KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:56 AM Page 474

UNIT 4 ESSAYS
Continuity: Reproduction and Inheritance
in Living Systems

Continuity through
Reproduction
Four thousand new bacteria in 6 hours. Six
kittens in 2 months. One elephant in a little
under 2 years (see Figure E10.1). More, more,
P Y
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importance on individual lifeon how long an
individual human lives. When we think of other
species, however, we focus on the species as a

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more! What biological function is served by whole, not on individuals. For example, we
making more organisms? Whether it is a think of a blue jay as a member of a living
bacterium, a cat, a tree, or an elephant, every species. We rarely mark the life and death of a

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individual organism results from some type of
reproductive process. Reproduction is the
making of offspring by one or more parents.
All species depend on reproduction for
single blue jay. We view continuity as the
ongoing presence of blue jays. Because all
individuals eventually die, the existence of any
species depends on reproduction.

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continued survival. You, like all mammals, had two biological
You may think of birth and death as abrupt parents. Each parent contributed to your
events. Life, however, is a continuous process genetic plan. Your genetic plan is a

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for a species. Your individual existence came
about through the fusion of your parents egg
and sperm cells. The genetic blueprints within
those egg and sperm cells were passed
combination of information from two sources.
It is possible through sexual reproduction.
Sexual reproduction requires the union of

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through millions of generations. The
evidence for evolution indicates that
you are part of a living journey that

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began on this planet more than
3 billion years ago. Reproduction
made this journey possible. We can
trace human ancestry back through
the millennia using fossil records and
biochemical methods. Using these
methods, scientists have discovered
evidence that links humans to other
species. This evidence also shows how
new species slowly emerge.
Do you ever think about your
ancestors? Do you wonder about Figure E10.1 Elephants have the longest
future children and grandchildren? In pregnancy of any mammal in the worldclose
our own lives, we place great to 22 months. The young nurse for 3 or 4 years.

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specialized reproductive cells called gametes.
Gametes differ from all other cells. They have
only half of the genetic information that other
cells have. The female parent produces the
gametes known as eggs or ova (singular:
ovum). The male parent produces the gametes
known as sperm. Figure E10.2 shows ova and
Not all organisms result from two parents.
A hydra, for example, is a tiny animal that
lives in water. Hydras can reproduce sexually
by forming ova and sperm. They also can
reproduce asexually by forming buds on the
side of their bodies, as illustrated in
Figure E10.3b. The bud enlarges until it

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sperm of several species. When ova and sperm grows into a new hydra that breaks off from
come together during sexual reproduction, the parent. Unless a mutation alters a
their nuclei fuse. The product of their fusion is particular trait, the offspring will have the

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a zygote. This zygote has the potential to same genetic pattern as its parent. Offspring
develop into a new organism. It carries a produced from a single parent are called
unique combination of genetic information clones. This type of reproduction is called

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contributed by the ova and the sperm. asexual reproduction, the making of
Humans, plants that grow from seeds, offspring from a single parent. The offspring
cockroaches, and elephants are all products of have a genetic pattern identical to that parent.

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sexual reproduction. They all come from the Other species reproduce both sexually
union of gametes produced by two parents. and asexually. Grass grows from seeds

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Sperm 602
Ova

O
N
O
chicken actual size

D
frog

human

fern
2.8

2.8

2.8

Figure E10.2 Gametes (ova and sperm) from several species. In each species,
sperm are much smaller than the ovum. This difference is apparent when you notice the
number above the first column. This number shows that the illustrations of sperm have
been enlarged more than those of the ova. Chicken eggs are an example of ova that
are incubated outside the body of the mother. These ova have a hard protective shell.

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a b
Figure E10.3 Three examples of asexual reproduction. (a) Amoeba (100
) reproduce by simple cell
division (binary fission). (b) Hydra (100
) can reproduce by forming a bud that grows into a new individual.
(c) The Bryophyllum leaf (1
) sprouts small plantlets that may grow into a new Bryophyllum.
(sexual reproduction). It also grows by
sending out underground runners
(asexual reproduction). Yeast cells produce
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sexual gametes or asexual buds. Being
able to reproduce both sexually and asexually
is just one of many reproductive strategies
that exists in the five kingdoms of organisms.
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Other reproductive variations include the
following:
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Cloning
Cloning is defined in different ways by various
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groups and organizations. A commonly used
definition is that cloning is the production of
genetically identical organisms. Identical twins
D
fit that definition. Yet, accepting identical twins
as clones would yield a variety of negative and
positive responses. A more widely accepted
definition comes from the American Medical
Association (AMA): Cloning is the production
of genetically identical organisms via somatic
cell nuclear transfer.
Somatic cell nuclear transfer refers to the
process of removing the nucleus of an ovum
and replacing it with the nucleus of a somatic
cell. In that way, the ovum gains a full set
of genetic information from the existing
organism, without fertilization. The genetic
information transferred into the ovum may
476 Unit 4 ESSAY: Cloning
c
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O
C
Number of offspring produced
Length of time and energy the
reproductive strategy requires
Ability of the gametes and offspring
to survive
In all of these cases, however, the species
survives by continually producing new
organisms that replace those that die.
have no relation to the ovum. The last four
words of the AMAs definition gives a much
more complete picture of what cloning means
to most people today.
One of the worlds most famous clones
was a sheep named Dolly. We will use Dolly
to illustrate the last four words of the AMAs
definition. A cell was removed from the udder
of a 6-year-old white-faced ewe (a somatic
cell). An egg cell was removed from a black-
faced sheep, and its nucleus was removed. The
somatic cell was fused with the egg cell, from
which the nucleus had been removed (nuclear
transfer). Thus, the ovum gains a whole set
of genetic information from the existing
organism, without fertilization. At this point,
the egg cell contained its original cytoplasm,
including mitochondria and DNA. But it had
KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:57 AM Page 477

