KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:28 PM Page 242

Beyond the Limits

Excessive Bleeding and Shock The human body has a remarkable ability to
Can Cause the Heart to Fail adjust to changes in the environment. The
human body also has its limits. When people
% maximum effectiveness

100 blood loss recovery

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are in a harsh environment such as the desert,
80 the bodys challenge to maintain internal
loss of 20% blood volume
of heart output

balance is even greater. In such situations,

P
60 small errors in judgment, such as not drinking
enough water, can have serious consequences.
40 Even under pleasant conditions, homeostasis
loss of 40% blood volume

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20 may be disrupted if one or more of the bodys
regulatory systems break down.
death
0 The factors that disturb homeostasis and

C
-.5 0 1 2 3 stress the body are called stressors. Sunlight
hours after blood loss can be a stressor and so can a physical injury.
Figure E6.1 Blood loss. The body adjusts for blood loss by You already are familiar with some of the
disruptions that can take place on a hot day

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clotting the blood and increasing the heart rate. These responses
slowly restore the effectiveness of heart output (see 20% blood
loss curve). There is a limit to how much blood can be lost and
still have homeostatic mechanisms restore function. In the event
when you are dehydrated. If stress is mild or
temporary, the problem may pass. The body
may be able to recover normal balance. For

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of a 40% blood volume loss, the effectiveness of heart output
example, a deep cut that bleeds heavily can
continues to drop. Eventually, the heart stops.
temporarily disrupt the bodys fluid balance.
If the bleeding stops, the body may be able to

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return to a balanced state. With a more serious
a
injury, a transfusion of blood may be necessary
to restore balance. If the disruption is extreme,
the body may be damaged permanently. In

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some of these cases, the body may not be able
b
to reestablish balance. For instance, the rapid
c blood loss that occurs when someone cuts his

D
Figure E6.2 Chronic or her leg badly may be faster than the bodys
disruption of homeostasis. ability to adjust to these conditions. If medical
Diabetes mellitus is a chronic help is not immediate, serious illness or even
disease that can cause tissue
death can result (Figure E6.1).
damage throughout the body.
The disorder is caused by Even if a disruption in balance is less severe,
inadequate amounts or the disruption still can be a serious threat if it
functioning of the hormone lasts for a long time. Diseases such as diabetes
insulin. Insulin regulates levels of (Figure E6.2) or heart disease are examples
glucose in blood, liver, of this type of disruption. In these long-term
and muscle cells. If this disease is
disruptions, organ systems or tissues often
not well controlled, diabetes can
result in poor circulation. It can d are damaged slowly over time. In these cases,
damage tissues such as (a) eye, the bodys attempt to regain the balanced
(b) heart, (c) kidneys, and conditions becomes progressively more difficult.
(d) peripheral tissue.

