
of the ditch. Unable to ll the ditch under heavy re
strategic. The control over Travancore was always been
from the enemy, Tipu ordered his soldiers to march for-
a dream of the Mysore sultans, and Hyder Alis attempt
ward through a very narrow passage. This move back-
to defeat Travancore was failed in 1767. The kingdom of
red on the Mysore, as a group of two dozen Nair militia-
Travancore had been a target of Tipu Sultan since the end
men from the Nandyat kalari under Vaikom Padmanabha
of the Second Anglo-Mysore War. Indirect attempts to
Pillai ambushed their enemies half-way. A few dozen
take over the kingdom had failed in 1788, and Archibald
Mysore soldiers died of direct gun-re, and the com-
Campbell, the Madras president at the time, had warned
manding ocer was killed. Many more panicked and
Tipu that an attack on Travancore would be treated as a
[22] in the ensuing chaos fell into the ditch and died. The
declaration of war on the Company. Tipu Sultan re-
reinforcements sent by the Mysore were prevented from
ceived invitation to intervene from some kings of Mal-
merging with the main contingent by a batch of the Tra-
abar, especially from the ruler of Cannanore, and soon
vancore regular army. The Mysore army suered 2,000
the Mysore forces were in Malabar.[12] Initially Tipu Sul-
deaths and many thousands were injured. Several high-
tan tried to induce Travancore tactically with the help of
ranking Mysorean ocers were taken prisoner, including
the Kingdom of Cochin, but the King of Cochin refused
ve Europeans and one Maratha.
and allied with Travancore.[12]
However, after the initial defeats (it was an embarrass-
Monitoring closely the conquest of Mysore on Malabar
ing defeat for Tipu, whose force was panicked by re
and the making of Cochin to a tributary state, Tra-
from a small number of defenders), Tipu Sultan re-
vancore had bought Cranganore and Pallippuram forts
grouped his army and captured the Nedumkotta line sev-
from the Dutch. Travancore deteriorated relations by
eral months later. While Tipu regrouped, Governor Hol-
extending the Nedunkotta fortications along the border
land, much to Cornwallis dismay, engaged in negotia-
with Mysore into territory claimed by Mysore in Cochin.
tions with Tipu rather than mobilising the military. Corn-
Travacore, via the Nawab of Carnatic, found relations
wallis was on the brink of going to Madras to take com-
with the English East India Company and expected a re-
mand when he received word that Hollands replacement,
taliation by them on an attack on the Nedunkotta forti-
4.1. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA 77

General William Medows was about to arrive. Medows

forcibly removed Holland, and set about planning oper-
ations against Mysore. The Mysore army broke the Ne-
dumkotta lines and the Travancore army made a strategic
retreat, leaving the Mysorean army in command of Al-
waye. British forces in Travancore were too few to with-
stand the assault, and withdrew to the Ayacotta. Later
Mysore captured the Cranganore Fort and Ayacotta. The
Travancorean forces regrouped, but the onset of mon-
soons prevented Tipu from moving south(combat being
much more dicult during the monsoon season) and he
retreated once he heard about the attacks by the English
at Mysore.[12]
Afterwards, the Nairs of Travancore recovered the sword,
the pallanquin, the dagger, the ring and many other per-
sonal eects of Tipu Sultan from the ditches of the Ne-
dumkotta and presented them to the ruler of Travancore.
Some of them were sent to the Nawab of Carnatic on his
request.
Later in April 1790 Tipu came back with reinforcements
and this time was able to break into the territory after
making the way through the Nedumkotta. He destroyed
the wall at Konoor kotaa or kottamuri and advanced fur-
ther. He lled trenches for a few kilometres to enable Map of south India, showing Malabar under East India Com-
his army to move forward.He destroyed many temples pany
and churches and brought enormous harm to the people.
He nally reached the Periyar river banks at Aluva and
camped there. However, by this time a small group led by 1,000, and taking a large number of prisoners, including
Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai and Kunjai Kutty Pillai went the commander, Hussein Ali.
upstream and managed to break the walls of a dam at
Bhoothathankettu causing heavy ash oods downstream
Periyar river. All the ammunition and gunpowder of Capture of Cannanore
Tipus army got wet and became inactive. He was thus
forced to return. Information that the British army was
Main article: Capture of Cannanore
planning an attack on Srirangapatnam hastened his re-
treat.
Forces of the British East India Company, led by General
Robert Abercromby, began besieging Cannanore, held by
4.1.8 British take the Malabar troops of Mysore and of the Ali Raja on 14 December.
After gaining control of the high ground commanding the
In late 1790, British forces took control of the Malabar citys main fort, the defenders surrendered. The British
Coast. A force under Colonel Hartley gained a decisive victory, along with the taking of Calicut by a separate
victory (in the Battle of Calicut) in December, while a force a few days earlier, secured their control over the
second under Robert Abercromby routed the Mysore at Malabar Coast.
Cannanore a few days later.[24] Mysore forces were de-
feated by the Travancore forces near the Alwaye River in
1790. 4.1.9 End of Mysore rule

Battle of Calicut (1790) Main article: Treaty of Seringapatam

Main article: Battle of Calicut (1790)
The Battle of Calicut (also called the Battle of Thi-
roorangadi) took place between 7 and 12 December
1790, at Thiroorangadi. Three regiments from the British
East India Company, consisting of 1,500 men, led by
Lieutenant Colonel James Hartley, decisively defeated
a 9,000-man Mysore army, killing or wounding about
By the Treaty of Seringapatam signed in 1792, Malabar
ceded to the English East India Company. The treaty re-
sulted in a sharp curtailment of Mysores borders to the
advantage of the Mahrattas, the Nizam of Hyderabad,
and the Madras Presidency. The districts of Malabar,
Salem, Bellary and Anantapur were ceded to the Madras
Presidency.[25]
78 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

4.1.10 Changes in Malabar Kavalappara and Azhvancherry Thamprakkal. Even the

Cochin royal family moved to Vaikkom Palace near the
Sultans of Mysore changed the ancient landlord system famous Shiva Temple when Tipu Sultans army reached
in Malabar just like the changes which took place in Alwaye.
Kingdom of Cochin and Travancore. To control the re-
Many members of the royal families of Malabar who
gion, Tipu Sultan adopted strong measures against Nair
migrated to Travancore preferred to remain there de-
nobles of Malabar and established a centralised admin-
spite the withdrawal of Tipus army and restoration of
istrative system. This was not totally benecial for the
peace due to the harsh experience and the peculiar psy-
local Muslims, who were mostly traders. The changes in
che of Muslim population in Malabar. The promi-
Malabar due to the Mysore invasions were as follows:
nent royal families were; (1) Neerazhi Kovilakam, (2)
Gramathil Kottaram, (3) Paliyakkara, (4) Nedumpara-
Due to the eeing of the local Nair chieftains and mpu, (5) Chempra Madham, (6) Ananthapuram Kot-
landlords to Travancore lead to a redistribution of taram, (7) Ezhimatoor Palace, (8) Aranmula Kottaram,
landed wealth. However, for revenues, Tipu intro- (9) Varanathu Kovilakam, (10) Mavelikkara, (11) En-
duced the Jamabandi system to collect taxes di- nakkadu, (12) Murikkoyikkal Palace, (13) Mariappilly,
rectly from peasants. (14) Koratti Swaroopam, (15) Kaippuzha Kovilakam,
Land was surveyed extensively and classied. Taxes (16) Lakshmipuram Palace, and (17) Kottapuram.
were xed considering dierence of land and crops Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma, the King of Travancore
and for some crops taxes were reduced. earned the title was addressed as Dharma Raja on account
of his strict adherence to Dharma Sastra, the principles of
Tipu introduced monopoly in products like pepper, justice by providing asylum to the thousands of Hindus
coconut, tobacco, sandalwood, teak etc. This was eeing Malabar. He is also credited with beating back
a change from the time of the Zamorins where the Tipus assault on Kerala.
Muslim merchants were free to trade in the above
commodities, and Kozhikode Angadi was known Tipu Sultan Islamized the place names across Mal-
for its prosperity. Under the circumstances, the abar; Mangalapuram (Mangalore) was changed to Jalal-
Muslim merchants had no other choice but to be- abad, Cannanore (Kanwapuram) to Kusanabad, Beypore
come peasants. (Vaippura) to Sultanpatanam or Faruqui, and Calicut to
Islamabad. It was only after the death of Tipu Sultan that
The roads developed by Tipu for military purposes the local people reverted to old names; however, only one
were helpful for the development of trade. of the names is intact, Feroke. In Cherunad, Vettathu-
nad, Eranad, Valluvanad, Thamarassery and other inte-
rior areas, local Mappilas unleashed a reign of terror on
Ethnic cleansing
the Hindu population, mainly to retain the occupied land
of Hindu landlords and to establish their domination over
As per a commission of enquiry appointed by the En-
Hindus. Fearing the organised robberies and violence,
glish soon after Tipu Sultans death, during the rule of
people could not even travel freely in the Malabar hinter-
Tipu Sultan tens of thousands of Nairs (Hindus), besides
land of predominantly Mappila population.[27]
about 30,000 Brahmins and Christians, ed Malabar to
seek refuge in Travancore, leaving behind their wealth. A broad picture of atrocities in Kadathanad by Mysore
army under Hyder Ali as described by a Muslim ocer
According to M. Gangadharan, there is evidence that
of Mysore army in his diary and as edited by Ghulam
many Hindus were converted into Islam. In one of the
Muhammad Sultan Sahib, only surviving son of Tipu Sul-
most widely documented cases, the army invaded Ka-
tan, is given as;[28]
dathanadu and forcibly converted the Nair soldiers, who
was holding out for many weeks against the much army In his book Tipu Sultan: As known in Kerala, Ravi Varma
without adequate weapons or food.[26] says: Hyder Ali despatched his Brahmin messengers (af-
ter the Anti-Mysore Uprisings in the second half of 1766)
Local Hindus and Christians suered from the Mysore
to woods and mountains, with the promise of pardon and
invasion. Almost a fourth of the Nair population was
mercy to the Hindus who had ed. However, as soon as
wiped out and many more were forcibly converted. The
the unfortunate Hindus returned on his promise, Hyder
Nambuthiris (Brahmins) were also severely aected. Ac-
made sure that they were all hanged to death and their
cording to various rough sources, about half the Hindu
wives and children reduced to slavery.[29]
population of Malabar ed the country to the forests or
Tellicherry and Travancore. They included most of the Ravi Varma further states that:[30]
Hindu Rajas and chieftains who could not resist the in- Gunddart said in his Kerala Pazhama that it is just
vading Mysore army. The Chirackal, Parappanad, Bal- not possible to describe the cruel atrocities perpetrated
lussery, Kurumbranad, Kadathanad, Palghat and Calicut by Tipu Sultan in Kozhikode during the Fall in 1789.
royal families migrated to Travancore. The chieftain William Logan gives in his Malabar Manual a long list
families which did the same were those of Punnathur,
4.1. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA 79

of temples destroyed by Tipu Sultan and his army.[10] tribute, Tipu killed him, dragged his dead body tied to the
Elankulam Kunjan Pillai has recorded the situation in feet of an elephant through the streets, and nally hanged
Malabar as follows:[31][32] him from a tree-top to show his contempt for Hindu Ra-
Atrocities committed in Malabar during the days of Tipu jas. Palghat Raja, Ettipangi Achan, who had surrendered,
Sultans military regime have been described in great was imprisoned on suspicion and later taken to Sreeran-
detail in the works of many reputed authors. Notable gapatanam. Nothing was heard of him subsequently.
among them, Travancore State Manual of T.K. Velu Pil- While escaping from Tipus army, one of the princes of
lai and Kerala Sahitya Charitam of Ulloor Parameshwara the Chirackal Royal family in North Malabar was cap-
Iyer.[33] tured and killed in an encounter after a chase of few days.
In a letter dated 18 January 1790, to Syed Abdul Dulai, As per the accounts of Tipus own diary and as conrmed
Tipu writes:[34] by the English Company records, the body of the unfor-
tunate prince was treated with great indignities by Tipu
Writing on 19 January 1790, to Badroos Saman Khan, Sultan. He had the dead body of the prince dragged by
Tipu Sultan said;[35] elephants through his camp and it was subsequently hung
Father Bartolomaco, a Portuguese traveller and historian, up on a tree along with seventeen of his followers who
claims;[36] had been captured alive. Another chieftain, Korangoth
Nair, who had resisted Tipu, was nally captured with the
In a letter dated 13 February 1790, addressed to Budruz help of the French and hanged.[40]
Zuman Khan, Tipu Sultan writes;[37]
Many Hindus belonging to lower castes accepted conver-
sion to Islam under the Mysore rule. However, many oth- Destruction of Hindu temples According to the Mal-
ers, especially the Thiyyas, ed to Tellicherry and Mah. abar Manual by William Logan, Thrichambaram and
Thalipparampu temples in Chirackal Taluk, Thiruvan-
gatu Temple (Brass Pagoda) in Tellicherry, and Ponmeri
Temple near Badakara were all destroyed by the Mysore
Extermination of Nairs Main article: Captivity of
forces under Tipu Sultan. The Malabar Manual mention
Nairs at Seringapatam
that the Maniyoor mosque was once a Hindu temple. The
local belief is that it was converted to a mosque during the
In 1788, Tipu Sultan gave strict orders to his army under days of Mysore rule under Tipu Sultan.[41]
M. Lally and Mir Asrali Khan to "surround and extricate
Vatakkankoor Raja Raja Varma in his famous literary
the whole race of Nairs from Kottayam to Palghat".[38]
work, History of Sanskrit Literature in Kerala, has writ-
This incident is known as The Order of Extermination of
ten the following about the loss and destruction faced by
the Nayars by Tipu Sultan. After entrusting Calicut to a
the Hindu temples in Kerala during the regime of Tipu
powerful army contingent, he instructed it "to surround
Sultan:
the woods and seize the heads of all Nair factions".
Hyder Ali had exempted Hindu temples from the pay-
A small army of 2,000 Nairs of Kadathanadu resisted the
ment of land tax. But Tipu Sultan forced the Hindu tem-
invasion of the huge army of Tipu Sultan from a fortress
ples to pay heavy taxes. The famous Hemambika Tem-
in Kuttipuram for a few weeks soon the rebels were re-
ple at Kalpathi of the Palghat Raja who had surrendered
duced to starvation and death. Tipu Sultan entered the
to Hyder Ali, the Kachamkurissi Temple of the Kol-
fort and oered to spare their lives, provided they ac-
lamkottu Raja who had deserted the Zamorin and sided
cepted conversion to Islam. After several days of resis-
with Hyder Ali, and also the Jain Temple at Palghat suf-
tance, and nding it dicult to defend the fort any longer,
fered serious damages during the rule of Tipu Sultan.
the Nairs submitted to the usual terms of surrender a
Other famous temples were looted and desecrated.
voluntary profession of the Islam or a forced conversion
with deportation from the land. The unhappy Nair cap-
tives gave a forced consent and on the next day, they were Concealment of the Hindu idol at Guruvayur In
converted and at closing the ceremony every individual of 1766, Hyder Ali of Mysore captured Calicut and then
both men and women was forced to eat beef, which was Guruvayur. To refrain from the demolition of the Hindu
prohibited to them by faith. temple at Guruvayur, Mysore demanded 10,000 fanams
All the members of one branch of Parappanad Royal from the authorities, which was paid. At the request of
Family were forcibly converted to Islam except for one Governor of Malabar, Shrinivasa Rao, Hyder Ali granted
or two who escaped from Tipus army. Similarly, one a devadaya (free gift) and the temple at Guruvayur was
Thiruppad belonging to Nilamboor Royal Family was saved from destruction.
also forcibly abducted and converted to Islam. There- Tippu Sultan again invaded the Zamorin of Calicut's
after, it was reported that further conversions of Hindus
province in 1789. Aware of the risk to the idol, it was
were attempted through those converts.[39] hidden underground and the Utsava vigraha was taken to
When the Kolathiri Raja eventually surrendered and paid Ambalappuzha Sri Krishna Temple by Mallisseri Nam-
80 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

boodiri and Kakkad Othikkan. Tippu destroyed the [16] Malabar Manual, Logan, William
smaller shrines and set re to the temple, but it was
saved due to timely rain. Tippu lost to the Zamorin, [17] Sarasvatis Children: A History of the Mangalorean Chris-
tians, Alan Machado Prabhu, I.J.A. Publications, 1999, p.
Travancore and the English in 1792. Although the hid-
173
den idol and the Utsava vigraha were re-installed on 17
September 1792, the daily poojas and routines were se- [18] History of Mysore by Mark Wilks
riously disrupted.[42][43]
[19] History of Tipu Sultan By Mohibbul Hasan p.141-143

4.1.11 See also [20] Tipu Sultan: As known in Kerala, by Ravi Varma. p.507

[21] Kerala State gazetteer, Volume 2, Part 2 By Adoor K. K.

Local Resistance to Mysore Rule in Malabar Ramachandran Nair p.174
Anglo-Mysore Wars [22] Fortescue, p. 549
Pazhassi Raja [23] Fortescue, p. 548
Siege of Tellicherry [24] Fortescue, p. 561
Islamic conquest of Kerala [25] David Eggenberger, An Encyclopedia of Battles, 1985

[26] Gazetteer of the Bombay Presidency, Volume 1, Part 2 By

4.1.12 References Bombay (India : State) p.660

[1] www.kerala.gov.in History
[2] Kingdom of Bednur
[3] Tippu Sultan. Encyclopdia Britannica. Encyclopdia
Britannica Online. Encyclopdia Britannica Inc., 2011.
Web. 22 November 2011.
[4] Journal of Indian history, Volume 55 By University of Al-
lahabad. Dept. of Modern Indian History, University of
Kerala. Dept. of History, University of Travancore, Uni-
versity of Kerala. pp.144
[5] Lectures on Enthurdogy by A. Krishna Ayer Calcutta,
1925
[6] Logan, William (2006). Malabar Manual, Mathrubhumi
Books, Kozhikode. ISBN 978-81-8264-046-7
[7] Bowring, pp. 4446
[8] Logan, William (2006), Malabar Manual, Mathrubhumi
Books, Kozhikode. ISBN 978-81-8264-046-7
[9] Kerala District Gazetteers: & suppl. Kozhikode By Ker-
ala (India). Dept. of Education, A. Sreedhara Menon
p.149
[10] Malabar Manual by Logan
[11] Panikkassery Velayudhan. MM Publications (2007), Kot-
tayam India
[27] Kerala under Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan By C. K. Kareem
p.198
[28] Tipu Sultan: As known in Kerala, by Ravi Varma. p.508
[29] Tipu Sultan: As known in Kerala, by Ravi Varma. p.468
[30] Kerala District Gazetteers: & suppl. Kozhikole By Kerala
(India). Dept. of Education, A. Sreedhara Menon p.150-
152
[31] Mathrubhoomi Weekly of 25 December 1955
[32] Kerala District Gazetteers: Cannanore By A. Sreedhara
Menon p.134-137
[33] The Sword of Tipu Sultan. Voiceofdharma.com. 25
February 1990. Retrieved 15 November 2011.
[34] K.M. Panicker, Bhasha Poshini
[35] Historical Sketches of the South of India in an attempt to
trace the History of Mysore, Mark Wilks Vol II, page 120
[36] Voyage to East Indies by Fr.Bartolomaco, pgs 141142
[37] Selected Letters of Tipoo Sultan by Kirkpatrick
[38] Tipu Sultan: villain or hero? : an ... Sita Ram Goel
Google Books. Books.google.com. 29 August 2008.
Retrieved 15 November 2011.

[12] Panikkassery, Velayudhan. MM Publications (2007), [39] Rise and fullment of English rule in India By Edward
Kottayam India John Thompson, Georey Theodore Garratt p.209

[13] Tipu Sultan Villain Or Hero?". Voiceofdharma.com. [40] Tipu Sultan: villain or hero? : an anthology By Sita Ram
Retrieved 15 November 2011. Goel p.31

[14] Travancore State Manual by T.K Velu Pillai, Pages 373 to [41] Malabar Manual by William Logan
385
[42] http://voiceofdharma.org/books/tipu/ch04.htm
[15] The Travancore state manual by Aiya, V. Nagam.
pp.381384 [43] http://guruvayurprarthana.com/aboutguruvayur.aspx
4.2. ANGLO-MYSORE WARS 81

4.2 Anglo-Mysore Wars contesting powers. Tipu defeated Baillie at the Battle of
Pollilur in Sept. 1780, and Braithwaite at Kumbakonam
The AngloMysore Wars were a series of wars fought in in Feb. 1782, both of whom were taken prisoner to
South India over the last three decades of the 18th century Seringapatam. This war saw the rise of Sir Eyre Coote,
between the Kingdom of Mysore on the one hand, and the British commander who defeated Hyder Ali at the
the British East India Company (represented chiey by Battle of Porto Novo and Arni. Tipu continued the war
the Madras Presidency), and Maratha Confederacy and following his fathers death. Finally, the war ended with
the Nizam of Hyderabad on the other. Hyder Ali and his the last British-Indian treaty with an Indian ruler on equal
successor Tipu Sultan fought a war on four fronts with footing, the 1784 Treaty of Mangalore, which restored
the British attacking from the west, south and east, while the status quo ante bellum. The Treaty of Gajendragad in
the Marathas and the Nizams forces attacked from the April 1787 ended the conict with the Marathas.[1]
north.[1] The fourth war resulted in the overthrow of the In the Third Anglo-Mysore War (178992), Tipu Sultan,
house of Hyder Ali and Tipu (who was killed in the nal the ruler of Mysore and an ally of France, invaded the
war, in 1799), and the dismantlement of Mysore to the nearby state of Travancore in 1789, which was a British
benet of the East India Company, which won and took ally. The resultant war lasted three years and was a re-
control of much of India . sounding defeat for Mysore. The war ended after the
1792 siege of Seringapatam and the signing of the Treaty
of Seringapatam, according to which Tipu had to surren-
der half of his kingdom to the British East India Company
and its allies.[1]
The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799) saw the death
of Tipu Sultan and further reductions in Mysorean
territory.[1] Mysores alliance with the French was seen
as a threat to the East India Company and Mysore was
attacked from all four sides. Tipus troops were out-
numbered 4:1 in this war. Mysore had 35,000 soldiers,
whereas the British commanded 60,000 troops. The
Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an in-
vasion from the north. The British won a decisive victory
at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799). Tipu was killed
during the defence of the city. Much of the remain-
ing Mysorean territory was annexed by the British, the
Nizam and the Marathas. The remaining core, around
Mysore and Srirangapattana, was restored to the Indian
prince belonging to the Wodeyar dynasty, whose forefa-
thers had been the actual rulers before Hyder Ali became
the de facto ruler. The Wodeyars ruled the remnant state
of Mysore until 1947, when it joined the Union of India.
After the Battles of Plassey (1757) and Buxar (1764)
which established British dominion over East India, the
Hyder Ali in 1762, incorrectly described as Commander in Chief Anglo-Mysore wars (17661799), the AngloMaratha
of the Marathas. At the head of his army in the war against the Wars (17751818), and nally the Anglo-Sikh Wars
British in India. (French painting) (18451849) consolidated the British claim over South
Asia, resulting in the British Empire in India, though re-
The First Anglo-Mysore War (176769) saw Hyder Ali sistance among various groups such as the Afghans and
gain some measure of success against the British, almost the Burmese would last well into the 1880s.
capturing Madras. The British convinced the Nizam of
Hyderabad to attack Hyder, but the Nizam changed sides,
supporting the Sultan. That was temporary however, and 4.2.1 Rockets
the Nizam signed a new treaty with the British in Feb.
1768. Hyder did contend with a British Bombay army Main article: Mysorean rockets
attacking on the west and a Madras army attacking from
the northeast. However, Hyders attack towards Madras The Mysorean rockets used by Hyder Ali during the
resulted in the Madras government suing for peace, and Battle of Pollilur were much more advanced than any the
the resultant Treaty of Madras.[1] British East India Company had previously seen, chiey
The Second Anglo-Mysore War (178084) witnessed because of the use of iron tubes for holding the propel-
bloodier battles with fortunes uctuating between the lant. This enabled higher thrust and a longer range for
82 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

the missile (up to 2 kilometres (1.2 mi)). After Tipu
Sultan's eventual defeat in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War
and the capture of a number of Mysorean iron rockets,
they were inuential in British rocket development, in-
spiring the Congreve rocket, which was soon put into use
in the Napoleonic Wars.[2]
The First and the Second AngloMysore War.
The Third AngloMysore War
1793 map
4.3 Battle of Calicut (1790)
The Battle of Calicut (also called the Battle of Ter-
vanagary or Thiroorangadi) was a series of engage-
ments that took place between 7 and 12 December 1790
near the port of Calicut on the Malabar Coast of India,
during the Third Anglo-Mysore War.
A British Bombay Army force landed at Tellicherry and
with the aid of Nair, defeated Tipus commander, Hus-
sain Ali Khan, at Calicut. Abercromby then went on to
capture all of Malabar.[1]

1800 map
4.3.1 See also
The Fourth AngloMysore War
Mysore invasion of Kerala

4.2.2 References
4.3.2 References
[1] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. pp. [1] Naravane, M.S. (2014). Battles of the Honorourable East
172181. ISBN 9788131300343. India Company. A.P.H. Publishing Corporation. p. 176.
ISBN 9788131300343.
[2] Roddam Narasimha (1985). Rockets in Mysore and
Britain, 17501850 A.D. National Aeronautical Labora-
tory and Indian Institute of Science. Harbottle, Thomas Beneld. Dictionary of battles
from the earliest date to the present time
Mill, James. A history of British India, Volume 5
4.2.3 Further reading
Miles, W (translator). The history of the Reign of
Brittlebank, Kate. Tipu Sultans Search for Le- Tipu Sultan
gitimacy: Islam and Kingship in a Hindu Domain
(Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1997) Logan, William Malabar Manual, Volume 1

Cooper, Randolf GS. Culture, Combat, and Colo-

nialism in Eighteenth-and Nineteenth-Century In- 4.3.3 External links
dia. International History Review (2005) 27#3 pp:
534-549. Dictionary of Indian Biography - James Hartley
1743-1799 archive.org
Jaim, HM Iftekhar, and Jasmine Jaim. The Deci-
sive Nature of the Indian War Rocket in the Anglo- Portrait and Biographical Information on James
Mysore Wars of the Eighteenth Century. Arms & Hartley Christies.com auctioneers
Armour (2011) 8#2 pp: 131-138. Heritage History - Mysore Wars
Kaliamurthy, G. Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780- Calicut - Gazetteer 1857
84) (Mittal Publications, 1987)
DNB Biography of James Hartley
Roy, Kaushik. War, culture and society in early
modern South Asia, 1740-1849 (Taylor & Francis,
2011) 4.4 Battle of the Nedumkotta

4.2.4 Popular Culture The Battle of the Nedumkotta took place on the 28 De-
cember 1789, and was a reason for the opening of hos-
* Regan S. Gidwani, The Sword of Tipu Sultan tilities in the Third Anglo-Mysore War. Forces of Tipu
(2014), a novel linked to TV series Sultan, the ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, attacked the
fortied line known as the Nedumkotta in Thrissur dis-
trict that protected the Kingdom of Travancore, an ally of
4.2.5 See also the British East India Company. Tipu Sultan made major
advancements on Travancore, however, had to return to
Mysore invasion of Kerala his Kingdom to prepare for a British attack.
4.4. BATTLE OF THE NEDUMKOTTA 83