the nucleus of another sheep. An electric

shock was used to stimulate the egg cell to
divide and develop. The egg cell developed
normally to an early embryonic stage. It was
then transplanted into a surrogate, black-faced
ewe. On July 5, 1996, 148 days later, Dolly was
born. Dolly appeared to have all the traits of the

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white-faced ewe whose somatic cell had been
used in the cloning procedure.
Since Dolly, there have been clones of mice,

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cattle, and pigs. Does this mean that in the near
future there will be human clones? Few doubt
that the biological processes of human cloning

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could be successful with further research.
However, the ethical implicationsthe rights
and wrongsof human cloning must be

explored. We must develop an acceptable,
comprehensive, and intelligent plan before
human cloning has a chance to become a reality.
C
Figure E10.4 Dolly and her lamb.
Dolly, a clone, was able to breed normally
to produce her first lamb in April 1998.

Dr. Arthur Caplan is the director of the
Center for Bioethics and professor of bioethics
at the University of Pennsylvania. He was asked
to describe the ethical pros and cons of cloning.
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enough to implant in 13 ewes. Only Dollys
surrogate mother gave birth. Experts say that
the technique that produced Dolly fails
97 percent of the time. In addition, Dolly

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He stated, The pros are that you might be able developed arthritis at age 51/2, raising other
to help infertile individuals and couples have concerns.
children, and by making cloned cells, you might In 2003, scientists decided to euthanize

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find a way to make tissues and organs to treat
diseases. Thats called therapeutic cloning. The
cons are that human cloning is not safe. Animal
cloning has produced many dead, deformed,
Dolly because she had a serious lung infection.
Dolly was relatively young when she got
arthritis and the lung disease. Scientists,
however, do not know whether the early onset

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and diseased animals. However, I do favor of disease was a result of the cloning process.
making cloned cells for research (2001). Some As of this writing, a high percentage of
data that support Dr. Caplans objection come scientists and bioethicists seem to oppose

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from experiences in cloning Dolly. It took
scientists 277 tries before Dolly was created.
In 277 nuclear fusions, only 29 embryos
developed. Only 13 embryos appeared normal
human cloning. However, cloning tissues and
organs falls under a different category than
cloning humans. The majority think that type
of cloning would be beneficial to science.

Making More People

On the New Guinea island of Trobriand, a
woman completes a long labor and delivers a
healthy baby boy. Although the woman has a
husband, she and the others present at the
birth do not congratulate the father. People
in Trobriand emphasize the mothers
contribution to a childs development. Not
much importance is placed on the biological
link between the baby and his father. The
islanders believe that ancestral spirits plant the
seeds that enable a fetus to grow. This belief
establishes a link between the past and the

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future. The father does have a role to play,
however. They expect him to have intercourse
with the mother throughout the pregnancy.
Trobriands believe that continued intercourse
helps the fetus to grow.
One aspect of the Trobriand view fits
with the scientific view. Like the Trobriands,
Female anatomy. Did you know that a
woman is born with all the ova she will ever
have? The ovaries of a female baby contain
approximately 2 million ova, or gametes.
Ovaries are the human female gonadsthe
gamete-producing organs. A 7-month-old
female fetus (prebirth baby older than 8 weeks)

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we believe offspring are related to their has about 7 million ova. But about 5 million die
ancestors. However, science has demonstrated before birth. Approximately 400 of the
that offspring acquire their genetic heritage remaining 2 million mature into healthy ova.

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from both parents. We also know that These are capable of being fertilized. Ova begin
pregnancy is not caused by spirits planting maturing in the ovaries when a female reaches
seeds in the mother. Instead, pregnancy is sexual maturity, or puberty. Puberty typically

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caused by an ovum and a sperm coming into happens between the ages of 9 and 14.
contact with each other. To understand more Each month, one of the two ovaries (see
fully how humans reproduce, you need to Figure E10.5) releases a mature ovum. The

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understand how reproductive structures mature ovum bursts out of the ovary into the
function and are regulated. body cavity. The ovum then enters a long

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kidney

O ureter

N oviduct

O
ovary
uterus

bladder

D
cervix

urethra

vagina
labia

Figure E10.5 The human female reproductive system. This drawing shows the
internal organs (ovaries) that produce gametes. It also shows the pathway (called the
oviduct) that leads from each ovary to the uterus. The uterus expands to accommodate
a developing embryo if fertilization occurs. An opening (cervix) at the base of the uterus
leads to the vagina, the birth canal. The vagina opens to the external environment. Notice
the long path a sperm must travel to join an ovum in one of the oviducts.