242 Unit 2 ESSAY: Beyond the Limits

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Other stressors that could overwhelm
balance in the body include a lack of
nourishment (starvation); a lack of oxygen
(suffocation); or the presence of toxins in the
air being breathed (air pollution). Other
stressors might be a large dose of toxic
compounds (such as a drug overdose), or
a serious infection. One such infection,
septicemia, is caused by a bacterium.
Septicemia affects many aspects of the human
body and can result in an extremely dangerous
form of shock. In the early stages of the
infection, toxins produced by the bacteria
enter the bloodstream. Once the toxins are in
the bloodstream, they cause symptoms such as
fever, flushed skin, and rapid heartbeat. The
patient develops local bleeding and tiny blood
clots. The patient may go into irreversible
shock and die. Possible sources of this type
of infection include an untreated bladder
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a freshwater fishes
N
O
Environment: The solutes in the external
environment are less concentrated
than in the body fluids.
D
Water: Because of osmosis, water moves
into the fishs body. To maintain water
balance, the fish must get rid of excess water
by producing large amounts of dilute urine.
Salt: The fish loses salt in the urine and
needs to replace it. The fish takes in salt in
its food and also uses the gills to pump salt
into the fishs body.
Figure E6.3 (a) Freshwater fishes must continually remove large amounts of water so
that the solutes in their internal environment are not diluted. (b) Marine fishes must
drink water to maintain the water balance in their bodies. They must remove solutes such
as sodium chloride via their gills. The kidneys remove other kinds of salts from the fishs
body. What do you think would happen if each of these organisms were placed in each
others environmental setting?
infection, a skin infection caused by
Streptococcus or Staphylococcus bacteria, a
blockage in the intestine, or an unsanitary
surgical procedure.
The examples of disruptions we just
described are familiar because they are human
injuries or illnesses. Homeostatic disruptions
Y
put all organisms at risk. Every species on
earth is adapted for survival in a specific
habitat and under specific conditions. If
P
an organism is put in a very different
environment, its ability to maintain internal
balance may be pushed beyond its limits.
O
Consider the very different situations faced
by fish living in freshwater and those living
in salt water (see Figure E6.3). Both types of
C
fish must adjust their internal concentrations
of water and solutes such as sodium chloride
(salt) to maintain the proper balance.
T
Mechanisms have evolved that are effective
b marine fishes
Environment: The solutes in the external
environment are more concentrated than
in the body fluids.
Water: Because of osmosis, water moves
out of the fishs body. The fish needs to
drink large amounts of seawater. Marine
fishes produce small amounts of
concentrated urine.
Salt: As the fish drinks seawater, it takes in
salt. To maintain salt balance, the fish uses
special mechanisms to remove excess salt
from its body.
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KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:28 PM Page 244
at accomplishing this task for each type
of fish. Kidneys help regulate these same
conditions in humans. These mechanisms,
however, are sufficient only for the usual
variations in water and salt balance. That is
why we define homeostasis as maintaining
conditions within certain limits. If either type
Coping with Disruptions:
The Role of Medicine in
Homeostasis
What happens if internal conditions go
beyond our bodys ability to recover? In
societies with advanced technology, scientists
and physicians have developed tools that
T
O
N
O
D
Figure E6.4 Imaging technology reveals
internal structures. Diagnosis of disruptions such
as broken bones or tumors is made more efficient
through analysis of X-rays and other images that
allow physicians to view internal structures.
Physicians used this X-ray of an arm to determine
the extent of the injury.
244 Unit 2 ESSAY: Coping with Disruptions: The Role of Medicine in Homeostasis
of fish were suddenly put in the others
external conditions, the fish would be beyond
its limits. The fish most likely would die.
Extreme stressors on any organism might
leave the organism unable to restore normal
internal conditions. Such a state of imbalance
is often fatal.
P Y
O
provide both temporary and long-term help.
C
Some of these tools help correct internal
conditions. Other tools may temporarily take
over one of the bodys regulatory systems. In
some cases, this requires surgery. For example,
sometimes surgeons can repair heart defects by
replacing valves in the heart. In other cases, a
surgeon may insert a permanent device in the
body. For example, a pacemaker is an
electronic device that can improve circulation.
The pacemaker provides a regular heartbeat.
This regular heartbeat then helps the heart
muscle contract and pump blood.
Other medical procedures use technology
in different ways to help restore balance. For
instance, if a persons lungs have collapsed,
physicians can use a mechanical ventilator.
The ventilator makes certain that oxygen
enters the bloodstream. It also makes certain
that carbon dioxide leaves the patients body.
Dialysis machines filter blood and assist with
fluid regulation in patients whose kidneys
have failed.
Health care professionals also use
technology to gather information about a
persons injury or illness. They can collect
important information by checking the vital
signs of the patient. This is the first step in a
diagnosis. Medical workers can make accurate
measurements by using tools that extend
their senses. These tools include X-rays,
electrocardiographs, stethoscopes, blood
KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:28 PM Page 245

Y
a normal heart rhythm

P
b disrupted heartbeat

CO
T
Figure E6.5 Electrocardiograms help physicians assess heart function.
Electrocardiograms reveal (a) normal and (b) disrupted heart function. This particular
disruption in heart function is called ventricular fibrillation. This is when the muscles of
a ventricle contract rapidly and continuously in an uncoordinated manner. How would

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a disrupted circulatory system affect gas exchange?

pressure cuffs, and thermometers. X-ray images cells. Generally, the ratio is about 700:1.

N
provide experts with a way to assess internal
structures. The bones of the arm are shown in
an X-ray in Figure E6.4. An electrocardiograph
maps the rate and rhythm of the beating heart.
An abundance of white blood cells usually
indicates an infection. The components of
blood plasma also may vary with certain types
of imbalance. Plasma is the noncellular, liquid

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This instrument also prints out a record such as part of the blood. Plasma components include
the ones shown in Figure E6.5. This record is cholesterol, lipids, protein, glucose, and
called an electrocardiogram. It helps a heart electrolytes. Electrolytes are solutes such as

