LECTURE NOTES IN EDUC 107- EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 2017

INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Definition of Concepts
1. Technology a planned, systematic method of working to achieve planned outcomes. It is the
applied side of scientific development (Corpuz & Lucido, 2008). It can be classified as a process
a systematic application of scientific or other organized knowledge to practical tools; and as a
product physical equipment/facilities and the programs or modular materials.
2. Educational Technology refers to how people use their inventions and discoveries to
satisfy their educational needs and desires, i.e. learning. The following are the different
meanings of educational technology:
It is the application of scientific findings in our method, process or procedure of
working in the field of education in order to affect learning.
It is the use of all human inventions for teachers to realize their mission to teach in order that
students learn.
It is the application of scientific knowledge about learning to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of teaching and learning.
It embraces curriculum and instructional design, learning environment, theories of teaching -
learning.
3. Technology in Education the application of technology to any of those processes involved in
operating the institutions which house the educational enterprise. It includes the application of
technology to food, health, finance, scheduling, grade, reporting and other processes which
support education within institutions (Jonassen et.al., 1999). This is popularly known as
audiovisual aids or gadgetry of education and training.
4. Instructional Technology This refers to those aspects of educational technology that are
concerned with instruction as contrasted to designs and operations of educational
institutions. It is a systematic way of designing, carrying out and evaluating the total process of
learning and teaching in terms of specific objectives (Lucido and Borabo, 1997).
example: Digital and video cameras, Graphing calculators
5. Educational Media/Instructional Media are channels or avenues or instruments of
communication; a means of communication available for educational purposes that consists
of instructional machines and materials used to promote learning.
example: books, magazines, newspapers, radio, television and Internet.
6. Technology Integration -using learning technologies to introduce , reinforce , supplement and
extend skills

Educational Technology, as a systematic process, undergo four phases

1. Identification of objectives
2. Design of learning experiences
3. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the learning experiences
4. Improvement of the learning experiences in order to achieve the desired outcome

ROLES OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Educational technology aims for the improvement of the teaching-learning pess which can be
achieved through the following ways:
increase in the students quality of learning
decrease in the time spent in learning
increase in the efficiency of teachers in the classroom
decrease in education cost without sacrificing educational quality

In traditional way:
the learners learn from the technology and the technology serves as a teacher.
the learners learn the content presented by the technology in the same way that the learner
learns knowledge presented by the teacher.

In constructivist way:
technology helps the learner build more meaningful personal interpretations of life and his/her
world.
technology is a learning tool to learn with, not from.
it makes the learner gather, think, analyze, synthesize information and construct meaning with
what technology presents.
From a constructivist perspective, the following are roles of technology in learning:

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1. Technology as a tools to support knowledge construction

- for representing learners' ideas, understandings and beliefs
- for producing organized, multimedia knowledge bases by learners
2. Technology as information vehicles for exploring knowledge to support learning-by-
constructing
- for accessing needed information
- for comparing perspectives, beliefs and world views
3. Technology as context to support learning-by-doing
- for representing and stimulating meaningful real-world problems, situations and contexts
- for representing beliefs, perspectives, arguments and stories of others
- for defining a safe, controllable problem space for student thinking
4. Technology as a social medium to support learning by conversing
- for collaborating with others
- for discussing, arguing and building consensus among members of a community
- for supporting discourse among knowledge-building communities
5. Technology as intellectual partner to support learning-by-reflecting
- for helping learners to articulate and represent what they know
- for reflecting on what they have learned and how they came to know it
- for supporting learners internal negotiations and meaning making
- for constructing personal representations of meaning
- for supporting mindful thinking

Benefits of Instructional Media

1. Standardization of delivery of instruction.
2. More attention-grabbing instruction.
3. More retention in learning.
4. More interactive learning.
5. Reduced length of time required for instruction.
6. Provision of instruction whenever and wherever necessary.
7. Enhancement of positive attitudes of students to learning.
8. Shift of roles of teachers from instructors to facilitators.
9. Individualization of learning.
10. More multi-sensory learning.

