Cell

Structures
and their
functions

Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
THE HUMAN CELL ANATOMY
2
 Functions
1. Basic unit of life

2. Synthesis of molecules

3. Communication

4. Cell metabolism and energy release

5. Reproduction and inheritance (DNA)

3
 Cell Structure
Organelles:
- specialized structures in cells that perform
specific functions
- Ex. Nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes, etc.

Cytoplasm:
jelly-like substance that holds organelles

4
Cell Membrane
outermost component of a cell
Functions:
selective barrier
encloses cytoplasm

5
Plasma Membrane

Boundary that separates the living cell from

its non-living surroundings.
Phospholipid bilayer
Amphipathic - having both:
hydrophilic heads
hydrophobic tails
~8 nm thick
Is a dynamic structure
Phospholipid
 Polar regions:
- heads
- hydrophilic (H2O loving)
- exposed to H2O

Nonpolar regions:
- tails
- hydrophobic (H2O fearing)
- away from H2O

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FLUID MOSAIC MODEL
Proteins
Transport

Receptors

Enzymes

Signal Transducers

Support
Plasma Membrane Proteins

PROTEINS CAN
MOVE IN THE
MEMBRANE,
TOO!
Movement through Cell
Membrane
Cell membrane selectively determines what can pass
in and out of the cell.
DIFFERENTIALLY PERMEABLE

Enzymes, glycogen, and potassium are found in higher

concentrations INSIDE the cell.

Sodium, calcium, and chloride are found in higher

concentrations OUTSIDE the cell.

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12
Ways molecules pass through
Cell Membrane
1. Directly through (diffusion):
O2 and CO2 (small molecules)
2. Membrane channels:
- proteins that extend from one side of cell
membrane to other
- size, shape, and charge (+/-) determine what can
go through
- Ex. Na+ passes through Na+ channels

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3. Carrier molecules:
- bind to molecules, transport them across, and
drop them off
- Ex. glucose

4. Vesicles:
- can transport a variety of materials
- fuse with cell membrane

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 Solution:
solid, liquid, or gas that contains one or more solutes
Solute:
substance added to solvent that dissolves
Solvent:
substance such as H2O that solute is being added to

Ex. Add salt to H2O

H2O =solvent,
salt=solute,
mixture=solution
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 Concentration gradient:
- measures conc. difference at 2 points
- greater the distance the faster the solute will travel

Filtration:
movement of fluid through a partition with holes

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Diffusion

the passive movement of molecules from a higher

to a lower concentration until equilibrium is
reached.

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Gas exchange in lungs by diffusion
22
 Osmosis

Diffusion of water across a a differentially permeable

membrane due to concentration differences
Special case of diffusion

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 Osmotic pressure:
force required to prevent
movement of water
across cell membrane
Tonicity
Refers to the concentration of SOLUTES

Is a RELATIVE term, comparing two different

solutions

TYPES OF OSMOTIC SOLUTIONS

Hypertonic
Hypotonic
Isotonic
Hypotonic solution

lower concentration of solutes inside cell

higher concentration of H2O outside cell

H2O moves into cell

lysis (burst)

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HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
Hypertonic solution

low concentration of solutes outside cell

high concentration H2O inside cell

H2O moves out

crenation (shrinks)

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HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
Isotonic solution

Equal concentration of solutes

Water doesnt move

cell remains intact

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ISOTONIC SOLUTION
Mediated Transport Mechanisms
Facilitated diffusion:
- diffusion with aid of a carrier molecule
- requires no ATP

Active transport:
- moves substances against the concentration gradient
- requires ATP
- Ex. Sodium-potassium pump

Secondary Active Transport

-Transport is against the concentration gradient

- energy comes from the concentration gradient of another

- requires ATP
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Carrier Proteins

Function:

Transport

Specific

Combine with only a certain type of molecule.

37
Endocytosis

process that brings materials into cell using vesicles

2 types

- Phagocytosis:
cell eating (solid particles)

- Pinocytosis:
cell drinking (liquid particles)
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39
Receptor-mediated Endocytosis
specific substance binds to the receptor molecules
Exocytosis
process that carries materials out of cell using
vesicles

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Organelles

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Cell Structures
Cytoplasm
Location: inside cell
Characteristic: jelly-like fluid
Function: give cell shape and hold organelles in
place
Nucleus
Location: center of cell
Characteristic: all cells contain nucleus at some
point
Function: houses DNA
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 Nuclear envelope:
Location: edge of nucleus
- Consists of outer and inner membranes

Nuclear pores:
Location: surface of nucleus
Function: where materials pass in and out of
nucleus

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Figure 3.12a
 Chromosome:
Location: inside nucleus
Characteristic: made of DNA and proteins
Function: part of genetic makeup

Chromatin:
Location: inside nucleus
Characteristic: loosely coiled chromosomes

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 Nucleolus
Location: in nucleus
Function: produce ribosomes

Ribosome
Location: attached to RER or cytoplasm
Function: produce proteins

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 RER (Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum)
Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: membranes with ribosomes attached
Function: site of protein synthesis

SER (Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum)

Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: membranes with no ribosomes
Function: site of lipid synthesis (Ex. Cholesterol)

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Figure 3.15a
 Golgi apparatus
Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: closely, packed stacks of membranes
Function: collect, sort, package, and distribute
proteins and lipids

Secretory vesicle
Location: cytoplasm
Function: distributes materials out of cell

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 Lysosome
Location: cytoplasm
Function: enzymes that digest foreign material

Mitochondria
Location: cytoplasm
Characteristic: contains folds (cristae)
Function: produces ATP

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Cytoskeleton
- cells framework
- made of proteins

Functions:
- provide support
- hold organelles in place
- enable cell to change shape

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Types of Cytoskeleton

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 Cilia
Location: cell surface
Characteristic: many per cell lining the respiratory tract
Function: move materials across cells surface

Flagella
Location: cell surface
Characteristic: 1 per cell
Function: move cell, Ex. Sperm

Microvilli
Location: cell surface
Characteristic: shorter than cilia
Function: increase surface area 61
Whole Cell
Activity

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 Whole Cell Activity

A cells characteristics are determine by the type of

proteins produced

Proteins function is determined by genetics

Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for

its cellular processes

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 GENE
basic unit of heredity
sequence of DNA
encodes a polypeptide.