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specialist determine the health of a patients
heart and circulatory system.
Technological advances in the analysis of
blood also have led to better diagnoses. The
composition of blood often gives us important
information about the health of internal
organs. In one type of test, technicians count
blood cells of many different types to evaluate
whether the patient has a blood disorder. The
ratios between different blood cell types and
the total blood volume also are important
indicators of health. In a healthy persons
blood, red blood cells generally are present in
a much higher concentration than white blood
chloride, potassium, calcium, and sodium.
In cases where physicians find an
internal imbalance, they sometimes use drug
technologies to treat the disorder. They can
use drug therapies to treat high blood pressure,
heart problems, diabetes, psychological
disorders, cancer, and many other potentially
serious problems. For instance, the widespread
use of antibiotics to treat bacterial infections
has resulted in a dramatic decline in the
number of deaths due to infections.
Antibiotics and many other drugs are recent
developments. They provide an example of how
technology has changed our cultural view of

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P Y
a

CO b

Figure E6.6 Bacterial resistance to antibiotics. On this petri dish, two strains of
bacteria were spread evenly across a nutrient material. Disks soaked in the antibiotic

T
bacitracin were then added to the plates. The two bacterial strains were observed after
further growth. The clear area in (a) indicates a lack of growth near the antibiotic disk. In
(b), there is no clear area around the disk. This indicates that the bacteria grew there. What
evidence do you see that indicates that bacteria can be resistant to the effects of antibiotics?

O
medicine during the past 70 years. ethical questions. For instance, our increased

N
Unfortunately, the widespread use of
antibiotics has resulted in the evolution of
some bacterial strains that are resistant to certain
antibiotics. Bacterial infections once again are
becoming more difficult to treat. Figure E6.6
use of life-support technology forces us to
think about how we define quality of life.
Health care professionals and the public
struggle with using life-support systems for
the long-term maintenance of terminally ill

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shows an experiment that tested the resistance patients. New technology also raises financial
of two types of bacteria to an antibiotic. concerns because the costs for many advanced
The tremendous advances in medical medical treatments are extremely high. As our

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technology have resulted in an increase in the
quality of life for many people. Researchers are
continuing to make further advances. However,
some of these advances raise a number of
medical knowledge increases and as we develop
more tools to assist medical professionals,
society must learn how to balance the costs and
benefits of the treatments.

Avoiding Disruptions:
The Immune System
Regulatory mechanisms in all organ systems
are necessary to maintain homeostasis in
living organisms. In humans, the immune
system provides powerful protection against
disruptions that infections and foreign toxins
cause. The body is a violent place. Like a
fortress, your bodys immune system offers
many defenses to keep out or kill invaders.

246 Unit 2 ESSAY: Avoiding Disruptions: The Immune System

KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:28 PM Page 247
Figure E6.7 Scanning electron
micrograph of bacteria on skin,
magnified 24,000
.
The bodys largest organ is the skin. The
skin provides a nonspecific barrier or defense
against invaders. A nonspecific barrier is one
that does not have to recognize a specific
invader. As the bodys first line of defense,
the skin helps to guard the bodys internal
O
environment from attack. The defensive role
of the skin does not mean that it is a sterile
environment on which nothing can live. In fact,
N
millions of harmless bacteria live on the skin
(refer to Figure E6.7). In most cases, these
bacteria are beneficial. They compete effectively
against disease-causing microorganisms. The
O
term pathogen describes any disease-causing
microorganism. Through time, humans and
harmless bacteria have benefited from their
D
interactions. Humans have benefited because
these bacteria help to protect us from
pathogens. Harmless bacteria have gained a
resource-rich environment on which to live,
the human skin.
Like the walls of a fortress, the skin helps
to guard your internal environment from
outside attack. This wall, however, is not
perfectly secure. There are natural doors to the
internal environment, such as the mouth, ears,
eyes, nose, genital, urinary, and anal openings.
These doors allow pathogenic invasion.
Additional nonspecific defenses have evolved
to help protect these natural openings. These
include saliva, tears, mucus, and sweat. Some
of these bodily secretions contain an
antibacterial enzyme. Of course, cuts in the
skin also provide avenues for infection. These
openings give invading pathogens direct
access to the tissues of the bodys internal
environment.
Y
Protection against pathogens is not unique
to humans. All organisms have some resistance
to invasion by foreign material. Bacteria, for
P
example, produce special enzymes that destroy
foreign DNA, such as in viruses. Plants produce
chemicals that kill areas of plant tissue infected
O
by a fungus. The plant sacrifices the infected
part. But this loss is less dangerous than an
infection that spreads throughout the plant.
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If pathogens pass through the skin
successfully and reach the inside of an
organism, other components of the immune
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system take over. In humans and other
mammals, the invading pathogens face an
army of cellular and molecular defenses. For
example, there are nonspecific defense cells
that recognize and scavenge many types of
invading organisms and toxins. Among these
scavenger cells are macrophages. Figure E6.8
shows a macrophage in action. In the lungs,
Figure E6.8 Macrophage engulfing
bacteria. A macrophage is a nonspecific
scavenger cell that helps protect the body
against pathogens. In this photo, cellular
extensions from a macrophage have
captured several bacteria. Macrophages also
play a role in the specific immune response.
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macrophages help protect the body against
pathogens that humans inhale.
Macrophages also act as generals in the
immunity army. Macrophages activate, or
signal, helper T-cells. In turn, helper T-cells
recruit more immune cells to defend the body.
They coordinate the immune systems specific
is very different from the nonspecific defenses
provided by macrophages and the skin. They
act to repel all invaders.) For instance, helper
T-cells can activate killer T-cells. Killer T-cells
kill specific infected cells. This line of specific
defense is called the cell-mediated response.
Figure E6.9 summarizes some of the