FIVE DOMAINS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

(Association for Educational Communications and Technology, 1994)
1. Design. The planning phase of educational technology, which interprets reality in terms
of learner performance and negotiated expectations of the learner. It describes natural or
existing interrelationships that constitute a content area.
2. Development. Instructional development may be a process of producing learning materials
from a detailed plan or design; It may be the process of finalizing procedures and
testing materials intended to support instructional episodes.
3. Utilization. The actual use of knowledge and the skills and usually includes the
practical application of information or procedures on a regular basis. The purpose of utilization
is to bring learners into contact with learning resources and instructional system components.
4. Evaluation. A dynamic process which allows people to obtain and judge the worth of
data about how students learn specific content information under varying instructional
conditions.
5. Management. The linchpin (key player) which binds all the domains of educational technology
together.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE SELECTION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

1. Human Factor
a. Learner Factor refers to learner differences that can influence media choice
i. Individual differences. Learners differ in their preferences for learning (observing or
listening), their perception of a given message, their understanding of the conventions
used by various media.
ii. Attention span. Factors that affect how long a learner can attend to one type of task
such as age and interest, learners motivation.
iii. Number of learners. Select media that are well suited to the group size you have or
modify the group or structure to media you have.
iv. Physical disabilities of learners. Poor vision, hearing, dyslexia, color blindness, and
the like.

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b. Teacher Factor refers to those factors that affects the success of media implementation
2. Instructional Method. The method of instruction dictates or limits our choice of presentation
media.
3. Practice Constraints- Administrative and economic constraints both limit the choice of
methods and media such as the objectives, availability, time and resources.

DESIGN, DEVELOPMENT AND UTILIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

Instructional Design Model: ADDIE Model

The ADDIE model is a systematic instructional design model consisting of five phases: (1) Analysis; (2)
Design; (3) Development; (4) Implementation, and (5) Evaluation
1. Analysis. During analysis, the designer identifies of the learning problem, the goals
and objectives, the audience needs, existing knowledge and any other relevant
characteristics. It considers the learning environment, any constraints, the delivery options,
and the timeline for the project.
2. Design. A systematic process of specifying learning objectives. Detailed story boards and
prototypes are often made, graphic design, user-interface and content are determined here.
3. Development. The actual creation or production of the content and learning materials based
on the Design phase.
4. Implementation. During implementation, the plan is put into action and a procedure for
training the learner and teacher is developed. Materials are delivered or distributed to the
student group. After delivery, the effectiveness of the training materials is evaluated.
5. Evaluation. This phase consists of formative and summative evaluation.

Instructional Design Model: ASSURE Model

The ASSURE model is an instructional design that is modified to be used by teachers in the regular
classroom for the effective use of instructional media. ASSURE is an acronym for (1) Analyze learners;
(2) State Objectives; (3) Select Media and Materials; (4) Utilize Media and Materials; (5) Require
Learner Participation; and (6) Evaluate and Revise.
1. Analyze learners. Teachers must first consider the characteristics of the learners who will
experience the media. The learners can be analyzed in terms of general characteristics and
specific entry competencies knowledge, skills, and attitude about the subject. Student
preferences for the conditions of learning also need to be considered. Teachers must know
their students to select the best medium to meet the objectives.
2. State objectives. Teachers then must identify the objectives that the media will serve.
These may be derived from a needs assessment or a course syllabus. The objectives are
commonly stated in terms of what the learner will be able to do as a result of instruction. The
conditions under which the student is going to perform and the degree of acceptable success is
also included. This helps the teachers clarify the objectives in order to make an appropriate
selection of media and methods.
3. Select media and materials. Teachers then must choose a media format and then go
about obtaining specific materials. Obtaining appropriate media and materials generally
involves one of three alternatives: (a) selecting available materials, (b) modifying existing
materials, (c) designing and producing new materials. Teachers should use instructional
media in ways that appear to best fit the immediate learning situations.
4. Utilize materials. Teachers must make plans to utilize the materials after selecting, modifying
or designing the materials. Questions like Is the material at the appropriate level for the
students and what adjustments need to be made during the presentation?, What needs to be
done to prepare students for the presentation of this new content?, How can follow-up
activities be used in relation to this media? need to be considered when using instructional
materials.
5. Require learner participation. There should be activities within the lesson that allow learners
to respond and to receive feedback on the appropriateness of their performance or response,
which may be overt (outwardly observable) or covert (internal and not observable).
6. Evaluate and revise. After instruction, media and methods need to be examined. Class
discussion, individual interviews, and observation of students can be used to evaluate
methods and media. The instructional process itself should be evaluated to ensure effective
instruction.