GENOME
The total complement of an organisms genetic
material
 DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
Genetic material
contains 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose, nitrogen base, and
phosphate
Composed of nucleotides (A-T-G-C)
Double stranded
Helical form

Established by several critical experiments

Fred Griffith (1928)

Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944)
Alfred D. Hershey and Martha Chase (1952)
 The Central Dogma

Francis Crick (1958)

Sequences involved in the

expression of hereditary
characteristics is..
DNA
Replication
Semi-conservative manner
Enzymes involved in replication

DNA helicases
DNA topoisomerases
DNA polymerase I
DNA polymerase III
DNA primase
DNA ligase
Transcription
- process by which DNA is read
- occurs in ribosomes
- produces mRNA (messenger RNA)
- mRNA contains codons
- codons: set of 3 nucleotide bases that code for
a particular amino acid

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 Transcription
RNA acts at 2 levels:

GENETIC
Carry the genetic information (mRNA)
Monocistronic mRNA- contain 1 gene only
Polycistronic mRNA- contains several genes in
tandem array

FUNCTIONAL
Acts as macromolecule serving a functional and structural
role in ribosomes (rRNA)

Amino acid transfer role in protein synthesis (tRNA)

It differs from DNA replication
Small region of one DNA strand is used as a
template

RNA polymerases are used instead of DNA

polymerase for nucleotide addition.

Presence of URACIL instead of THYMINE

Results in SINGLE-STRANDED RNA

 RNA Transcription
INITIATION
1. RNA polymerase and associated proteins bind to the
Promoter Region

ELONGATION
2. DNA unwinds as the hydrogen bond break
3. Ribonucleotides are added one by one to form a
growing RNA chain
4. RNA sugar-phosphate backbone forms
TERMINATION
5. Terminator sequence is recognized by the RNA
polymerase
Intrinsic termination
Rho dependent termination
 Promoter Regions

Sequences found at the 5 flanking region

Initiates signals for transcription

1. TTGACA
35 bp (-35) upstream of start of transcription
RNA Recognition site

2. TATAAT- Pribnow box

10 bp (-10) upstream of start of transcription
RNA Binding site
Bacterial Promoters
Translation

- process by mRNA is converted into amino acids

(polypeptides) with the help of the tRNA.
- produces proteins
- codons pair with anticodons
- anticodons: 3 nucleotide bases carried by tRNA

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 RNA Translation
INITIATION
Ribosome attaches to the mRNA and start to code at the
Fmet codon (Formylmethionine)[AUG, GUG, UUG]

ELONGATION
tRNA brings the corresponding amino acid to each codon
as the ribosomes moves down the mRNA strand.

TERMINATION
Reading of the final mRNA codon. (STOP CODONS:
UAA, UAG, UGA) which ends the synthesis of the
peptide chain and releases it.
Gene Expression

- information in DNA directs protein synthesis

- proteins provide code for gene expression
- enzymes regulate chemical reactions
- uses transcription and translation

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Cell Life Cycle

84
 Cell Division
- formation of 2 daughter cells from a single parent
cell
- uses mitosis and meiosis
- each cell (except sperm and egg) contains 46
chromosomes (diploid)
- 23 pairs haploid
22- AUTOSOMES determine most other characteristics
23rd- X for female Y for male

2 X FEMALE 1X 1Y - MALE

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 Mitosis
- cell division that occurs in all cells except sex cells
- forms 2 daughter cells

Components of Mitosis
Chromatid
2 strands of chromosomes that are genetically identical
Centromere
where 2 chromatids are connected
Centrioles

small organelle composed of 9 triplets

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 Stages in Mitosis
1. Interphase
- non-dividing phase
- time between cell divisions
- DNA is in strands (chromatin)
- DNA replication occurs

2. Prophase:
- chromatin condenses into chromosomes
- centrioles move to opposite ends
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3. Metaphase:
chromosomes align
4. Anaphase:
- chromatids separate to form 2 sets of
chromosomes
- chromosomes move towards centrioles
5. Telophase:
- chromosomes disperse
- nuclear envelopes and nucleoli form
- cytoplasm divides to form 2 cells

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 APOPTOSIS
programmed cell death
Regulates the number of cells within various tissues
of the body.
Regulated by specific genes

Damaged or potentially dangerous cells, virus

infected and potential cancer cells are eliminated by
apoptosis.

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Cellular Aspects
of Aging

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5 Major Hypotheses on Aging
1. Cellular Clock
After a certain passage of time or certain number of
cell division, results in the death of a given cell line.

2. Death Genes
Turn on late in life or prematurely which cause the
cells to deteriorate and die

3. DNA Damage
Cell degeneration and death

4. Free Radicals
Direct damage resulting to mutation

5. Mitochondrial Damage
lead to the loss of energy critical to cell function
and cell death 93