Chapter 7

hemispherical wave front from the point of release. The waves generated are compressional,
P, dilational shear, S, and surface waves. The velocities of the shock waves generally increase
with depth below the surface since the elastic moduli increase with depth. The compressional
waves travel faster, and are generated and recorded more easily than shear waves. They are
therefore used almost exclusively in seismic exploration. The shock wave velocity depends on
many variables, including rock fabric, mineralogy and pore water. In general, velocities in crystalline
rocks are high to very high (Table 7.4). Velocities in sedimentary rocks increase with amount of
consolidation and decrease in pore fluids and with increase in the degree of cementation and dia-
genesis. Unconsolidated sedimentary deposits have maximum velocities varying as a function of
the volume of voids, either air filled or water filled, mineralogy and grain size.

When seismic waves pass from one layer to another in the ground, some energy is reflected
back towards the surface while the remainder is refracted. Thus, two methods of seismic sur-
veying can be distinguished, that is, seismic reflection and seismic refraction. Measurement
of the time taken from the generation of the shock waves until they are recorded by detector
arrays forms the basis of the two methods.

The seismic reflection method is the most extensively used of all geophysical techniques, its
principal employment being in the oil industry. In this technique, the depth of investigation is
large compared with the distance from the shot to detector array. This is to exclude refrac-
tion waves. Indeed, the method is able to record information from a large number of horizons
down to depths of several thousands of metres.

In seismic refraction, one ray approaches the interface between two rock types at a critical
angle that means that, if the ray is passing from a low, Vo, to a high velocity V1 layer, it will
be refracted along the upper boundary of the latter layer (Fig. 7.23). After refraction, the pulse
travels along the interface with velocity V1. The material at the boundary is subjected to

Table 7.4. Velocities of compressional waves of some common rocks

Vp (km s-1) Vp (km s-1)

Igneous rocks Sedimentary rocks

Basalt 5.26.4 Gypsum 2.03.5
Dolerite 5.86.6 Limestone 2.87.0
Gabbro 6.56.7 Sandstone 1.44.4
Granite 5.56.1 Shale 2.14.4
Metamorphic rocks Unconsolidated deposits
Gneiss 3.77.0 Alluvium 0.30.6
Marble 3.76.9 Sands and gravels 0.31.8
Quartzite 5.66.1 Clay (wet) 1.52.0
Schist 3.55.7 Clay (sandy) 2.02.4

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