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tube called an oviduct. As you can see in
Figure E10.5, there are two oviducts, one near
each ovary. If fertilization does not occur, the
ovum disintegrates within 24 hours. The
oviducts lead to the uterus. The uterus is a
thick-walled, pear-shaped organ located
between the bladder and the rectum.
The vagina connects the uterus and the
external reproductive organs. The vagina is a
muscular and tubular cavity that is penetrated
during vaginal intercourse and is the exit canal
for menstrual flow. The external female
reproductive organs, together, are called the
vulva. The external reproductive organs
include the mons pubis, clitoris, and labia. The
mons pubis is a pad of tissue covering the
pubic bone. During puberty, it becomes
covered with hair. The labia are folds of skin
that protect the genitals. They cover the clitoris
and the vaginal and urinary openings. The
clitoris is a small, elongated organ situated at
the front of the vulva. The urethra and urinary
opening in the female body are not directly
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connected to the reproductive organs.
Male anatomy. Unlike a female child, a
male child is born without any gametes in his
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body. Sperm, or male gametes, form in the
testes at puberty (see Figure E10.6). Testes are
the male gonads. Sperm take about 74 days to
develop. Millions of sperm mature each day in
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a healthy, young adult male. The difference in
the numbers of male and female gametes may
surprise you. However, very few sperm survive
D
long enough to reach an ovum.
Figure E10.2 illustrates the size difference
between male and female gametes. Sperm are
much smaller than ova. In fact, the sperm cell is
one of the smallest, most specialized cells of the
human body. The head of a sperm cell contains
the genetic material that fuses with the genetic
material in an ovum to produce a zygote. The
midsection of a sperm cell contains many
mitochondria. Mitochondria power the sperm
cells swim through the female reproductive
tract. The sperms long tail whips back and
forth to direct its movement.
After sperm are produced in the testes,
they are stored in the long, coiled tubes of the
storage compartment called the epididymis.
Sperm remain in the epididymis until they are
mature. From the epididymis, they pass
through paired tubes called the vas deferens to
the two small sacs called seminal vesicles. The
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seminal vesicles contribute to the production
of semen. Semen is a white sticky fluid that
carries and nourishes the sperm. Semen and
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sperm cells flow into ejaculatory ducts. These
ducts connect the seminal vesicles with the
opening of the urethra in the prostate gland.
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The prostate gland produces and adds more
fluid to the semen. Another gland, called the
cowpers gland, produces an alkaline mucus.
C
Thus mucus is secreted before ejaculation
to protect sperm from the acidic vagina.
That secretion also contains sperm. Thus,
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fertilization can readily take place if a couple
relies on withdrawing the penis before
ejaculation for birth control.
The urethra is the passageway for both
sperm and urine. A muscle near the prostate
gland contracts so that no urine can flow
through the urethra during ejaculation.
Ejaculation expels semen from the urethra of
the penis during orgasm. During ejaculation,
up to 5 mL of semen is released. It contains
approximately 300 million sperm cells.
The external male reproductive organs
include the penis and scrotum. The penis is
made up of the shaft and the glans. The glans
is a rounded gland structure at the tip of the
penis. It is covered by the foreskin. The
foreskin is sometimes removed (usually in
infancy) by a surgical procedure known as
circumcision. The small opening in the center
of the glans is the urinary opening where
urine and semen are released.
The scrotum is a loose sac of skin and
muscle that houses the two testicles. The
scrotum regulates the temperature of the
testicles. This temperature must be
approximately 33C34C (91.4F93.2F,
cooler than body temperature) for optimum
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a b
kidney

ureter

Y
seminal
vesicles

P
urinary
bladder

prostate

O
gland
c
urethra
vas

C
deferens
scrotum
testes
penis

T
epididymis

Figure E10.6 The human male reproductive system. (a) This drawing shows the

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male sex organs and glands that lie within the body cavity and those that are external.
(b) Each testis is composed of packed coils of tubules in which sperm develop. (c) This
photograph is a cross section through a tubule (100
). Around the edge of the central
canal are the dark heads of the sperm. Their tails extend into the canal.

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sperm production. The male body automatically orgasm, releasing sperm-containing semen
regulates testicle temperature. It does this by through the penis. Female orgasm also causes
changing the position of the scrotum to be involuntary muscle contractions. These result

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closer or farther from the body. from stimulation of sensitive nerve endings in
Sexual intercourse. As a male becomes the vaginal area, especially the clitoris. These
sexually aroused, the blood flow to the penis contractions may help transport the sperm

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increases. Increased blood volume causes the
penis to become rigid. This makes it easier
to enter the vagina. As the female becomes
sexually aroused, blood flow to the vaginal
area increases. Glands near the vagina secrete
fluids that lubricate the vagina. This eases the
movement of the males penis in the vagina. It
also contributes to the mobility of the sperm.
Male ejaculation results from involuntary
muscle contractions that follow the stimulation
of sensitive nerve endings in the penis. These
involuntary muscle contractions take place
during male orgasm. Orgasm is the peak of
sexual stimulation. Ejaculation occurs during
upward through the cervix and into the uterus
toward the ova. However, fertilization can take
place without female orgasm.
The muscle contractions that happen
during both male and female orgasm create
pleasurable sensations. From an individual
human couples perspective, these sensations
enhance the emotional bond between them.
From a human species perspective, the
pleasure derived from sexual intercourse helps
to ensure continuation of the species.
Fertilization. Fertilization occurs as a
result of sexual intercourse. The journey of
sperm to the oviducts may take less than an