Y
barriers by directing groups of specialized cells interactions involved in the cell-mediated
to attack only certain invaders. (This response response.

Figure E6.9 Macrophages perform macrophage

P
O
several functions as part of our immune
pathogens
system defenses. Macrophages scavenge
pathogens nonspecifically. But they also
Macrophage engulfs

C
play an important role in directing specific
pathogens and processes
immune responses. During specific immune antigens.
responses, macrophages interact with helper
T-cells, which respond by producing signal
molecules called lymphokines. These

T
Macrophage displays
lymphokines can activate cell-mediated pathogenic antigens
responses. These responses involve killer on the cell surface.
T-cells in a process that destroys pathogen-

O
infected cells. Lymphokines can also activate
antibody-mediated responses. These Helper T-cell recognizes
responses involve B-cells in a process that antigen and releases
destroys circulating pathogens. signal molecules called

N
lymphokines.
helper
T-cell

cell-mediated response lymphokines antibody-mediated response

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B-cell Lymphokines
activate some
Lymphokines B-cells to
activate killer killer T-cell memory B-cell
produce free

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T-cells. antibodies. Some
normal
circulating antibodies B-cells become
cells
memory cells.

Activated
killer T-cell Antibodies bind
recognizes infected cell to pathogens.
cells infected
with pathogens.
Antibodies cause
clumping of
Killer T-cell pathogens. Other
destroys immune cells
infected cells. clear clumped
pathogens
from system.

248 Unit 2 ESSAY: Avoiding Disruptions: The Immune System

KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:29 PM Page 249
Cell-mediated responses are an important
part of the defense against viral infections.
Once viruses enter the cells of their host,
macrophages cannot find them. The viruses
then use the host cells own biochemical
machinery to reproduce. With this effective
adaptation, the virus uses the host cell as both
a shield and a way to reproduce. Antibiotics
kill bacteria that reproduce outside cells.
Therefore, antibiotics are not effective against
viral infections. Most chemicals that would
kill a virus-infected cell also would kill healthy
cells. Killer T-cells, on the other hand, can
distinguish virus-infected cells from uninfected
cells. Infected cells present unique molecular
signals on their surface membranes. Killer
T-cells attach to these molecular signals and
destroy the infected cells. Uninfected cells
are unharmed.
Macrophages also help activate B-cells.
Activated B-cells produce molecular defenses
known as antibodies. Antibodies enter the
bloodstream and move throughout the body.
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Antibodies are protein molecules that
recognize the protein molecules on pathogens.
You may know these protein molecules as
N
antigens. When circulating antibodies
encounter the antigens to which they can bind,
they attach to the pathogens. Pathogens that
have antibodies attached to them become a
O
target for destruction by macrophages. This
line of specific defense is called the antibody-
mediated response. It works together with
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the other components of the immune system
to help protect the body against damage from
invading pathogens or the toxins they produce.
(Figure E6.9 illustrates this response.)
Sometimes the immune system works
against the host. Antigens in insect venom,
pollen, animal dander, or food protein are
not necessarily serious threats to human
homeostasis. In individuals with allergies,
however, the body sees these substances
as foreign invaders. Thus, exposure to
these antigens can produce unpleasant
hypersensitivities such as bee-sting reactions,
hay fever, and asthma. Such responses occur
because the antigens trigger the bodys
production of antibodies that bind to certain
types of cells found in blood and tissues.
These cells have granules that contain many
substances, including chemicals called
histamines. When the antibodies trigger the
granule cells to release histamines, the result
Y
is usually sneezing, itchiness, and teary eyes.
Histamines can sometimes cause smooth
muscles to contract and blood vessels to swell.
P
This, in turn, can cause the airways in the
lungs to constrict, resulting in severe breathing
problems. The antihistamines found in
O
allergy medicines often are effective in
reducing these symptoms. Antihistamines
counteract the histamines that the granule-
C
containing cells release.
As you have read, the defensive forces of
the immune system destroy foreign material
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and infected cells. However, they also identify
and destroy human cells that have changed
into cancerous cells. Cancerous cells may arise
when cells become faulty and no longer
respond to normal homeostatic signals. One
faulty response is for these abnormal cells to
divide continuously. If enough abnormal cells
accumulate, a cancerous tumor forms. If the
cancer progresses, it may invade other areas
of the body and eventually cause death. To
prevent that, an active, healthy immune system
is an essential protection. The relative rarity
of cancer is a sign that the immune system
usually attacks and destroys abnormal cells
before a cancer develops.
With so many lines of defense, why does
anyone ever get sick? The answer is that the
immune system, like other systems that
regulate homeostasis, has limits. There are
limits to how many pathogens or abnormal
cells the immune system can control. The
body may not be able to protect itself if
infections become too widespread or destroy
too much tissue. Sometimes, the invader can
escape detection.
People also become sick when their
immune systems weaken. Many stressors, such
as inadequate sleep, smoking, drug use, and
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anxiety, can weaken the immune system.
With depleted natural defenses, pathogens
can take over and cause disease. Acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome, or AIDS, offers
an extreme example of what can happen when
the immune system is damaged. In AIDS, the
human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV,
victim often is unable to fight off even minor
infections. In addition, the victim is left
vulnerable to many serious diseases, including
pneumonia and cancer. Ironically, the tragic
consequences of AIDS actually emphasize the
impressive ability of the body to defend itself
in most situations. The effectiveness of the