4.4.1 Situation in Travancore dumkotta and presented them to the ruler of Travancore.
Some of them were sent to the Nawab of Carnatic on
The strength of the Travancore Nair Army was greatly his request.After approximately 2 months after this in-
reduced after several earlier battles with Hyder Ali's cident, on March 1, 1790, 1,000 Travancore troops ad-
forces. The death of the Dutch-born commander Valiya- vanced onto Mysore territory, where they were stopped
kappitan Eustachius De Lannoy in 1777 further dimin- and pushed back with considerable losses by Mysorean
ished the morale of the soldiers. The death of Makayi- troops.[8] On April 9, 1790, a similar attempt was made
ram Thirunal and Asvati Thirunal in 1786 forced the once again by 3,000 Travancore troops on Mysore terri-
Travancore royal family to adopt two princesses from tory, however, they were once again stopped by Mysorean
Kolathunad. As the threat of an invasion by Tipu troops and repulsed.[8]
Sultan loomed in the horizon, Travancores maharajah
On April 12, 1790, Tipu decided to attack the Travan-
Dharma Raja tried to rebuild his army by appointing
core lines and within approximately three days was able
Chempakaraman Pillai as the dalawa and Kesava Pillai
to breach three quarters of a mile of the lines.[8] On April
as the sarvadhikaryakkar.[3]
15, 1790 he took approximately 6,000 soldiers and ad-
vanced on the Travancore position.[2] The Travancore
troops were taken by surprise and ed.[2] On April 18,
4.4.2 Preparations for the battle
1790, Tipu arrived within one mile of Cranganur and
erected batteries.[2] On May 8, 1790, Tipu successfully
Tipu Sultan planned the invasion of Travancore for many
occupied Cranganur.[2] Soon other forts such as Ayi-
years, and he was especially concerned with the Ne-
cotta and Parur surrendered without ghting.[2] Tipu Sul-
dumkotta fortications, which had prevented his father
tan destroyed the Travancore lines and reached all the
Hyder Ali from annexing the kingdom. Towards the
way to Verapoly, The Travancorean forces regrouped,
end of 1789, Tipu Sultan marched his troops from
but the onset of monsoons prevented Tipu from mov-
Coimbatore. Tipus army consisted of 20,000 infantry,
ing south(combat being much more dicult during the
10,000 spearmen and match-lockmen, 5,000 cavalry and
[4] monsoon season). He nally reached the Periyar river
20 eld guns.
banks at Aluva and camped there. However, by this time
Travancore purchased the strategic forts of Cranganore a small group led by Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai and Kun-
and Ayacottah from the Dutch to improve the countrys jai Kutty Pillai went upstream and managed to break the
defenses. The deal was nalized by Dewan Kesava Pillai walls of a dam at Bhoothathankettu causing heavy ash
and Dutch merchants David Rabbi and Ephraim Cohen oods downstream Periyar river. All the ammunition and
under the observation of Maharajah Dharma Raja and gunpowder of Tipus army got wet and became inactive.
Dutch East India Company Governor John Gerard van He was thus forced to return. Information that the British
Anglebeck. Travancore also held a treaty with the British army was planning an attack on Srirangapatnam hastened
East India Company, under whose terms two battalions his retreat
of the Company army were stationed at the Travancore-
Cochin frontier. Tipu Sultan objected to these purchases
because the forts, even though they had long been in 4.4.4 Aftermath
Dutch hands, were in a territory that paid him tribute.
Kesava Pillai was appointed as the Commander-in-Chief The British seeing the rapid advance of Tipu Sultan and
of the Travancore Army. To boost the strength of the his forces decided to attack him as they considered him a
armed forces, several thousand youngsters militiamen major threat to their interests.
were called up from regions all over the kingdom. The
forts of Cranganore and Ayacottah were repaired and
4.4.5 See also
garrisoned.[5]
Mysore invasion of Kerala
4.4.3 The battle
4.4.6 References
On 28 December 1789, Mysorean troops, not led per-
sonally by Tipu Sultan were red upon by Travancore [1] Mia Carter, Barbara Harlow, Archives of Empire: Volume
troops. The Mysorean troops advanced from the Travan- I. From The East India Company to the Suez Canal, p. 174
core lines, but were eventually stopped when faced with
six-pounder guns used by the Travancore troops and were [2] Hassan (2005), p. 167
repulsed.[6][7] Large number of mysorean troops were
[3] The Travancore State Manual by V Nagam Aiya, Vol.1,
captured as prisoners and were imprisoned in undaya-
Page 385
giri fort.The Nairs of Travancore recovered the sword,
the pallanquin, the dagger, the ring and many other per- [4] The Travancore State Manual by V Nagam Aiya, Vol.1,
sonal eects of Tipu Sultan from the ditches of the Ne- Page 390
84
[5] The Travancore State Manual by V Nagam Aiya, Vol.1,
Page 393
[6] Mohibbul Hasan (2005), History of Tipu Sultan, Aakar
Books, p. 164
[7] John Clark Marshman, The history of India, p. 450
[8] Hassan (2005), p.166
4.4.7 Sources
Fortescue, John William (1902). A history of the
British army, Volume 3. Macmillan.
Marshman, John Clark (1863). The history of India
The Travancore State Manual, Volume 1 (some de-
tail on Tipus movements)
A history of Travancore from the earliest times, Vol-
ume 1 (details on fort transactions preceding attack)
4.5 Bekal Fort
Bekal Fort (Malayalam: ), is the largest
fort in Kerala, situated at Kasaragod district, North Ker-
ala and it is 67 km from Mangalore spreading over 40
acres (160,000 m2 ). Some important features of this fort
are the water-tank with its ight of steps, the tunnel open-
ing towards the south, the magazine for keeping ammuni-
tion and the broad steps leading to the Observation Tower,
which is a rarity. From there one has an ample view of
towns in the vicinity like Kanhangad, Pallikkara, Bekal,
Kottikkulam, and Uduma. The nearest railway stations
are Bekal Fort, Kotikulam, Kanhangad, and Kasargod.
This observation center had strategic signicance in dis-
covering even the smallest movements of the enemy and
ensuring the safety of the Fort.
The Fort appears to have been built up from the sea since
almost three fourths of its exterior is drenched and the
waves continually stroke the citadel. The Mukhyaprana
Temple of Hanuman and the ancient Muslim mosque
nearby bear testimony to the age-old religious harmony
that prevailed in the area. The zigzag entrance and the
trenches around the fort show the defense strategy inher-
ent in the fort.
Unlike most other Indian forts, Bekal Fort was not a cen-
ter of administration, for no remains of any palace, man-
sion or such buildings are found within the fort. Arguably
the fort was built especially for fullling defense require-
ments. The holes on the outer walls of the fort are spe-
cially designed to defend the fort eectively. The holes
at top were meant for aiming at the farthest points; the
holes below for striking when the enemy was nearer and
the holes underneath facilitated attacking when the enemy
was very near to the fort. This is remarkable evidence of
technology in defense strategy.
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
4.5.1 Recorded history
Bakel beach from the fort
Shivappa Nayaka of Bednore constructed the Bekal Fort
in 1650AD. During the Perumal Age Bekal was a part of
Mahodayapuram. The Kodavalam inscription (Pullur, 7
km from Kanhangad) of Bhasakara Ravi II (the King of
Mahodayapuram) illustrate the undisputed political sway
of Mahodayapuram over this region. Following the politi-
cal decline of Mahodayapuram Perumals by the 12th cen-
tury AD, North Kerala including Bekal, came under the
sovereignty of Mushika or Kolathiri or Chirakkal Royal
Family (who were a secondary royal family at that point
to the Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas).[1] The maritime im-
portance of Bekal increased much under the Kolathiris
and it became an important port town of Tulunadu and
Malabar.
It was usual in older days for every royal palace to be pro-
tected by a fort. The Bekal fort might have, therefore, ex-
isted even from early days of the Chirakkal Rajas. While
writing a description of the Kolathiri Kingdom in his Ker-
ala History, K.P. Padmanabha Menon writes: The eldest
of the male members reigned as sovereign Kolathiri. The
next in succession, the heir apparent, was the Thekke-
lamkur. The residence assigned to him was the Vadakara
fort. The third in succession was the Vadakkelamkur in
charge of Vekkolath fort. This V(B)ekkolath fort is iden-
tied by some scholars as the present Bekal.[1]
H.A. Stuart, in his Handbook of South Canara (1985),
makes this observation: Several forts were built by the
Shivappa Nayaks of Badnore between 1650 and 1670.
The two forts of Bekal and Chandragiri were originally
4.5. BEKAL FORT 85

under the Kolathiri or Chirakkal Rajas until the time of Anglo-Mysore War in 1799 saw the end of Mysorean
Shivappa Nayakas invasion. Perhaps, the Bednore rulers control and subsequently the fort came under the British
might have rebuilt and improved it.[1] East India Company.[2][3]
The Battle of Talikota in 1565 led to the decline of the During the reign of the Company Bekal became the head-
mighty Vijayanagara Empire and many feudatory chief- quarters of the newly organized Bekal Taluk of South Ca-
tains rose in political prominence including the Keladi nara District in Bombay presidency. South Canara be-
Nayakas (Ikkeri Nayaks). The Nayakas realized the po- came a part of the Madras presidency in 1799 and Kasar-
litical and economic importance of Tulunadu (which is god Taluk was up in the place of Bekal Taluk. Gradu-
the region comprising modern-day Udupi and Dakshina ally the political and economic importance of Bekal and
Kannada districts along with the northernmost part of its port declined considerably. Kasargod became part of
Kasargod District ) and attacked and annexed the region. Kerala with the state reorganization in 1956.[4]
Bekal served as a nucleus in establishing the dominance Its solid construction resembles the St. Angelo Fort
of the Nayakas in Malabar. The economic importance at Kannur built by the Dutch and also the Thalassery
of the port town prompted the Nayakas to fortify Bekal Fort. The Ikkeri Nayakas had not developed guns to de-
subsequently. Hiriya Venkatappa Nayaka initiated the fend themselves from the invaders approaching from the
construction of the fort and it was completed during the Arabean sea route. But the western part of the fort is built
period of Shivappa Nayaka. The speedy completion of in a solid manner with numerous slits on the walls for de-
the port was aimed at the defense of the fort from over- fending the fort from the naval power of other rulers. So
seas attack and to strengthen their attack on Malabar. it is believed that the present look of fort was the outcome
Chandragiri fort near Kasargod was also constructed dur- of the conict between European powers. Modication
ing this period.[2] to the fort was made by all the rulers who ruled the land
Somashekhara Nayak captured Manjeswar and from before the time of the Ikkeri Nayakas. Moreover, a
Taliparamba and built a fort at Kanhangad called Hos- number of forts built by the Ikkeri Nayakas have failed to
durg which literally means 'New Fort' in Kannada/Tulu. stand the test of time and perished. Located at the centre
The other forts found in Kasargod are constructed on the of the fort is an Observation Tower built by Tipu Sul-
coastal region and on the route to Madikeri (Mercara in tan,[2] which oers a scenic view of the coastline. Also
Coorg). It is believed that the 'Koteyar'/'Ramakshatriya' in existence is a rest-house built by the British Govern-
community found in Bekal, Panayal and other places in ment. Presently the protection and preservation of Bekal
Kasargod were brought to this land by the Nayaks to fort has been entrusted to the Archaeological Survey of
strengthen and defend the fort. There was a prolonged India.[5]
struggle between the Kolathiries and Nayaks to recapture
and maintain their hold over this area. These battles
came to an end with the rise of Hyder Ali who conquered 4.5.2 Tourism
the Nayakas. Subsequently Bekal fell into the hands of
Mysore kings.[2] In 1992 the Government of India declared Bekal Fort as
a special tourism area.[6] In the year 1995 the govern-
ment formed Bekal Tourism Development Corporation
for transforming Bekal Fort into international tourism
centre.[7] Tourism promotion activities have been taking
place of late in the areas surrounding the fort, under the
Bekal Resorts Development Corporation (BRDC). The
song 'Uyire' (Tamil) from the movie Bombay (lm) di-
rected by Mani Ratnam has been shot at Bekal Fort.
Many such lms, music albums, and commercial adver-
tisements are being shot at Bekal Fort.
The Mangrove Trail of Malabar is a day trippers visiting
place about 45 km from Bakel. It is a coastal Jungle trail
oering hiking, birding and boating.

Bakel is a popular beach

4.5.3 Access
Bekal served as an important military station of Tipu
Sultan when he led the great military expedition to cap- Nearest towns are Kanhangad 8 km and Kasargod
ture Malabar. The coins and other artifacts unearthed 18 km.
by the archaeological excavation conducted recently at
Bekal fort is a manifestation of the strong presence of These towns are well connected to nearby
the Mysore Sulthans. The death of Tipu Sultan in Fourth cities by bus and train.
86 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

Nearest railway station 4.5.5 See also

Pallikkara. Mangalore

Nearest airports Kannur Fort

Mangalore International Airport 60 km. Thalassery Fort

Karipur International Airport 180 km.
Mysore invasion of Kerala

SI-MET College of Nursing, Uduma

4.5.4 Gallery

4.5.6 Notes
[1] The Hindu, 22 Oct 2005

[2] Kasargod: History & Society

[3] Madras District Manual

[4] States Reorganisation Act

[5] ASI

[6] Bastions of valour and victory (Bangalore). Deccan

Herald. 29 July 2014. Retrieved 19 January 2015.

[7] BEKAL.

Panoramic view from inside Bakel Fort.

4.5.7 References

A stairway inside the fort. The steps lead to a tunnel
and eventually to the outside wall of the fort facing
the Arabian sea.
An extension of the fort into the sea. The circular
bastion is built on the rocky formation well into the
sea. The view is through arched slits at the upper
portion of the bastion.
Sturrock, John (1894). History of the Tuluvas.
Madras District Manual. Madras Gazette.
C, Balan (2001). Kasargod: History & Society. Dis-
trict Panchayat, Kasargod.
Prashanth G.N. (2005-10-22). Fort by the Sea.
The Hindu.

Bhagavathi Temple, Pallikere, Bakel Bekal Fort, Kasargod. Archaeological Survey of

India.
A view of neighboring areas from Bekal fort

Bekal fort beach 4.5.8 External links

A monument in Bekal Fort Video of Bekal Fort
West side view of the fort and the beach BRDC (Bekal Resorts Development Corporation)
A scene of the beach from fort Bekal Holidays
Another scene of the beach from fort bekal fort CLASSIC PICTURES
A part of the fort seen from the seaside Bekal fort and aroud
Sunset at Bekal Fort
Coordinates: 122332N 75157E / 12.39222N
Bakel Fort 75.03250E
4.6. CAPTIVITY OF NAIRS AT SERINGAPATAM 87

4.6 Captivity of Nairs at Seringap- Related Letters

atam

The Captivity of Nairs at Seringapatam was imposed

on the Nair Hindus of Malabar by Muslims under Tipu
Sultan, the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore
from 1786 to 1799. They were subjected to forcible
conversions to Islam, death, and torture.[1][2] The Nairs
were treated with extreme brutality by the Muslims due
to their strong adherence to the Hindu faith and martial
tradition.[3][4][5] The captivity ended when Nair troops
from Travancore, with the help of the East India Com-
pany defeated Tipu in the Third Anglo-Mysore War.[6][7]
It is estimated that out of the 30,000 Nairs put to captiv-
ity (including women and children), only a few hundred
returned to Malabar alive.[7][8]
North Malabar was divided into the Nair principalities
of Chirakkal, Kadattanad, Kottayam, Kurangod and the
Moplah principality of Cannanore which owed nominal
allegiance to Chirakkal. South Malabar was divided be-
tween the Zamorin of Calicut and the Raja of Cochin.[9]

4.6.1 Nairs under Hyder Ali Tipu Sultan (17501799), the architect of the Seringapatam Cap-
tivity
The period of Sultan of Mysore Hyder Ali conquest
of Malabar between 17661793 was met with sti op- In his letter to the Governor of Bekal, Budruz Zaman
position from the local Nairs.[10] In 1766, he marched Khan, in the year 1200 AH (1785 AD), Tipu approved
into Palakkad and Malabar, followed by another march of forced conversions of Nairs:[13]
into Malabar via Thamarassery ghat in 1767.[10] Hyder
quickly understood the Nair psyche and caste pride and Your two letters, with the enclosed mem-
decided to use it to facilitate conversions.[10] To this end, orandums of the Nim (Nair) captives, have
he deprived Nairs of caste privileges, equating them to been received. You did right in causing a hun-
Paravas, prohibited them from carrying arms, and out- dred and thirty-ve of them to be circumcised,
lawed them.[10] Furthermore, he oered privileges back and in putting eleven of the youngest of these
to anybody who converted to Islam.[10] This led some into the Usud Ilhye band, and the remaining
Nairs and many members of the lower castes to em- ninety-four into the Ahmedy troops, consign-
brace Islam, and resulted in the rst appearance of Is- ing the whole, at the same time, to the charge
lam in the Malabar countryside.[11] Humiliated by these of the Kiladar of Nugr (Bednore).
perceived slights imposed by the Sultan, the Nairs rose
[14]
in rebellion.[10] They harassed isolated block-houses set
up by Hyder, raided, pillaged, and destroyed stores and In May of the same year, an order was sent to the Faujdar
munition dumps.[10] of Calicut, Arshad Ali Baig, pertaining to the treatment
[13]
Ayaz Khan was a Nair from Chirakkal who had been of a Nair dissident:
taken prisoner by Hyder during the latters Malabar cam-
paign of 1766. He became a Muslim and was en- Getting possession of the villain, Goorkul,
listed in the Asad-i-Ilahi (new converts) troops. Find- and of his wife and children, you must
ing favour with Hyder Ali, in 1779 he became Governor forcibly make Mussalmans out of them, and
of Chitaldroog and in 1782 of Bednur. The British ap- then dispatch the whole under a guard to
proached him and he rejected their overtures, but after Seringapatam.
Hyders death he agreed to support them and handed over
Bednur to them.[12] Proclamation

In 1788, Tipu issued a proclamation to the Nairs of

4.6.2 Nairs under Tipu Sultan Malabar, wherein he outlined his new scheme of social
reform:[15]
88 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

From the period of the conquest until this Tipu had halted in the Malabar to enforce his
day, during twenty-four years, you have been proclamation.[15] General orders were issued to his
a turbulent and refractory people, and in the army that 'every being in the district without distinction
wars waged during your rainy season, you have should be burned, that they should be traced to their
caused number of our warriors to taste the lurking places, and that all means of truth and falsehood,
draught of martyrdom. Be it so. What is past force or fraud should be employed to eect their uni-
is past. Hereafter you must proceed in an op- versal conversion'.[15] The Raja of Cherkal (Chirakkal,
posite manner, dwell quietly and pay your dues Kannur) ed to Tellicherry but when he was intercepted
like good subjects and since it is the practice he killed himself. Then his body was dragged round
with you for one woman to associate with ten the camp and hung from a tree.[18] Tipu besieged the
men, and you leave your mothers and sisters Kadattanad Rajas fortied palace at Kuttipuram, and
unconstrained in their obscene practices, and 2,000 Nairsforced to surrender after a resistance of
are thence all born in adultery, and are more several days.[15] Several Rajas and wealthy land owners
shameless in your connections than the beasts ed to Travancore, where the Dharma Raja helped them
of the elds : I hereby require you to forsake to rehabilitate themselves in their new surroundings.[15]
these sinful practices and be like the rest of On the other hand, Nairs retreated into the jungles where
mankind; and if you are disobedient to these they engaged in guerrilla warfare against the invading
commands, I have made repeated vows to hon- Mysorean army.[15] Tipu further organised a regular
our the whole of you with Islam and to march and systematic hunt for Nairs.[15] He then proceeded to
all the chief persons to the seat of Govern- Cannanore and after celebrating the marriage of his son
ment. with the daughter of the Ali Raja, marched along the
coast of Chowghat.[15] He then made arrangements for
His proclamation was met with widespread resent- the administrative reorganisation of the province, and
ment and consequently, the Hindus of Malabar rose retired to Coimbatore, leaving a permanent occupying [15]
in rebellion.[15] Due to fear 30,000 Brahmins ed to force to frighten and subjugate the local population.
Travancore.[15] The Kottayam and Kadattanand Ra-
jas sought protection from the English East India
Company.[15] In November 1788, Tipus forces attacked
4.6.3 See also
Calicut and captured the Karanavappad of Manjeri.[15]
Mysorean invasion of Kerala
Their assaults were met with resistance by the Nairs of
Calicut and southern Malabar led by Ravi Varma and Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam
other princes of the Padinjare Kovilakam.[15] Tipu set
6,000 troops under his French commander, M. Lally to Captivity of Kodavas at Seringapatam
[15]
raise the siege, but failed to defeat Ravi Varma.

4.6.4 Citations
Captives
[1] Fernandes 1969, p. 120
The following year in 1789 Tipu sent Gulam Ali, Gaji [2] Knight 1858, p. 94
Khan and Darvedil Khan with troops into Coorg by
way of Siddhesvara.[16] where they took up strong po- [3] Sharma 1991, pp. 3435
sitions, seized grain, men, women and children while
burning houses that they pillaged.[16] They set re to [4] Punganuri 1849, p. 40
the Padinalkanadu temple.[16] Later the 'Maleyalam' [5] Palsokar 1969, pp. 7579
(Malabar region) people joined the Coorgs.[16] Tipu sent
Gulam Ali into Malabar but en route Gulam was at- [6] Craik & MacFarlane 1847, p. 161
tacked by the Coorgs.[16] Gulam managed to reach Mal-
[7] Society for the Diusion of Useful Knowledge (Great
abar where he burnt down the Payyavur temple and at-
Britain) 1842, p. 494
tacked that region.[16]
That same year (1789), when Tipu was marching against [8] Prabhu 1999, p. 250
the Nairs at Calicut who had become rebellious, he heard [9] Hasan, Mohibbul (1 Dec 2005). History of Tipu Sultan.
of another rebellion in Coorg. He sent a force towards Aakar Books. p. 140. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
Coorg under Burhan ud Din and Sayed Hamid. Tipu
himself crossed the Tamarasseri(Tamrachadi) Ghat and [10] Fernandes 1969, p. 38
entered Malabar region. There he ordered some of the
[11] Mathur & Anthropological Survey of India 1977, p. 348
inhabitants to be converted (made Asadulai), placed Of-
cer Ghafar in command there and had a wooden fort or [12] Hasan, Mohibbul (1 Dec 2005). History of Tipu Sultan.
stockade built.[17] Aakar Books. p. 28. Retrieved 14 February 2014.
4.7. CAPTURE OF CANNANORE 89

[13] Sen 1930, p. 158 Sen, Surendranath (1930). Studies in Indian history.
University of Calcutta..
[14] Kirkpatrick (2012). Select letters of Tippoo Sultan to var-
ious public functionaries. General Books,. p. 256. Re- Sharma, Hari Dev (1991). The real Tipu: a brief
trieved 14 February 2014. history of Tipu Sultan. Rishi Publications..
[15] Menon 1962, pp. 155156
Society for the Diusion of Useful Knowledge
[16] Moegling, H (1855). Coorg Memoirs: An Account of (Great Britain) (1842). Penny cyclopaedia of the
Coorg and of the Coorg Mission. p. 98. Retrieved 11 Society for the Diusion of Useful Knowledge, Vol-
February 2014. umes 2324. C. Knight. Retrieved 28 November
2011..
[17] Punganuri, Ram Chandra Rao (1849). Memoirs of Hy-
der and Tippoo: Rulers of Seringapatam, Written in the
Mahratta language (Google e-book). p. 40. Retrieved 11
February 2014. 4.7 Capture of Cannanore
[18] Moegling, H. (1855). Coorg Memoirs. p. 100. Retrieved
15 February 2014. The Capture of Cannanore during the Third Anglo-
Mysore War took place on 17 December 1790. Forces
of the British East India Company, led by General Robert
4.6.5 References Abercromby, began besieging Cannanore (now known as
Kannur), held by troops of Mysore and of the Rajah of
Craik, George Lillie; MacFarlane, Charles (1847). Cannanore on 14 December. After gaining control of
Pictorial history of England: being a history of the the high ground commanding the citys main fort, the de-
people, as well as a history of the kingdom, Volume fenders surrendered. The British victory, along with the
6. C. Knight. Retrieved 28 November 2011.. taking of Calicut by a separate force a few days earlier,
secured their control over the Malabar Coast.
Fernandes, Praxy (1969). Storm over Seringapatam:
the incredible story of Hyder Ali & Tippu Sultan.
Thackers.. 4.7.1 Order of battle
Hassan, Mohibbul (2005). History of Tipu Sultan. British forces[1]
Aakar books..

Knight, Charles (1858). The English cyclopdia: a 3,000+ British soldiers of the HM 77th Regiment
new dictionary of universal knowledge, Volume 6.
Bradbury & Evans. Retrieved 28 November 2011.. 1st Bombay Native Infantry

Kirkpatrick, William (2002). Select Letters of Tip- 2,000 Nair militiamen

poo Sultan to Various Public Functionaries. General
Books. Retrieved 14 February 2014.. Mysorean forces
Mathur, P. R. G.; Anthropological Survey of India
(1977). The Mappila sherfolk of Kerala: a study in 5,000+ Mysoreans
inter-relationship between habitat, technology, econ-
omy, society, and culture. Kerala Historical Society.. Mappilas

Menon, A. Sreedhara (1962). Kerala District

Gazetteers: Arnakulam. Superintendent of Govt. 4.7.2 External links
Presses..
Mysore Wars Heritage History
Palsokar, R. D. (1969). Tipu Sultan. s.n..
Cannanore Gazetteer 1857
Prabhu, Alan Machado (1999). Sarasvatis Chil-
dren: A History of the Mangalorean Christians. Ban- Robert Abercromby (1740-1827)
galore: I.J.A. Publications. ISBN 978-81-86778-
25-8.. Tippoo Sultan (1753-1799)

Punganuri, Ram Chandra Rao (1849). Memoirs of

Hyder and Tippoo: rulers of Seringapatam, written 4.7.3 References
in the Mahratta language. Simkins & Co. Retrieved
28 November 2011.. [1] Annual Register. 1795-01-01.
90 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

4.7.4 Further reading The East India Company (EIC), also known as the
Honourable East India Company and informally as
Logan, William Malabar Manual, Volume 1 John Company,[1] was an English and later British joint-
stock company,[2] which was formed to pursue trade with
the East Indies but ended up trading mainly with the
4.7.5 See also Indian subcontinent and Qing China.
Mysore invasion of Kerala Originally chartered as the Governor and Company of
Merchants of London trading into the East Indies, the
company rose to account for half of the worlds trade,
particularly trade in basic commodities that included cot-
4.8 Cranganore Fort ton, silk, indigo dye, salt, saltpetre, tea and opium. The
company also ruled the beginnings of the British Empire
Cranganore Fort, otherwise known as Kodungallur in India.[3]
Fort, or Kottapuram Fort, is situated in Kodungallur of
Thrissur District in Kerala, India. The company received a Royal Charter from Queen
Elizabeth on 31 December 1600,[4] making it the old-
est among several similarly formed European East India
4.8.1 History Companies. Wealthy merchants and aristocrats owned
the Companys shares.[5] The government owned no
The stone fort was built by the Portuguese in 1523, shares and had only indirect control.
and was called Fortaleza da Sao Tome in colonial The company eventually came to rule large areas of India
Portuguese India. with its own private armies, exercising military power and
[6]
Dutch India took possession of it in 1661, and later it assuming administrative functions. Company rule in In-
came under the control of Tipu Sultan. Dutch India dia eectively began in 1757 after the Battle of Plassey
wrested it back from Tipu Sultan, but the fort eventually and lasted until 1858 when, following the Indian Rebel-
came under the control of Tipu, who destroyed it in the lion of 1857, the Government of India Act 1858 led to
following year. the British Crown assuming direct control of India in the
form of the new British Raj.
Ruins Despite frequent government intervention, the company
had recurring problems with its nances. The company
The remains of the fort show that the original fort wall was was dissolved in 1874 as a result of the East India Stock
18 feet in thickness. The ruin is also known as Tipus fort. Dividend Redemption Act passed one year earlier, as the
The fort is about 2 km from the town of Kodungallur.[1] Government of India Act had by then rendered it vesti-
gial, powerless, and obsolete. The ocial government
machinery of British India had assumed its governmental
4.8.2 See also functions and absorbed its armies.

Mysore invasion of Kerala

Portuguese forts in India 4.9.1 Founding

Soon after the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588,

London merchants presented a petition to Queen Eliza-
beth I for permission to sail to the Indian Ocean.[7] The
4.8.3 References permission was granted, and despite the defeat of the
English Armada in 1589, on 10 April 1591 three ships
[1] Kodungallur. Kerala Tourism. Retrieved 2010-10-15.
sailed from Torbay around the Cape of Good Hope to the
Arabian Sea on one of the earliest English overseas In-
Coordinates: 101149N 761243E / 10.197N dian expeditions. One of them, Edward Bonventure, then
76.212E sailed around Cape Comorin and on to the Malay Penin-
sula and subsequently returned to England in 1594.[7]
In 1596, three more ships sailed east; however, these
4.9 East India Company were all lost at sea.[7] Three years later, on 22 Septem-
ber 1599,[8] another group of merchants met and stated
This article is about the 16th-19th-century English and their intention to venture in the pretended voyage to the
British trading company. For other uses, see East India East Indies (the which it may please the Lord to pros-
Company (disambiguation). per), and the sums that they will adventure, committing
30,133.[9] Two days later, on 24 September, the Ad-
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY 91

In the next two years, the company established its rst

factory in south India in the town of Machilipatnam on
the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. The high
prots reported by the company after landing in India ini-
tially prompted King James I to grant subsidiary licences
to other trading companies in England. But in 1609 he re-
newed the charter given to the company for an indenite
period, including a clause that specied that the charter
would cease to be in force if the trade turned unprotable
for three consecutive years.
The governance of the company was in the hands of one
governor and 24 directors, who made up the Court of Di-
rectors. They, in turn, reported to the Court of Propri-
etors, which appointed them. Ten committees reported
to the Court of Directors.