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Principles in the Selection and Utilization of Educational Technology

Principle Description
Meaningfulness Contain purposive activities, which contribute to the growth and development of
learners.
Purpose Focuses on helping learners to motivate them in the learning process
Appropriateness Suits or fits to the level intended in terms of: (1) vocabulary; (2) difficulty of
concepts; (3) methods of development; and (4) interest
Breadth Encompasses all round development of varying group learners.
Usefulness/Utility Helpful or valuable to a particular teacher as he/she works for a particular
group of learners
Communication Relays information clearly and effectively.
Effectiveness
Authenticity Presents accurate up-to-date dependable information.
Responsiveness Quick to response to the needs and demands of the society
Interest Catches the attention/awareness of the users, stimulates curiosity or satisfies the
need to know and encourages creativity and imaginative response among users.
Cost Effectiveness The cost per student of media presentation diminishes as the number of students
using it
Increases
Presentation Must be presented at the right time and at the right way.

Portability Must be handy for the teachers and students to handle it well
Correctness Correct facts or information must be in the materials for a better learning
process.
Simplicity Must be simple (easiness) but inspiring for the learners and showing creativity.
Assessment Appraisal is needed for further revisions and improvements.

CLASSIFYING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

The Cone of Experience (Edgar Dale)-The Cone of Experience is a visual model, a pictorial
device that presents bands of experience arranged according to degree of abstraction and not
degree of difficulty. It can be serve as a practical guide to analyze the characteristics of
instructional media and methods, and how these media may be useful.

The farther you go from the bottom of

the cone, the more abstract the experience becomes
The individual bands of the Cone of Experience stand for experiences that are fluid,
extensive and continually interact. (Dale, 1969).
One kind of sensory experience is not necessarily more educationally useful than
another. These experiences are mixed and interrelated
Too much reliance on concrete experience may actually obstruct the process of meaningful
generalization. The best will be striking a balance between concrete and abstract, direct
participation and symbolic expression for the learning that will continue throughout life.

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The least effective method at the top, involves learning from the information presented through
verbal symbols.
The most effective methods at the bottom involve direct, purposeful experiences.
The further you progress down the cone, the greater the learning and the more information is
likely to be retained.

The Bands of Experiences

1. Direct Purposeful Experiences First hand experiences which serve as the foundation of our
learning. We build up our reservoir of meaningful information and ideas through empirical
experiences. It is learning by doing.
2. Contrived experiences We make use of a representative models or mock ups of reality for
practical reasons and so that we can make the real-life accessible to the students perceptions
and understanding.
3. Dramatized experiences By dramatization, we can participate in a reconstructed
experience, even though the original event is far removed from us in time.
4. Demonstrations It is visualized explanation of an important fact, idea or process by the use
of photographs, drawings, films, displays or guided motions. It is showing how things are done.
5. Study trips These are excursions and visits conducted to observe an event that is
unavailable within the classroom.
6. Exhibits These are displays to be seen by spectators. They may consist of working models
arranged meaningfully or photographs with models, charts and posters. Sometimes exhibits
are for your eyes only.
7. Television and motion pictures It can reconstruct the reality of the past so effectively that
we are made to feel we are there.
8. Still pictures, recordings, radio - These are visual and auditory devices that may be used by
an individual or a group. Still pictures lack the sound and motion of a sound film. The radio
broadcast of an actual event may often be likened to a televised broadcast minus its visual
dimension.
9. Visual Symbols These are no longer realistic reproduction of physical things for
these are highly abstract representations. Ex. Charts, graphs, maps and diagrams, and the
like.
10. Verbal symbols They are not like the objects or ideas for which they stand. They usually do
not contain visual clues to their meaning.

THREE-FOLD ANALYSIS OF EXPERIENCE (Jerome Bruner)

1. Enactive. One is using some known

aspects of reality without using words or
imagination. It involves representing the past
events and through making motor responses. It
involves mainly in knowing how to do something;
it involves series of actions that are right for
achieving some results. The learner here serves
as a participant in the actual experience.
2. Iconic. This mode deals with the internal
imagery, were the knowledge is characterized by
a set of images that stand for the concept. The
iconic representation depends on visual or other
sensory association and is principally defined by
perceptual organization and techniques for economically transforming perceptions into meaning for the
individual. The learner here serves as an observer of a mediated event, an event presented through
some medium.
3. Symbolic. This representation is based upon an abstract, discretionary and flexible thought. It
allows one to deal with what might be and what might not, and is a major tool in reflective thinking. This
mode is illustrative of a persons competence to consider propositions rather than objects, to give ideas
a hierarchical structure and to consider alternative possibilities in a combinatorial fashion,
(Spencer.K.,1991, p.185-187). The learner here uses his/her mind to reflect such abstract
representations.