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hour. Only a few thousand sperm may survive
the trip, however. If an ovum is present in one
of the oviducts, sperm swarm around it and
release enzymes. The enzymes promote
changes in the outer layers of the ovum. This
allows the sperm to penetrate these layers.
Only one sperm actually penetrates the ovum
during fertilization. As soon as penetration
takes place, the cell membrane of the ovum
changes to prevent entry of any other sperm.
Fertilization usually happens in the
oviduct. The single cell that results from the
joining of the ovum and sperm is called a
zygote. The zygote begins a series of cell
divisions to produce an embryo. The embryo
develops as it moves through the oviduct
and into the uterus. About 7 days after
fertilization, the embryo consists of a ball of
cells containing an inner, flattened cavity.
At this stage, it begins to implant into the
wall of the uterus. The uterus protects the
developing embryo. It stretches and grows
as the embryo grows.
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After implantation, the developing
embryo will obtain the nutrients and oxygen it
needs from the mothers blood supply. It does
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this through an organ called the placenta.
The placenta attaches to the uterine wall. It is
Hormones and Sexual Reproduction
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For human females and males, the joining of
D
ova and sperm is highly regulated. Hormones
are molecules that regulate the reproductive
system during development and after sexual
maturity. This regulation mainly involves
communication between endocrine glands in
the brain and the reproductive organs.
Changes in certain hormonal levels
control the onset of puberty. There are many
external indicators of sexual maturity. Body
proportions change. Underarm and pubic hair
grows. An interest in sex begins. Vocal cords
lengthen and the voice deepens, especially in
males. Facial hair grows.
connected to the embryo by a ropelike
umbilical cord. The placenta exchanges
nourishment from the mother and waste
products from the embryo through the
mothers blood. After 8 weeks of growth, the
embryo is called a fetus.
Birth. Following a 9-month gestation
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period, uterine contractions push the baby
through the cervix into the vagina. The
time when a womans body is undergoing
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contractions to deliver a baby is called labor.
Hormones and regulatory feedback loops
determine when a woman will begin labor.
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During labor, contractions become more
frequent as the baby nears the vagina and the
cervix expands. The vagina functions as the
C
birth canal. The fetus usually travels head first
down the birth canal.
The moment when the fetus, followed by
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the placenta, exits the mothers body is called
delivery. After delivery, the umbilical cord
is cut and clamped near the naval. Finally,
mucus is cleared from the babys mouth, nose,
and throat. From that moment forward,
the babys body takes over the processes of
maintaining homeostasis. These processes had
been taken care of by the mothers body only
hours before.
In addition to those external indicators,
there are internal indicators of sexual maturity.
In both males and females, the hypothalamus
directs the anterior pituitary to release follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing
hormone (LH). In males, FSH stimulates the
testes to produce sperm. LH stimulates the
release of the major male sex hormone,
testosterone, from the testes (see
Figure E10.7). In females, FSH and LH
are involved in regulating ovulation.
After maturity, hormones continue to
signal the events that lead to the production
of gametes and that promote sexual behavior.
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In a mature male, testosterone stimulates In females, hormonal interactions are

continuous sperm production. Erection of the
penis and ejaculation depend on sufficient
levels of testosterone in the bloodstream. As
shown in Figure E10.7, negative feedback
loops between the testes, the hypothalamus,
and the anterior pituitary reduce the level of
similar, but more complex. The ovaries
produce the major female sex hormones.
These are estrogen and progesterone. After
puberty, these hormones regulate reproductive
function. In contrast to sperm, which are
produced continually, ova mature and are

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LH and FSH. When the level of testosterone released from the ovaries as part of a monthly
in the blood rises too high, the hypothalamus cycle. The menstrual cycle is depicted in
signals the anterior pituitary to release less Figure E10.8. FSH signals an ovum to mature

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LH. Less LH translates into less testosterone inside a sac, or follicle, on the surface of one
released from the testes. ovary. The maturing follicle releases estrogen.

hypothalamus

signal
+

CO
T
anterior
- -
pituitary

O
signal signal

- -

N
signal signal

LH FSH

O
D
FSH stimulates
LH stimulates maturation of LH = luteinizing hormone
secretion of sperm and FSH = follicle stimulating hormone
testosterone. release of
inhibin.

testis

Figure E10.7 Interaction of hormonal signals between the brain

(hypothalamus and anterior pituitary) and the testes in the human male.
Testosterone is the major male sex hormone. But production of viable sperm depends
on the action of LH and FSH as well. The involvement of the hypothalamus suggests a
mechanism for sexual arousal in response to sexual thoughts.