4.9.2 Foothold in India

See also: Establishment of English trade in Bengal

(16001700)
English traders frequently engaged in hostilities with

James Lancaster commanded the rst East India Company voy-

age in 1601

venturers reconvened and resolved to apply to the Queen

for support of the project.[9]
Although their rst attempt had not been completely suc-
cessful, they nonetheless sought the Queens unocial
approval to continue, bought ships for their venture and
increased their capital to 68,373. The Adventurers con-
vened again a year later.[7]
This time they succeeded, and on 31 December 1600, the
Queen granted a Royal Charter to "George, Earl of Cum-
berland, and 215 Knights, Aldermen, and Burgesses" un-
der the name, Governor and Company of Merchants of
London trading with the East Indies.[10] For a period of
fteen years the charter awarded the newly formed com- Red Dragon fought the Portuguese at the Battle of Swally in
pany a monopoly on trade with all countries east of the 1612, and made several voyages to the East Indies.
Cape of Good Hope and west of the Straits of Magel-
lan.[10] Sir James Lancaster commanded the rst East In- their Dutch and Portuguese counterparts in the Indian
dia Company voyage in 1601[11] and returned in 1603.[12] Ocean. The company achieved a major victory over the
and in March 1604 Sir Henry Middleton commanded the Portuguese in the Battle of Swally in 1612. The company
second voyage. General William Keeling, a captain dur- decided to explore the feasibility of gaining a territorial
ing the second voyage, led the third voyage from 1607 to foothold in mainland India, with ocial sanction by both
1610.[13] Britain and the Mughal Empire, and requested that the
[14]
Initially, the company struggled in the spice trade because Crown launch a diplomatic mission.
of the competition from the already well-established In 1612, James I instructed Sir Thomas Roe to visit the
Dutch East India Company. The company opened a Mughal Emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir (r. 1605
factory in Bantam on the rst voyage and imports of 1627) to arrange for a commercial treaty that would give
pepper from Java were an important part of the com- the company exclusive rights to reside and establish fac-
panys trade for twenty years. The factory in Bantam was tories in Surat and other areas. In return, the company of-
closed in 1683. During this time ships belonging to the fered to provide the Emperor with goods and rarities from
company arriving in India docked at Surat, which was es- the European market. This mission was highly success-
tablished as a trade transit point in 1608. ful as Jahangir sent a letter to James through Sir Thomas
92
Jahangir investing a courtier with a robe of honour watched by
Sir Thomas Roe, English ambassador to the court of Jahangir at
Agra from 161518, and others
Roe:[14]
Upon which assurance of your royal love
I have given my general command to all the
kingdoms and ports of my dominions to receive
all the merchants of the English nation as the
subjects of my friend; that in what place so-
ever they choose to live, they may have free lib-
erty without any restraint; and at what port so-
ever they shall arrive, that neither Portugal nor
any other shall dare to molest their quiet; and
in what city soever they shall have residence,
I have commanded all my governors and cap-
tains to give them freedom answerable to their
own desires; to sell, buy, and to transport into
their country at their pleasure.
For conrmation of our love and friend-
ship, I desire your Majesty to command your
merchants to bring in their ships of all sorts of
rarities and rich goods t for my palace; and
that you be pleased to send me your royal let-
ters by every opportunity, that I may rejoice
in your health and prosperous aairs; that our
friendship may be interchanged and eternal.
Nuruddin Salim Jahangir, Letter to
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
James I.
4.9.3 Expansion
East India House, London, painted by Thomas Malton in c.1800
The company, which beneted from the imperial patron-
age, soon expanded its commercial trading operations,
eclipsing the Portuguese Estado da ndia, which had es-
tablished bases in Goa, Chittagong, and Bombay, which
Portugal later ceded to England as part of the dowry of
Catherine de Braganza. The East India Company also
launched a joint attack with the Dutch United East India
Company on Portuguese and Spanish ships o the coast
of China, which helped secure their ports in China.[15]
The company established trading posts in Surat (1619),
Madras (1639), Bombay (1668), and Calcutta (1690). By
1647, the company had 23 factories, each under the com-
mand of a factor or master merchant and governor if so
chosen, and 90 employees in India. The major factories
became the walled forts of Fort William in Bengal, Fort
St George in Madras, and Bombay Castle.
In 1634, the Mughal emperor extended his hospitality
to the English traders to the region of Bengal, and in
1717 completely waived customs duties for the trade.
The companys mainstay businesses were by then cotton,
silk, indigo dye, saltpetre, and tea. The Dutch were ag-
gressive competitors and had meanwhile expanded their
monopoly of the spice trade in the Malaccan straits by
ousting the Portuguese in 164041. With reduced Por-
tuguese and Spanish inuence in the region, the EIC and
Dutch East India Company (VOC) entered a period of
intense competition, resulting in the Anglo-Dutch Wars
of the 17th and 18th centuries.
Meanwhile, in 1657, Oliver Cromwell renewed the char-
ter of 1609, and brought about minor changes in the hold-
ing of the company. The restoration of monarchy in Eng-
land further enhanced the EICs status.
In an act aimed at strengthening the power of the EIC,
King Charles II granted the EIC (in a series of ve acts
around 1670) the rights to autonomous territorial acqui-
sitions, to mint money, to command fortresses and troops
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY 93

and form alliances, to make war and peace, and to exer-
cise both civil and criminal jurisdiction over the acquired
areas.[16]
William Hedges was sent in 1682 to Shaista Khan, the
Mughal governor of Bengal in order to obtain a rman, an
imperial directive that would grant England regular trad-
ing privileges throughout the Mughal Empire. However,
the companys governor in London, Sir Josiah Child, in-
terfered with Hedgess mission, causing Mughal Emperor
Aurangzeb to break o the negotiations.
In 1689 a Mughal eet commanded by Sidi Yaqub at-
tacked Bombay. After a year of resistance the EIC sur-
rendered in 1690, and the company sent envoys to Au-
rangzebs camp to plead for a pardon. The companys en-
voys had to prostrate themselves before the emperor, pay
a large indemnity, and promise better behaviour in the fu-
ture. The emperor withdrew his troops and the company
subsequently reestablished itself in Bombay and set up a
new base in Calcutta.[17]
Japan
as long as they think good, and to depart at their
pleasure.[18]
However, unable to obtain Japanese raw silk for import
to China and with their trading area reduced to Hirado
and Nagasaki from 1616 onwards, in 1623 the Company
closed their factory.[19]
Mughal convoy piracy incident of 1695
In September 1695, Captain Henry Every, an English pi-
rate on board the Fancy, reached the Straits of Bab-el-
Mandeb, where he teamed up with ve other pirate cap-
tains to make an attack on the Indian eet making the an-
nual voyage to Mocha. The Mughal convoy included the
treasure-laden Ganj-i-Sawai, reported to be the greatest
in the Mughal eet and the largest ship operational in the
Indian Ocean, and its escort, the Fateh Muhammed. They
were spotted passing the straits en route to Surat. The pi-
rates gave chase and caught up with Fateh Muhammed
some days later, and meeting little resistance, took some
50,000 to 60,000 worth of treasure.[20]

English, Dutch and Danish factories at Mocha

Document with the original vermilion seal of Tokugawa Ieyasu,
Every continued in pursuit and managed to overhaul
granting trade privileges in Japan to the East India Company in
1613 Ganj-i-Sawai, which resisted strongly before eventually
striking. Ganj-i-Sawai carried enormous wealth and, ac-
In 1613, during the rule of Tokugawa Hidetada of the cording to contemporary East India Company sources,
Tokugawa Shogunate, the British ship Clove, under the was carrying a relative of the Grand Mughal, though there
command of Captain John Saris, was the rst British ship is no evidence to suggest that it was his daughter and her
to call on Japan. Saris was the chief factor of the EICs retinue. The loot from the Ganj-i-Sawai had a total value
trading post in Java, and with the assistance of William between 325,000 and 600,000, including 500,000 gold
Adams, a British sailor who had arrived in Japan in 1600, and silver pieces, and has become known as the richest
was able to gain permission from the ruler to establish ship ever taken by pirates.
a commercial house in Hirado on the Japanese island of In a letter sent to the Privy Council by Sir John Gayer,
Kyushu: then governor of Bombay and head of the East India
Company, Gayer claims that it is certain the Pirates ...
We give free license to the subjects did do very barbarously by the People of the Ganj-i-Sawai
of the King of Great Britaine, Sir Thomas and Abdul Ghaars ship, to make them confess where
Smythe, Governor and Company of the East their money was. The pirates set free the survivors who
Indian Merchants and Adventurers forever were left aboard their emptied ships, to continue their
safely come into any of our ports of our Empire voyage back to India.
of Japan with their shippes and merchandise, When the news arrived in England it caused an out-cry.
without any hindrance to them or their goods, In response, a combined bounty of 1,000 was oered
and to abide, buy, sell and barter according to for Everys capture by the Privy Council and East In-
their own manner with all nations, to tarry here dia Company, leading to the rst worldwide manhunt in
94 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

recorded history. The plunder of Aurangzebs treasure der a state-backed indemnity of 2 million. The power-
ship had serious consequences for the English East India ful stockholders of the old company quickly subscribed a
Company. The furious Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb or- sum of 315,000 in the new concern, and dominated the
dered Sidi Yaqub and Nawab Daud Khan to attack and new body. The two companies wrestled with each other
close four of the companys factories in India and im- for some time, both in England and in India, for a domi-
prison their ocers, who were almost lynched by a mob nant share of the trade.[22]
of angry Mughals, blaming them for their countrymans It quickly became evident that, in practice, the origi-
depredations, and threatened to put an end to all English nal company faced scarcely any measurable competition.
trading in India. To appease Emperor Aurangzeb and
The companies merged in 1708, by a tripartite indenture
particularly his Grand Vizier Asad Khan, Parliament ex- involving both companies and the state. Under this ar-
empted Every from all of the Acts of Grace (pardons) and
rangement, the merged company lent to the Treasury a
amnesties it would subsequently issue to other pirates.[21]sum of 3,200,000, in return for exclusive privileges for
the next three years, after which the situation was to be
An 18th-century depiction of Henry Every, with the reviewed. The amalgamated company became the United
Fancy shown engaging its prey in the background Company of Merchants of England Trading to the East In-
dies.[22]
British pirates that fought during the Childs War en-
gaging the Ganj-i-Sawai

Depiction of Captain Every's encounter with the

Mughal Emperors granddaughter after his Septem-
ber 1695 capture of the Mughal trader Ganj-i-Sawai

4.9.4 Forming a complete monopoly

Trade monopoly

Company painting depicting an ocial of the East India Com-

pany, c. 1760

Rear view of the East India Companys Factory at Cossimbazar
The prosperity that the ocers of the company enjoyed
allowed them to return to Britain and establish sprawling
estates and businesses, and to obtain political power. The
company developed a lobby in the English parliament.
Under pressure from ambitious tradesmen and former as-
sociates of the company (pejoratively termed Interlopers
by the company), who wanted to establish private trading
rms in India, a deregulating act was passed in 1694.[22]
This allowed any English rm to trade with India, un-
less specically prohibited by act of parliament, thereby
annulling the charter that had been in force for almost
100 years. By an act that was passed in 1698, a new
parallel East India Company (ocially titled the En-
glish Company Trading to the East Indies) was oated un-
In the following decades there was a constant battle be-
tween the company lobby and the Parliament. The com-
pany sought a permanent establishment, while the Parlia-
ment would not willingly allow it greater autonomy and
so relinquish the opportunity to exploit the companys
prots. In 1712, another act renewed the status of the
company, though the debts were repaid. By 1720, 15%
of British imports were from India, almost all passing
through the company, which reasserted the inuence of
the company lobby. The licence was prolonged until
1766 by yet another act in 1730.
At this time, Britain and France became bitter rivals. Fre-
quent skirmishes between them took place for control of
colonial possessions. In 1742, fearing the monetary con-
sequences of a war, the British government agreed to ex-
tend the deadline for the licensed exclusive trade by the
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY 95

company in India until 1783, in return for a further loan life. He knew that Samuel Pepys and John Evelyn had
of 1 million. Between 1756 and 1763, the Seven Years amassed a substantial fortune from the Levant and Indian
War diverted the states attention towards consolidation trades.
and defence of its territorial possessions in Europe and He became a Director and later, as Governor of the
its colonies in North America.[23] East India Company in 1672, he arranged a contract
The war took place on Indian soil, between the company which included a loan of 20,000 and 30,000 worth of
troops and the French forces. In 1757, the Law O- saltpetrealso known as potassium nitrate, a primary in-
cers of the Crown delivered the Pratt-Yorke opinion dis- gredient in gunpowderfor the King at the price it shall
tinguishing overseas territories acquired by right of con- sell by the candle"that is by auctionwhere bidding
quest from those acquired by private treaty. The opinion could continue as long as an inch-long candle remained
asserted that, while the Crown of Great Britain enjoyed alight.
sovereignty over both, only the property of the former was Outstanding debts were also agreed and the company per-
vested in the Crown.[23] mitted to export 250 tons of saltpetre. Again in 1673,
With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, Britain Banks successfully negotiated another contract for 700
surged ahead of its European rivals. Demand for In- tons of saltpetre at 37,000 between the king and the
dian commodities was boosted by the need to sustain the company. So urgent was the need to supply the armed
troops and the economy during the war, and by the in- forces in the United Kingdom, America and elsewhere
creased availability of raw materials and ecient meth- that the authorities sometimes turned a blind eye on the
ods of production. As home to the revolution, Britain untaxed sales. One governor of the company was even
experienced higher standards of living. Its spiralling cy- reported as saying in 1864 that he would rather have the
cle of prosperity, demand and production had a profound saltpetre made than the tax on salt.[24]
inuence on overseas trade. The company became the
single largest player in the British global market. William
Henry Pyne notes in his book The Microcosm of London 4.9.5 Basis for the monopoly
(1808) that:

On the 1 March 1801, the debts of the

East India Company to 5,393,989 their ef-
fects to 15,404,736 and their sales increased
since February 1793, from 4,988,300 to
7,602,041.

Saltpetre trade

East India Company silver coin issued during William IV's reign,
Indian Museum

Saltpetre used for gunpowder was one of the major trade goods
of the company. Colonial monopoly

Sir John Banks, a businessman from Kent who negoti- Further information: Great Britain in the Seven Years
ated an agreement between the king and the company, War
began his career in a syndicate arranging contracts for The Seven Years War (175663) resulted in the defeat
victualling the navy, an interest he kept up for most of his of the French forces, limited French imperial ambitions,
96
Coins issued by East India Company during reign of Shah Alam
II, Indian Museum
Robert Clive became the rst British Governor of Bengal after he
had instated Mir Jafar as the Nawab of Bengal.
and stunted the inuence of the Industrial Revolution in
French territories. Robert Clive, the Governor General,
led the company to a victory against Joseph Franois Du-
pleix, the commander of the French forces in India, and
recaptured Fort St George from the French. The com-
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
pany took this respite to seize Manila in 1762.[25]
By the Treaty of Paris (1763), France regained the ve
establishments captured by the British during the war
(Pondichry, Mahe, Karikal, Yanam and Chandernagar)
but was prevented from erecting fortications and keep-
ing troops in Bengal (art. XI). Elsewhere in India, the
French were to remain a military threat, particularly dur-
ing the War of American Independence, and up to the
capture of Pondichry in 1793 at the outset of the French
Revolutionary Wars without any military presence. Al-
though these small outposts remained French possessions
for the next two hundred years, French ambitions on In-
dian territories were eectively laid to rest, thus elimi-
nating a major source of economic competition for the
company.
Military expansion
Main article: Company rule in India
In its rst century and half, the EIC used a few hundred
soldiers as guards. The great expansion came after 1750,
when it had 3000 regular troops. By 1763, it had 26,000;
by 1778, it had 67,000. It recruited largely Indian troops,
and trained them along European lines.[26] The company,
fresh from a colossal victory, and with the backing of its
own private well-disciplined and experienced army, was
able to assert its interests in the Carnatic region from its
base at Madras and in Bengal from Calcutta, without fac-
ing any further obstacles from other colonial powers.[27]
The company continued to experience resistance from lo-
cal rulers during its expansion. Robert Clive led com-
pany forces against Siraj Ud Daulah, the last indepen-
dent Nawab of Bengal, Bihar, and Midnapore district in
Odisha to victory at the Battle of Plassey in 1757, re-
sulting in the conquest of Bengal. This victory estranged
the British and the Mughals, since Siraj Ud Daulah was a
Mughal feudatory ally.
With the gradual weakening of the Marathas in the after-
math of the three Anglo-Maratha wars, the British also
secured the Ganges-Jumna Doab, the Delhi-Agra region,
parts of Bundelkhand, Broach, some districts of Gujarat,
the fort of Ahmmadnagar, province of Cuttack (which
included Mughalbandi/the coastal part of Odisha, Gar-
jat/the princely states of Odisha, Balasore Port, parts of
Midnapore district of West Bengal), Bombay (Mumbai)
and the surrounding areas, leading to a formal end of
the Maratha empire and rm establishment of the British
East India Company in India.
Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, the rulers of the Kingdom
of Mysore, oered much resistance to the British forces.
Having sided with the French during the Revolutionary
War, the rulers of Mysore continued their struggle against
the company with the four Anglo-Mysore Wars. Mysore
nally fell to the company forces in 1799, with the death
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY
The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II, who with his allies fought missioned ranks of Jamadar or Subadar before they were
against the East India Company during his early years (1760 middle aged at best. They received no training in admin-
64), only accepting the protection of the British in the year 1803, istration or leadership to make them independent of their
after he had been blinded by his enemies and deserted by his
subjects
of Tipu Sultan.
The fall of Tipu Sultan and the Sultanate of Mysore, during the
Battle of Seringapatam in 1799
The last vestiges of local administration were restricted
to the northern regions of Delhi, Oudh, Rajputana, and
Punjab, where the companys presence was ever increas-
ing amidst inghting and oers of protection among the
97
remaining princes. The hundred years from the Battle of
Plassey in 1757 to the Indian Rebellion of 1857 were a
period of consolidation for the company, which began to
function more as an administrator and less as a trading
concern.
A cholera pandemic began in Bengal, then spread across
India by 1820. 10,000 British troops and countless In-
dians died during this pandemic.[28] Between 1736 and
1834 only some 10% of the East India Companys o-
cers survived to take the nal voyage home.[29]
In the early 19th century the Indian question of
geopolitical dominance and empire holding remained
with the East India Company. .[30] The three independent
armies of the companys Presidencies, with some locally
raised irregular forces, expanded to a total of 280,000
men by 1857.[31] First recruited from mercenaries and
low-caste volunteers, the Bengal Army especially eventu-
ally became composed largely of high-caste Hindus and
landowning Muslims.
Within the Army, British ocers who initially trained at
the companys own academy at the Addiscombe Military
Seminary, always outranked Indians, no matter how long
their service. The highest rank to which an Indian soldier
could aspire was Subadar-Major (or Rissaldar-Major in
cavalry units), eectively a senior subaltern equivalent.
Promotion for both British and Indian soldiers was strictly
by seniority, so Indian soldiers rarely reached the com-
British ocers.
During the wars against the French and their allies in the
late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, the East
India Companys armies were used to seize the colonial
possessions of other European nations, including the is-
lands of Runion and Mauritius.
There was a systemic disrespect in the company for the
spreading of Protestantism although it fostered respect for
Hindu and Muslim, castes and ethnic groups. The growth
of tensions between the EIC and the local religious and
cultural groups grew in the 19th century as the Protestant
revival grew in Great Britain. These tensions erupted at
the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and the company ceased to
exist when the company dissolved through the East India
Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873.[32]
Opium trade
Main articles: First Opium War, Second Opium War and
History of opium in China
In the 18th century, Britain had a huge trade decit with
Qing dynasty China and so in 1773, the Company created
a British monopoly on opium buying in Bengal, India by
prohibiting the licensing of opium farmers and private
cultivation. The monopoly system established in 1799
98 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

4.9.6 Regulation of the companys aairs

Writers

The Nemesis destroying Chinese war junks during the Second

Battle of Chuenpee, 7 January 1841, by Edward Duncan

The Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor, 1773

continued with minimal changes until 1947.[33] As the
opium trade was illegal in China, Company ships could The Company employed many junior clerks, known as
not carry opium to China. So the opium produced in writers, to record the details of accounting, manage-
Bengal was sold in Calcutta on condition that it be sent rial decisions, and activities related to the Company, such
to China.[34] as minutes of meetings, copies of Company orders and
contracts, and lings of reports and copies of ships logs.
Despite the Chinese ban on opium imports, rearmed in Several well-known British scholars and literary men had
1799 by the Jiaqing Emperor, the drug was smuggled into Company writerships, such as Henry Thomas Colebrooke
China from Bengal by trackers and agency houses such in India and Charles Lamb in England.
as Jardine, Matheson & Co and Dent & Co. in amounts
averaging 900 tons a year. The proceeds of the drug-
smugglers landing their cargoes at Lintin Island were paid Financial troubles
into the Companys factory at Canton and by 1825, most
of the money needed to buy tea in China was raised by Though the Company was becoming increasingly bold
the illegal opium trade. and ambitious in putting down resisting states, it was be-
The Company established a group of trading settlements coming clearer that the Company was incapable of gov-
centred on the Straits of Malacca called the Straits Settle- erning the vast expanse of the captured territories. The
ments in 1826 to protect its trade route to China and to Bengal famine of 1770, in which one-third of the local
population died, caused distress in Britain. Military and
combat local piracy. The Settlements were also used as
penal settlements for Indian civilian and military prison- administrative costs mounted beyond control in British-
administered regions in Bengal because of the ensuing
ers.
drop in labour productivity.
In 1838 with the amount of smuggled opium entering
China approaching 1,400 tons a year, the Chinese im- At the same time, there was commercial stagnation and
posed a death penalty for opium smuggling and sent a trade depression throughout Europe. The directors of the
Special Imperial Commissioner, Lin Zexu, to curb smug- company attempted to avert bankruptcy by appealing to
gling. This resulted in the First Opium War (1839 Parliament for nancial help. This led to the passing of
42). After the war Hong Kong island was ceded to the Tea Act in 1773, which gave the Company greater
Britain under the Treaty of Nanking and the Chinese autonomy in running its trade in the American colonies,
market opened to the opium traders of Britain and other and allowed it an exemption from tea import duties which
nations.[33] The Jardines and Apcar and Company dom- its colonial competitors were required to pay.
inated the trade, although P&O also tried to take a When the American colonists and tea merchants were
share.[35] A Second Opium War fought by Britain and told of this Act, they boycotted the Company tea. Al-
France against China lasted from 1856 until 1860 and though the price of tea had dropped because of the Act,
led to the Treaty of Tientsin, which legalised the impor- it also validated the Townshend Acts, setting the prece-
tation of opium. Legalisation stimulated domestic Chi- dent for the king to impose additional taxes in the future.
nese opium production and increased the importation of The arrival of tax-exempt Company tea, undercutting the
opium from Turkey and Persia. This increased compe- local merchants, triggered the Boston Tea Party in the
tition for the Chinese market led to India reducing its Province of Massachusetts Bay, one of the major events
opium output and diversifying its exports.[33] leading up to the American Revolution.
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY 99

Regulating Acts of Parliament preside at, and be President of the said Board".

East India Company Act 1773 By the Regulating Act Internal Administration of British India: the bill laid
of 1773 (later known as the East India Company Act the foundation for the centralised and bureaucratic
1773), the Parliament of Great Britain imposed a se- British administration of India which would reach its
ries of administrative and economic reforms; this clearly peak at the beginning of the 20th century during the
established Parliaments sovereignty and ultimate con- governor-generalship of George Nathaniel Curzon,
trol over the Company. The Act recognised the Com- 1st Baron Curzon.
panys political functions and clearly established that the
"acquisition of sovereignty by the subjects of the Crown Pitts Act was deemed a failure because it quickly became
is on behalf of the Crown and not in its own right. apparent that the boundaries between government con-
Despite sti resistance from the East India lobby in par- trol and the companys powers were nebulous and highly
liament and from the Companys shareholders, the Act subjective. The government felt obliged to respond to
passed. It introduced substantial governmental control humanitarian calls for better treatment of local peoples
and allowed British India to be formally under the control in British-occupied territories. Edmund Burke, a for-
of the Crown, but leased back to the Company at 40,000 mer East India Company shareholder and diplomat, was
for two years. Under the Acts most important provi- moved to address the situation and introduced a new Reg-
sion, a governing Council composed of ve members was ulating Bill in 1783. The bill was defeated amid lobbying
created in Calcutta. The three members nominated by by company loyalists and accusations of nepotism in the
Parliament and representing the Governments interest bills recommendations for the appointment of council-
could, and invariably would, outvote the two Company lors.
members. The Council was headed by Warren Hastings,
the incumbent Governor, who became the rst Governor-
General of Bengal, with an ill-dened authority over the
Bombay and Madras Presidencies.[36] His nomination,
made by the Court of Directors, would in future be sub-
ject to the approval of a Council of Four appointed by the
Crown. Initially, the Council consisted of Lt. General Sir
John Clavering, The Honourable Sir George Monson, Sir
Richard Barwell, and Sir Philip Francis.[37]
Hastings was entrusted with the power of peace and war.
British judges and magistrates would also be sent to In-
dia to administer the legal system. The Governor Gen-
eral and the council would have complete legislative pow-
ers. The company was allowed to maintain its virtual
monopoly over trade in exchange for the biennial sum
and was obligated to export a minimum quantity of goods General Lord Cornwallis, receiving two of Tipu Sultan's sons as
yearly to Britain. The costs of administration were to be hostages in the year 1793
met by the company. The Company initially welcomed
these provisions, but the annual burden of the payment Act of 1786 The Act of 1786 (26 Geo. 3 c. 16) en-
contributed to the steady decline of its nances.[37] acted the demand of Earl Cornwallis that the powers of
the Governor-General be enlarged to empower him, in
East India Company Act 1784 (Pitts India Act) The special cases, to override the majority of his Council and
East India Company Act 1784 (Pitts India Act) had two act on his own special responsibility. The Act enabled the
key aspects: oces of the Governor-General and the Commander-in-
Chief to be jointly held by the same ocial.
Relationship to the British government: the bill dif- This Act clearly demarcated borders between the Crown
ferentiated the East India Companys political func- and the Company. After this point, the Company func-
tions from its commercial activities. In political tioned as a regularised subsidiary of the Crown, with
matters the East India Company was subordinated greater accountability for its actions and reached a stable
to the British government directly. To accomplish stage of expansion and consolidation. Having temporar-
this, the Act created a Board of Commissioners for ily achieved a state of truce with the Crown, the Company
the Aairs of India, usually referred to as the Board continued to expand its inuence to nearby territories
of Control. The members of the Board were the through threats and coercive actions. By the middle of the
Chancellor of the Exchequer, the Secretary of State, 19th century, the Companys rule extended across most
and four Privy Councillors, nominated by the King. of India, Burma, Malaya, Singapore, and British Hong
The act specied that the Secretary of State shall Kong, and a fth of the worlds population was under its
100 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

trading inuence. In addition, Penang, one of the states Government of India Act 1833
in Malaya, became the fourth most important settlement,
a presidency, of the Companys Indian territories.[38]

East India Company Act 1793 (Charter Act) The

Companys charter was renewed for a further 20 years by
the Charter Act of 1793. In contrast with the legislative
proposals of the previous two decades, the 1793 Act was
not a particularly controversial measure, and made only
minimal changes to the system of government in India
and to British oversight of the Companys activities.