OTHER CLASSIFICATIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

1. According to sense of modality
a. Audio Materials- include radio, recordings, language laboratories

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b. Visual Materials- includes pictures, photographs, flashcards, flip books, charts, maps, posters,
exhibits, bulletin boards, etc.
c. Audiovisual Materials- includes television, films, videotapes, demonstrations, study trips
2. According to projection
a. Projected Media- films, opaque projection materials
b. Non-projected Materials- photographs, still pictures
3. According to dimensions
a. Two-dimensional (2D)- flat pictures
b. Three-dimensional (3D)- real objects, models
4. According to pacing of media
a. Static- filmstrips, books, chalkboards
b. Dynamic- television, motion pictures
5. According to electronic requirement
a. Non-technical media-still pictures, charts
b. Technical media- overhead projectors, computers
6. According to accessibility
7. According to cost
8. According to literacy requirement

HISTORY OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

PHILOSOPHICAL BASIS IN EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY

PRINCIPLES OF SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

1. Principle of Appropriateness
Instructional materials must promote the general and specific goals of the class.
Instructional material must be appropriate to the level intended in terms of vocabulary
level, difficulty of concepts, methods of development and interest appeal.
Instructional material must be either basic or supplementary to the curriculum.
2. Principle of Authenticity
Instructional materials must present accurate, up-to-date, dependable information.
3. Principle of Interest
Instructional materials must catch the interest of the learners. It must stimulate curiosity
or satisfy the learners need to know. It must have the power to motivate, encourage
creativity and imaginative response among users.
4. Principle of Organization and Balance
Instructional material must be well organized and well balanced in content.
5. Purpose of the material must be clearly stated or perceived.
There should be logical organization, clarity and accordance with the principles of
learning such as reinforcement, transfer and application in the materials.

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6. Principle of Cost
If there are available substitutes for costly materials, these substitutes may be
considered first.

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDER IN SELECTING INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA

1. Relevance of the media to the lesson objectives. The medium should be able to convey in
the clearest, possible way the highlights of the lesson. The medium should stimulate discussion.
If the objective is to supply factual information, pictures or graphs could be used. If the objective
is to modify behavior, films or role playing could be used. If the objective is mastery of a skill,
demonstrations or programmed learning could be more appropriate.
2. Suitability to students age, learning abilities and styles, and reading level. Pictures could
be effective for Grade 1 pupils but not for high school students. Some media could be effectively
used for fast learners. Audio media could be more effective for auditory learners than visual
learners.
3. Accuracy and novelty of media. The media should be up to date, reflecting current thought,
original or revised.
4. Provision of learner participation. Dioramas and exhibits could entail more participation of
learners than pictures or graphs.
5. Provision of feedback. Recordings and television do not offer feedback or interaction (two-way
communication) like the way multimedia do.
6. Appeal. Pictures, especially colorful ones, could be more aesthetically pleasing than other
media. Motion media could be more attention grabbing than still pictures.
7. Availability. The medium should be obtainable when needed. The schools media center could
be consulted for media collection. Aside from the media center, our homes could be potential
sources of media. Colorful pictures could be available in news papers and calendars.
8. Adaptability. Some media, like transparencies or recordings, can be easily updated or modified
unlike textbooks.
9. Ease in the use or operation of the media. Some media like maps and graphs can be easily
used while other media like computers and projectors need technical expertise. The teacher
should at least be well versed with basic operations of media.
10. Learning Environment. Projected media may work better for big classes. Demonstrations, role
playing, simulations could be done if classrooms are big.
11. Cost. If a certain medium is very expensive, another media which could deliver the same
content can be used to replace it. The medium could be expensive, not only in cost, but also in
the time consumed in preparing the media.
12. Objectivity. There should be no room for bias, propaganda and controversy in the material.
13. Maintenance. Some media, especially the technical ones, entail more cost in maintaining the
operation than other non-technical media.
14. Technical Quality. Some media are simple but workable. Audio recordings and videos are
susceptible to damages which affect the quality of the media.