Y
directly attacks the helper T-cells. Without immune system is based on complex
helper T-cells, most of the immune systems interactions between various cells, organs, and
specific responses are disabled. As a result, the systems within the body.

Self and Nonself

P
O
The immune system is effective because it is individuals, and as Figure E6.10 shows, are
able to distinguish between cells of the body identified by the immune system as belonging

C
(self ) and foreign cells (nonself ). The human to either self or nonself. The transfusion of
immune system is so well adapted to making one blood type into a person with another
these distinctions that it can even distinguish blood type causes the patients immune

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between normal cells and cancerous cells.
This important distinction usually keeps the
immune system from attacking the body it is
supposed to defend. Bacteria are protected in
system to attack the blood. The resulting
blood clotting may make the patient so
dangerously ill that death may occur.
When the human immune system cannot

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a similar way. They have protective enzymes distinguish between self and nonself, it attacks
that destroy foreign DNA, such as in viruses. and damages tissue in the body. In fact, many
The considerations related to blood diseases are disruptions of immune function.

N
transfusions provide another example of the
bodys ability to distinguish self from nonself.
The surface of red blood cells contains
molecules that identify the blood group to
These diseases are called autoimmune
diseases. An autoimmune disease causes the
body to damage itself. Autoimmune diseases
include rheumatoid arthritis and multiple

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which the cells belong. These molecules sclerosis (MS). In rheumatoid arthritis, the
provide the basis for distinguishing blood immune system causes inflammation and
as a certain type. They can vary among damage to joints. In multiple sclerosis, the

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Blood type Molecule on red blood cell Antibody in plasma
O None Anti A, anti B
A A Anti B
B B Anti A
AB A and B None

Figure E6.10 ABO blood types. Blood types are inherited. A patient with type A
blood will have antibodies against type B molecules. That is, the antibodies will recognize
type B blood as foreign, and the patients immune system will attack the type B blood.
People with blood type O can donate to people with other blood types without danger.
This is because there are no blood-type molecules on type O cells to which antibodies
can bind. The blood recipients immune system will not attack type O blood. People with
type O blood, however, can only accept blood transfusions from type O blood. Can you
explain why?

250 Unit 2 ESSAY: Self and Nonself

KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:29 PM Page 251

immune system slowly destroys the nervous how the body normally distinguishes between
system. Intensive research into the causes of self and nonself will aid in developing new
autoimmune diseases is currently underway. therapies, and perhaps, cures for autoimmune
Scientists hope that a better understanding of diseases.