File:India 1835 2 Mohurs.jpg

1835 gold Double Mohur (reverse), valued at 30 Rupees

The Industrial Revolution in Britain, the consequent
search for markets, and the rise of laissez-faire economic
ideology form the background to the Government of In-
dia Act 1833 (3 & 4 Will. 4 c. 85). The Act:

removed the Companys remaining trade monopo-

Major-General Wellesley, meeting with Nawab Azim al-Daula,
1805
East India Company Act 1813 (Charter Act) The ag-
gressive policies of Lord Wellesley and the Marquis of
Hastings led to the Company gaining control of all India
(except for the Punjab and Sindh), and some part of the
then kingdom of Nepal under the Sugauli Treaty. The
Indian Princes had become vassals of the Company. But
the expense of wars leading to the total control of In-
dia strained the Companys nances. The Company was
forced to petition Parliament for assistance. This was the
background to the Charter Act of 1813 which, among
other things:
lies and divested it of all its commercial functions
renewed for another twenty years the Companys po-
litical and administrative authority
invested the Board of Control with full power and
authority over the Company. As stated by Professor
Sri Ram Sharma,[39] The President of the Board of
Control now became Minister for Indian Aairs.
carried further the ongoing process of administra-
tive centralisation through investing the Governor-
General in Council with, full power and authority
to superintend and, control the Presidency Govern-
ments in all civil and military matters
initiated a machinery for the codication of laws

asserted the sovereignty of the British Crown over provided that no Indian subject of the Company
the Indian territories held by the Company; would be debarred from holding any oce under the
Company by reason of his religion, place of birth,
renewed the charter of the company for a further descent or colour
twenty years, but
vested the Island of St Helena in the Crown [40]
deprived the company of its Indian trade
monopoly except for trade in tea and the trade British inuence continued to expand; in 1845, Great
with China Britain purchased the Danish colony of Tranquebar. The
Company had at various stages extended its inuence to
required the company to maintain separate and China, the Philippines, and Java. It had solved its critical
distinct its commercial and territorial accounts lack of cash needed to buy tea by exporting Indian-grown
opium to China. Chinas eorts to end the trade led to the
opened India to missionaries First Opium War (18391842).
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY 101

English Education Act 1835 Main article: English
Education Act 1835
The English Education Act by the Council of India in
1835 reallocated funds from the East India Company to
spend on education and literature in India.
It accomplished a work such as in the
whole history of the human race no other com-
pany ever attempted and as such is ever likely
to attempt in the years to come.
4.9.8 Establishments in Britain

Government of India Act 1853 This Act (16 & 17

Vict. c. 95) provided that British India would remain
under the administration of the Company in trust for the
Crown until Parliament should decide otherwise. It also
introduced a system of open competition as the basis of
recruitment for civil servants of the company and thus
deprived the Directors of their patronage system.[41]
Under the act, for the rst time the legislative and execu-
tive powers of the governor generals council were sepa-
rated. It also added six additional members to the gover-
nor generals executive committee.[42]

4.9.7 Indian Rebellion and disestablish- The expanded East India House, Leadenhall Street, London, as
ment reconstructed in 17961800. A drawing by Thomas Hosmer
Shepherd of c.1817.
Main article: Indian Rebellion of 1857
The Indian Rebellion of 1857 resulted in widespread The Companys headquarters in London, from which
much of India was governed, was East India House in
Leadenhall Street. After occupying premises in Philpot
Lane from 1600 to 1621; in Crosby House, Bishopsgate,
from 1621 to 1638; and in Leadenhall Street from 1638
to 1648, the Company moved into Craven House, an Eliz-
abethan mansion in Leadenhall Street. The building had
become known as East India House by 1661. It was com-
pletely rebuilt and enlarged in 17269; and further signif-
icantly remodelled and expanded in 17961800. It was
nally vacated in 1860 and demolished in 186162. The
site is now occupied by the Lloyds building.
In 1607, the Company decided to build its own ships and
leased a yard on the River Thames at Deptford. By 1614,
Capture of the last Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar and the yard having become too small, an alternative site was
his sons by William Hodson in 1857
acquired at Blackwall: the new yard was fully operational
devastation in India: many condemned the East India by 1617. It was sold in 1656, although for some years East
India Company ships continued to be built and repaired
Company for permitting the events to occur.[43] In the
aftermath of the Rebellion, under the provisions of the there under the new owners.
Government of India Act 1858, the British Government In 1803, an Act of Parliament, promoted by the East In-
nationalised the Company. The Crown took over its In- dia Company, established the East India Dock Company,
dian possessions, its administrative powers and machin- with the aim of establishing a new set of docks (the East
ery, and its armed forces. India Docks) primarily for the use of ships trading with
The Company remained in existence in vestigial form, India. The existing Brunswick Dock, part of the Black-
continuing to manage the tea trade on behalf of the British wall Yard site, became the Export Dock; while a new Im-
Government (and the supply of Saint Helena) until the port Dock was built to the north. In 1838 the East India
East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 came Dock Company merged with the West India Dock Com-
into eect, on 1 January 1874. This Act provided for the pany. The docks were taken over by the Port of London
formal dissolution of the company on 1 June 1874, af- Authority in 1909, and closed in 1967.
ter a nal dividend payment and the commutation or re- The East India College was founded in 1806 as a train-
demption of its stock.[44] The Times reported on 8 April ing establishment for writers (i.e. clerks) in the Com-
1873:[45] panys service. It was initially located in Hertford Castle,
102 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

but moved in 1809 to purpose-built premises at Hertford
Heath, Hertfordshire. In 1858 the college closed; but
in 1862 the buildings reopened as a public school, now
Haileybury and Imperial Service College.
based appointments that provided a model for the British
and Indian civil service.[49]
Simultaneously, widespread corruption and looting of In-
dian treasures during its rule resulted in resultant poverty
in India.[50] Famines, such as the Great Bengal famine
of 1770 and subsequent famines during the 18th and
19th centuries, became widespread, chiey because of
exploitative agriculture promulgated by the policies of the
East India company and the forced cultivation of opium
in place of grain.[51][52]

4.9.10 Flags
Historical Depictions
Downman (1685)
Lens (1700)
Addiscombe Seminary, photographed in c.1859, with cadets in National Geographic (1917)
the foreground.
Rees (1820)
The East India Company Military Seminary was founded Laurie (1842)
in 1809 at Addiscombe, near Croydon, Surrey, to train
young ocers for service in the Companys armies in In- Modern Depictions
dia. It was based in Addiscombe Place, an early 18th-
century mansion. The government took it over in 1858, 1600 1707
and renamed it the Royal Indian Military College. In
1861 it was closed, and the site was subsequently rede- 1707 1801
veloped. 1801 1874
In 1818, the Company entered into an agreement by
which those of its servants who were certied insane in The English East India Company ag changed with his-
India might be cared for at Pembroke House, Hackney, tory, with a canton based on the current ag of the King-
London, a private lunatic asylum run by Dr George Rees dom, and a eld of 9 to 13 alternating red and white
until 1838, and thereafter by Dr William Williams. The stripes.
arrangement outlasted the Company itself, continuing From the period of 1600, the canton consisted of a St
until 1870, when the India Oce opened its own asylum, Georges Cross representing the Kingdom of England.
the Royal India Asylum, at Hanwell, Middlesex.[46] With the Acts of Union 1707, the canton was updated
The East India Club in London was formed in 1849 for to be the new Union Flagconsisting of an English St
ocers of the Company. The Club still exists today as a Georges Cross combined with a Scottish St Andrews
private gentlemens club with its club house situated at 16 crossrepresenting the Kingdom of Great Britain. Af-
St. Jamess Square, London.[47] ter the Acts of Union 1800 that joined Ireland with Great
Britain to form the United Kingdom, the canton of the
East India Company ag was altered accordingly to in-
4.9.9 Legacy and criticisms clude a Saint Patricks Saltire replicating the updated
Union Flag representing the United Kingdom of Great
The East India Company has had a long lasting impact Britain and Ireland.
on the Indian Subcontinent, with both positive as well as Regarding the eld of the ag, there has been much de-
harmful eects. Although dissolved following the rebel- bate and discussion regarding the number and order of the
lion of 1857, it stimulated the growth of the British Em- stripes. Historical documents and paintings show many
pire. Its armies after 1857 were to become the armies variations from 9 to 13 stripes, with some images show-
of British India and it played a key role in introducing ing the top stripe being red and others showing the top
English as an ocial language in India. stripe being white.
The East India Company was the rst company to record At the time of the American Revolution the East India
the Chinese usage of orange-avoured tea which led to Company ag was nearly identical to the Grand Union
the development of Earl Grey tea.[48] Flag. Historian Charles Fawcett argued that the East India
The East India Company introduced a system of merit- Company Flag inspired the Stars and Stripes.[53]
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY 103

4.9.11 Coat of arms

Ships in Bombay Harbour, c. 1731

Grosvenor Lost 1782

General Goddard (1782)

Earl of Abergavenny (1796)

The later coat of arms of the East India Company Earl of Mornington (1799); packet ship

The East India Companys original coat of arms was Lord Nelson (1799)
granted in 1600. The arms was as follows:
David Clark (1816)
Azure, three ships with three masts, rigged and under
full sail, the sails, pennants and ensigns Argent, each Kent (1820): Lost on her third voyage
charged with a cross Gules; on a chief of the second a
Nemesis (1839): rst British-built ocean-going iron
pale quarterly Azure and Gules, on the 1st and 4th a eur-
warship
de-lis or, on the 2nd and 3rd a leopard or, between two
roses Gules seeded Or barbed Vert. The shield had as Agamemnon (1855)
a crest: A sphere without a frame, bounded with the
Zodiac in bend Or, between two pennants ottant Ar-
gent, each charged with a cross Gules, over the sphere
the words DEUS INDICAT (Latin: God Indicates). The
supporters were two sea lions (lions with shes tails)
and the motto was DEO DUCENTE NIL NOCET (Latin:
Where God Leads, Nothing Hurts).[54]
The East India Companys arms, granted in 1698, were:
Argent a cross Gules; in the dexter chief quarter an es-
cutcheon of the arms of France and England quarterly,
the shield ornamentally and regally crowned Or. The
crest was: A lion rampant guardant Or holding between The East Indiaman Royal George, 1779. Royal George was one
the forepaws a regal crown proper. The supporters were: of the ve East Indiamen the Spanish eet captured in 1780.
Two lions rampant guardant Or, each supporting a ban-
ner erect Argent, charged with a cross Gules. The mottoDuring the period of the Napoleonic Wars, the East In-
was AUSPICIO REGIS ET SENATUS ANGLI (Latin: By dia Company arranged for letters of marque for its vessels
right of the King and the Senate of England).[54] such as the Lord Nelson. This was not so that they could
carry cannon to fend o warships, privateers and pirates
on their voyages to India and China (that they could do
4.9.12 Ships without permission) but so that, should they have the op-
portunity to take a prize, they could do so without being
Ships of the East India Company were called East India- guilty of piracy. Similarly, the Earl of Mornington, an
men or simply Indiamen.[55] Some examples include: East India Company packet ship of only six guns, also
sailed under a letter of marque.
Red Dragon (1595) In addition, the company had its own navy, the Bombay
Doddington (East Indiaman) Lost 1755 Marine, equipped with warships such as Grappler. These
vessels often accompanied vessels of the Royal Navy on
Royal Captain (Lost on her maiden voyage in 1773) expeditions, such as the Invasion of Java (1811).
104
At the Battle of Pulo Aura, which was probably the 4.9.14 See also
companys most notable naval victory, Nathaniel Dance,
Commodore of a convoy of Indiamen and sailing aboard East India Company:
the Warley, led several Indiamen in a skirmish with a
French squadron, driving them o. Some six years ear-
lier, on 28 January 1797, ve Indiamen, the Woodford,
under Captain Charles Lennox, the Taunton-Castle, Cap-
tain Edward Studd, Canton, Captain Abel Vyvyan, and
Boddam, Captain George Palmer, and Ocean, Captain
John Christian Lochner, had encountered Admiral de
Sercey and his squadron of frigates. On this occasion the
Indiamen also succeeded in blung their way to safety,
and without any shots even being red. Lastly, on 15 June
1795, the General Goddard played a large role in the cap-
ture of seven Dutch East Indiamen o St Helena.
General:
East India Company (EIC)'s ships were well built, with
the result that the Royal Navy bought several Company
ships to convert to warships and transports. The Earl
of Mornington became HMS Drake. Other examples in-
clude:
HMS Calcutta (1795)
HMS Glatton (1795)
HMS Hindostan (1795)
HMS Hindostan (1804)
HMS Malabar (1804)
HMS Bualo (1813)
The company had many ports of call, some of which have
seen their names changed over time.
Main article: List of ports of call of the British East
India Company
4.9.13 Records
Main article: India Oce Records
Unlike all other British Government records, the records
from the East India Company (and its successor the India
Oce) are not in The National Archives at Kew, Lon-
don, but are held by the British Library in London as
part of the Asia, Pacic and Africa Collections. The
catalogue is searchable online in the Access to Archives
catalogues.[56] Many of the East India Company records
are freely available online under an agreement that the
Families in British India Society has with the British Li-
brary. Published catalogues exist of East India Company
ships journals and logs, 16001834;[57] and of some of
the Companys daughter institutions, including the East
India Company College, Haileybury, and Addiscombe
Military Seminary.[58]
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
Governor-General of India
Chief Justice of Bengal
Advocate-General of Bengal
Chief Justice of Madras
List of trading companies
East India Company Cemetery in Macau
British Imperial Lifeline
Carnatic Wars
Commercial Revolution
Political warfare in British colonial India
Trade between Western Europe and the Mughal
Empire in the 17th century
Whampoa anchorage
4.9.15 Notes and references
[1] Carey, W.H. (1882). 1882 - The Good Old Days of Hon-
ourable John Company. Simla: Argus Press. Retrieved
30 July 2015.
[2] The Dutch East India Company was the rst to issue public
stock.
[3] Books associated with Trading Places - the East India
Company and Asia 16001834, an Exhibition..
[4] The Register of Letters &c. of the Governor and Company
of Merchants of London trading into the East Indies, 1600
1619. On page three, a letter written by Elizabeth I on 23
January 1601 (Witnes or selfe at Westminster the xxiiijth
of Ianuarie in the xliijth yeare of or Reigne.) states, Haue
been pleased to giue lysence vnto or said Subjects to pro-
ceed in the said voiadgs, & for the better inabling them to
establish a trade into & from the said East Indies Haue by
or tres Pattents vnder or great seale of England beareing
date at Westminster the last daie of december last past in-
corporated or said Subjecte by the name of the Gour nor
& Companie of the mer chaunts of London trading
into the East Indies, & in the same tres Pattents haue
geven them the sole trade of theast Indies for the terme of
XVteen yeares ...
[5] Baladouni, Vahe (1983). Accounting in the Early Years
of the East India Company. The Accounting Historians
Journal 10 (2): 6380. Retrieved 13 November 2012.
[6] This is the argument of Robins (2006).
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY
[7] Imperial Gazetteer of India II. 1908: 454.
[8] Wilbur, Marguerite Eyer (1945). The East India Com-
pany: And the British Empire in the Far East. Stan-
ford, Cal.: Stanford University Press. p. 18. ISBN
9780804728645.
[9] http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=
68624
[10] Imperial Gazetteer of India vol. II 1908, p. 6
[11] Gardner, Brian (1972). The East India Company: a His-
tory. McCall Publishing Company. ISBN 0-8415-0124-
6.
[12] http://thinkingpast.com/seldenmapatlas/eicvoyage1.htm
[13] http://thinkingpast.com/seldenmapatlas/eicvoyage3.htm
[14] The battle of Plassey ended the tax on the Indian goods.
Indian History Sourcebook: England, India, and The East
Indies, 1617 A.D
[15] Tyacke, Sarah (2008). Gabriel Tattons Mar-
itime Atlas of the East Indies, 16201621:
Portsmouth Royal Naval Museum, Admiralty Li-
brary Manuscript, MSS 352. Imago Mundi 60 (1):
3962. doi:10.1080/03085690701669293.
[16] East India Company (1911). Encyclopdia Britannica
Eleventh Edition, Volume 8, p.835
[17] Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopaedia of the Early Mod-
ern World
[18] Wilbur, Marguerite Eyer (1945). The East India Com-
pany: And the British Empire in the Far East. Stanford
University Press. pp. 823. ISBN 978-0-8047-2864-5.
[19] Hayami, Akira (2015). Japans Industrious Revolution:
Economic and Social Transformations in the Early Mod-
ern Period. Springer. p. 49. ISBN 978-4-431-55142-3.
[20] Burgess, Douglas R. (2009). The Pirates Pact: The Se-
cret Alliances Between Historys Most Notorious Bucca-
neers and Colonial America. New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-147476-4
[21] Fox, E. T. (2008). King of the Pirates: The Swashbuck-
ling Life of Henry Every. London: Tempus Publishing.
ISBN 978-0-7524-4718-6.
[22] The British East India Companythe Company that
Owned a Nation. George P. Landow".
[23] Thomas, P. D. G. (2008) "Pratt, Charles, rst Earl Cam-
den (17141794)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biog-
raphy, Oxford University Press, online edn, accessed 15
February 2008 (subscription or UK public library mem-
bership required)
[24] SALTPETER the secret salt Salt made the world go
round
[25] Company incursion, Manila 17621763. See the Bib. for
the citation of Sirs Draper and Cornish; see also Cushners
citation at the Wayback Machine (archived July 10, 2004).
105
[26] Gerald Bryant, Ocers of the East India Companys
army in the days of Clive and Hastings, The Journal of
Imperial and Commonwealth History (1978)6#3 pp 203-
27
[27] James Stuart Olson and Robert Shadle (1996). Historical
Dictionary of the British Empire. Greenwood. pp. 252
54.
[28] Choleras seven pandemics. CBC News. 2 December
2008. Archived from the original on 16 December 2008.
Retrieved 7 March 2016.
[29] Holmes, Richard (2005). Sahib: the British soldier in In-
dia, 17501914. London: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-
713753-2.
[30] Note: as of 30 December 1600, the ocial name: Gov-
ernor and Company of Merchants of London trading with
the East Indies
[31] McElwee, William (1974). The Art of War: Waterloo to
Mons. Purnell Book Services. p. 72.
[32] Tolan, John; Veinstein, Gilles and Henry Laurens (2013).
Europe and the Islamic World: A History. Princeton
University Press. pp. 275276. ISBN 978-0-691-14705-
5.
[33] Windle, James (2012). Insights for Contemporary Drug
Policy: A Historical Account of Opium Control in India
and Pakistan. Asian Journal of Criminology 7 (1): 55
74. doi:10.1007/s11417-011-9104-0.
[34] East India Company Factory Records Sources from the
British Library, London Part 1: China and Japan
[35] Harcourt, Freda (2006). Flagships of Imperialism: The P
& O Company and the Politics of Empire from Its Origins
to 1867. Manchester University Press. p. 103. ISBN
978-1-84779-145-0.
[36] Keay, John (1991). The Honourable Company: A History
of the English East India Company. Macmillan Publishing
Company, New York p. 385.
[37] Anthony, Frank. Britains Betrayal in India: The Story of
the Anglo Indian Community. Second Edition. London:
The Simon Wallenberg Press, 2007 Pages 1819, 42, 45.
[38] Langdon, Marcus; Penang: The Fourth Presidency of In-
dia 18051830, Volume One: Ships, Men and Mansions,
Areca Books, 2013. ISBN 978-967-5719-07-3
[39] Kapur.
[40] http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/Will4/3-4/85/
section/112
[41] M. Laxhimikanth, Public Administration, TMH, Tenth
Reprint, 2013
[42] Laxhimikanth, Public Administration, TMH, Tenth
Reprint, 2013
[43] David, Saul (4 September 2003). The Indian Mutiny:
1857 (4th ed.). London: Penguin. ISBN 0141005548.
106
[44] East India Stock Dividend Redemption Act 1873 (36 & 37
Vict. 17) s. 36: On the First day of June One thousand
eight hundred and seventy-four, and on payment by the
East India Company of all unclaimed dividends on East
India Stock to such accounts as are herein-before men-
tioned in pursuance of the directions herein-before con-
tained, the powers of the East India Company shall cease,
and the said Company shall be dissolved. Where possi-
ble, the stock was redeemed through commutation (i.e.
exchanging the stock for other securities or money) on
terms agreed with the stockholders (ss. 58), but stock-
holders who did not agree to commute their holdings had
their stock compulsorily redeemed on 30 April 1874 by
payment of 200 for every 100 of stock held (s. 13).
[45] Not many days ago the House of Commons passed.
Times [London, England] 8 Apr. 1873: 9. The Times
Digital Archive. Web. 26 Nov. 2015.
[46] Farrington 1976, pp. 12532.
[47] East India Club.
[48] Bringing back John Company.
[49] The Company that ruled the waves, in The Economist,
1730 December 2011, p. 111.
[50] Dalrymple, William (4 March 2015). The East India
Company: The original corporate raiders. The Guardian.
Retrieved 6 June 2015.
[51] Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts. New York
Times. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
[52] Moxham, Roy. Lecture: THE EAST INDIA COM-
PANY'S SEIZURE OF BENGAL AND HOW THIS
LED TO THE GREAT BENGAL FAMINE OF 1770.
You Tube. Brick Lane Circle. Retrieved 6 June 2015.
[53] Fawcett, Charles (2013-07-30). Rob Raeside, ed. The
Striped Flag of the East India Company, and its Connex-
ion with the American Stars and Stripes"".
[54] East India Company. Hubert Herald. Retrieved 10
February 2014.
[55] Sutton, Jean (1981) Lords of the East: The East India
Company and Its Ships. London: Conway Maritime
[56] A2A Access to Archives Home
[57] Farrington (ed.), Anthony (1999). Catalogue of East India
Company ships journals and logs: 16001834. London:
British Library. ISBN 0-7123-4646-5.
[58] Farrington 1976.
4.9.16 Bibliography
Andrews, Kenneth R. (1985). Trade, Plunder, and
Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of
the British Empire, 14801630. Cambridge, U.K.:
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-25760-3.
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
Bowen, H. V. (1991). Revenue and Reform: The In-
dian Problem in British Politics, 17571773. Cam-
bridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
0-521-40316-2.
Bowen, H. V. (2003). Margarette Lincoln; Nigel
Rigby, eds. The Worlds of the East India Company.
Rochester, NY: Brewer. ISBN 0-85115-877-3.; 14
essays by scholars
Brenner, Robert (1993). Merchants and Revolu-
tion: Commercial Change, Political Conict, and
Londons Overseas Traders, 15501653. Prince-
ton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-
05594-7.
Carruthers, Bruce G. (1996). City of Capital: Poli-
tics and Markets in the English Financial Revolution.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN
978-0-691-04455-2.
Chaudhuri, K. N. (1965). The English East India
Company: The Study of an Early Joint-Stock Com-
pany, 16001640. London: Cass.
Chaudhuri, K. N. (1978). The Trading World of
Asia and the English East India Company, 1660
1760. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-21716-4.
Chaudhury, S. (1999). Merchants, Companies, and
Trade: Europe and Asia in the Early Modern Era.
London: Cambridge University Press.
Dalrymple, William (March 2015). The East India
Company: The original corporate raiders. For a
century, the East India Company conquered, subju-
gated and plundered vast tracts of south Asia. The
lessons of its brutal reign have never been more rel-
evant. The Guardian
Dirks, Nicholas (2006). The Scandal of Empire:
India and the creation of Imperial Britain. Cam-
bridge, Massachusetts, London, England: The Belk-
nap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-
02166-5.
Farrington (ed.), Anthony (1976). The Records of
the East India College, Haileybury, & other institu-
tions. London: H.M.S.O.
Farrington, Anthony (2002). Trading Places: The
East India Company and Asia, 16001834. London:
British Library. ISBN 0-7123-4756-9.
Furber, Holden. John Company at Work: A study of
European Expansion in India in the late Eighteenth
century (Harvard University Press, 1948)
Furber, Holden (1976). Rival Empires of Trade in
the Orient, 16001800. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-0787-7.
4.9. EAST INDIA COMPANY
Greenwood, Adrian (2015). Victorias Scottish Lion:
The Life of Colin Campbell, Lord Clyde. UK: His-
tory Press. p. 496. ISBN 0-75095-685-2.
Harrington, Jack (2010), Sir John Malcolm and
the Creation of British India, New York: Palgrave
Macmillan., ISBN 978-0-230-10885-1
Keay, John (2010). The Honourable Company: A
History of the English East India Company. Harper-
Collins UK. ISBN 978-0-00-739554-5. Retrieved
24 September 2011.
Lawson, Philip (1993). The East India Company: A
History. London: Longman. ISBN 0-582-07386-3.
Misra, B.B. . The Central Administration of the East
India Company, 1773-1834 (1959) online
O'Connor, Daniel (2012). The Chaplains of the East 4.9.17 External links
India Company, 16011858. London: Continuum.
ISBN 978-1-4411-7534-2.
Philips, C. H. The East India Company 1784 - 1834
(2nd ed. 1961), on its internal workings
Riddick, John F. The history of British India: a
chronology (2006) excerpt and text search, covers
15991947
Riddick, John F. Who Was Who in British India
(1998), covers 15991947
Runer, Murray (April 21, 2015). Selden Map At-
las. Thinking Past. Retrieved April 28, 2015.
Risley (ed.), Sir Herbert H.; et al. (1908), The In-
dian Empire: Historical, Imperial Gazetteer of India
2, Oxford: Clarendon Press, under the authority of
H.M. Secretary of State for India
Risley (ed.), Sir Herbert H.; et al. (1908), The In-
dian Empire: Administrative, Imperial Gazetteer of
India 4, Oxford: Clarendon Press, under the author-
ity of H.M Secretary of State for India
Robins, Nick (December 2004). The worlds rst
multinational, in the New Statesman
Robins, Nick (2006). The Corporation that Changed
the World: How the East India Company Shaped the
Modern Multinational. London: Pluto Press. ISBN
0-7453-2524-6.
Sen, Sudipta (1998). Empire of Free Trade: The
East India Company and the Making of the Colonial
Marketplace. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl-
vania Press. ISBN 978-0-8122-3426-8.
Sharpe, Brandon (April 23, 2015). Selden Map At-
las. Thinkingpast.com. Retrieved April 28, 2015.
107
Steensgaard, Niels (1975). The Asian Trade Rev-
olution of the Seventeenth Century: The East India
Companies and the Decline of the Caravan Trade.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-
77138-5.
Stern, Philip J. The Company-State: Corporate
Sovereignty and the Early Modern Foundations of the
British Empire in India (2011) online
Sutherland, Lucy S. (1952). The East India
Company in Eighteenth-Century Politics. Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Williams, Roger (2015). Londons Lost Global Gi-
ant: In Search of the East India Company. London:
Bristol Book Publishing. ISBN 978-0-9928466-2-
6.
Charter of 1600
East India Company on In Our Time at the BBC.
(listen now)
Seals and Insignias of East India Company
The Secret Trade The basis of the monopoly.
Trading Places a learning resource from the British
Library
Port Cities: History of the East India Company
Ships of the East India Company
Plant Cultures: East India Company in India
The British East India Company
History and Politics: East India Company
Nick Robins, The worlds rst multinational, 13
December 2004, New Statesman
East India Company: Its History and Results arti-
cle by Karl Marx, MECW Volume 12, p. 148 in
Marxists Internet Archive
Text of East India Company Act 1773
Text of East India Company Act 1784
The East India Company a corporate route to Eu-
rope on BBC Radio 4's In Our Time featuring Huw
Bowen, Linda Colley and Maria Misra
HistoryMole Timeline: The British East India Com-
pany
William Howard Hooker Collection: East India-
man Thetis Logbook (#472-003), East Carolina
Manuscript Collection, J. Y. Joyner Library, East
Carolina University
108
4.10 Mysores campaigns against
the states of Malabar (1757)
The Mysores campaigns against the states of Mal-
abar was the result of the Calicuts attack on Palghat in
17561757. This comprised the attacks of the Zamorin
of Calicut on the Kingdom of Palakkad, situated east
to Calicut.[1] It was a continuation of the attacks on the
Kingdom of Valluvanad, the traditional rivals of Cali-
cut. In the one sided Valluvanad attacks the Zamorin
had captured much of the land from Eranad to Nedun-
ganad. So, this time Zamorin marched against Palakkad
and easily occupied Nadvattom which tore the Kingdom
of Palakkad right through the middle.[1]
Komi Achan, the King of Palakkad, requested the faujdar
of Dindigul, Hyder Ali to help him. Hyder Ali sent a
massive force under Makhdoom Ali and soon the allied
forces defeated the Zamorin.[1] By these attacks, Hyder
Ali also planned to capture the vast treasuries of Malabar
kings which were obtained by the spice trade.[2]
Zamorin came to a treaty with Haider Ali, in which he
was demanded to pay twelve hundred thousand rupees
as the war reparations. However, the Zamorin techni-
cally deceived Hyder Ali after the return of the Mysore
Army from Malabar.[1] But, for his role in these activities
Hyder Ali was rewarded by Devaraja, the Prime Minis-
ter of Mysore, with the jaghir (regional governorship) of
Bangalore.[3]
4.10.1 References
[1] Logan, William (2006). Malabar Manual, Mathrubhumi
Books, Calicut. ISBN 978-81-8264-046-7.
[2] Panikkassery, Velayudhan. Tipu Sultan MM Publications formidable army led by Tipu Sultan.
(2007), Kottayam India
[3] Tipu Sultans search for legitimacy : Islam and kingship
in a Hindu domain (Book, 1997)". [WorldCat.org]. Re-
trieved 2012-07-28.
4.11 Nedumkotta
Nedumkotta or Travancore lines was a wall built as a
protection against consistent invasion and threats from
northern kingdoms mainly Zamorins of Kozhikode. It
was built by the Dharma Raja Karthika Thirunal, King
of Travancore with the support and permission of the
Kingdom of Kochi.
4.11.1 Background
The Nedumkotta was a defence fortication constructed
along the northern borders of the erstwhile Travancore
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
State. It passed through the territories of the then Cochin
State.
The Nedumkotta was built primarily to resist the inva-
sion under Hyder Ali Khan against Travancore State. It
was raised mainly with clay and mud, and reinforced with
stones, laterite and granite at strategic places. It started
from the Krishan Kotta on the west coast, above Kodun-
gallur, and stretched up to the Annamalai Hills on the
Western Ghats. It was about 48 km long, 20 feet wide
and 12 feet high. Its alignment was along the Periyar river
on the west coast up to Chalakudy from where it went
along the Chalakudy river up to the Annamalai Hills in
the east. There were underground cells to store gunpow-
der and other war materials, special chambers for soldiers
to live, and look-outs and mounted eld-guns all along the
fortication. Besides, on the north side of the fortica-
tion, ditches were dug twenty feet wide and sixteen feet
deep, and lled with thorny plants, poisonous snakes, and
hidden weapons. On the south side as well as on the top of
the fortication, wide roads were laid for the convenience
of military movements.
4.11.2 The structure
The fortication was constructed during the regime of
Rama Varma Raja, popularly known as Dharma Raja of
Travancore, and under the direct guidance and supervi-
sion of the then Prime Minister, Ayyappan Marthanda
Pillai, and the then Commander of the Travancore Army,
the Dutch Captain D'Lenoy. This historic defence line
was comparable to the Great Wall of China except that
the latter was more ancient and greater in length. It
was under the protective cover of this Nedumkotta that
a small army of Travancoreans under the command of
Raja Keshavadas defeated and frustrated near Alwaye a
Today there is no physical evidence of the historic Ne-
dumkotta in the form of even ruins anywhere in the
Mukundapuram taluka - Chettuva, Parur, Kodakara,
Chalakudy, Mullurkara, Enamanakhal and Karikodu -
through which it passed. However, some place-names
having a reference to the historic fortication are still
popular in the northern borders of the erstwhile Cochin
and Travancore States - Krishnan Kotta (meaning Krish-
nan Fort), Kottamukku (fort corner), Kottamuri (part of
a fort), Kottaparampu (fort land), Kotta Vazhi (fort road),
Kottalaparampu (magazine ground), Palayam (canton-
ment), etc. It started from Pallipuram Kotta near the
sea, touches kottamukku, krishnankotta and extended till
the Foot hills of the Anamalai in the Western Ghats.
The Chalakudy river and lagoon which falls on the align-
ment was left alone as they themselves were a barrier.
A trench 20 feet (6.1 m) deep and 16 feet (4.9 m) wide
was built along the northern side of the wall for the full
length. At some places the wall reached 50 ft (15 m) in
height. Hollows were made inside where about 100 sol-
diers could hide and make an ambush. A company of sol-
4.12. PALAKKAD FORT 109

diers was stationed about every kilometer with ammuni-
tion store house at strategic points. There were also caves
in the nearby wells to hide in the possibility of an unan-
nounced attack.Muringoor Kottamury is the place where
the NH47 cross the nedumkotta.
The places where fortication once stood is in the present
Mukundapuram Taluk in Thrissur District, Kerala.
4.11.3 Attack of Tipu Sultan and its de-
struction
3. Thiruvithamkur Charitram (Travancore History) by P.
Sankunni Menon, p. 161.
4. Kerala Charitram (Kerala History) by A. Sreedhara
Menon, p. 55.
5. Malabar Manual by William Logan, p. 455.
4.11.6 Notes
[1] Malayalam Historical Novel Rama Raja Bahudur au-
thored by C. V. Raman Pillai