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ovarian cycle
concentrations
hormone

LH

Y
FSH
FSH LH

P
events in ovary

O
developing mature early shrinking
follicle follicle ovulation corpus luteum corpus luteum
days 1 7 14 21 28

C
T
menstrual cycle
concentrations

O
hormone

estrogen

N
progesterone
estrogen progesterone
events in uterus

O
days

D
1
Menstruation
7

Figure E10.8 The human menstrual cycle. Interactions between the nervous
14

system and several organs, glands, and hormones regulate the cycle. Note how the
hormone levels change at ovulation. This makes two very different phases to the cycle.
21 28

Estrogen stimulates the secretion of LH. The
dramatic rise of LH stimulates ovulation.
During ovulation, the mature ovum bursts
out of the follicle. Ovulation occurs around
the middle of the cycle. The entire cycle lasts
about 28 days, although it may range from
24 days to more than 35 days.
Estrogen and progesterone also prepare
the uterus for a possible pregnancy. During
the first half of the cycle, the level of estrogen

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increases. Estrogen stimulates the inner lining
of the uterus to thicken with increased blood
vessels. If sperm enter the vagina anytime
between a few days before ovulation to a day
or so afterward, a sperm and ovum may join.
Pregnancy will occur if the resulting embryo
implants in the uterus.
An ovum can be fertilized only during a
10- to 15-hour interval after ovulation.
Sperm, however, can survive up to 72 hours.
This means that sexual intercourse several
days before ovulation still may result in
pregnancy. Because individual menstrual
cycles vary so much, it is extremely difficult to
predict exactly when a female will ovulate.
Because the timing of ovulation is not
predictable, pregnancy can occur if sexually
active individuals do not use birth control. No
birth control measure (except abstinence) is
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100 percent effective. Pregnancy can occur
even when these preventive measures are used.
During the second half of the menstrual
cycle, the level of progesterone increases (see
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Figure E10.8). After the ovum leaves the
follicle, the follicle reorganizes into a structure
called the corpus luteum. The corpus luteum
N
secretes progesterone. Progesterone is the
hormone responsible for maintaining the
thickened, blood-rich inner lining of the uterus.
The corpus luteum disintegrates after about
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12 days, unless pregnancy occurs. If an embryo
D
Sexual Activity and
Health Hazards
Sexual behavior involves risks. Pregnancy and
childbirth pose life and health risks to the
mother. Using birth control methods greatly
reduces the possibility of pregnancy. However,
some birth control methods themselves cause
health risks. For example, some people have
allergic reactions to spermicidal preparations.
Intrauterine devices (IUDs) can cause cramps,
increased bleeding during menstruation, and
484 Unit 4 ESSAY: Sexual Activity and Health Hazards
implants in the lining of the uterus, a placenta
develops from embryonic and maternal tissue.
The placenta nourishes the growing embryo. It
also secretes progesterone. Progesterone helps
maintain the lining of the uterus.
If fertilization does not occur, hormone
levels drop. The lowered hormone levels
Y
decrease the blood supply to the inner
lining of the uterus. Part of the lining then
disintegrates and passes from the uterus
P
through the vagina and out of the body.
The shedding of the lining is called
menstruation. During menstruation, a small
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amount of blood is expelled (between 50 mL
and 150 mLabout 1/4 cup to a little more
than 1/2 cup). Menstruation begins on day 1 of
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the cycle.
In humans, fertility declines with age. For
females, just as menstruation marks the
beginning of sexual maturity, menopause
marks the end. At menopause, females no
longer have a menstrual cycle and no longer
ovulate. The effects and timing of menopause
vary widely. Menopause usually takes place
between the ages of 45 and 50.
For males, sperm production continues.
The number and health of their sperm cells,
however, may decline as they age. If enough
healthy sperm are produced, a male of
advanced age is still capable of impregnating
a female.
even pelvic inflammatory infections. Oral
contraceptives (birth control pills) may
increase the chance of stroke, especially
among women who smoke.
Sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs). Sexual behavior can also increase the
risk of contracting a sexually transmitted
disease (STD). Sexual behavior usually involves
the exchange of body fluids. This exchange
KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:57 AM Page 485
provides an excellent route of infection for
pathogens. Sexually transmitted pathogens
include the viruses that cause AIDS and
genital herpes. Other pathogens include the
bacteria that cause syphilis, chlamydia, and
gonorrhea.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency
syndrome) leads to many devastating illnesses
and often death. Casual contact, such as
shaking hands with an infected person, does
not transfer HIV. HIV is the virus that causes
AIDS. Infection requires a transfer of body
fluids such as blood, semen, or vaginal
secretions. HIV infection most often occurs
during intercourse (heterosexual and
homosexual) and through the sharing of
needles by drug users. A regimen of multiple
antiviral drugs slows the progress of the
disease. When individuals are first infected by
HIV, they usually have no symptoms. But
they can still transmit the virus to others.
AIDS takes several years to develop. Its
symptoms include extreme fatigue, weight
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loss, reduced resistance to other infections,
and cancer.
An estimated one in five of the total
N
adolescent and adult population of the United
States is infected with genital herpes. The
virus that causes this disease is related to the
viruses that cause chicken pox and cold sores.
O
Symptoms of genital herpes are painful sores
on the males penis or the females vulva,
vagina, or cervix. There is no cure for genital
D
herpes. The sores heal and recur throughout
an infected persons life. Genital herpes is
transmitted through direct contact with the
infected area. Infection can occur whether or
not sores are present. Although there is no
cure, antiviral drugs help relieve the painful
symptoms. Outbreaks of sores also become less
frequent and milder over time. Genital herpes
may be transmitted to babies of infected
mothers as they pass through the birth canal.
Herpes can cause serious neurological damage
to infants. To avoid this, doctors recommend
that women with active herpes sores deliver
their children by C-section.
The symptoms of syphilis vary depending
on the stage of the disease. Each stage is
separated by a long period without
symptoms. In the early stage, a hard sore
called a chancre develops on the males penis
or the females vagina, or on the hands and
lips. Although no symptoms are present after
Y
the chancre heals, a blood test would reveal
that syphilis bacteria are present. During the
second stage, a skin rash develops. This can
P
happen even on the palms and the feet.
Individuals are highly infectious during this
stage. During the final stage, tissue damage
O
occurs throughout the body, particularly to
the nervous system. Untreated, late-stage
syphilis causes severe damage to the
C
circulatory and nervous systems, and even
death. An estimated 35,000 new cases of
syphilis occur annually in the United States.
T
Antibiotics can cure syphilis.
The most common sexually transmitted
disease is chlamydia. Chlamydia is caused
by a very small bacterium. An estimated
3 million new cases occur in the United
States each year. Most people who are
infected with chlamydia do not have
symptoms and, therefore, do not seek
treatment. When symptoms are present,
females have inflammation of the opening to