Immune System Memory

Y
The human immune system is amazingly time. With this programmed response, your

efficient at protecting against outside attacks.
A powerful feature of the immune system is
the ability of certain immune cells to retain a
memory of infection. Due to this memory, your
P
body may fight off the infection without ever
having symptoms of illness.
The memory feature of the bodys
immune system explains how individuals

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immune system can produce a faster and more become immune to particular illnesses. For
powerful attack against pathogens the second example, if you have had measles, mumps, or
time they enter your body. This response is chicken pox once, you generally do not

C
possible because a few of the immune cells contract that illness a second time, even if you
that fought a particular invader in the past are exposed to the pathogen that causes it.
remain in your body. They store a memory Medical researchers have exploited

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of the previous infection in their molecular immune memory by developing vaccines.
structure. In other words, these immune cells Edward Jenner discovered the first vaccine in
are already programmed to respond quickly if 1796 (see Figure E6.11). Vaccines trick the

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the same pathogen tries to invade a second bodys natural defenses into reacting against a

N
O
D
Figure E6.11 Edward Jenner discovered the first vaccine in 1796. At that time,
smallpox was a deadly viral disease that had killed thousands of people throughout the
world. Jenner gave patients doses of a virus that caused a much milder disease in humans,
the cowpox virus. These patients developed antibodies that were effective against the
smallpox virus. Then, when the patients were exposed to the smallpox virus, their immune
systems could recognize the disease in time to mount an effective response and destroy
the invading virus.

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KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:29 PM Page 252
pathogen that is not attacking the body.
Thus, the vaccinated individual can acquire
immunity to a disease without ever having the
disease. A common type of vaccine consists of
inactivated pathogens, such as viral or bacterial
particles, that are injected into the body. For
example, the original vaccine for polio was
made from a polio virus. This virus was treated
with formaldehyde so that it could not
reproduce inside the person who received the
vaccine. The vaccine can activate a specific
immune response because it includes antigens
for a particular pathogen. The vaccine does
not cause a primary infection and illness,
however, because the pathogen is either dead
or disabled. Some vaccines only introduce
some of the pathogens proteins. The newest
approach to vaccines involves inserting the
genetic material (DNA or RNA) of a virus
into human cells to produce viral antigens. In
all of the cases, the pathogens antigens then
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vaccine
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300
250
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U.S. cases / 1 million people
200
D
150
100
50
0
1966
Figure E6.12 Vaccines and disease. The widespread use of a vaccine has almost
eliminated rubella, or German measles, in the United States.
252 Unit 2 ESSAY: Immune System Memory
trigger a minor immune response and produce
memory cells.
As Figure E6.12 shows, vaccines can have
a dramatic, positive impact on the spread of
disease. There are vaccines for certain types of
influenza, tetanus, rabies, measles, mumps,
smallpox, chicken pox, hepatitis B, and many
Y
other diseases. Some diseases, however, lack
effective vaccines because dozens of varieties of
similar viruses can cause the same symptoms.
P
For example, a vaccine developed against one
variety of the virus that causes the common
cold would not provide protection against all
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of the other varieties of cold viruses. Certain
other diseases are difficult to prevent with
vaccines because they mutate so rapidly. In the
C
case of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV),
a vaccine would protect the body against
only one strain of the virus. HIV mutates so
T
rapidly that different strains can appear in
one individual.
Incidence of Rubella Before and After Vaccine
1971 1976 1981 1986 1991
Year
KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:29 PM Page 253
Avoiding Disruptions:
Behavior, Choices, and Risk
What human behaviors reduce the risk of
disrupting homeostasis? Simple reflexes, such
as closing the eyelids in response to a sudden,
threatening movement or retracting the
fingers quickly from a hot surface, are
protective behaviors. In addition, humans have
a tremendous capacity for complex thought.
Therefore, humans have the option of
reducing risks by choosing behaviors that
prevent the disruption of bodily functions.
For example, you can avoid being around
someone who has the flu. You can choose
always to buckle your seat belt while in a car.
You can adopt the habits of getting adequate
sleep and eating nutritious food. None of
those behaviors will eliminate the risk of
injury or illness. But they all represent some
controllable factors that may greatly reduce
O
the risk of either mild or major disruptions.
As we consider risk, it is important to
distinguish controllable from uncontrollable
N
factors. For instance, inheriting a genetic
disease is not under your control. Would
exposure to toxic substances in polluted
O
D
a b
Figure E6.13 Smoking increases the risk for developing lung disease. A healthy
lung (a) is light in color and has a consistent alveolar structure. Lungs damaged by cancer
(b) or by emphysema (c) are dark in color and are unable to function as efficiently as
healthy lungs.
ESSAY: Avoiding Disruptions: Behavior, Choices, and Risk
outdoor air or in an unsafe workplace be
under your control?
The onset of many types of cancer
Y
involves both controllable and uncontrollable
factors. One of the most controllable factors
P
related to lung cancer is cigarette smoking.
Cigarette smoke damages the lungs protective
mechanisms and leaves a smoker more
O
vulnerable than a nonsmoker to infection or to
damage from other pollutants. Smoking does
not guarantee that a smoker will get cancer,
C
but it greatly increases the risk of lung cancer.
It also increases the risk of heart disease from
damaged blood vessels. A further consequence
of smoking is that it damages the elasticity of
T
lung tissue with each inhalation of smoke.
This damage is progressive and results in the
slow, and often painful, fatal disease known as
emphysema. Figure E6.13 compares healthy
lungs with diseased lungs.
Many smokers find it extremely difficult
to quit smoking because the nicotine in
tobacco is one of the most addictive chemicals
known. What is more interesting is why
c
Unit 2 253
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people who have access to accurate data about
the effects of smoking choose to start smoking.
With smoking, as with other controllable and
risky behaviors such as skiing, riding a bicycle
or motorcycle without a helmet, drinking
alcohol, or driving without a seat belt, an
individual must weigh the risks against the
give the immune system a good chance to
work adequately. Avoiding exposure to
polluted water, contaminated food, and
animals or people with contagious diseases
will reduce your risk to infection. Keep in
mind that exposure may not mean simply
being near the source of infection. Sitting in