[2] Valath,V.,V.,K mentions a news in a local Daily, Math-

24 years after his father, Hyder Ali had attacked Kochi,
rubhumi on 1978 July 6 about a cave being found when a
Tipu Sultan started on a conquest to conquer Kochi and
village road was being excavated near krishnankotta and
Travancore. On December 28, 1789 Tipu attacked the subsequently being destroyed. This he mentions was part
lines and gained entry but was ambushed by a small 20- of the structure.
member team led by Vaikom Padmanabha Pillai of Tra-
vancore army and had to retreat. Later in April he came [3] Place histories of Kerala - Thrissur District
back with reinforcements and this time was able to break
into the territory after making the way through the Ne-
dumkotta. He destroyed the wall at Konoor kotaa or kot- 4.11.7 External links
tamuri and advanced further. He lled trenches for a few
kilometers to enable his army to move forward.He de- Nedumkotta
stroyed many temples and churches and brought enor-
mous harm to the people. He nally reached the Peri-
yar river banks at Aluva and camped there. However, by 4.12 Palakkad Fort
this time a small group led by Vaikom Padmanabha Pil-
lai and Kunjai Kutty Pillai went upstream and managed Palakkad Fort also known as Tipus Fort is an old fort
to break the walls of a dam at Bhoothathankettu caus- situated in the heart of Palakkad town of Kerala state,
ing heavy ash oods downstream Periyar river.[1] All the southern India. It was built by Haider Ali in 1766 ACE
ammunition and gunpowder of Tipus army got wet and and remains one of the best preserved forts in Kerala.
became inactive. He was thus forced to return. Infor-
mation that the British army was planning an attack on
Srirangapatnam hastened his retreat. 4.12.1 History
Many portions of the wall were destroyed during war, oth-
ers later eroded away due to heavy rains, and trenches The Palakkad Fort is said to have existed from very an-
were lled up. The most of the ruins whatever left cient times, but believed to be constructed in present form
have also been lost due ignorance about the historical in 1766 A.D, but little is known of its early history. The
local ruler, Palakkad Achchan, was originally a tributary
structure among the locals.[2] Unfortunately, there are no
memorials erected anywhere in Kodungallur, or Trichur, of the Zamorin, but had become independent before the
or Alwaye to honour the Dharma Raja and Ayyappan beginning of the eighteenth century.[1] In 1757 he sent
Marthanda Pillai who were the architects of the fort; ora deputation to Haider Ali seeking help against an inva-
Raja Keshavadas under whose direct command a com- sion threatened by the Zamorin. Haider Ali seized upon
paratively small army humbled and defeated the invading the opportunity to gain possession of a strategically im-
army of Tipu Sultan. portant location such as Palghat, and from that time until
1790 the fort was continually in the hands of the Mysore
Sultans or the British. It was rst taken by the latter in
4.11.4 See also 1768 when Colonel Wood captured it during his raid on
Hyder Ali's fortresses, but it was retaken by Haider a few
Mysore invasion of Kerala months later. It was recaptured by Colonel Fullarton in
1783, after a siege that lasted eleven days but was aban-
doned the following year. It later fell into the hands of the
4.11.5 References Zamorins troops. In 1790 it was nally captured by the
British under Colonel Stuart. It was renovated and was
1. Valath, V.,V., K., Keralathile sthalacharithrangal - used as a base for operations that ended with the storming
Thrissur Jilla(in Malayalam),[3] Kerala Sahitya academy of Srirangapatnam. The fort continued to be garrisoned
1981. 2. Kerala Charitradharakal (Historical Docu- until the middle of 19th century. In the early 1900s it was
ments) by Naduvattam Gopalakrishnan, pp. 8489. converted into a taluk oce.[2]
110 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

The fort is also known as Tipus Fort (after Tipu Sultan, inside the fort
the son of Hyder Ali).
Tiew from the bridge
Skiing space
4.12.2 Current status
Inuksuk from V.K.Rajan, Thrissur
There is a large ground between the Fort and the Palakkad
Town hall, known as Kota Maidanam (Fort Grounds).
The ground, which had once served as a stable for the 4.12.8 References
elephants and horses of Tipus army, is now used to stage
[1] Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 358.
cricket matches, exhibitions and public meetings. An
http://dsal.uchicago.edu/reference/gazetteer/pager.
open air auditorium called Rappadi, currently under the html?objectid=DS405.1.I34_V19_364.gif
preservation of the Archaeological Survey of India, is also
located within the spacious grounds of the Fort. Addi- [2] Imperial Gazetteer of India, v. 19, p. 359.
tionally, there is a childrens park on one side of the Fort.
4.12.9 External links
4.12.3 Interior
Palakkad Fort Ocial Website
The Palakkad Special Sub Jail is also located within the Imperial Gazetteer of India
fort. There is a small shrine called Anjaneya Swamy Tem-
ple inside the fort. A garden called Vatika-Shilavatika is Coordinates: 104603N 763941E / 10.7676N
maintained inside the court. 76.6614E

4.12.4 Related locations

4.13 Ali Raja
It is said that Hyder Ali had plan to build the famous
Palakkad Fort here, before it is built in its present lo- The Ali Raja or Adi Raja was the title of the Muslim
cation. Granite and rocks are kept here for construct- king of Kannur (Arakkal kingdom) from the 16th to early
ing the fort. But the plan was changed and the fort 19th Century.
was constructed at Palakkad. The resulted massive plain
land was used by the people of nearby villages as a mar-
ket of ancient times. Since then this area is known as 4.13.1 Arakkal dynasty
'Kottachantha' of which 'Kotta' means Fort and 'Chantha'
means Market in malayalam language. Reigning rajas and beebis

It is believed that the name of the next village, Kot- Ali Raja Ali I (15451591)
tayi (I and II), is derived from the use 'Kottayilekkulla
Vazhi/Vayi' meaning 'The way to Fort' which also Ali Raja Abubakar I (15911607)
strongly support Hyder Alis plan to build the fort here. Ali Raja Abubakar II (16071610)
However, there are no disputes over the arguments
on Kottachanthas historical importance connected to Ali Raja Muhammad Ali I (16101647)
Palakkad Fort.
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali II (16471655)
Ali Raja Kamal (16551656)
4.12.5 Satellite image of the fort
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali III (16561691)
Satellite image of the fort
Ali Raja Ali II (16911704)
Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa I (17041720)
4.12.6 See also
Ali Raja Muhammad Ali IV (17201728)
Mysore invasion of Kerala
Ali Raja Beevi Harrabichi Kadavube Sultana
(17281732)
4.12.7 Image Gallery Ali Raja Beevi Junumabe Sultana I (17321745)
O.V.Vijayan Characters Ali Raja Kunhi Amsa II (17451777)
Mango Tree Ali Raja Beevi Junumabe Sultana II (17771819)
4.14. DHARMA RAJA
Heads of the Arakkal dynasty since 1819
Arakkal Beevi Mariambe Sultana (18191838)
Arakkal Beevi Hayashabe Sultana (18381852)
Sultan Abdul Rahman I Ali Raja (18521870)
Sultan Musa Ali Raja (18701899)
Sultan Muhammad Ali Raja V (18991907)
Arakkal Beevi Imbichi Sultana(19071911)
Sultan Ahmad Ali Raja (19111921)
Arakkal Beevi Ayesha Sultana I (19211931)
Sultan Abdul Rahman Ali Raja (19311946)
Arakkal Beevi Mariumma Sultana (19461947)
Sultan Hamza Ali Raja (19811998)
Arakkal Beevi Muthu Sultana (19982006)
Arakkal Beevi Zainaba Ayesha Sultana II (2006
present)
4.13.2 See also
Arakkal Museum
Keyi family
Kannur Fort - (St. Angelo Fort)
List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
Mysore invasion of Kerala
4.13.3 References
4.14 Dharma Raja
For the Indian lm, see Dharma Raja (lm).
Dharma Raja Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma
(Malayalam: conquered from them, on his way to Cochin. The Raja of
, 172417 Feb 1798)[1] was the Maharajah of Cochin deputed his nephew to ask for prompt assistance
Travancore from 1758 until his death in 1798. He suc-
ceeded his uncle Marthanda Varma, who is credited with dealings and breach of faith on the part of the Cochin
the title of maker of modern Travancore. During his
reign Dharma Raja not only retained all the territories that his neighbour might not adhere to his promise when
his predecessor had gained but administered the king-
dom with success. He was addressed as Dharma Raja
on account of his strict adherence to Dharma Sastra, theassistance immediately. Months passed. At last the Raja
principles of justice by providing asylum to thousands of
Hindus and Christians eeing Malabar during the reli-
gious and military onslaught of Tipu Sultan.
111
4.14.1 Early life
Rama Varma was born in 1724 AD as the son of the
Senior Rani of Attingal[2] with her husband Prince Ker-
ala Varma Koil Thampuran of the Kilimanoor palace.
He had a brother Prince Makayiram Thirunal, grandfa-
ther of Irayimman Thampi, who pre-deceased him. His
mother was adopted from the royal house of Kolathunad
in 1718 by the then King of Venad[3] into the Travancore
Royal Family. He was born into a time of political tur-
moil caused by the refractory Lords, the Ettuveetil Pil-
lamar as also enemies of Venad such as the Rajah of
Kayamkulam. When Karthika Thirunal was only four
years of age, in 1728, his father died foiling an assas-
sination bid by the Kayamkulam Rajah, when the prince
along with his parents were traveling from Haripad to the
domains of the Vanjipuzha Thampuran, a Brahmin chief,
at Budhanur.[4] As he grew up, he took part actively in
the military conquests of his uncle Maharajah Marthanda
Varma and assisted him in establishing the modern state
of Travancore by annexing kingdom after kingdom up to
the Cochin to Venad.
4.14.2 Succession and initial career
With the death of his uncle Marthanda Varma in 1758,
Karthika Thirunal Rama Varma succeeded to the Tra-
vancore musnud. With the able services of the Dalawa
Ayyapan Marthanda Pillai, Karthika Thirunal began his
reign. Under his uncles reign, Travancore had gained
the reputation of being the most powerful state in Kerala
and hence, many of the neighboring chiefs wished to ex-
ecute friendship treaties with the Maharajah. The for-
tunes of the Cochin royal family were at the lowest ebb.
A very small portion of their original territory alone re-
mained in the Cochin Rajas possession. From 1755
AD, the Zamorin(Samoothiri) of Calicut Kingdom, was
in possession of the major portions of Cochin. Al-
though Marthanda Varma had promised help against the
Zamorin by signing a treaty of alliance in 1756 with
Cochin, he took no steps to help. Most of the barons of
Kochi had sided with the enemy. The Dutch were the per-
manent friends and protectors of Cochin, but they with-
drew their contingents from the eld when the Zamorin
promised to give back to them 'Chetwai' which he had
from Rama Varma. The recollections of the past shady
rulers naturally had raised apprehensions in the Maharaja
he felt his position secure. The same feeling might have
prevented Marthanda Varma, his uncle, from rendering
of Cochin met with Rama Varma to press his request. He
strengthened his promises with the sanction of religion.
On the 25th of the Tamil month 'Adi' of 937 ME (1761
112
AD) the Raja of Cochin read the terms of their treaty
and solemnly swore to abide by its terms, in the pres-
ence of the Deity Sthanumoorthy of Suchindrum Tem-
ple near Cape Commorin, the ministers of the two king-
doms and the spiritual authorities also being present and
the signed document was delivered to the representative
of the Maharaja of Travancore. In pursuance of the
treaty, the Travancore Maharaja commanded his Min-
ister Dalawa Ayyappan Marthanda Pillai and his Dutch
General D'Lannoy to proceed to the north at the head
of a large army to liberate Cochin kingdom from the
clutches of Zamorin of Calicut kingdom. The account
of this campaign is best given in the words of late Mr.
C. Achyutha Menon, a native of Cochin, whose acquain-
tance with the records of the Cochin government, to
which he was secretary for a long time, enabled him to
speak with unassailable authority.
Early in March, the combined army
marched in two divisions to attack the
Zamorins forces stationed in Parur and Alan-
gad. But the latter abandoned these districts
without striking a blow and retreated to Cran-
ganur and Mapranam. The division under
Marthanda Pillai fell upon the Zamorins men
in Mapranam and pursued them to Trichur
where they were attacked in the front by the
Travancoreans and in the rear by a body of
men from Kavalapara and Perattuvithi, the best
ghters in Cochin at the time. The Calicut
forces suered heavily in the ght at Trichur
and ed precipitately to their fortied stations
in Kunnankulam and Chelakara.
In the meantime, the division under
D'Lannoy dislodged the Zamorins men from
Cranganore and pursued them beyond the
Chetwa river and marching to Trichur by way
of Enamakal, found the place already in the
occupation of Dalawa Marthanda Pillai. The
combined army then advanced to Chelakara
and after a severe engagement, drove the
Zamorins men beyond the northern frontier
of Cochin. From Chelakara they marched to
Kunnamkulam, whereupon the Calicut forces
stationed there retreated to Ponnani. General
D'Lannoy now proposed to carry the war into
the enemys territory, but the Zamorin, becom-
ing alarmed for the safety of his country, sued
for peace.
The Zamorin sent an express messenger to Trivandrum to
beg the Maharaja to stay the hands of his General. Just as
his uncle Marthanda Varma had ordered him and Dalawa
Ramayyan to desist from the conquest of Cochin, when
they were about to do so in 929 M.E., Rama Varma Ma-
haraja now ordered his Dalawa to advance no further. In
1759 AD, the Rajah of Cochin sent his nephew to sign a
treaty with Travancore. In the same year, a few months
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
later, the Rajah himself visited Travancore along with his
minister Paliath Achan and signed a treaty with Travan-
core and secured aid to free his territories from the con-
trol of the Zamorin of Calicut. The Zamorins request to
forgive him was complied with in 1763 and in the next
year the Zamorin visited Padmanabhapuram, capital of
Venad and signed a treaty of friendship and reimbursed
to Travancore the expenses of the war amounting to Rs
150,000. The little kingdoms of Parur and Alangad were
also annexed to Travancore after pensioning o the ruling
families.
In 932 ME, Marthanda Varma had projected the con-
struction of a line of fortications on the northern fron-
tier, but his death the following year prevented any-
thing substantial being done. The experience gained in
the course of the war with the Zamorin convinced the
Dewan and the General, of the necessity of continuing
and strengthening the lines which would not only protect
Cochin in some measure from any possible aggression by
the Zamorin, but would also be serviceable to Travancore
in the event of an invasion from Mysore. The scheme was
then taken up.
The Raja of Cochin was in entire agreement with the pro-
posal. The line of fortications was taken from the sea
near the island of Vaipeen right up to the ghats covering
a distance of nearly 40 kilometres (25 mi). The Raja of
Cochin agreed to bear a portion of the costs in addition to
permitting the construction of the many portions passing
through the Cochin territory. In fact the Dutch records
stated that Maharajah Marthanda Varma deliberately re-
frained from annexing Cochin on an earlier occasion so
as to maintain a buer-state between his kingdom and
Mysore of Hyder Ali. The famous Nedum Kotta or 'the
Northern Defense-Line of Travancore' subsequently be-
came a major obstacle in Tipu Sultan's attempt to conquer
Travancore; he called it the contemptible wall.
Certain territorial disputes arose between Travancore and
the Nawab of Arcot which were eventually settled, though
the Maharajah had to part with large sums of money and
some territories mainly because the British East India
Company's ocers had compelled him, as the Nawab
was a familiar gure at Madras and his propensities for
perpetual borrowing at extra hazarduous rates of inter-
est enlisted their sympathies. The Maharaja obtained
in return, lands in Shencottah and the temple at Cape
Comorin, which were at the time not part of Travan-
core but were desired by the Maharajah to round o his
dominions.[5]
4.14.3 Dharma Raja and Hyder Ali
Hyder Ali had usurped the throne of Mysore and was
keen to invade and bring the smaller coastal kingdoms
of Malabar and Travancore under his sway. As early as
1756, he had invaded Malabar at the instance of the ruler
of Palghat to help him regain his territories captured by
4.14. DHARMA RAJA
Hyder Ali
the Zamorin of Calicut. The Zamorin was driven away
and saved his kingdom by agreeing to pay the princely
sum of Rs.1.2 million to Hyder Ali. In 1766, Hyder in-
vaded Malabar a second time. The Rajah of Kolathunad
ed to Travancore, while the Zamorin, after hastening his
familys departure to Travancore, committed suicide in
his own palace. Hyder Ali also started treaty negotiations
with the Dutch who, since their defeat in the Battle of Co-
lachel had been in awe of Travancore, kept the Maharajah
of Travancore informed of all developments. What Hy-
der wanted was a free passage to Travancore through the
Dutch territories. The Dutch Governor replied that he
had informed Batavia of Hyders request and was waiting
for a reply.
Soon rumors of a proposed invasion of Travancore
started developing after the Maharajah refused to stop
construction of the Nedumkotta, which passed near the
Dutch possessions, through Cochin territories, and be-
cause he had given refuge to Hyder Alis enemies. Hy-
der asked the kings of Cochin and Travancore to pay the
expenses of his Malabar campaign. The tribute to be
paid by Cochin was Rs.400,000 and 10 elephants, while
Travancore was asked to pay Rs.1.5 million and 30 ele-
phants. Hyder added that if Travancore refused, He will
pay a visit. While the Rajah of Cochin agreed, Karthika
Thirunal of Travancore replied, stating that it was nei-
ther to please him nor in accordance with his advice that
the invasion of Malabar was undertaken. But he stated
that if Hyder withdrew from Malabar and reinstated the
113
Kolathunad and Calicut Rajahs to their thrones, he would
agree to a payment. This was taken by Hyder as a threat,
but before he could plan an attack on Travancore, he had
to return to Mysore.[6]
4.14.4 Dharma Raja and Tipu Sultan
Dharma Raja
In 1788, rebellion broke out in the territories and vassal
states of Mysore, now ruled by Tipu Sultan, son and suc-
cessor of Hyder Ali. Tipu entered the regions of Malabar
and Coorg to put these rebellions down, engaging in tac-
tics that included the forced deportation to Seringapatam
and the conversion to Islam by force, of Hindus.[7] The
royal families of Malabar and large numbers of Hindu and
Christian families ed to Travancore, where they were
received and treated hospitably by the Maharajah.[8][9]
Tipu Sultan now demanded that the Rajah of Cochin,
who had accepted the status of a vassal, to claim Alan-
gad and Parur so as to provide Tipu with a pretext for
an invasion of Travancore.[10] However, the Rajah diplo-
matically assured Tipu that he would convince the Rajah
of Travancore to become a vassal of Tipu like himself.
Tipu then sent envoys to Travancore with a 'Khareeta',
wherein he stated that I have learnt that you desire to
cultivate friendship with our Sircar... The Maharajah
received Tipus envoys in the presence of an East India
Company representative, which was taken as an aront
by Tipu. The Maharajah also negotiated with the British
for a force to assist in the defense of Travancore, antic-
ipating an attack from Tipu Sultan. Finally in 1789, ar-
guing that the Nedumkotta passed illegally through the
114 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

territories of Cochin, his vassal state, Tipu Sultan gath- Travancore toiled ceaselessly and raised batteries at vari-
ered his entire force in Malabar and marched to invade ous places further south, and surrounded them with deep
Travancore.[11] ditches and prepared to obstruct Tipu from proceeding
Tipu and his forces reached the Nedumkotta line which further into Travancore.
protected Travancores northern frontier and launched an
attack in late December 1789.[12] But a small number
Travancore soldiers managed to change the course of
events, by opening re on the 14,000 Mysore infantry
from a close cover that killed the Mysorean ocer lead-
ing a bayonet charge.[13] The Mysorean column, hemmed
in by the connes of the wall, retreated in confusion and
Tipu Sultan himself was carried away by the crowd. His
palanquin, seals, rings, sword and other personal orna-
ments fell into the hands of the Travancore armies un-
der the Dewan Raja Kesavadas Pillai.[14] Tipu fell back
into the ditch twice before scrambling out and the occa-
sional lameness which he suered until his death was due
to the contusions suered by his fall into the ditches of
Travancore.[15]
Tippu sent a letter on 19 January 1790 to Budruz Zuman
Khan. It said:

Don't you know I have achieved a great

victory recently in Malabar and over four lakh
Hindus were converted to Islam? I am de-
termined to march against that cursed Raman
Nair very soon. Since I am overjoyed at the
prospect of converting him and his subjects to
Islam, I have happily abandoned the idea of go-
ing back to Srirangapatanam now.[16]
In the following weeks, Tipu Sultan, stung by his defeat,
complained to the English Governor Holland at Madras
in a pre-dated letter that his soldiers were searching for
fugitives from Malabar and that it was Travancore which
had taken the oensive. Finally, Tipu attacked the Ne-
dumkotta again after waiting for three months for fur-
ther reinforcements to arrive from Coorg, Bangalore and
Seringapatam. For nearly a month, the Travancore army
under the protection of the Nedumkotta lines, managed to
defend the state. However, nally a breach of about 1 km
(3/4 mile) in length was eected and the Mysorean army
entered Travancore. Soon, the entire Nedumkotta fell
into the hands of Tipu Sultan, who captured large quanti-
ties of ammunition and 200 cannons. The British forces
stationed to assist Travancore did not provide aid to Tra-
vancore, but remained passive spectators, since they had
not received orders from Governor Hollond to ght with
the Sultan, much to the despair of the Maharajah. When
orders were nally received, it was too late and the British
Commander thought it injudicious to commit his soldiers
against the large Mysorean army. Tipus army now dev-
astated the whole of northern Travancore and reached
Alwaye and camped on the Periyar River, although Tipus
ocers advised the Sultan against it. Hindu temples were
destroyed and the subjects ed to the forests. The entire
country was laid waste with re and sword. Even Chris-
tians were not spared. The Dewan Raja Kesavadas of
Tippu Sultan, 1792
The Sultan and his army now moved to a place where
the Travancore army had built a wall across the river ob-
structing the water, leaving the river-bed dry. In spite of
the warnings of some of his Generals, Tipu decided to
wage a battle here at night, certain of his superior num-
bers. Tipu rst ordered two of his kushoons to advance
and take over the defences which they accomplished with
valour. At day-break, the Travancoreans broke down the
retaining wall, letting the water ood onto the Mysorean
forces. A large number of Tipus soldiers were killed by
the sudden ood and the road of succour and assistance
to the advance guard was cut o. The remaining forces
were defeated by a sudden attack by Travancore under
the Dewan and an able General known as Kali Kutty Nair
(Posthumously elevated to Kali Kutty Pillai). Of the sol-
diers of Tipu, who formed the advance guard, none re-
turned to the presence of the Sultan. Three or four hun-
dred cavalry soldiers met with death in front of him. Tipu
was begged o his Palki by his General Kamruddin Khan,
who fell at his feet, asking him to retreat to his camp.
Kamruddin saw to it that Tipu was carried on the shoul-
ders of loyal soldiers across the waters to the other side of
the river. The Sultans Palki with bed, some personal or-
naments, and a dagger fell into the hands of Travancore
soldiers. Although the Sultan was once again defeated
and prevented from gaining any more ground in Travan-
core, the Dewan increased the garrison of the forts further
South and maintained a military force ready for battle in
any case.
4.14. DHARMA RAJA 115

Meanwhile, Governor-General Cornwallis removed the with greater vigor, particularly the manufacturing of
acting Governor of Madras Mr. Hollond from his post, guns. Palaces in dierent parts of the country were
because he had not provided any aid to Travancore in the developed and new ones built.
battle. The new Governor mobilized the British forces
stationed in Travancore to support the Maharajah. Hear- An interesting insight into the religious tolerance of
ing of this, Tipu Sultan decided to retreat from Travan- the Maharajah is gained through a letter by Pope
core and Malabar to his own kingdom, to avoid war with Clement XIV wherein His Holiness thanked the Ma-
the British. But war did occur, in which Travancore pro- harajah for the kindness to the members of his
vided its forces to the British. The Third Anglo-Mysore church in Travancore and ocially placed all the
War led by the Governor-General Cornwallis in person Christians in Travancore under the protection of the
eventually led to the defeat of Tipu Sultan at his capital sovereign.
Seringapatnam in 1792. Tipu Sultan surrendered and the
Treaty of Seringapatam was signed. The terms of sur-
4.14.7 Kathakali playwright and composer
render were particularly harsh in that Tipu had to hand
over two of his sons as hostages to British custody until
As the composer of Kathakali Plays (attakadha). He set
he cleared the amount of 33 million xed as the costs
a systematic curriculum for teaching Kathakali. Being a
of the British campaign against him.[17]
good vocalist and scholar in music and dance, he com-
posed excellent Kritis[19] which have enriched Carnatic
4.14.5 Treaty with the British music. He was perhaps the rst violinist from the royal
family. He has to his credit nearly 150 compositions. It
Following the Treaty of Seringapatanam, the British de- was with the advent of the Kathakali plays of Karthika
manded large sums from Travancore for the expenses of Thirunal that many reforms were brought in Kathakali.
the war although by treaty they had to bear the expenses. Changes were implemented in the structure of plays and
Further, a huge amount was collected from Tippu him- in their technique to be adopted during presentation. Pri-
[20]
self towards the war-expenses. The Maharaja paid it as ority was given for sringara padas. The rule that each
he was not in a military position to oppose the English. character should enter the stage with sringara padas was
A subsidiary alliance was made between Travancore and introduced by him. Kathakali characters must enter by
the British by which a subsidiary force of the East India presenting pada in Padi raga. All his kathakali plays at-
Company was to be stationed in Travancore. Besides, the tained much popularity and fame on account of its techni-
Maharajah was also to help the British during times of cal superiority in stage presentation, variety and vividness
need.[18] of characters and the story. He has to his credit seven
plays:

4.14.6 Reforms Rajasooyam,

Communications were opened to facilitate trade and Subhadrapaharanam,
business in the state by the Maharajah under the
able Dewanship of Rajah Kesavadas. Ports were im- Gandharvavijayam,
proved and various new products were exported by Panchali Svayamvaram,
Travancore during this reign. Ship building was also
given importance and several developments in this Bakavadham,
regard took place.
Kalayanasougandhikam (Thekkan or southern
Gold coins known as Anantharayan Panam, 'Chinna style)
Panam' and 'Ananthavarahan' were minted in Tra-
vancore in addition to a large bullion of silver, Narakasuravadham.[21]
coined as 'Chakrams (pronounced as 'chuck-rums)'.
During wartime taxes were raised but after the pay- 4.14.8 Demise
ments to the British and overcoming wartime ex-
penses, these taxes were remitted. The maharajah died on 17 February 1798, at the age
of 74, after a long reign that was prosperous, save for
The capital at Thiruvananthapuram was developed
the invasion of the kingdom by Tipu Sultan. He had
and infrastructure like bridges and other public
maintained the sovereignty of Travancore and protected it
works such as canals for irrigation were constructed.
from destruction by the superior Mysore forces. He main-
Bazaars and shopping centers were started for the
tained the friendship cultivated with the British by his un-
benet of the people.
cle Marthanda Varma. More importantly, he came to be
The fortications were bettered as also the am- known as Dharma Raja due to the asylum he provided to
munition and weapon manufacture was undertaken the thousands of people from Malabar eeing to escape
116 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

forced proselytization by Tipu Sultan. So pleased were [9] Menon, A history of Travancore from the earliest times,
these subjects of Malabar that many families of kings and Volume 1, p. 212
nobles stayed back in Travancore.
[10] Menon, p. 213
Karthika Thirunal Maharajah had four wives or
Ammachis. His rst wife was Panapillai Kali Amma [11] V. Nagaim Aiya, Travancore State Manual, Vol. 1, pp.
Nagamani Amma from Vadasseri. His other three 395-413
wives hailed from Thiruvattar, Arumana and Nagercoil.
[12] Menon, p. 227
He constructed four Ammaveedus for his wives in
Trivandrum in the last decade of the 18th century and [13] Aiya, p. 394
these families are his descendants. The Maharajahs
brother married from the Puthumana Ammaveedu and [14] Menon, p. 228
his grandson was the poet Irayimman Thampi. The
[15] Aiya, p. 395
Maharajahs descendant from Arumana Ammaveedu
married Balarama Varma, his successor, and their [16] K.M. Panicker, Bhasha Poshini, August, 1923
descendant was the consort of Visakham Thirunal
Maharajah.[22] [17] V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, pp. 413-429

[18] V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, pp. 433-437

4.14.9 See also
[19] Compositions
Padmanabhapuram Palace [20] padas or verses in which amour is the predominant mood
Mysore invasion of Kerala [21] It is believed that the last portion of Narakasura Vadham
was completed by his nephew AswathiThirunal
Marthandavarma (novel)
[22] This information is from Thiruvananthapurathinte Eithi-
haasam
4.14.10 References
Swathithirunnal Website Accessed on 7 August
2006 4.15 Siege of Tellicherry
Kerala Government website accessed on 7 August
The Siege of Tellicherry was a military embargo that
2006.
happened in Thalassery (North Malabar). The Comman-
Dept of Archaeology, Kerala Government website der in Chief of the Mysore Calicut Province, Sirdar Ali,
accessed on 7 August 2006. took siege of the British Military Barrack of Thalassery
for 18 months. They British and the local administrators
were blockaded within Thalassery by land as well as by
4.14.11 Notes sea. It was during the Second Anglo-Mysore War. The
siege continued till reinforcement from Bombay led Ma-
[1] The names of members of Royal houses of Kerala usually jor Abington attacked the Mysore army defeated them.
succeeded their birth star(nal or nakshatra). Thiru added Major Abington forwarded south leading to the capture
for respect. As most of the royal names were Rama varma, of Calicut. The Siege of Tellicherry lead to the fall of
Kerala Varma, Raja Raja Varma, this was also a method
strongholds of the First Mysore conquest, led by Hyder
to distinguish from each other
Ali. Even though laterTipu Sultan came from Mysore to
[2] The Maharanis of Travancore are known as Attingal reinstate the conquered area to previous status.[1][2]
Thampuratties
Tellicherry (Thalasseri) rose to become a fortied coastal
[3] Information from Travancore State Manual by Nagam harbor and major town under English East India Com-
Aiya pany control. The British got this site in 1705 from Ko-
lathiri Raja of Northern Malabar.
[4] Travancore State Manual by T.K. Velu Pillai, Page260
Hyder Ali, ruler of Mysore had no love lost for British
[5] V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, Vol. 1, pp. and had already fought a war with British. His objective
357-373 during second war was to oust British from South India
[6] V. Nagam Aiya, Travancore State Manual, Vol. 1, pp. and conquer whole of South India.
373-385 Malabar was under continuous occupation of Hyders
[7] Logan, Malabar Manual, Volume 1, p. 452
troops since 1774 and whole country of Malabar was in a
state of constant rebellion. The British supplied arms and
[8] Logan, p. 454 ammunition to rebels and this displeased Hyder.[3]
4.15. SIEGE OF TELLICHERRY 117