PRINTED MATERIALS
Printed materials are materials used to inform, instruct and motivate learners. Some materials
may be used as learning aids used in the classroom, training materials used in workshops, seminars or
trainings or as information materials to announce upcoming events or products. (Kemp and Dayton
(1985:159)
As a learning aid, printed materials are used to enhance the learning of the students. Examples
are worksheets, activity sheets, and textbooks.
As training materials, printed materials are used as reference after training or to be used to work
through on their own. Examples are manuals and handouts.
As information materials, printed materials are used to disseminate information regarding school
events or the likes. Examples are brochures, newspapers, newsletters, journals, and magazines.

Printed Materials as a Teaching Aid

The use of printed materials is governed to specific guidelines in order to maximize the benefits
of advantages and minimize the disadvantages and limitations.

Advantages
1. Printed materials are readily available on a wide variety of topics and in many different formats.
The different formats are enumerated in the introduction of the lesson.
2. Printed materials may be adaptable in any lighted environment.
3. Printed materials are handy and do not require any equipment or electricity.

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4. Properly designed printed materials are easy to use and do not require special effort to browse
through.
5. Printed materials like worksheet, allow learners to practice skills.
6. Printed materials are relatively inexpensive to produce or purchase and can be reused. Some
materials, like pamphlets and brochures are given for free.
7. Printed media can easily transported and can be brought and placed anywhere you go.
8. Printed media can be produced through the use of computers or handwritten. Nowadays,
printed materials can be updated and edited easily because of the availability different
productivity software.
9. Printed media is not expensive to generate especially if it is not done in color.
10. Printed media is the most commonly used media most students are familiar with. It was first
introduced to kids in the form of coloring books and worksheets.

Disadvantages
1. Some students who are nonreaders or poor readers may not benefit from the printed materials
inasmuch as these materials are sometimes above the reading level of the learners.
2. Even though textbooks are written to be considerate of the reader, readers who lack some pre
requisite knowledge may find difficulty in comprehending the text.
3. Some teachers require students to memorize facts and definitions, thus, these materials are
reduced to become mere memorization aids.
4. Some texts are concepts-heavy which places a burden on students cognitive development.
5. Most printed materials are passively used and do not assure interactivity.
6. Sometimes, teacher-student learning are fit into the organization of textbooks, not the other way
around. In some cases, the textbook becomes the subject itself.
7. Printed materials can be open to errors. Textbooks should be examined carefully.
8. Some books and supplementary materials, especially by foreign authors are very expensive.
9. Since printed media is the most common, sometimes students fail to see the importance of
these media because of its lack of sounds and animations.
10. Printed media can only convey verbal language and therefore it does not necessarily elicit
response from the reader.
11. Printed media needs time to prepare and to update. It is not very easy to update a book
because it needs preparation and development before it can reproduce another copy again.

Kinds of Printed Materials Used as a Teaching Aid

A. Books or Textbooks- Books are the oldest form and the most common form of print media used
by students. It is the best source of knowledge and information. Books comprise varied topics that
include literature, history, fiction stories, autobiographies, dictionaries, encyclopedias and many
more. (Buzzle)
Functions of a Book
The students gain the legacy of knowledge earned by those who came before.(Beckert, 1992).
Without books and textbooks, no education could have been possible.
It is used a s a teaching aid. Teachers and students use this for their lessons as a primary
source of information.
It provides entertainment. People of every age, group, or profession find information, pleasure,
relaxation and inspiration while reading books. Literary fiction, scientific or other books bring
such kind of entertainment.
Though books are a driving force in education, business, law, science, medicine and
entertainment (Tafani, 2004), they lack recency of information. However, this disadvantage is
made up by completeness, thoroughness and permanence.
Types of Books
a) Browsing books- are designed to catch the readers eye then allow for random readings.
The reader literally browses the book for any topic that is interesting or for intellectual
curiosity.
b) Continuous Reading Books - are the traditional textbooks used by the students for the
different subject areas. They are designed in the structured manner and generally begin by
introducing concepts moving on to more complex discussions.
c) Reference Books- are designed for easy retrieval of particular information.

Guiding Principles for Quality Textbooks

1. Content
Conformity/ alignment with the curriculum aims and objectives in the curriculum
guide.
Effectiveness of content to meet curriculum requirements irrespective of
supplementary materials.