the vagina or cervix. Males have inflammation
of the epididymis and a watery discharge from
the penis. Untreated, chlamydia can cause
serious reproductive and other health
problems. For example, chlamydia may cause
pelvic inflammatory disease in females,
resulting in infertility. Babies born to women
who have chlamydia may be infected and
develop eye inflammations or pneumonia.
Antibiotics can cure chlamydia.
Gonorrhea, like syphilis, is a bacterial
disease that has afflicted humans since ancient
times. Symptoms may or may not be present.
If they are, males experience painful urination
and pus from the penis. In females, the cervix
is infected, causing a discharge from the
vagina. If left untreated, gonorrhea may lead
to infertility in females. A pregnant woman
ESSAY: Sexual Activity and Health Hazards Unit 4 485
KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:58 AM Page 486
with untreated gonorrhea may transmit the
bacteria that cause the disease to her baby
as it passes through the birth canal. The
resulting eye infection can lead to blindness,
so physicians routinely treat newborns with
eyedrops that prevent the disease. An
estimated 800,000 new cases of gonorrhea
occur each year in the United States.
Antibiotics can cure gonorrhea most of the
time. However, there has been a dramatic
Infertility
Couples trying to conceive children are not
always successful. Approximately
15 percent of couples in the United States
experience infertility. A variety of factors may
cause infertility. If the males sperm count is
T
low or the female does not ovulate or ovulates
irregularly, the chances of fertilization
decrease dramatically. Oviducts also can
O
become blocked. This prevents the ovum and
sperm from meeting and uniting.
Some of these problems can be overcome so
that natural fertilization takes place. Vitamins
N
and minerals, hormones, and fertility drugs have
been used successfully. Fertility drugs often
stimulate the release of more than one ovum.
This increases the likelihood of multiple births.
O
In more difficult cases, however,
technology may be used to carry out in vitro
(literally, in glass) fertilization. Doctors
D
administer drugs to stimulate ovulation. They
Mating Behaviors of
Nonhuman Animals
Pacific salmon leave the ocean and swim hard
against the current of a freshwater river. The
salmon are driven upstream by their instinct
to return to a specific location to reproduce.
Sexual drive is a physiological mechanism that
leads to a wide variety of mating behaviors.
Because reproduction is essential for
486 Unit 4 ESSAY Mating Behaviors of Nonhuman Animals
increase in antibiotic-resistant strains of
gonorrhea.
The most effective way to avoid
contracting a sexually transmitted diseaseis
to avoid sex with an infected person.
However, infection is not always obvious or
known. The use of condoms helps prevent
Y
the transmission of many sexually transmitted
diseases, although they do not guarantee
protection.
P
O
then remove several ova from a females body.
They mix the ova with sperm in a glass dish.
C
If fertilization takes place, the zygotes are
allowed to develop for a few days inthe glass
dish. The resulting embryosare monitored for
health and normal development. The doctor
then implants several healthy embryos into
the womans uterus. Doctors implant more
than one embryo to increase the likelihood
that at least one will develop and result in a
healthy baby. In some cases, couples elect to
freeze some of the embryos for future use.
Medical technology solves many fertility
problems, but it also creates ethical dilemmas.
For example, what happens to those frozen
embryos if a couple decides not to use them?
Should they be destroyed? Can they be sold?
Can they be used for medical research? If a
couple divorces, who gets custody of the
embryos?
continuity of a species, behaviors that promote
mating and reproduction are advantageous.
Some behavioral and physical traits give
individuals a competitive edge in mating and
producing offspring. These traits contribute to
sexual selection. Sexual selection is a process
of natural selection. It involves specific
KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:58 AM Page 487
characteristics that one sex prefers in the
other. The animal world provides many
striking examples.
Bighorn sheep provide an example of
dramatic mating behavior. They live in the
mountainous regions of western North
America. The males often engage in
competitive sparring, bashing their heads
together as shown in Figure E10.9. These
spars take place only during the winter mating
(rutting) season. During this time, the males
fight to control the areas where females in
estrus gather. Massive horns and unique
sparring movements may provide an
advantage to a particular male. The winners
mate more frequently than the losers. This
makes it more likely that their traits are
passed on to offspring. Fighting is expensive
in terms of expended energy, lost time, and
injury. Losers do not challenge the winners
again. Sometimes young males challenge the
dominance of older males in later years.
O
N
O
D
Figure E10.9 Male bighorn sheep (Ovis canandensis) in a competitive sparring match.
In many species, actual fighting may not be
part of the competitive strategy to attract or
gain access to a mate. Simple behavioral
displays may be adequate. Males of certain
species of grouse, for instance, dance. They
gather on a lek, or dancing ground, and begin a
synchronized, elaborate display for the females.
Y
The males spread their tail feathers, inflate
their neck pouches, and produce a booming
call to accompany the dance. Females select a
P
mate from the group of displaying males. A
males plumage and the subtle features of his
dance may improve the chance that a female
O
will select him. Males of some species, such as
the bird of paradise, have extremely elaborate
plumage that enhances their courtship display.
C
Male songbirds frequently express sexual
readiness in the form of songs and calls. These
vocalizations may announce the males
T
defense of his territory or his invitation to
mate. In wetland areas in the springtime, an
evening chorus of male frogs croak to attract
ESSAY: Mating Behaviors of Nonhuman Animals Unit 4 487
KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:58 AM Page 488
a Male (right) threatens other males.
c Male starts zigzag dance toward nest;
female follows male.
T
O
N
e Male taps female near tail;
female lays eggs.
O
Figure E10.10 The courtship and reproductive behavior of sticklebacks.
females. In some species of fish, courtship and
mating movements mimic aggressive behaviors.
D
Figure E10.10 illustrates courtship and mating
in one such fish, the American stickleback.
In many species, females provide primary
care for the young. For these females, being
conspicuous can be a disadvantage. Bright
colors and elaborate plumage may increase the
danger of predation to the mother and her
young. Frequently, striking external features
are reserved for males. The elaborate plumage
of male birds may become a disadvantage,
however, because it makes them more visible
to potential predators.
Most nonhuman mating behaviors only
take place periodically. Those periods happen
488 Unit 4 ESSAY: Mating Behaviors of Nonhuman Animals
Y
b Male's red underside attracts female.
P
COd Male guides female into nest.
f Male bites female; female leaves nest.
Male enters nest and fertilizes eggs.
around the times when species are able to
reproduce. For example, most nonhuman
mammals have cycles known as estrus, or heat.
Estrus takes place only once or a few times a
year. Hormones and environmental factors
regulate the frequency of the estrus cycle.
Unlike the human menstrual cycle, ovulation
takes place during estrus. Those nonhuman
female mammals who have estrus are receptive
to males only during that cycle. Animals such as
deer, elk, and moose enter into estrus once a
year. Most dogs go into estrus twice a year.
Mating behavior occurs in those animals
around the times when females enter estrus.
That behavior is absent or greatly reduced at
other times.
KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:58 AM Page 489