Also Tellicherry was a major naval base of the British in Ensign Alwright
south west coast of India. Hyders conquest of Tellicherry
will be a big blow to British naval position in waters of Capt Muirhead 20th Madras Battalion
Peninsular India.
So in order to block ow of guns and ammunition to re- Lieut Barry Close
bellious Rajahs and chiefs of Malabar as well as to crip-
ple British naval power, Hyder Ali decided to conquer
Tellicherry as part of his larger plan to oust British from 4.15.2 See also
South India.[4]
So Hyder ordered his vassal Rama Varma, Rajah of Chi- Anglo-Mysore Wars
rakkal to besiege Tellicherry in 1778. Rajah did so with a
large army but Hyders opponent, Kerala Varma Pazhassi Mysore invasion of Kerala
Raja, acting Rajah of Kottayam (Thalassery) and an ally
of British then, took to eld and surrounded the besiegers
of Tellicherry and cut o all their supplies and commu-
nications and forced them to retreat.
4.15.3 References
But in 1779, Chirakkal army of 4,000 supported by Malabar Manual, William Logan, 1887, Vol1,
a Mysore contingent of 2,500 men defeated Kottayam Chapter 3, Section (f), The Mysorean Conquest-AD
army and then invaded the neighboring pro-British king- 1766 - 1792 Pages 423 - 431.
dom of Kadathanad and installed a puppet Rajah on
throne who put that part of Kadathanad army (2,000 men)
which supported him at Hyders disposal. Mysore Wars 1767 to 1799 Kingdom of Mysore
versus British East India Company. Heritage
This large host once more besieged Tellicherry in 1779
History. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
and as British garrison was perilously short on men and
food, Pazhassi Rajah sent 1000 men and his entire sur-
Neill, James George Smith (1843). Historical record
plus harvest to Tellicherry fort. This bought time for the
of the honourable East India Companys rst Madras
beleaguered garrison. Soon siege progressed and British
European Regiment. London: Smith, Elder & Co. p.
bought reinforcements and artillery. At the beginning,
304. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
British had only two battalions in Tellicherry. But 1000
men of Pazhassi Rajah was soon supplemented by an-
other four battalions and a good train of artillery.[5] Wilson, William John (1882). History of the
Madras Army. Madras: E Keys at the Govt Press.
British and their ally Kottayam contingent fought a des- p. 18. Retrieved 2011-01-09.
perate defense for months - each assault of the Mysore
army was repelled and the siege went on till 1782.
[1] http://books.google.co.in/books?id=FVsw35oEBv4C&
Then British command pondered over the plan suggested pg=PA246&lpg=PA246&dq=siege+of+Tellicherry+
by Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja. British garrison must in+the+1780&source=bl&ots=imDxVDP6FD&
launch a sortie to break the besieger army into two and sig=Vy5PZPTNIZA8HeGADFRNZDb80b0&hl=
link up with another of his army who will strike enemy in en&sa=X&ei=ybfNUcbWAo2kigf65YGgBQ&
rear. Soon they decided to adopt this plan. ved=0CE0Q6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=siege%20of%
20Tellicherry%20in%20the%201780&f=false
As British and Kottayam troops launched a furious assault
on besiegers in 1782 - as planned sudden appearance of [2] A Survey Of Kerala History By A Sreedhara Menon
another 1000 men of Kottayam Rajah in rear proved fatal
to Mysore army and their allies who were split into two [3] https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofindi00buckuoft#
halves. Enemy retreated in confusion and panic and a page/86/mode/1up
considerable number was taken prisoner.
Sirdar Khan seriously wounded and sick fell prisoner and [4] http://books.google.co.in/books?id=
breathed his last in captivity. This disaster for Mysore 86RRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=john+
army roused rebels all over Malabar into a massive rebel- cotgrove+tellicherry&source=bl&ots=goEhAJeqMe&
sig=2JRgb0sBbHJY3m5VQ2yk3ctKCVE&hl=en&
lion and decimated all the Mysore regiments of occupa-
sa=X&ei=WYjSUaOYFs7jrAe5-4GYBw&ved=
tion and recovered their freedom for a short period.
0CEAQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=john%20cotgrove%
20tellicherry&f=false

4.15.1 Some of the protagonists [5] The Parliamentary Register; Or, History of the Proceed-
ings and Debates of the [House of Lords and House of
Lieut Peter Campbell Commons]-J. Almon, 1793
118 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

4.16 Battle of Tellicherry Minerva, Captain Sir Richard Strachan in HMS Phoenix
and HMS Perseverance under Captain Isaac Smith.[2] The
The Battle of Tellicherry was a naval action fought o French operated a squadron of their own on the coast, led
the Indian port of Tellicherry between British and French by Commodore Saint-Flix and consisting of two frigates
warships on 18 November 1791 during the Third Anglo- based at Mah, a small French port 7 miles (11 km) south
Mysore War. Britain and France were not at war at of Tellicherry. The French had communicated to the
the time of the engagement, but French support for the British at Tellicherry that they would not submit to any at-
Kingdom of Mysore in the conict with the British East tempts to search their vessels, but Strachan and Cornwal-
India Company had led to Royal Navy patrols stopping lis replied that they would enforce the blockade of Man-
and searching French ships sailing for the Mysorean port galore whatever the consequences.[3]
of Mangalore. When a French convoy from Mah passed
the British port of Tellicherry in November 1791, Com-
modore William Cornwallis sent a small squadron to in- 4.16.2 Battle
tercept the French ships.
In November 1791, a French convoy sailed from Mah on
As the British force under Captain Sir Richard Stra- the short journey to Mangalore. The convoy included two
chan approached the convoy, the escorting frigate Rsolue merchant vessels and the frigate Rsolue, a 36-gun war-
opened re. A general action followed, with Strachan ship under Captain Callamand.[4] Passing northwards, the
succeeding in forcing the French ship to surrender within convoy soon passed Tellicherry and Cornwallis sent Stra-
twenty minutes and both sides suering damage and ca- chan with Phoenix and Perseverance to stop and inspect
sualties. All of the French vessels were searched and sub- the French ships to ensure they were not carrying mili-
sequently returned to Mah, the local French authorities tary supplies.[3] As Smith halted the merchant ships and
reacting furiously at what they perceived as a violation of sent boats to inspect them, Strachan did the same to R-
their neutral position. Messages were sent back to France solue, hailing the French captain and placing an ocer
reporting the action from Commodore Saint-Flix but in a small boat to board the frigate. The French captain
they evoked little response. Although under normal cir- was outraged at this violation of his neutrality, and re-
cumstances the battle might have provoked a diplomatic sponded by opening re: British sources suggest that his
incident, the upheavals of the ongoing French Revolution initial target was the small boat, although Phoenix was the
meant that the despatches had little eect. ship most immediately damaged.[2]
Strachan was unsurprised at the French reaction, and re-
turned re immediately, the proximity of the ships pre-
4.16.1 Background venting any manoeuvres. Within twenty minutes the
combat was decided, the French captain hauling down
In December 1789, after ve years of diplomatic wran- his colours with his ship battered and more than 60 men
gling about the terms of the Treaty of Mangalore that wounded or dead. The French ship carried signicantly
had ended the Second Anglo-Mysore War, the ruler of weaker cannon than Phoenix, with 6 and 12 pounder guns
Mysore Tipu Sultan again declared war on the British to the 9 and 18 pounders aboard the British squadron.
East India Company and their allies in Southern India. In addition, Rsolue was heavily outnumbered: no other
For the next two years the war continued as British forces French warships were in the area while the British had
and their allies drove the Mysore armies back towards three large frigates within sight. French losses eventually
the capital of Seringapatam.[1] Both sides were reliant totalled 25 men killed and 60 wounded, Strachan suer-
on supply by sea to maintain their campaigns inland: the ing just six killed and 11 wounded in return.[5]
British forces were supported from their major ports at
Bombay and Madras, later stationing additional forces
at the small port of Tellicherry inside Mysore territory. 4.16.3 Aftermath
The Mysorean forces were supplied through Mangalore
by French ships. France had been an ally of the Tipu Sul- With the enemy subdued, Strachan ordered a thorough
tans father Hyder Ali during the Second Anglo-Mysore search of the captured vessels, but could nd no contra-
War and although the political instability caused by the band and returned control to the French commander. The
French Revolution in Europe prevented active involve- French ocer however refused, insisting that he and his
ment, they ensured that their ships kept up a supply of ship were treated as prisoners of war.[4] Cornwallis or-
equipment to Mysore throughout the war.[2] dered the merchant ships released to continue their jour-
In an eort to eliminate French support Commodore ney and for the frigate to be towed back to Mah, where
William Cornwallis, the British naval commander in the it was anchored in the roads with its sails and topmasts
region, stationed a squadron of frigates at Tellicherry, struck.[5] Provision was subsequently made at Mah by
where they were ideally situated to blockade Mangalore Strachan for the wounded French sailors. Soon after-
and prevent the passage of shipping into Mysorean ter- wards Saint-Flix arrived at Mah in his frigate Cyble
ritory. The squadron consisted of Cornwallis in HMS and reacted furiously at the discovery that one of his neu-
4.17. TELLICHERRY FORT 119

tral ships had been attacked and captured by the British. Parkinson, C. Northcote (1954). War in the Eastern
When Cornwallis insisted that his ships had been acting Seas, 1793 - 1815. London: George Allen & Unwin
within their orders, Saint-Flix promised reprisals if any Ltd.
of his vessels were attacked again and withdrew with both
Cyble and Rsolue later in the day, followed by Min-
erva and Phoenix. One account reported that Saint-Flix 4.17 Tellicherry Fort
actually ordered his crew to re on Cornwallis but that
they refused.[4] The British shadowed the French for sev-
eral days, openly stopping and searching French merchant Tellicherry Fort is in Thalassery (Tellicherry) a town in
ships but without provoking a response from Saint-Flix. Kannur District of Kerala state in south India.
Rsolue and Phoenix were subsequently detached by their The British East India Company built the fort in 1708
commanders, Cornwallis and Saint-Flix remaining in to establish a stronghold on the Malabar Coast. In 1781
contact for several more days before nally separating.[5] Hyder Ali, ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore, was unsuc-
News of the encounter was conveyed back to France, but cessful in capturing the Fort in his campaign to control
the country was at this time in one of the most turbulent Malabar. His successor, Tipu Sultan, was forced to cede
eras of the ongoing Revolution and little notice was taken Malabar District to the British in 1792, at the conclusion
of events in India. Historian William James notes that un- of the Third Anglo-Maratha War.
der normal political circumstances the action would have The square fort, with its massive walls, strong anking
had more signicant ramications,[5] while Edward Pel- bastions, secret tunnels to the sea and intricately carved
ham Brenton claims that the French deliberately ignored huge doors, is an imposing structure. The fort was once
the report out of fear of antagonising Britain.[6] In Britain, the nucleus of Thalasserys development. It is now a his-
the Admiralty approved of Cornwallis actions, suggest- torical monument preserved by Archaeological Survey of
ing that the French were deliberately using the guise of India.[1][2]
trade to support Mysore against Britain.[6] The action had
no eect on the ongoing war in India, which was now
centred on the inland city of Seringapatam. As British 4.17.1 See also
forces closed on the city in February 1792, the Tipu Sul-
tan initiated peace talks which brought the war to an end Mysore invasion of Kerala
in exchange for concessions to the Company and its In-
dian allies.[7] Overburys folly

Thalassery Pier (Kadalpalam)

4.16.4 Notes
Payyambalam Beach
[1] Brenton 1823, p. 208.
Meenkunnu Beach
[2] James 1827, p. 118.
Parassinikkadavu Snake Park
[3] Brenton 1823, p. 209.

[4] Parkinson 1954, p. 58. Muthappan temple

[5] James 1827, p. 119. Kannur

[6] Brenton 1823, p. 210. Sacred Heart Girls High School
[7] Tippoo Saib. Encyclopedia Americana XII: 272. 1832.
Kannur Fort - (St. Angelo Fort)

4.16.5 See also

4.17.2 References
Mysore invasion of Kerala
[1] http://www.kannurtourism.com/thalassery_fort.html

4.16.6 References [2] http://www.nativeplanet.com/thalassery/attractions/

thalassery-fort/
Brenton, Edward Pelham (1823). The Naval History
of Great Britain, Vol. I. London: Henry Colburn.
4.17.3 External links
James, William (2002) [1827]. The Naval History
of Great Britain, Volume 1, 17931796. London: Coordinates: 114454N 752910E / 11.748292N
Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 0-85177-905-0. 75.486134E
120
4.18 Local resistance to Mysore 4.18.1 Kerala in Hindu mythology
rule in Malabar Many of the mythological stories in Kerala are common
Silk Road map. The spice trade was mainly along the water
routes (blue).
The history of Keralam, India, dates back many mil-
lennia. Stone age carvings in the Edakkal Caves feature
pictorial writings believed to date to at least the Neolithic
era around 5,000 BC, indicating the presence of a pre-
historic civilisation or settlement in this region.[1] From as
early as 3000 BC, Kerala had established itself as a major
spice trade centre. Keralam had direct contact across the
Arabian Sea with all the major Mediterranean and Red
Sea ports as well those of the Far East. The spice trade
between Keralam and much of the world was one of the
main drivers of the world economy. For much of his-
tory, ports in Keralam were the busiest (Muziris) among
all trade and travel routes in the history of the world.
The word Keralam is rst recorded (as Keralaputra) in a
3rd-century BC rock inscription (Rock Edict 2) left by
the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274237 BC).[2] The Land
of Keralaputra was one of the ve independent kingdoms
in southern India during Ashokas time, the others be-
ing Chola, Pandya, Tamiraparani and Satiyaputra.[3] The
Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks from the neigh-
boring Chola Empire and Rashtrakuta Empire. In the 8th
century, Adi Shankara(Brahmin) was born in central Ker-
ala. He travelled extensively across the Indian subconti-
nent establishing institutions of Advaita Vedanta philoso-
phy. Todays Tamil Nadu and Kerala formed the core of
Dravida Kingdom.
Contact with Europeans after the arrival of Vasco Da
Gama in 1498 gave rise to struggles between colonial and
native interests. By 1795, the area was under British do-
minion. After independence, the state of Keralam was
created in 1956 from the former state of Travancore-
Cochin, the Malabar district of Madras State, and the
Kasaragod taluk of Dakshina Kannada.[4]
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
with the rest of India coming from the same Vedic Story-
telling History. At the same time Kerala has always had
a mix of Sanskrit and Tamil culture.
Mahabali
Perhaps the most famous festival of Kerala, Onam, is
deeply rooted in Hindu traditions. Onam is associated
with the legendary Asura king Mahabali, who accord-
ing to the Hindu Puranas, ruled the Earth and several
other planetary systems from Kerala. His entire king-
dom was then a land of immense prosperity and hap-
piness. However, he was granted rule over one of the
netherworld (Patala) planets called Sutala, by Vamana,
the fth Avatar (earthly incarnation) of Lord Vishnu, .It
is also believed by modern historians that Mahabali was a
ruler of present Gujarat region. Also Onam is celebrated
in Kerala with respect to Maveli Thampuran of Mave-
likkara and Thrikarkarayappan.
Other texts
The oldest of all the Puranas, the Matsya Purana, sets
the story of the Matsya Avatar (sh incarnation) of Lord
Vishnu, in the Malaya Mountains of Dravida, which lie
in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The earliest Sanskrit text to
mention Kerala by name is the Aitareya Aranyaka of the
Rigveda.[5] It is also mentioned in both the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata [6]
Parasurama
Parasurama, surrounded by settlers, commanding Varuna to part
the seas and reveal Kerala.
There are myths dealing with the origins of Kerala geo-
graphically and culturally. One such myth is the retrieval
of Kerala from the sea, by Parasurama, a warrior sage.
It proclaims that Parasurama, an Avatar of Mahavishnu,
4.18. LOCAL RESISTANCE TO MYSORE RULE IN MALABAR 121

threw his battle axe into the sea. As a result, the land of ment identied a sign of a man with jar cup in the en-
Kerala arose, and thus was reclaimed from the waters.[7] gravings, which is the most distinct motif of the Indus
[15]
He was the sixth of the ten avatars (incarnations) of valley civilisation.
Vishnu. The word Parasu means 'axe' in Sanskrit and .
therefore the name Parasurama means 'Ram with Axe.
In Treta yuga, Parasurama retrieved the land submerged
under the ocean from Varuna - the God of the Oceans 4.18.3 Spice Trade ( 3000 BC - 1000 BC )
and Bhumidevi - Goddess of Earth. From Gokarnam
he reached Kanyakumari and threw his axe northward Kerala was a major spice exporter as early as 3000 BC,
across the ocean. The place where the axe landed was according to Sumerian records.[16] Its fame as the land
Kerala. It was 160 katam (an old measure) of land lying of spices attracted ancient Babylonians, Assyrians and
between Gokarnam and Kanyakumari. Puranas say that it Egyptians to Muziris in the 3r and 2nd millennia BCE.
was Parasurama who planted the Brahmins and Nayakas Arabs and Phoenicians were also successful in establish-
in 64 regions of Kerala from Chera and Pandya regions. ing their prominence in the Kerala trade during this early
According to the puranas, Kerala is also known as Para- period.[17][18]
surama Kshetram, i.e., 'The Land of Parasurama', as the
land was reclaimed from sea by him.

4.18.2 Prehistory

Muziris in the Tabula Peutingeriana, an itinerarium showing the

road network in the Roman Empire.

According to Sumerian records and Kerala still referred

A dolmen erected by Neolithic people in Marayur. to as the Garden of Spices or as the Spice Garden of
India. Keralas spices attracted ancient Babylonians, As-
Archaeological studies have identied many Mesolithic, syrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd
Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala.[8] These nd- and 2nd millennia BCE. Arabs and Phoenicians estab-
ings have been classied into Laterite rock-cut caves lished trade with Kerala during this period. The Land of
(Chenkallara), Hood stones (Kudakkallu), Hat stones Keralaputra was one of the four independent kingdoms
(Toppikallu), Dolmenoid cists (Kalvrtham), Urn burials in southern India during Ashokas time, the others be-
(Nannangadi) and Menhirs (Pulachikallu). The studies ing Chola, Pandya, and Satiyaputra. Scholars hold that
point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala Keralaputra is an alternate name of the Cheras, the rst
society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic age, dominant dynasty based in Kerala. These territories once
and its continuity through Mesolithic, Neolithic and Me- shared a common language and culture, within an area
galithic ages.[8] However, foreign cultural contacts have known as Tamilakam. While the Cheras ruled most of
assisted this cultural formation.[9] The studies suggest modern Kerala, its southern tip was in the kingdom of
possible relationship with Indus Valley Civilization dur- Pandyas,which had a trading port sometimes identied
ing the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[10] in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi).
Archaeological ndings include dolmens of the Neolithic Later, the region fell under the control of the Pandyas,
era in the Marayur area. They are locally known as Cheras, and Cholas. Ays and Mushikas were two other
muniyara, derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara dynasties of ancient Kerala, whose kingdoms lay to the
(dolmen).[11] Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves in south and north of Cheras respectively
Wayanad are thought to date from the early to late Ne- In the last centuries BCE the coast became important to
olithic eras around 5000 BCE.[12][13][14] Historian M.R. the Greeks and Romans for its spices, especially black
Raghava Varier of the Kerala state archaeology depart- pepper. The Cheras had trading links with China, West
122 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

Asia, Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. In foreign- seen below in Colonial period.
trade circles the region was known as Male or Mal- .
abar.[19] Muziris, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among
the principal ports at that time.[20] The value of Romes
annual trade with the region was estimated at around Ancient sources (c. 1000 BC-AD 100 )
50,000,000 sesterces;[21] contemporary Sangam litera-
ture describes Roman ships coming to Muziris in Ker- The Sangam works Puanu and Akanau have
ala, laden with gold to exchange for pepper. One of many lines which speak of the Roman vessels and the Ro-
the earliest western traders to use the monsoon winds to man gold that used to come to the Kerala ports of the great
reach Kerala was Eudoxus of Cyzicus, around 118 or 166 Dravidian kings in search of pepper and other spices,
BCE, under the patronage of Ptolemy VIII, king of the which had enormous demand in the West. Especially,
Hellenistic Ptolemaic dynasty in Egypt. Roman estab- one of the earliest surviving pieces of literature to have
lishments in the port cities of the region, such as a temple been composed in ancient Kerala, the pathiRRuppathu is
of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman soldiers, an important source that describes the dynasties of Kerala
are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana; the only surviv- kings (cheral kings) from the early centuries AD.[24]
ing map of the Roman cursus publicus.[22][23]
An important source to understand the ancient history of
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe estab- Kerala is the pathinEnmERkanakku. Collections of po-
lished coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Jewish ems like Purananuru, Akananuru, Silappathikaram and
connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE. Arabs also Manimekhalai by poets like Paramer, Kapilar, Gautama-
had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th cen- nar, mamulanar, and Avvaiyar. The Sangam poems were
tury BCE, as Herodotus (484413 BCE) noted that goods secular. The poems give us information about the Chera
brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at kings like Utiyam, Neducheralathan and Chenkuttawan.
Eden. They intermarried with local people, resulting in Their capital was vanchi (muziris), which was an impor-
formation of the Muslim Mappila community. In the 4th tant trading centre with Roman.
century, some Christians also migrated from Persia and
A 3rd-century-BC rock inscription by emperor Ashoka
joined the early Syrian Christian community who trace
the Great references Kerala as Keralaputra.[25] Sanskrit
their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the
scholars of ancient India, Katyayana (circa 4th century
Apostle in the 1st century. Another Christian migration
BC) and Patanjali (circa 2nd century BC), exhibited in
from middle east to Kerala was of the Knanaya commu-
their writings a casual familiarity with Keralas geogra-
nity. Mappila was an honoric title that had been assigned
phy.
to respected visitors from abroad; Jewish, Syrian Chris-
tian, and Muslim immigration account for later names
of the respective communities: Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Ancient dynasties (c. 500 Bc - AD 500)
Mappilas, and Muslim Mappilas. According to the leg-
ends of these communities, the earliest Saint Thomas The Land of Keralaputra was one of the ve inde-
Christian Churches, Cheraman Juma Masjid (629 CE) pendent kingdoms in southern India during Ashokas
the rst mosque of Indiaand Paradesi Synagogue (1568 time, the others being Chola, Pandya, Tamiraparani and
CE)the oldest active synagogue in the Commonwealth Satiyaputra.[3] Kerala was governed by several deshavazhi
of Nationswere built in Kerala by Cochin Jews. (( governors of the region )) and the Chera, took the ti-
[26][27][28]
Megasthanes, the Greek Ambassador to the court of Em- tle as the naduvazhi (( governor of the area )).,
peror Chandragupta Maurya (4th Century BC) mentions which had a trading port sometimes identied in ancient
[29]
in his work Indica on many South Indian States, including Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi).
Automela (probably Muziris), and a Pandian trade cen- The Cheras ruled western Malabar Coast, the Cholas
tre. Ancient Roman Natural philosopher Pliny the Elder ruled in the eastern Coromandel Coast and the Pandyas
mentions in his Naturalis Historia (N.H. 6.26) Muziris in the south-central peninsula. There were also numer-
in Kerala as Indias rst port of importance. According ous small vassal kingdoms and city-states called Vels.
to him, Muziris could be reached in 40 days time from The Chera kingdom consisted of major part of modern
the Red sea ports in Egyptian coast purely depending on Kerala, and Coimbatore and Salem districts of modern
the South West Monsoon winds. Later, the unknown au- Tamil Nadu.[30][31] Old Tamil and Sanskrit was the lan-
thor of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea notes that both guage of the region; Malayalam, .[32][33] Their capital was
Muziris and Nelcynda are now busy places. at Vanchi (also known as Vanchimutur).[33] The location
After the arrival of The Babylonians, The Assyrians The of the historical city Vanchi is generally considered near
Egyptians, The Greeks, The Romans, The Jews (Jewish), the ancient port city of Muziris in Kerala.[34][35] However,
The Arabs, The next arrival was of The Portuguese and Karur in Tamil Nadu is also pointed out as the location of
The Dutch directly from Europe completely through a the capital city of Cheras.[30] Another view suggests the
sea route from Europe to Kerala discovered by Vaso Da reign of Cheras from multiple capitals.[12]
Gama to lead the spice trade from Kerala. This topic is There were harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near
4.18. LOCAL RESISTANCE TO MYSORE RULE IN MALABAR
Koyilandy, and Bacare near Alappuzha which were also
trading with Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facil-
itated migration and trade. The contact with Romans
might have given rise to small colonies of Jews and Syr-
ian Christians in the chief harbour towns of Kerala. The
Cochin Jews believe that their ancestors came to the west
coast of India as refugees following the destruction of
Jerusalem in the rst century AD. Saint Thomas Chris-
tians are the descendants of the converts of Saint Thomas
the Apostle of Jesus Christ. The tribal society was slowly
moving towards civilisation.
4.18.4 Ancient religions and ethnic groups
Buddhism and Jainism reached Kerala in this early pe-
riod. As in other parts of Ancient India, Buddhism and
Jainism co-existed with early Dravidian beliefs during the
rst ve centuries.
Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe estab-
lished coastal posts and settlements in Kerala.[36] Jewish
connection with Kerala started as early as 573 BC.[37][38]
Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, possibly started
before the 4th century BC, as Herodotus (484413 BC)
noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were
sold to the Jews at Eden.[20] In the 4th century, some
Christians also immigrated from Persia and joined the
early Syrian Christian community who trace their ori-
gins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apos-
tle in the 1st century.[39][40] Mappila was an honoric
title that had been assigned to respected visitors from
abroad; and Jewish, Syrian Christian, and Muslim im-
migration might account for later names of the respec-
tive communities: Juda Mappilas, Nasrani Mappilas,
and Muslim Mappilas.[41][42] According to the legends
of these communities, the earliest Christian churches,[43]
mosque,[44] and synagogue(AD 1568)[45] in India were
built in Kerala. The combined number of Jews, Chris-
tians, and Muslims was relatively small at this early stage.
They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with
local Hindu society, aided by the commercial benet from
such association.[46] Another notable community arrived
from middle east in Kerala is The Knanaya .
A silent revolution was taking place in the social system
of Kerala during the last phase of Sangam Age. Towards
the end of Sangam age, Brahmins started coming to Ker-
ala. By about the 8th century, a chain of Brahmin set-
tlements had come up, which eventually paved the way
for the social, cultural and political separation of Kerala
from the Tamil country, in due course. A large number
of the settlements were in Central Kerala. The process of
Brahminisation or Sanskritisation began. Temples were
constructed, Nambudiri community was evolved. Adi
Shankara the exponent of Advaita (monistic) philosophy
lived in the 8th century AD. The whole of Kerala came
to be covered by a network of Hindu temple centered
Brahmin settlements. Under their control, these settle-
ments had a large extend of land, number of tenants and
123
the entailing privileges. With more advanced techniques
of cultivation, sociopolitical organisation and a strong
sense of solidarity, the Brahmins gradually formed the
elite of the society. They succeeded in raising a feudal
ghting class and ordered the caste system with numer-
ous graduations of upper, intermediate and lower classes.
4.18.5 Early medieval period (c.AD 500-
1400)
Second Cheras
Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th
century is obscure.[2] A Second Chera Kingdom ( c.
8001102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Ma-
hodayapuram, was established by Kulasekhara Varman,
which at its zenith ruled over a territory comprising the
whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern
Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekara pe-
riod, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla
was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their power in 10th cen-
tury and thus the region became a part of theKulasekara
empire.[47][48] During Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed
a ourishing period of art, literatute, trade and the Bhakti
movement of Hinduism.[49] A Keralite identity, distinct
from the Tamils, became linguistically separate during
this period.[50] For the local administration, the empire
was divided into provinces under the rule of Nair Chief-
tains known as Naduvazhis, with each province compris-
ing a number ofDesams under the control of chieftains,
called as Desavazhis.[49]
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars
in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade
in Kerala ports. Buddhism and Jainism disappeared from
the land. The social system became fractured with in-
ternal divisions on the lines of caste.[51] Finally, the Ku-
lasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the com-
bined attack ofLater Pandyas and Later Cholas.[47] How-
ever, in the 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara
(1299-1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able
to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India.
After his death, in the absence of a strong central power,
the state was fractured into about thirty small warring
principalities under Nair Chieftains; most powerful of
them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in the north, Venad
in the south and Kochi in the middle.[52][53]
Rise of Advaita
Adi Shankara (AD 789), one of the greatest Indian
philosopher, born in Kaladi in Kerala who consolidated
the doctrine of advaita vednta.[54][55] Shankara travelled
across the Indian subcontinent to propagate his philoso-
phy through discourses and debates with other thinkers.
He is reputed to have founded four mathas (monaster-
ies), which helped in the historical development, revival
124
and spread of Advaita Vedanta of which he is known as
the greatest revivalist.[55] Adi Shankara is believed to be
the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and the
founder of the Shanmatatradition of worship.
His works in Sanskrit concern themselves with establish-
ing the doctrine of advaita (nondualism). He also estab-
lished the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in
the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra, in a time when the
Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed
monasticism. Shankara represented his works as elabo-
rating on ideas found in the Upanishads, and he wrote
copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Su-
tra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad Gita) in sup-
port of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is
the Mimamsa school of thought, though he also oers
arguments against the views of some other schools like
Samkhya and certain schools of Buddhism.[56][57][58]
Kingdom of Venad
Main article: Venad
Venad was a kingdom in the south west tip of Kerala,
which acted as a buer between Cheras and Pandyas. Un-
til the end of the 11th century, it was a small principality
in the Ay Kingdom. The Ays were the earliest ruling dy-
nasty in southern Kerala, who, at their zenith, ruled over
a region from Nagercoil in the south to Thiruvalla in the
north. Their capital was at Kollam. A series of attacks
by the Pandyas between the 7th and 8th centuries caused
the decline of Ays although the dynasty remained pow-
erful until the beginning of the 10th century.[59] When
Ay power diminished, Venad became the southern most
principality of the Second Chera Kingdom[60] Invasion
of Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam
in 1096. However, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram,
fell in the subsequent a attack, which compelled the
Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his cap-
ital to Kollam.[61] Thus, Rama Varma Kulasekara, the
last emperor of Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of
the Venad royal house, and the title of Chera kings, Ku-
lasekara, was thenceforth adopted by the rulers of Venad.
The end of Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century
marks the independence of the Venad.[62] The Venadu
King then also was known as Venadu Mooppil Nayar.
In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of
the Ay Dynasty: Thrippappur and Chirava, merged into
the Venad family and established the tradition of desig-
nating the ruler of Venad as Chirava Moopan and the
heir-apparent as Thrippappur Moopan. While Chrirava
Moopan had his residence at Kollam, the Thrippappur
Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, 9 miles
(14 km) north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested
with the authority over the temples of Venad kingdom, es-
pecially the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple.[60] The most
powerful kingdom of Kerala during the colonial period,
CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA
Travancore, was developed through the expansion of Ve-
nad by Mahahrajah Marthanda Varma, a member of the
Thrippappur branch of the Ay Dynasty who ascended to
the throne in the 18th century.
Kingdom of Calicut
Historical records regarding the origin of the Zamorins
of Calicut is obscure. However, its generally agreed that
the Zamorins were originally the rulers of Eralnadu re-
gion of the Later Chera Kingdom and were known as the
Eradis. Eralnadu province was situated in the northern
parts of present-day Malappuram district and was land-
locked by the Valluvanad and Polanadu in the west. Leg-
ends such as The Origin of Kerala tell the establishment
of a local ruling family at Nediyiruppu, near present-day
Kondotty by two young brothers belonging to the Eradi
clan. The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the
most trusted generals in the army of the Cheras.[63][64]
M.G.S. Narayanan, a Kerala-based historian, in his book,
Calicut: The City of Truth states that the Eradi was a
favourite of the last Later Chera king and granted him,
as a mark of favor, a small tract of land on the sea-
coast in addition to his hereditary possessions (Eralnadu
province). Eradis subsequently moved their capital to
the coastal marshy lands and established the kingdom of
Calicut.[65] They later assumed the title of Samudrthiri
(one who has the sea for his border) and continued to
rule from Calicut.
Samuthiri allied with Muslim Arab and Chinese mer-
chants and used most of the wealth from Calicut to de-
velop his military power. They became the most power-
ful king in the Malayalam speaking regions during the
Middle Ages. In the 14th century, Calicut conquered
large parts of central Kerala, which was under the con-
trol of the king of Kingdom of Cochin. He was forced
to shift his capital (c. AD 1405) further south. In the
15th century, Cochin was reduced in to a vassal state of
Calicut.
4.18.6 Colonial period
The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Indian Ocean
remained with Arabs during the high and late medieval
periods. However, the dominance of Middle East traders
was challenged in the European Age of Discovery dur-
ing which the spice trade, particularly in black pepper,
became an inuential activity for European traders.[66]
Around the 15th century, the Portuguese began to domi-
nate the eastern shipping trade in general, and the spice-
trade in particular, culminating in Vasco Da Gama's ar-
rival in Kappad Kozhikode in 1498.[67][68][69]
4.18. LOCAL RESISTANCE TO MYSORE RULE IN MALABAR 125

Dutch commander De Lannoy surrenders to Marthanda

Varma at the Battle of Colachel (1741). Depiction at
Padmanabhapuram Palace.