Y
benefits to make an informed decision. the same room with contaminated food will
A number of behaviors and risks, some not make you ill, but eating it may do so. Can
controllable and some not, affect the efficiency you catch a cold by shaking hands with a

P
of the immune system. It is not easy to test person who has a cold? Yes, if the person has
what effect each factor has on immune function just covered his or her mouth while sneezing,
because the immune system is so complex. and then you touch your mouth or nose. Can

O
However, the factors listed in Figure E6.14 you catch HIV by shaking hands with a
do appear to have an effect on the immune person infected with HIV? No, you must
systems efficiency. share body fluids with a person infected with

C
Even if the immune system is strong, it HIV. This could occur with direct blood
may not successfully combat an infection if contact or having sexual intercourse. Overall,
the number of pathogens is very large or if the the immune system, like the body itself, needs

T
pathogen damages too much tissue. Once to function in a balanced manner, as indicated
again, there are ways to reduce the risks and in Figure E6.15.

O
Figure E6.14 Factors that
influence immune function. Enhances defense Impairs defense

N
Adequate rest Fatigue and lack of sleep
Moderate exercise Extreme exercise (marathons, cross-country
ski racing)
Good nutrition Poor nutrition

O
Positive mental attitude Anxiety or depression
Smoking
Excessive alcohol use

D
Excessive antibotics use
Certain infections (such as mononucleosis
or HIV)

Figure E6.15 Relationship

Level of immune function Response of immune system to stressor
between immune function and
various stressors. Like other Internal External
homeostatic systems, the immune Overactive Autoimmune diseases Allergies
system can become improperly Normal Immune system Immune system
regulated. This will result in Removal of abnormal Removal of toxins
disruptions caused by over- or cells and successful
underactivity. fighting of infection
Underactive Cancerous cell Susceptibility to
growth infections