Human Mating Behaviors

How do human males and females attract biologically. But many such practices may be
each others attention? Think about the adaptive and enhance reproduction.
behaviors, attire, and fragrances of people at In humans, the sexual drive has a genetic
dances and other social gatherings. Do you see and physiological basis. Certain physical

Y
any parallels between human behavior and the attributes, such as facial features and body shape
patterns of other animals? proportions, may initially attract a mate. Other

P
Some human cultures study the patterns less obvious attributes also may attracta mate.
and movements of particular animals and Attributes such as good character, good health,
incorporate them into their dances and rituals. and intelligence also may be advantageous to

O
These cultural behaviors are not transmitted survival and reproduction.

Cultures and Mating Patterns

C
Think about ceremonies in your community the ritual is painful, the boys are proud to be
such as baby showers, weddings, and funerals. entering puberty. Similar scarring techniques

T
In every culture, patterns influence the way are used by the Aborigines of Australias
humans approach birth, marriage, and death. Northern Territory and by the Abelam of
Cultural patterns also influence how we Papua, New Guinea.

O
approach daily events, such as gathering and Among the Abelam, a girls first
preparing food and raising children. menstruation is a time of great celebration. At
Human parents play a unique role in the this time, women cut designs in the skin of the

N
animal kingdom. Unlike most other
organisms, human children are a long-term
commitment. Human societies around the
world often mark sexual
girls breasts, stomach, and upper arms, and
shave her head. This ritual, too, is painful, but is
conducted with great celebration.

O
maturity with great
ceremony. They
approach marriage as

D
a significant event.
In a particular tribe
in the Amazon forest,
adolescent boys undergo
an initiation rite that
marks them as young
men. Two older men
make incisions in the
boys skin and fill the
wounds with hot, liquid
tar. The tar prevents
infection and leaves a Figure E10.11 During a Turkana wedding ceremony in
pattern of scars on the northwestern Kenya, the brides family brings sheep and goats
as part of the bridewealth. Men and women dance in the
boys bodies. Although
background.