Captured Mappila prisoners of 1921 revolt, taken after a battle

with British troops.

Vasco da Gama landing in Kerala

However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his
jurisdiction provoked the Zamorin and nally led to con-
ict. The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry be-
tween the Zamorin and Rajah of Cochinthey allied
with Cochin and when Francisco de Almeida was ap-
pointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he estab-
lished his headquarters at Cochin. During his reign, the
Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Cochin
and established a number of fortresses along the Malabar
Coast.[70] Nonetheless, the Portuguese suered severe
setbacks due to attacks by the Zamorins forces, especially
naval attacks under the leadership of admirals of Calicut
known as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to
seek a treaty. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by
the Zamorins forces in the Battles at Chaliyam fort.[71]
The path Vasco da Gama took to reach India (black line)
The Portuguese Cemetery, Kollam (after the invasion
of Dutch, it became Dutch Cemetery) of Tangasseri in
Portuguese period Kollam city was constructed in around 1519 as part
of the Portuguese invasion in the city. Buckingham
The Zamorin of Calicut permitted the Portuguese to trade Canal (a small canal between Tangasseri Lighthouse and
with his subjects. Their trade in Calicut prospered with the cemetery) is situated very close to the Portuguese
the establishment of a factory and fort in his territory. Cemetery.[72][73] A group of pirates known as the Pi-
126 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

rates of Tangasseri formerly lived at the Cemetery.[74] in widespread riots against the British government and
The remnants of St. Thomas Fort and Portuguese Ceme- Hindu population in what is now known as the Moplah
tery still exist at Tangasseri. rebellion. Kerala also witnessed several social reforms
movements directed at the eradication of social evils
such as untouchability among the Hindus, pioneered by
Dutch period reformists like Srinarayana guru and Chattambiswami
among others. The non-violent and largely peaceful
The weakened Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch Vaikom Satyagraha of 1924 was instrumental in secur-
East India Company, who took advantage of continuing ing entry to the public roads adjacent to the Vaikom
conicts between Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control temple for people belonging to untouchable castes. In
of the trade. The Dutch Malabar (1661-1795) in turn 1936, Sree Chithira Thirunal Balaramavarma, the ruler
were weakened by their constant battles with Marthanda of Travancore, issued the Temple Entry Proclamation,
Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and were de- declaring the temples of his kingdom open to all Hindu
feated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741, resulting in the worshipers, irrespective of caste.
complete eclipse of Dutch power in Malabar. The Treaty
of Mavelikkara was signed by the Dutch and Travancore
in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled 4.18.7 Modern history
to detach from all political involvements in the region. In
the meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller Formation of Kerala state
northern kingdoms through military conquests, resulting
in the rise of Travancore to a position of preeminence in Main article: Travancore-Cochin
Kerala.[75] Hyder Ali of Mysore conquered northern Ker-
ala in the 18th century, capturing Kozhikode in 1766.
The two independent kingdoms of Travancore and
Cochin joined the Union of India after India gained in-
British period dependence in 1947. On 1 July 1949, the two states
were merged to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 January
Hyder Ali and his successor, Tipu Sultan, came into con- 1950, Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The
ict with the British, leading to the four Anglo-Mysore Madras Presidency was reorganised to form Madras State
wars fought across southern India in the latter half of in 1947.
the 18th century. Tipu Sultan ceded Malabar District to On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by
the British in 1792, and South Kanara, which included the States Reorganisation Act merging the Malabar dis-
present-day Kasargod District, in 1799. The British con- trict, Travancore-Cochin (excluding four southern taluks,
cluded treaties of subsidiary alliance with the rulers of which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of
Cochin (1791) and Travancore (1795), and these became Kasargod, South Kanara.[76] In 1957, elections for the
princely states of British India, maintaining local auton-new Kerala Legislative Assembly were held, and a re-
omy in return for a xed annual tribute to the British. formist, Communist-led government came to power, un-
Malabar and South Kanara districts were part of British der E. M. S. Namboodiripad.[76] It was the rst time a
Indias Madras Presidency. Communist government was democratically elected to
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (Kerul Varma Pyche Rajah, power anywhere in the world. It initiated pioneering
Cotiote Rajah) (3 January 1753 30 November 1805) land reforms, [77][78]
leading to lowest levels of rural poverty in
was the Prince Regent and the de facto ruler of the King- India.
dom of Kottayam in Malabar, India between 1774 and
1805. He led the Pychy Rebellion (Wynaad Insurrection, Liberation struggle
Coiote War) against the English East India Company. He
is popularly known as Kerala Simham (Lion of Kerala). It refused to nationalise the large estates but did provide
Organised expressions of discontent with British rule reforms to protect manual labourers and farm workers,
were not uncommon in Kerala. Uprisings of note include and invited capitalists to set up industry. Much more
the rebellion by Pazhassi Raja, Velu Thampi Dalawa and controversial was an eort to impose state control on pri-
the Punnapra-Vayalar revolt of 1946. In 1919, con- vate schools, such as those run by the Christians and the
sequent to their victory in World War I, the British Nairs, which enrolled 40% of the students. The Chris-
abolished the Islamic Caliphate and dismembered the tians, the land owning communities of Nairs and Nam-
Ottoman Empire. This resulted in protests against the puthiris and the Congress Party protested, with demon-
British by Muslims of the Indian sub-continent known strations numbering in the tens and hundreds of thou-
as the Khilafat Movement, which was supported by sands of people. The government controlled the police,
Mahatma Gandhi in order to draw the Muslims into which made 150,000 arrests (often the same people ar-
the mainstream national independence movement. In rested time and again), and used 248 lathi charges to beat
1921, the Khilafat Movement in Malabar culminated back the demonstrators, killing twenty. The opposition
4.18. LOCAL RESISTANCE TO MYSORE RULE IN MALABAR
called on Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to seize con-
trol of the state government. Nehru was reluctant but
when his daughter Indira Gandhi, the national head of
the Congress Party, joined in, he nally did so. New elec-
tions in 1959 cost the Communists most of their seats and
Congress resumed control.
Coalition politics
Later in 1967-82 Kerala elected a series of leftist coali-
tion governments; the most stable was that led by Achutha
Menon from 1969 to 1977.[79]
From 1967 to 1970, Kunnikkal Narayanan led a Naxalite
movement in Kerala. The theoretical dierence in the
communist party, i.e. CPM is the part of the uprising
of Naxalbari movement in Bengal which leads to the for-
mation of CPI(ML) in India.Due to the several dier-
ence in the ideological level the CPI-ML split into sev-
eral groups. Some are come to the democratic way and
some to the extreme, anarchic way. The violence alien-
ated public opinion.[80]
The political alliance have strongly stabilised in such a
manner that, with rare exceptions, most of the coalition
partners stick their loyalty to the alliance. As a result, [9] Udai Prakash Arora; A. K. Singh (1 January 1999).
to this, ever since 1979, the power has been clearly al-
ternating between these two fronts without any change.
Politics in Kerala is characterised by continually shift-
ing alliances, party mergers and splits, factionalism within
the coalitions and within political parties, and numerous [10] Symbols akin to Indus valley culture discovered in Ker-
splinter groups.[81]
Modern politics in Kerala is dominated by two polit- [11] Unlocking the secrets of history. The Hindu (Chennai,
ical fronts: the Communist party-led Left Democratic
Front (LDF) and the Indian National Congress-led United [12] Subodh Kapoor (1 July 2002). The Indian Encyclopaedia.
Democratic Front (UDF) since the late 1970s. These two
parties have alternating in power since 1982. Most of
the major political parties in Kerala, except for Bharatiya
Janata Party (BJP), belong to one or the other of these two [13] http://web.archive.org/web/20130928043039/
alliances, often shifting allegiances a number of time.[81]
According to 2011 Kerala Legislative Assembly election
results, the UDF has a majority in the state assembly
(73/140).
4.18.8 See also
Culture of Kerala
Economy of Kerala
Geography of Kerala
Cuisine of Kerala
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ala History. DC Books. p. 141. ISBN 978-81-264-1578-
6. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
[63] ocialwebsite of. Kerala.gov.in. Retrieved 2010-03-
30.
[64] Divakaran, Kattakada (2005). Kerala Sanchaaram.
Trivandrum: Z Library.
[65] To corroborate his assertion that Eradi was in fact a
favourite of the last Later Chera, M.G.S. cites a stone
inscription discovered at Kollam in southern Kerala. It
refers to Nalu Taliyum, Ayiram, Arunurruvarum, Er-
anadu Vazhkai Manavikiraman, mutalayulla Samath-
ararum - The four Councillors, The Thousand, The
Six Hundred, along with Mana Vikrama-the Governor of
Eralnadu and other Feudatories. M.G.S. indicates that
Kozhikode lay in fact beyond and not within the kingdom
of Polanadu and there was no need of any kind of military
movements for Calicut.
[66] Corn, Charles; Glasserman, Debbie (March 1999). The
Scents of Eden: A History of the Spice Trade. Kodansha
America. ISBN 1-56836-249-8.
[67] Ravindran PN (2000). Black Pepper: Piper Nigrum. CRC
Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-90-5702-453-5. Retrieved 11
November 2007.
[68] Curtin PD (1984). Cross-Cultural Trade in World History.
Cambridge University Press. p. 144. ISBN 0-521-26931-
8.
[69] Mundadan AM (1984). Volume I: From the Beginning up
to the Sixteenth Century (up to 1542). History of Christian-
ity in India. Church History Association of India. Banga-
lore: Theological Publications.
[70] J. L. Mehta (1 January 2005). Advanced Study in the His-
tory of Modern India: Volume One: 1707 - 1813. Sterling
Publishers Pvt. Ltd. pp. 324327. ISBN 978-1-932705-
54-6. Retrieved 9 August 2012.
129
[71] K. K. N. Kurup (1 January 1997). Indias Naval Tradi-
tions: The Role of Kunhali Marakkars. Northern Book
Centre. pp. 3738. ISBN 978-81-7211-083-3. Retrieved
9 August 2012.
[72] Tangasseri - OOCITIES. OOCITIES. Retrieved 9 Jan-
uary 2014.
[73] Archaeological site and remains. Archaeological Survey
of India - Thrissur Circle. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
[74] A brief history of Tangasseri. Rotary Club of Tan-
gasseri. Retrieved 9 January 2014.
[75] A. Sreedhara Menon (1987). Political History of Modern
Kerala. D C Books. p. 140. ISBN 978-81-264-2156-5.
Retrieved 10 August 2012.
[76] Plunkett, Cannon & Harding 2001, p. 24
[77] Biswas, Soutik (2010-03-17). Conundrum of Keralas
struggling economy by Soutik Biswas. BBC News. Re-
trieved 2013-09-25.
[78] Thomas Johnson Nossiter (1982). Communism in Kerala:
a study in political adaptation. C. Hurst for the Royal In-
stitute of International Aairs. ISBN 0-905838-40-8.
[79] Ramachandra Guha (2011). India After Gandhi: The His-
tory of the Worlds Largest Democracy. Pan Macmillan.
pp. 290301.
[80] K. Sreejith, Naxalites and the New Democratic Revo-
lution: The Kerala Experience 1967-70, Bengal Past &
Present: A Journal of Modern Indian & Asian History
(1999) 118#2 pp 69-82
[81] Refworld | India: 1. Please provide some background as
to the politics of the State of Kerala, particularly clashes
between the CPIM and INC or DIC or their student arms.
2. Is there any information of Simon Britto and whether
he is a legislative assembly member? 3. Which party was
in power in Kerala State Assembly from the early 1980s?
4. Please provide some background on the Democratic In-
dira Congress and Mr. Karunakaran in Kerala. 5. Please
provide background or any detail on RSS attacks on Chris-
tians particularly in Chitoor, Kerala. Australia: Refugee
Review Tribunal. 2007-03-19. Retrieved 2013-09-25.
4.18.10 Further reading
Bose, Satheese Chandra and Varughese, Shiju Sam
(eds.) 2015. Kerala Modernity: Ideas, Spaces and
Practices in Transition. Hyderabad: Orient Black-
swan.
Franke, Richard W., Pyralal Raghavan and T. M.
Thomas Isaac. Democracy at Work in an Indian
Industrial Cooperative: The Story of Kerala Dinesh
Beedi (1998) excerpt and text search
Kumar, S. Political evolution in Kerala: Travancore
1859-1938 (New Delhi: Phoenix Publishing House,
1994)
130 CHAPTER 4. MYSOREAN INVASION OF KERALA

Jose, D (1998), EMS Namboodiripad dead, Red-

i, retrieved 12 January 2006
Menon, K.P. Padmanabha. History of Kerala (4 vol
1929)
Menon, A. Sreedhara (2007). A Survey Of Kerala
History. DC Books.
Nair, P. Sadasivan. Understanding Below-
Replacement Fertility in Kerala, India Journal of
Health Population and NutritionVol. 28, No. 4, Au-
gust 2010 online
Osella, F. & C. Osella Social mobility in Kerala:
modernity and identity in conict (London: Pluto,
2000)
Palackal, Antony and Wesley Shrum. Information
Society and Development: The Kerala Experience
(2007)

Plunkett, R; Cannon, T, Davis, P, Greenway, P;

Harding, P (2001), Lonely Planet South India,
Lonely Planet, ISBN 1-86450-161-8
Singh, Anjana (2010). Fort Cochin in Kerala, 1750-
1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community
in an Indian Milieu. Brill.

Singh, Raghubir. Kerala: The Spice Coast of India

by Raghubir Singh (1986)

Government of Travancore (1906), The Travancore

State Manual, Travancore Government Press, re-
trieved 12 January 2006

4.18.11 External links

Malabar on the Columbia University, New York
website
About the Dutch colonial presence in Kerala

About the feudal kingdoms in Malabar, Cochin and

Travancore
Chapter 5

Play

5.1 The Dreams of Tipu Sultan

Tippuvina Kanasugalu (English: The Dreams of Tipu

Sultan) is a 1997[1] Kannada play written by Indian play-
wright Girish Karnad. The play has been performed
many times but dierent groups around the world but
mostly in the subcontinent and mainly in Pakistan and In-
dia. The story follows the last days as well as the historic
moments in the life of the Ruler of Mysore, Tipu Sultan,
through the eyes of an Indian court historian and a British
Oriental scholar.
The gure of Tipu Sultan has continued to dominate In-
dian and British imagination for over two centuries, as
attested by the numerous scholarly works, ballads, plays
and novels about his tempestuous life and tragic end.
What is less well known, however, is that this man, who
spent a large part of his life on horseback, maintained a
record of his dreams that he concealed from his nearest
associates. The Dreams of Tipu Sultan examines the inner
life of this warrior, political visionary, and dreamer.

5.1.1 Translations
Collected Plays: Taledanda, the Fire and the Rain,
the Dreams of Tipu Sultan, Flowers and Images:
Two Dramatic Monologues: Flowers : Broken Im-
ages, Vol. 2. Oxford University Press, USA. 2005.
ISBN 0-19-567311-5.

5.1.2 References
[1] Abha Shukla Kaushik, Subaltern Historiography: Girish
Karnads Dreams of Tipu Sultan", Impressions 4.1 (2010).
Accessed 13 September 2014.

The Dreams of Tipu Sultan : https://archive.org/stream/

dreamsoftipusult00tipprich#page/n0/mode/2up

131
Chapter 6

Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses

6.1 Text
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Damanmundine1, Lightmouse, EoGuy, Jonesey95, Nijgoykar, RjwilmsiBot, AManWithNoPlan, Helpful Pixie Bot, Solomon7968, Pied
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netteD, Lt2hieu2004~enwiki, Siddiqui, Anetode, SmackBot, Spasage, Eskimbot, Gilliam, Ephraim33, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Vikram-
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Pahari Sahib, Aruniyengar, Sankalpdravid, Aymatth2, BOTijo, Albertus Aditya, Roland zh, AdRock, thelwold, WestCoastMusketeer,
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John Nevard, Muro Bot, SyedNaqvi90, BOTarate, Liberal Humanist, BarretB, XLinkBot, RogDel, Addbot, Integratedguy, GSMR, Shiv-
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132
6.1. TEXT 133

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charm, Mosfet123, Haris1122, Notthebestusername, Kaayay, Syedwow, OccultZone, Pcmster92, GHYU666, Ethically Yours, Kanga Roo
in the Zoo, Tipufanmysore, Mr. Smart LION, Sumanth3006, Nazir shaikh, Filedelinkerbot, Shriharsha6, Greedo8, Akahddlo, Mana-
sib123, Gunduu, CocoCatFTW, Calypsomusic, Parambiyani, KappatD, Lahariyaniyati, Mcorleone747, Ghatus, 115ash, Sha5001, Asd-
klf;, Crystallizedcarbon, Fahadch12345, Vreswiki, ABUL HASSAN T, Abrar bangalore, Human3015, Handgame, Xtremedood, Mewla
bhatti, Juneymb, Screwyouguysiamgoinghome, KasparBot, Darshanr33, Srednuas Lenoroc, Binggo666, RoadWarrior445, Simba2468,
SANTHAKUMAR, Shachiindra, Nirmal1997, Hinono134, Bonaparte2015, Pirhana7777, Kinbign790, Endint7777, Amjad.siddiqui1984,
Rob atkinson6783919, Singh)s king4839209, Baji00bano, Tinoop4444 and Anonymous: 788
134 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Dimadick, Stewartadcock, Alren, QuartierLatin1968, AreJay, Darwinek, Pearle, Velella, Ardfern, SpikedZebra, MarnetteD, Wavelength,
Deeptrivia, Kirill Lokshin, Nicke L, Welsh, SMcCandlish, SmackBot, Jprg1966, Khoikhoi, Ohconfucius, Cydebot, AntiVandalBot,
Henning M, Gwern, Ravichandar84, CommonsDelinker, Abecedare, Hugo999, VolkovBot, Sankalpdravid, Ttonyb1, Wilson44691, Re-
gentsPark, BOTarate, Lord Cornwallis, BarretB, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Magicpiano, Zad68, SpacemanSpi, Jfmantis, Onel5969, Sentinel
R, Italia2006, ZroBot, Codedon, Demiurge1000, Zuggernaut, Bagmati, ClueBot NG, Catlemur, Teepusultan, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot,
KLBot2, BG19bot, Joseon Empire, Kool777456, Fatbuu, Khazar2, Wachoviadeal, Itc editor, Pi3.124, Nikhilmn2002, Stamptrader, 7Sidz,
Monkbot, WordSeventeen, Hyder864, Binggo666, Simba2468, Pirhana7777, Chince666, Red Rudy and Anonymous: 33
Treaty of Madras Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Madras?oldid=685377660 Contributors: Tim!, Cydebot, Thijs!bot,
Fadesga, Lord Cornwallis, Addbot, Pi3.124 and Anonymous: 1
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Matthews, Dimadick, Per Honor et Gloria, Acad Ronin, Alren, QuartierLatin1968, Darwinek, Andrew Gray, Woohookitty, Ardfern, Orion-
down, Tim!, MarnetteD, Gurch, Shauni, Deeptrivia, Kirill Lokshin, Rjensen, Flask, Snapdragony, Pandurangvn, Bluebot, Jprg1966,
BrownHairedGirl, Andrwsc, SriniG, Banedon, AshLin, Rowellcf, Cydebot, Alphageekpa, Mattisse, Sagaciousuk, Top.Squark, AntiVan-
dalBot, Praveen049, Henning M, Symorsebrown, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Abecedare, Kansas Bear, Hugo999, Yellow-lab, Dorm-
skirk, SieBot, WereSpielChequers, WestCoastMusketeer, Lightmouse, RegentsPark, Tomas e, Kensplanet, Sunil060902, BOTarate, An-
other Believer, Lord Cornwallis, BarretB, Ism schism, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Magicpiano, Kesangh, Arunkumarbalakrishnan, Citation
bot 1, SpacemanSpi, B-Machine, Innotata, Generalboss3, WikitanvirBot, Sentinel R, Tommy2010, Italia2006, ZroBot, Vanished
user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Zuggernaut, 19thPharaoh, RaunakR, Techbotic, ClueBot NG, Teepusultan, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot,
BG19bot, PhnomPencil, Mughal Lohar, Joseon Empire, Kool777456, Fatbuu, SantoshBot, SDFraserValley, Mogism, Itc editor, Ovsek,
Faizan, B14709, Pi3.124, Bohme, Dparker158, Barthateslisa, Binggo666, Amerijuanican, Simba2468, Pirhana7777, Chince666, Adjec-
tivesAreBad, SurenXXI, Red Rudy and Anonymous: 40
Treaty of Mangalore Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Mangalore?oldid=680210282 Contributors: Skysmith, Ardfern,
Tim!, Wavelength, Gaius Cornelius, Howcheng, SmackBot, Davewild, Chris the speller, Shyamsunder, Cydebot, SieBot, KathrynLybarger,
Denisarona, Kensplanet, Lord Cornwallis, Good Olfactory, Full-date unlinking bot, NameIsRon, EmausBot, John of Reading, GoingBatty,
Josve05a, Helpful Pixie Bot, PhnomPencil, Tentinator, Hedhav the great and Anonymous: 4
Third Anglo-Mysore War Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Anglo-Mysore_War?oldid=693632474 Contributors: Dimadick,
Tom Radulovich, Varlaam, Bender235, Alren, QuartierLatin1968, AreJay, Darwinek, *Kat*, Woohookitty, Ardfern, John Hill, Rjwilmsi,
Tim!, Hiberniantears, MarnetteD, Deeptrivia, Kirill Lokshin, Tony1, Hmains, Jprg1966, Ohconfucius, Shyamsunder, Skinsmoke, Cy-
debot, Missvain, Escarbot, StringRay, Henning M, Nyttend, Abecedare, Redtigerxyz, Hugo999, TreasuryTag, Marcus334, Gwinva, An-
dreas Kaganov, Roland zh, Kernel Saunters, RegentsPark, ClueBot, GorillaWarfare, EoGuy, PixelBot, Lord Cornwallis, Aloysius the Gaul,
Voltigeur, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Magicpiano, Citation bot, LilHelpa, Citation bot 1, SpacemanSpi, Slb nsk, TjBot,
Generalboss3, WikitanvirBot, Kiran Gopi, Italia2006, ZroBot, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Zuggernaut, Czeror, Techbotic,
Frietjes, Wangond, Helpful Pixie Bot, Ficusindica, PhnomPencil, Mughal Lohar, Joseon Empire, Kool777456, Fatbuu, Hmainsbot1, Wa-
choviadeal, SDFraserValley, Itc editor, Ovsek, Nimetapoeg, Pi3.124, Monkbot, Binggo666, Simba2468, Pirhana7777, Chince666, Red
Rudy and Anonymous: 30
Treaty of Seringapatam Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Seringapatam?oldid=710484628 Contributors:
Tim!, Wavelength, Cydebot, StringRay, Redtigerxyz, Truthanado, Good Olfactory, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, Vanished user
qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Ficusindica, Khazar2, Rayaraya, Pi3.124 and Anonymous: 5
Fourth Anglo-Mysore War Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Anglo-Mysore_War?oldid=701280493 Contributors: Paul Bar-
low, Charles Matthews, Dimadick, PBS, Tom Radulovich, MeltBanana, Bender235, Alren, QuartierLatin1968, Darwinek, Lectonar, Ho-
hum, Ardfern, SDC, Prashanthns, Zzedar, ErikHaugen, MarnetteD, Choess, Deeptrivia, Kirill Lokshin, Robertvan1, Tony1, Gadget850,
SmackBot, Jagged 85, Hmains, Jprg1966, Neddyseagoon, CmdrObot, Cydebot, Cahk, Nick Number, DeKreeft27, Ekabhishek, Chanaky-
athegreat, Henning M, Buckshot06, Waacstats, CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, Abecedare, Liliana-60, Kernel Saunters, WestCoastMuske-
teer, Vice regent, Sitush, WordyGirl90, RegentsPark, Syed with Common Sense, Baseballbaker23, Friedlibend und tapfer, Lord Cornwallis,
BarretB, Download, Yobot, Amirobot, Magicpiano, Xufanc, Siva2658 bcca, OgreBot, SpacemanSpi, Moonraker, Chandruselva, Slb nsk,
Rain drop 45, Generalboss3, John of Reading, Italia2006, Demiurge1000, Zuggernaut, Teepusultan, Frietjes, ScottSteiner, ,
Mughal Lohar, Joseon Empire, Kool777456, Wachoviadeal, SDFraserValley, Itc editor, Pi3.124, Vydya.areyur, Binggo666, Simba2468,
Pirhana7777, Chince666, Red Rudy, Aridatha and Anonymous: 46
Mysorean invasion of Kerala Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysorean_invasion_of_Kerala?oldid=711206292 Contributors:
Mike Rosoft, Kwamikagami, Woohookitty, Mpatel, Cuchullain, DaGizza, Wavelength, Gaius Cornelius, Grafen, Welsh, Tachs, Smack-
Bot, Srnec, Chris the speller, Bazonka, Sadads, DRahier, Ohconfucius, Parivartan, Skinsmoke, Dl2000, Nthep, Philg88, R'n'B, Com-
monsDelinker, Abecedare, Joshua Issac, Squids and Chips, Je G., JL-Bot, Sitush, Niceguyedc, Walrasiad, Arjayay, Liberal Humanist,
Dthomsen8, LarryJe, Jarble, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, FrescoBot, Tomcat7, Vrenator, John of Reading, Dewritech, Sp33dyphil,
Rabbabodrool, Dcirovic, Chandrakantha.Mannadiar, Nimeshc, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, ClueBot NG, Akhil.bharathan,
Nambiarckh, Helpful Pixie Bot, DBigXray, Ajaynambiar11, BG19bot, PhnomPencil, , Farooq3214, Mark Arsten,
Tilakvarma1, Devaprathap raja, Pepper Black, Ovsek, Chariotsore.sn, Lemnaminor, I am One of Many, DishurmKK, Robert4565, Ku-
mar.ajith, Aeris2202020202, Bladesmulti, Kanga Roo in the Zoo, Xtremedood, Statli123, Binggo666 and Anonymous: 54
Anglo-Mysore Wars Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Mysore_Wars?oldid=715031042 Contributors: Dimadick, Alexf,
Mukerjee, Alren, QuartierLatin1968, Darwinek, Salilb, Lectonar, Ardfern, Prashanthns, Tim!, MarnetteD, Deeptrivia, Kirill Lokshin,
Rjensen, Davidsteinberg, Miljoshi, Jprg1966, Robosh, Ganeshbot, Nczempin, Hemlock Martinis, Cydebot, Kanags, Missvain, Bob-
blehead, Philg88, Putachi, RSCAMWSA, Fowler&fowler, Marcus334, Juqi, Bharathrv, Kernel Saunters, Moonraker12, Lightmouse,
RegentsPark, Getisla, Mild Bill Hiccup, Tripping Nambiar, Jotterbot, BarretB, Voltigeur, Addbot, Laurinavicius, , Magicpi-
ano, Kesangh, RibotBOT, SpacemanSpi, Dinamik-bot, Generalboss3, EmausBot, John of Reading, Irshaad86, GoingBatty, Italia2006,
Janmejaya09, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Donner60, Avoided blue, Rezabot, Widr, Ficusindica, Dexbot, Itc editor, Jo-
dosma, Pi3.124, Vinodhchennu, Lovewhatyoudo, GLG GLG, Dhananjaya171, Lalalucy123, Pirhana7777, Chince666, Manjari0709, Se-
poy999999999 and Anonymous: 37
Battle of Calicut (1790) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Calicut?oldid=696195088 Contributors: Shyamsunder, The
Anomebot2, Abecedare, Salih, Hugo999, TreasuryTag, Vinayaraj, Walrasiad, Tassedethe, Magicpiano, Xufanc, Jayarathina, Spaceman-
Spi, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, ScottSteiner, PhnomPencil, Nimetapoeg, Pi3.124, Xtremedood, Binggo666 and Anony-
mous: 6
6.1. TEXT 135