254 Unit 2 ESSAY: Avoiding Disruptions: Behavior, Choices, and Risk

KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:29 PM Page 255
Individual Behavior Can Affect
Larger Groups
You may be able to reduce some health risks,
but members of your society must cooperate
in order to reduce others. For example, you
may make the choice never to drive a car
recklessly or while under the influence of
alcohol. Yet an accident caused by someone
who does could injure you. In this case, the
source of danger (drunk or reckless driving) is
controllable, but not by you, the victim.
Your group of friends and your society
also play a role in determining health risks.
A society with laws restricting air pollution
reduces everyones risk of getting lung cancer.
Is this a factor within your control? If you
avoid excessive use of a car or vote to support
pollution restrictions, then as an individual, you
contribute to the reduction of risk. But your
O
contribution alone will not have much effect. It
takes many personal decisions to direct public
policies that can affect a group or population.
N
O
D
Figure E6.16 Uncontrollable risks. Even though the driver of this car was driving
carefully and wearing a seat belt, she was severely injured by a reckless driver.
Every organism is constantly at risk of
disrupting its homeostasis through injury or
Y
illness. Yet, an enormous number of organisms
populates our planet. How do they all survive?
P
The answer is that they dont. Still, a sufficient
number of organisms survive long enough to
reproduce, thus continuing the existence of
the species as they slowly evolve. Behavioral
O
adaptations also help reduce the risks that
individual organisms face and thus increase
C
the species chances for survival.
Through a combination of immunological
and behavioral adaptations, all living organisms
have evolved mechanisms that help them
T
cope with homeostatic disruptions. Certain
mammals such as rabbits have two primary
behavioral responses to danger. One, they
hold very still to reduce the chance of being
spotted by a predator. If the danger is more
imminent, they run away quickly. Many
ESSAY: Individual Behavior Can Affect Larger Groups Unit 2 255
KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:29 PM Page 256
flowering plants protect themselves against
freezing by losing their leaves in the winter.
Even bacteria can detect toxic substances
and respond by moving away. Humans,
therefore, are not the only organisms that
have behavioral and physical means to
Ethical Analysis
Science can tell you about how things work.
Science can help answer questions about
whether something could happen in a given
situation. Science, however, cannot tell you
what you should do in a given situation.
Questions that involve issues of should are
ethical questions. In an ethical dilemma, your
choices depend not only on facts about the
world, which science may help explain, but
T
also on values. Values are those ideas that are
important to you, your family, or your society.
The complex interactions between religion,
philosophy, and culture shape our values.
O
The thinking and evidence-collection
processes that scientists use to study questions
N
O
D
Figure E6.17 Complicated issues have no simple
solutions. The facts of such issues must be analyzed in
light of the interests of everyone affected.
256 Unit 2 ESSAY: Ethical Analysis
maintain homeostasis and survive. Humans,
however, may be the only organisms with
the ability to make conscious decisions about
behaviors that can affect not only their own
species, but also every other species on
the planet.
Y
P
about nature also are valuable for studying
ethical questions. Just as scientists must gather
data to support or disprove their hypotheses,
O
ethicists must work hard to develop strong
arguments that support their positions.
Evidence is as crucial to the ethical process
C
as it is to science. An opinion that lacks the
weight of critical thinking and supporting
information likely will not be persuasive.
People who approach ethical choices in a
careful way, using analysis and reasoning to
make their decisions, are using the process of
ethical analysis.
What are some steps in the process of
ethical analysis?
First, identify the question of interest
clearly and precisely. It is difficult to construct
strong arguments unless you are clear about
the question you wish to address. For example,
you might ask: Is it ethical to have a law that
requires car occupants to wear seat belts?
Second, gather information about the issue
in question. This information might include
expert opinions about the issue from
various perspectives. Experts may include
philosophers, historians, theologians,
economists, and scientists. The information
must be accurate so that you can use it
effectively to support your arguments.
Third, evaluate the information to
understand how it applies to the issue you
are facing. It is important to evaluate the
information as it pertains to the individuals
and groups that may be affected. You must
consider how the issue affects the interests of
KH4119_Unit 02 ES_E242-E257 03/16/05 2:29 PM Page 257
each individual, of particular groups of
people, and of society as a whole. It also is
important to consider these interests in light
of both the consequences of any actions and
any rights, or freedoms, which might be
denied. For example, consider again the issue
of requiring all people to wear seat belts while
traveling in a vehicle. Such a law promotes
the best interests of the individuals and of
society because it reduces the chance of injury
in a car accident. Some argue, however, that it
infringes on the rights and freedom of
individuals to make their own choices.
Fourth, use your data to form well-reasoned
arguments that support one or more solutions
to the ethical issue or conflict. For instance,
evaluate the health care costs that society must
pay when car occupants who dont use seat
belts are injured in accidents. A cost might be
an increase in insurance premiums for other
car owners. You might reason that the rights
of individuals not to wear seat belts are less
O
N
O
D
important than the increased costs of health
care and insurance to society.
Fifth, you and the people to whom you
present your arguments and conclusions must
critically analyze your case to determine its
validity. For instance, an economist might
challenge the assertion that car occupants
Y
without seat belts contribute significantly to
overall health costs. In such a case, you could
analyze the new cost data. (The economist is
P
using these data to support the position that
individuals rights should not be denied.)
Then you could determine whether it is more
O
or less reliable than the data used to support
the original argument. (Societys interest in
reducing health costs is of greater
C
importance.)
Sixth, make a recommendation about what
should be done about the issue. Use these well-
T
supported arguments to help decide how you
or society as a whole plan to take action to
address the issue.
ESSAY: Ethical Analysis Unit 2 257