ESSAY: Cultures and Mating Patterns Unit 4 489

KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:58 AM Page 490
In some cultures, marriage takes place
long before the young pair is ready to
reproduce, as the following story indicates.
Cultural ceremonies such as marriage
promote pair bonds between males and
females. In many cultures, this pair bond
formed is monogamous. Monogamy is a bond
between one male and one female. In some
cultures, polygamy is practiced. Polygamy is a
pair bond between a man or woman and
multiple spouses. The biological basis for pair
bonding makes sense. Raising human
offspring takes a long time. The support a
parent receives from his or her spouse may be
invaluable. Similar patterns exist in other
primates, such as gibbons and marmosets. In
these primates, adults mate for life and
together raise their offspring to maturity.
T
O
Ashoks family was very pleased with the
dowry that they would receive from
his brides family after the wedding
ceremony. As is often the custom among
N
Hindu families in the rural Haryana state
of India, the grooms family had visited
the family of the bride-to-be prior to
the wedding to inspect the gifts. Now
O
the evening of the wedding feast had
arrived. All preparations for the occasion
were complete.
Kamala watched with anticipation as
D
Ashok, her husband-to-be, arrived on
horseback from a neighboring village.
The approaching darkness enhanced the
fireworks display that heralded Ashoks
arrival. A small band played. Villagers in
elaborate costumes danced in front of the
horse and rider.
At the wedding feast, Ashoks family
was served first while Kamala and her
family waited patiently. The food
included a variety of tasty vegetable
curries with roti (flat, unleavened bread).
490 Unit 4 ESSAY Cultures and Mating Patterns
Sexual behavior, ethics, and public
policy. When two people have a child, their
genetic information is combined in that child.
This basic biology underlies the marriage
patterns of many cultures. In certain historical
periods of ancient Egyptian culture, brothers
and sisters in ruling families sometimes
Y
married. The purpose was to increase the
purity of the family line and to avoid the
genetic influence of outsiders.
P
More often, however, cultures developed
strong taboos against marriage or sexual
activity between close relatives. In the Middle
O
Ages in parts of Europe, for example, ruling
families were forbidden to marry anyone to
whom they were related in the seven previous
C
generations. With such a strict rule, they ran
out of eligible marriage partners. In Navajo
The festivities continued throughout the
evening and into the early morning
hours. The wedding ceremony could not
conclude until 1:27 a.m., the precise time
determined by the family astrologer.
Kamala had celebrated her 11th
birthday just 2 weeks earlier. Ashok
would be 14 next month. The bride
and groom would not live together
for several more years. It is common
in this part of rural India for a father to
arrange the marriage of his daughters
well before they are old enough to bear
children. By tradition, it also is very
important that the bride and groom are
virgins when they marry.
Kamalas father had spared no
expense for this wedding. He had
accomplished his duty now that the last
of his three daughters was successfully
married. Kamala would remain with
her parents until one day, perhaps 4 or
5 years later, Ashok would return, with
ceremony, to claim his bride.
KH4119_Unit 04 ES_E474-E491 03/16/05 10:58 AM Page 491
traditions, a young person is not to marry
within his or her clan or the clan of the father.
Clans are subgroups within a culture that
trace their descent either through their
mothers line or through their fathers line.
Taboos against incest (sexual relations
between members of the immediate family)
provide protection against inbred diseases.
Laws or public policies define how closely
related two individuals may be and still marry.
Laws may be based on scientific information,
such as knowing that parents contribute genes to
their offspring. But they also are cultural. There
is more than one cultural approach to the same
information. Laws reflect a cultures ethical and
cultural values. In some societies, religious
practices are not separate from the government,
and public policy reflects religious beliefs.
Sexual practices among humans are
influenced by cultural values and public policy,
as well as by individual choices. Sexual activity
can have serious physical, emotional, and
financial consequences. Indeed, sexual partners
O
not only expose themselves to potential health
risks, but they also expose themselves to the
potential responsibility for the human being
N
they produce through their union.
O
D
Can humans adopt sexual behaviors that
consciously avoid these dangers? There is no
completely safe sex, only safe abstinence.
Individuals who choose to become sexual
partners, however, can choose behaviors that
decrease the risk of infection. Both partners
may undergo medical examinations to ensure
Y
that they are free of sexually transmitted
diseases. They also may use a physical
barrier such as a condom to reduce the
P
chance of fluid (and pathogen) exchange.
Pathogen exchange is further reduced by
using spermicide with a condom. Some
O
spermicides may kill HIV. These practices
lessen the odds of infection or pregnancy.
But they are not a guarantee against infection
C
or pregnancy.
How are these personal choices related
to public policy? For one thing, federal
T
regulations determine which methods of
birth control are made available. For another
thing, society as a whole bears the burden of
high-risk behaviors that result in sexually
transmitted diseases. High-risk behaviors
increase the pressure on medical services,
medical costs, the cost of insurance,
and so on.
ESSAY: Cultures and Mating Patterns Unit 4 491