Battle of the Nedumkotta Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Nedumkotta?oldid=707170230 Contributors: Utcursch,

Kkmurray, Chris the speller, Anandks007, Wild Wolf, Woudloper, The Anomebot2, Abecedare, Hugo999, TreasuryTag, XLinkBot,
MatthewVanitas, Yobot, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT, Xufanc, Jayarathina, RjwilmsiBot, Chandrakantha.Mannadiar, Vanished user
qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, ScottSteiner, BG19bot, Cannanore.tiger, Howicus, Kumar.ajith, Xtremedood, JJMC89, Binggo666, Vkkknok,
Asap99 and Anonymous: 22
Bekal Fort Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bekal_Fort?oldid=715029829 Contributors: SimonP, Sureshan, Shameer, Tom
Radulovich, Brockert, Alexf, Soman, Giraedata, Velella, Woohookitty, Rjwilmsi, Bhadani, Bladeofgrass, Sajin, Wavelength, Kjrajesh,
Gaius Cornelius, Brandon, Skbhat, Tachs, Whobot, Luk, SmackBot, Kintetsubualo, OrphanBot, Anoopkn, Shyamsunder, Iridescent,
Mattisse, P.K.Niyogi, Tinucherian, The Anomebot2, Vksathyajit, Dcschandru, Gnanapiti, Madhava 1947, KylieTastic, Rebthered, Ksha-
triya Grandmaster, Deor, TreasuryTag, TXiKiBoT, Anna Lincoln, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Kabelite, Rep07, Roland zh, WestCoastMus-
keteer, Lightmouse, Galoiserdos, FlamingSilmaril, Mnaar, Ssriram mt, DragonBot, Prof tpms, Anoopan, Rajeevan2007, XLinkBot,
Addbot, Krishnappa, LarryJe, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Namwiki, Materialscientist, ArthurBot, Nayvik, FrescoBot, Amolnaik3k, Dieren-
titles, DrilBot, Linguisticgeek, Thashreefmuhammed, AvicBot, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Apsubrahmanyam, Bekalnir-
vana, Bill william compton, Renjithks, Incorrigibleanoop, Musabashraf, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Accusativen hos Olsson, Shantham11,
ScottSteiner, Suchetaav, Seejarajan, Rajeeshraghavan, Prathapwagle, Whitetararaj, BrightStarSky, Mogism, Wantsallanger, Ajeesh28, Ri-
leyBot, TouristGuideKerala, Aajnachakra, ABHILASH PULLAYIKKODI, Professor mangalore, GSS-1987 and Anonymous: 75
Captivity of Nairs at Seringapatam Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Captivity_of_Nairs_at_Seringapatam?oldid=713164041 Con-
tributors: Charles Matthews, SmackBot, Anandks007, Dl2000, R'n'B, Scott Illini, Vinayaraj, WestCoastMusketeer, Plastikspork, Kens-
planet, Liberal Humanist, Joyson Konkani, Yobot, SpacemanSpi, Yusuf.Abdullah, John of Reading, Suresh.Varma.123, Rabbabodrool,
Easternstonehouse, SporkBot, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Tryptobieno, Helpful Pixie Bot, PhnomPencil, Darkness Shines,
BattyBot, ScitDei, Vanamonde93, DavidLeighEllis, Kanga Roo in the Zoo and Anonymous: 9
Capture of Cannanore Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capture_of_Cannanore?oldid=714614599 Contributors: The Anomebot2,
Symorsebrown, Kevinsam, R'n'B, Abecedare, Hugo999, Sphilbrick, Magicpiano, Swissbosta, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4,
ScottSteiner, Cannanore.tiger, Nimetapoeg, Xtremedood, Binggo666 and Anonymous: 2
Cranganore Fort Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranganore_Fort?oldid=702378271 Contributors: Delirium, RedWolf, Vu2lid,
Chirag, Grutness, Woohookitty, Mheart, Koavf, Vegaswikian, Bedford, DVdm, Wavelength, Tachs, Wknight94, SmackBot, Shyamsunder,
The Anomebot2, Johnpacklambert, Challiyan, TXiKiBoT, Roland zh, Jacob.jose, Belasd, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Carlos Luis M C
da Cruz, Jpullokaran, ArthurBot, Look2See1, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Y-barton, Unimaize, Mentibot, ScottSteiner,
Smokingsingh, S33333xg00000d and Anonymous: 5
East India Company Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company?oldid=715741717 Contributors: AxelBoldt, David
Parker, Mav, Jeronimo, DanKeshet, Rjstott, Alex.tan, Eclecticology, Rmhermen, Miguel~enwiki, Roadrunner, SimonP, Mintguy, Hep-
haestos, Olivier, Leandrod, Edward, JohnOwens, Paul Barlow, Rabin, Llywrch, Earth, Isomorphic, Mic, 172, TakuyaMurata, Skysmith,
Iluvcapra, Tiles, Ahoerstemeier, Ronz, Jdforrester, Kingturtle, Aarchiba, Julesd, Stefan-S, Netsnipe, Susurrus, Jiang, Kaihsu, GCarty, John
K, Harry Potter, Raven in Orbit, Hashar, Jengod, Mulad, David Newton, Andrevan, Viz, Istabraq, Fuzheado, Wik, Timc, DJ Clayworth,
Johnkendall1, Tpbradbury, Abhishek, Itai, Taxman, Topbanana, Cjrother, Wetman, Camerong, Frazzydee, Francs2000, Lumos3, Paul W,
Robbot, Fredrik, Kristof vt, RedWolf, Goethean, Chancemill, Mirv, Pingveno, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Flauto Dolce, SchmuckyTheCat, Hadal,
Delpino, Wereon, Lupo, SoLando, HaeB, TPK, Mattaschen, Cutler, Jooler, Jsan, David Gerard, Dave6, Ancheta Wis, DocWatson42, An-
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Enric Naval, Dpaajones, Kevin Myers, Zwilson, Hajenso, RussBlau, Pearle, Voyager, Knucmo2, Jumbuck, Danski14, Alansohn, Gary,
Duman~enwiki, StanZegel, Rgclegg, Rd232, John Quiggin, Andrew Gray, Salilb, Wikidea, Fat pig73, Wiccan Quagga, Ksnow, Velella,
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Isnow, Talskiddy, Mb1000, Wayward, Prashanthns, GraemeLeggett, Asdfdsa, Mandarax, Raguks, GMullier, Graham87, Othello, Hiram
K Hackenbacker, Dwaipayanc, Dwarf Kirlston, Josh Parris, Loris Bennett, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Tim!, Koavf, George Burgess, Isaac
Rabinovitch, SpikedZebra, Tangotango, Feydey, Hild, ErikHaugen, SpNeo, Oblivious, Ligulem, Ghepeu, Gadha, The wub, Bhadani, Ya-
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Texankudiya, Rao Ravindra, Key of Now, Tnxman307, Razorame, Huntthetroll, Rphb, Profetarr, Shem1805, C628, Friedlibend und
tapfer, Vincedumond, Lord Cornwallis, Versus22, Mhockey, Kattigara, Johnuniq, DumZiBoT, Phoneynk, Ayreej, BarretB, Zadduel86,
XLinkBot, Gnowor, Wahrhaft, Alexius08, MarmadukePercy, Rehan123cool, ZooFari, Kodster, Kembangraps, Dave1185, Felix Folio
Secundus, Blacher~enwiki, Puppyqueen14, Peter Camper, Raj Krishnamurthy, Altetendekrabbe, Gauravkashyap212, Some jerk on the
Internet, S11016, Fyrael, Hda3ku, Prairieplant, Xyn1, Vishnu1974, Peacockpie, C3r4, Ronhjones, Archaic21, Startstop123, LaaknorBot,
SomeUsr, Buster7, Glane23, NittyG, LinkFA-Bot, Artaxus, Tassedethe, Darth proged, Tide rolls, Zorrobot, Bodhisattva2008, Writu.kakati,
Arthasnanda, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Worldbruce, Fraggle81, Isthmus, Magicpiano, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot,
Mfaisal973, World Long Gone, Message From Xenu, Jim1138, El Gato Gordo, Betawarrior60, Garyvines, Absolutelyamazin, Harryzcool,
Materialscientist, Chuthya, Hunnjazal, James500, Waagfour, ArthurBot, Cliftonian, TheLastPsychiatrist, Xqbot, TomB123, Vrghs jacob,
FIVE ANCESTORS, NFD9001, Inferno, Lord of Penguins, Scarlett89, Anonymous from the 21st century, Jbyham, GrouchoBot, Omni-
paedista, RNSABLE63, Anotherclown, Shattered Gnome, Amaury, AMPERIO, Doulos Christos, Howsa12, Urzic, A.amitkumar, Nar-
sonsPetFerret, Haldraper, , FrescoBot, EICHistory, Komitsuki, Scoutstr295, Tobby72, Wgh001, KuroiShiroi, TruHeir, Chemg11,
DrilBot, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Peroxwhy2gen, Alonso de Mendoza, Tasneem.mnoi, 10metreh, Plucas58, Hamtechperson, Wik-
itza, A8UDI, Moonraker, Xfact, Serols, ContinueWithCaution, Haseeb Naz, Intwizs, Tim1357, FoxBot, Trappist the monk, Vinay84,
Sharath2k2, Lotje, Appu2254082, Ndkartik, MitchTurner84, Extra999, Jethwarp, Greatpopcorn, Dirtyharree, Pickled Piper, GGT, Mom-
balinio, WCCasey, Diannaa, Jamietw, Suusion of Yellow, RobertMfromLI, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Onel5969, A.Eriksen, Rjwilmsi-
Bot, Alph Bot, Wiki id2, Darth Stabro, Raellerby, RAMA, Agent Smith (The Matrix), Oskanpur, WildBot, Zujine, Rollins83, Zosoin,
Mailbhargav, EmausBot, Look2See1, Ndkl, Ibbn, RA0808, Olof nord, Teerickson, Tommy2010, Camira, Harinisanthosh, Wikipelli,
Dcirovic, Vv1987, Kkm010, F, Josve05a, Akerans, Novelln, Djse7en, Suslindisambiguator, GrindtXX, Futureairman10, Wayne Slam,
Mmessier5, GeorgeBarnick, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, L Kensington, Jorval, Donner60, Chewings72, Cock90, Orange
Suede Sofa, William Maury Morris II, Joanet, EleoTager, Cock100, Hameedalkhersan, Palaeozoic99, Brigade Piron, Herk1955, DASH-
BotAV, MangYang, Mjbmrbot, Outofsinc, Petrb, Xanchester, Ad Orientem, Locomotive999, ClueBot NG, Ispasvetka, MelbourneStar,
This lousy T-shirt, Amarnath Chakravarty, Syz2, TehAnonymous, Amr.rs, GormtheDBA, Widr, Egarobar, Trinhantran, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Andrew Gwilliam, Titodutta, Calidum, Crazymerc, Tjdans7236, BG19bot, Ficusindica, Northamerica1000, Nirved.goyal, Faehiir,
Wiki13, AvocatoBot, Marcocapelle, Long Ben Every, crivain, Ninney, FiveColourMap, Joansmith112, AnwarInsaan, Arminden, Te-
jashegde, One two jango, Writerontherye, Sara888, Jayadevp13, Pietade, InterestedpartyON, Polmandc, Thegreatgrabber, Happenstancial,
Sana rehman, Aayush18, P.Sridhar Babu, Tamravidhir, ThanMore, Gohan999222, JimRattray, SupernovaExplosion, HueSatLum, Bart
dankaerts, Mdann52, Arr4, ChrisGualtieri, DonnieSwanson, I am Agent X, Edevil26, Fatbuu, Lubiesque, Khazar2, MithunKamal123,
Jihadcola, JohnnyFelix, IjonTichyIjonTichy, Moon2908, Dexbot, Mogism, Makecat-bot, OBCPO1, RotlinkBot, MohdAK1A, Reat-
las, TheXEADragon, Sdheap9852, Musselwhiteee, Royroydeb, Faizan, Rpbaco9116, Godot13, Tentinator, CokeHanx, DavidLeighEllis,
, Babitaarora, Shresup, Ugog Nizdast, Jwcorpening, Ginsuloft, Kbabej, Baigmirzawaqar, Abe1McLovin, Notthebestusername, Hock-
ney93, Pazza626, W.carter, Rajaredhilu, ChristianMare, Dr. Doom 007, Monkbot, Ajaythomas0007, Badboys Gang, Prymshbmg, Grenod,
Prisencolin, Sedna90377, Helloiamchloehbu123, Legonessess, Gregspring, Bodhisattwa, TheMagikCow, Edsalinas7770, Rated r akash,
LozzaOG, Jotagueerrepe, SuperstarBlake, Longwriters, Seargantkailone, , Anmiller85, SydneySteve, Jerodlycett, Tatatheownerofeic,
KasparBot, YorkshireMethods, Rasenkai the god, Sweepy, JeremiahY, Raymayweather, Bsharpe333, MATTMAN 060, KSFT, Dkwaye,
DewiFireworks, UlyssesTranscends, Nimesh1727, KacherT and Anonymous: 1084
Mysores campaigns against the states of Malabar (1757) Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysore{}s_campaigns_against_the_
states_of_Malabar_(1757)?oldid=693563449 Contributors: Edward, Srnec, Sadads, Shyamsunder, Squids and Chips, LarryJe, Yobot,
John of Reading, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, ScottSteiner, PhnomPencil, Lemnaminor, Kumar.ajith and Anonymous: 1
Nedumkotta Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nedumkotta?oldid=715061995 Contributors: ZimZalaBim, Irarum, Wavelength,
Tachs, SmackBot, Lcarsdata, CmdrObot, Mr. XYZ, Aarem, The Anomebot2, Challiyan, BigrTex, Signalhead, Jkaliyaden,
Roland zh, Arunlee, Lightbot, Yobot, Magicpiano, Full-date unlinking bot, EmausBot, Dewritech, Nandyatsoman, Vanished user
qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, ScottSteiner, Mogism and Anonymous: 7
Palakkad Fort Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palakkad_Fort?oldid=704246910 Contributors: Rich Farmbrough, Bgwhite, Wave-
length, Epolk, Kjrajesh, Tony1, Tachs, SmackBot, Me haridas, OrphanBot, Shyamsunder, Mattisse, Ramananrv123, P.K.Niyogi,
Sreejithk2000, Tinucherian, The Anomebot2, Shijualex, Adavidb, TXiKiBoT, Gwinva, Roland zh, Ssriram mt, DragonBot, Prof
tpms, Apparition11, Addbot, Tassedethe, AnomieBOT, FrescoBot, Rzuwig, EmausBot, Anir1uph, Pradeepkottayi, Vanished user
qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, ScottSteiner, Frze, Prasanthvijayan95, Whitetararaj, ChrisGualtieri, Helmy oved, Wantsallanger, XXN, Hari-
jith1997, Pvhari, Ashwinrv, Vsvimalgopal and Anonymous: 18
Ali Raja Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_Raja?oldid=711968914 Contributors: Everyking, Beland, Kevin B12, Rich Farm-
brough, Gene Nygaard, Alai, Commander Keane, Bhadani, Sajin, Valentinian, RussBot, Kjrajesh, Gaius Cornelius, SmackBot, Aelfthry-
tha, Reedy, Bluebot, Royboycrashfan, OrphanBot, John Reid, Ohconfucius, Shyamsunder, Shijaz, Iridescent, Mattisse, Ownlyanangel,
Schanker21, Waacstats, Adiraja, CommonsDelinker, Fconaway, Skumarlabot, Hersfold, Wavehunter, Roland zh, Aloha breeze, Sitush,
Hadrianheugh, Mvajaleel, Tripping Nambiar, Muhandes, Jotterbot, Liberal Humanist, Addbot, Queenmomcat, ShivNarayanan, LarryJe,
Lightbot, Yobot, SwisterTwister, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Night w, DSisyphBot, 78.26, Whoosit, DefaultsortBot, EmausBot, Domesti-
cenginerd, SporkBot, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, ClueBot NG, SreeBot, Sishir1234, , Marlisco,
Liamkasbar, Esquivalience, Kd098 and Anonymous: 54
6.2. IMAGES 137

Dharma Raja Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharma_Raja?oldid=715031596 Contributors: Irarum, OldakQuill, Necrothesp,

Droob, Tabletop, Rjwilmsi, RussBot, Filippof, Kimchi.sg, Brat32, Tachs, Lijujacobk, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Ohconfucius, Ser
Amantio di Nicolao, Anandks007, JayZ, Natrajdr, Bharatveer, CmdrObot, Aldis90, RobotG, Aarem, Darklilac, Bakasuprman, Waacstats,
Tinucherian, Symorsebrown, CommonsDelinker, Manu rocks, DrKay, Katharineamy, Juliancolton, Signalhead, Aciram, Bovineboy2008,
Marcus334, HuskyHuskie, Roland zh, France3470, Mtys, Aumnamahashiva, Jacob.jose, Mild Bill Hiccup, RogDel, Harithvh, Addbot,
LarryJe, Yobot, Magicpiano, Againme, Xufanc, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Reghumangalya, Linguisticgeek, Alph Bot, Irshaad86, Sundostund,
SporkBot, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Pernoctator, ScottSteiner, Rayaraya, Nabbedhigh, Ashwin147, VIAFbot, OccultZone,
Arun Raj K M, KasparBot, Rabt man and Anonymous: 25
Siege of Tellicherry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Tellicherry?oldid=711291528 Contributors: Bender235, Uncle G,
Wavelength, Welsh, Dl2000, Faizhaider, The Anomebot2, R'n'B, Roland zh, Malcolmxl5, Doprendek, Yobot, Magicpiano, AnomieBOT,
Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, BattyBot, DoctorKubla, Nimetapoeg, Laky charm, Xtremedood and Anonymous: 4
Battle of Tellicherry Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Tellicherry?oldid=711292532 Contributors: Jayjg, Canadian Paul,
Andrwsc, Jackyd101, The Anomebot2, TreasuryTag, Roland zh, Magicpiano, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Frietjes,
ScottSteiner, CitationCleanerBot, Nimetapoeg and Anonymous: 2
Tellicherry Fort Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tellicherry_Fort?oldid=711291781 Contributors: Zundark, Mayooranathan, Tom
Radulovich, D6, Grutness, Kjrajesh, Tachs, Caerwine, Whobot, SmackBot, Robth, Shyamsunder, Shijaz, Mattisse, Jon C., P.K.Niyogi,
Anulakshman, Tinucherian, The Anomebot2, Johnpacklambert, TXiKiBoT, Roland zh, Jacob.jose, Ssriram mt, Addbot, LarryJe, Light-
bot, Rahulpattuvam, FrescoBot, EmausBot, Akhil chandran, Vanished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Whitetararaj, Wantsallanger,
GaneshSB, Faizan and Anonymous: 2
Local resistance to Mysore rule in Malabar Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kerala?oldid=715059186 Contribu-
tors: Darkwind, Vivin, Charles Matthews, Jay, Tpbradbury, Venu62, Bender235, Chirag, Yamla, Veliath, Garzo, Woohookitty, Gau-
tamj, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Ligulem, Gurch, Wavelength, Kjrajesh, Rsrikanth05, Grafen, Rjensen, SmackBot, Saravask, Nmkuttiady, Ash-
ley thomas80, Raghu.kuttan, Anup Ramakrishnan, Hmains, Ramas Arrow, Chulk90, OrphanBot, Dantadd, Ohconfucius, Shyamsunder,
Nobunaga24, Skinsmoke, Vkniranjan, Dl2000, Hu12, Natrajdr, Bharatveer, Kappen ancil, Neelix, Tim1988, Hemlock Martinis, Alaibot,
Wikid77, Kishorekumar 62, Trakesht, Dayaanjali, Philg88, R'n'B, Kateshortforbob, CommonsDelinker, Lifebonzza, Skumarlabot, Arun-
balagopalan, Aymatth2, Shijusam, Ilyushka88, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Sreejith.V.K, , Seraphiel, AlleborgoBot, Roland zh, Ar-
jun024, Altjoyce, Oldag07, Yintan, Splengezwei, CultureDrone, Jacob.jose, Martin H., Sitush, ImageRemovalBot, ClueBot, Arun1paladin,
Goldenhawk 0, Niceguyedc, Trivialist, Mohanpn~enwiki, Kensplanet, Tripping Nambiar, Jotterbot, QASIMARA, Phlar, XLinkBot, Ad-
dbot, Download, Sarvagyana guru, Shekure, Yobot, AmeliorationBot, AnomieBOT, SinurajD, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, De-
wan357, Xqbot, RajivRaiN, Annalise, FrescoBot, PigFlu Oink, I dream of horses, Dazedbythebell, Full-date unlinking bot, Abdullakunhi,
Jai Kumara Yesappa, Generalboss3, Binoyjsdk, John of Reading, Dewritech, GoingBatty, Maxviwe, H3llBot, Ocaasi, RaptureBot, Van-
ished user qwqwijr8hwrkjdnvkanfoh4, Philafrenzy, Sinud3, Leodb, ClueBot NG, SumerianPrince, Wangond, Helpful Pixie Bot, DBigXray,
BG19bot, Rajendra Prasath Arumon, , Joshua Jonathan, Devaprathap raja, Jossyys, Cyberbot II, Cpt.a.haddock,
Yash!, Sminthopsis84, Mogism, Malayala Sahityam, Sudeep7732, Jodosma, Tentinator, Evano1van, Marlisco, Ginsuloft, Sam Sailor,
Kochay1, Arunvrparavur, Amalshaji27, Monkbot, James.puthenpurackal, Bongan, Rincevm, Zhongguoyingdu, 5qo1274i, Winnan Tirunal-
lur, Wikaladia and Anonymous: 124
The Dreams of Tipu Sultan Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreams_of_Tipu_Sultan?oldid=689989095 Contributors: Rich
Farmbrough, Tabletop, Pegship, Shyamsunder, Iridescent, CmdrObot, Amalas, Aristophanes68, Sly97531, Ekabhishek, Fabrictramp,
Randy Kryn, Versus22, Legobot II, Magicpiano, LilHelpa, Jezhotwells, Doulos Christos, Helpful Pixie Bot, Titodutta, Qetuth, AA08,
MrLinkinPark333 and Anonymous: 11

6.2 Images
File:"Capture_of_the_King_of_Delhi_by_Captain_Hodson.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/
%22Capture_of_the_King_of_Delhi_by_Captain_Hodson%22.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
A print from THE INDIAN EMPIRE by R. Montgomery MARTIN - Published in London and New York. c. 1860 Original artist: Robert
Montgomery Martin
File:"Palace_of_the_Maharajah_of_Mysore,_India,"_from_the_Illustrated_London_News,_1881_(with_modern_hand_coloring).jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/%22Palace_of_the_Maharajah_of_Mysore%2C_India%2C%22_
from_the_Illustrated_London_News%2C_1881_%28with_modern_hand_coloring%29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00routesdata/1700_1799/tipusultan/mysoretipu/mysoretipu.html Original artist: Illustrated
London News
File:1793_Faden_Wall_Map_of_India_-_Geographicus_-_India-faden-1793.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/0/0d/1793_Faden_Wall_Map_of_India_-_Geographicus_-_India-faden-1793.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This
le was provided to Wikimedia Commons by Geographicus Rare Antique Maps, a specialist dealer in rare maps and other cartography
of the 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, as part of a cooperation project. Original artist: http://www.geographicus.com/mm5/
cartographers/faden.txt
File:Addiscombe_Seminary_photo_c.1859.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Addiscombe_
Seminary_photo_c.1859.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original publication: Published in H.M. Vibart, Addiscombe: its
heroes and men of note (1894)
Immediate source: H.M. Vibart, Addiscombe: its heroes and men of note (Westminster, 1894) Original artist: Unknown
(Life time: Unknown, photo c1859)
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Anglo-Mysore_War_1_and_2.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Anglo-Mysore_War_1_and_
2.png License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original
artist: No machine-readable author provided. Miljoshi assumed (based on copyright claims).
138 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Anglo-Mysore_War_3.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Anglo-Mysore_War_3.png License:

CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. Miljoshi assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Anglo-Mysore_War_4.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Anglo-Mysore_War_4.png License:
CC BY 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No
machine-readable author provided. Miljoshi assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Arakkal_flag_1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Arakkal_flag_1.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Ziyad Arakkal Adiraja
File:Asafia_flag_of_Hyderabad_State.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Asafia_flag_of_
Hyderabad_State.png License: Public domain Contributors: Based on this photograph of the ag. Original artist: Yenemus
File:Bakel_Fort_Beach_Kasaragod3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Bakel_Fort_Beach_
Kasaragod3.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vinayaraj
File:Bakel_Fort_Beach_Kasaragod7.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Bakel_Fort_Beach_
Kasaragod7.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vinayaraj
File:Bakel_beach_from_fort_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Bakel_beach_from_fort_1.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vinayaraj
File:Battle_of_pollilur.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8c/Battle_of_pollilur.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/tiger_of_mysore_gallery_05.shtml Original artist: ?
File:Bay_of_Bengal_map_1800s.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Bay_of_Bengal_map_1800s.png
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: File:Bay of Bengal map.png Original artist: User:NormanEinstein made the original map, User:
Ruhrfisch removed modern state borders, two cities, and changed three country names so it is suitable for 19th century articles.
File:Bluetank.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/50/Bluetank.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: LA2
File:Bodleian_Library_MS._Jap._b.2_Shuinjo.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Bodleian_
Library_MS._Jap._b.2_Shuinjo.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: The Bodleian Library, University of Oxford Original artist: Shogun
Tokugawa Ieyasu
File:Boston_Tea_Party_Currier_colored.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Boston_Tea_Party_
Currier_colored.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.octc.kctcs.edu/mmaltby/his108/Boston%20Tea%20Party.jpg
Original artist: Nathaniel Currier
File:British-Red-Ensign-1707.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/de/British-Red-Ensign-1707.svg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:British_Empire_1897.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/28/British_Empire_1897.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Cambridge University Library Original artist: Unknown<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718'
title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/
Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590' /></a>
File:Caminho_maritimo_para_a_India.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Caminho_maritimo_
para_a_India.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Nuno Tavares, based on BlankMap-World.png. Based
on informations from many sources, including Wikipedia.
File:Chamundeshwari_Temple_Mysore_2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Chamundeshwari_
Temple_Mysore_2.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Self-photographed (Original caption: This photograph was taken by my-
self (Dinesh Kannambadi)) Original artist: Dineshkannambadi at en.wikipedia
File:Clive.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Clive.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
http://www.sterlingtimes.org/memorable_images56.htm (http://www.sterlingtimes.org/clive_of_india.jpg)
NPG link: http://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/portrait/mw01347/Robert-Clive-and-Mir-Jafar-after-the-Battle-of-Plassey-1757

Original artist: Francis Hayman

File:Coat_of_arms_of_the_East_India_Company.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Coat_
of_arms_of_the_East_India_Company.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, based upon [1] Original artist: <a
href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg' class='image'><img alt='Vexilloid of the Roman Em-
pire.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/25px-Vexilloid_of_
the_Roman_Empire.svg.png' width='25' height='35' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_
of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/38px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/8/83/Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg/50px-Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='245' data-le-
height='343' /></a> TRAJAN 117
File:Coins_issued_by_East_India_Company_during_reign_of_Shah_Alam_II,_Indian_Museum,_Kolkata.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e4/Coins_issued_by_East_India_Company_during_reign_of_Shah_Alam_II%
2C_Indian_Museum%2C_Kolkata.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Royroydeb
File:Comedy_and_tragedy_masks.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Comedy_and_tragedy_masks.
jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors:
Original link: http://www.geocities.com/Broadway/1388/clipart.html Original artist: Scott Freiheit - creator of An Undiscovered Musicals
web-site
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
6.2. IMAGES 139

File:Congreve_rockets.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Congreve_rockets.gif License: Public do-

main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Cornwallis{}s_army_marching_towards_Malwakul.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/
Cornwallis%27s_army_marching_towards_Malwakul.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/
pritchett/00routesdata/1700_1799/tipusultan/thirdmysorewar/thirdmysorewar.html Original artist: John Newman
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6.2. IMAGES 141

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144 CHAPTER 6. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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