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Accuracy and relevancy of data/ information.

Accuracy, clarity and development of concepts.
Balance of depth and breadth.
Appropriate level of difficulty.
Smooth interface between key stages of learning/year levels.
Presence of multiple perspectives.
Absence of biased information/ discrimination.
Inclusion of suggested references to facilitate consolidation and self-directed
learning.
2. Learning and Teaching
Development of generic skills.
Development of cognitive skills of all levels, especially higher-order thinking skills.
Fostering positive values and attitudes.
Catering to students diversity
Inclusion of learning activities essential to achieving the learning targets.
Facilitating students to integrate/ practice/ apply new knowledge.
Motivating students learning.
Clarity of instructions.
Variety and purposefulness of learning activities.
Inclusion of appropriate activities to facilitate assessment for learning and as
learning.
3. Structure and Organization
Logical Organization of content.
Use of table of contents and titles/ heading/ outline
Appropriate use of overviews, summaries and a students guide to facilitate learning.
4. Language
Quality of texts in terms of level of difficulty and support for independent reading and
construction of meaning by students.
Coherence of text.
Opportunities to make good use of language to study the subject.
Use of familiar and interesting language.
Accuracy of language used.
Provision of support for understanding and using subject- specific vocabulary and
expressions.
5. Textbook Layout (for printed textbooks only)
Logical and consistent layout with appropriate use of space and margin for ease in
reading.
Illustrations facilitate students learning.
Appropriate separation into volumes/ binding in loose-leaves.
Design facilitates the reuse of textbook.
Appropriate print font size and type.

B. Newspapers
Newspapers are popular form of print media. It is published daily or weekly and it covers
a variety of topics from local and international news. Newspapers serve the community
by providing information as well as entertainment.
C. Newsletters
Newsletters are used to provide information to selected readers, like the student book
group of students of a particular organization or parents. A newsletter keeps the readers
informed of what is happening or what has happened in the school.
Newsletters are a great way to strengthen parent and teacher communication.
Newsletters can be for a classroom or for a school. Studies show that students do better
in schools when students are well- informed, when teachers keep parents informed and
there is a communication between home and school. When it comes to parents
communication, the best and easy way to do this is by sending the parents a newsletter,
through email or hardcopy.
D. Magazines
Magazines are printed materials that provide information in various fields. Usually a
magazine comes periodically, either weekly, monthly, quarterly or annually.
Magazines have a rich source of materials that can be very motivating and that can
inspire a wide range of activities. Since magazines cover a variety of subject, teachers
can use the magazines to class to stimulate interest or to introduce a certain topic.
E. Handouts

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Teachers create handouts so that lessons can be remembered by students after the
discussions and presentations. Edgar Dales Cone of Experience, shows that people
generally forgot 80% of what people hear. Handouts will help your students remember
and at the same time apply the information they receive.

DRAWINGS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Drawings and illustrations are non photographic reconstructions or representations of reality,
etched or drawn by an illustrator, like the teacher or students. Illustrations can be in black or white or in
full color.
Illustrations serve a variety of functions such as:
giving faces to character in a story.
displaying a number of examples of an item described in a textbook,
visualizing stepwise sets ofr instructions in a technical manual
communicating subtle thematic tone in a narrative;
making a reader laugh and smile
Drawings and Illustrations as Teaching Aid
Advantages
Drawings and illustrations could be prepared ahead of time by having it drawn on the board and covered until
the class starts.
Drawings and illustrations can be easily prepared once materials are available. They are also easy to be utilize
because they do not require special equipment.
They are less detailed, hence, learners can easily understand this message.

Limitations
Drwaings coul be subject to misinterpretations.
Technical expertise in drawing could be neede to produce good drawings and illustrations.

Utilization Guidelines
Although technical skill is a requisite in drawing a good amount of practice coul enhance basic drawing skills.

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CHARTS
Are visual symbols summarizing, comparing or contrasting or performing other helpful services
in explaining subject matter-Dale 1969
Charts are graphic representations of abstract relationships such as chronologies, quantities or
hierarchies.
A chart should have a clear, well defined instructional purpose
In general, charts should express only one major concept or configuration of concepts. Charts
are designed to be shown to a class or group in the course of a lesson

Uses of Charts(Valstar4life 2012)

Charts can be used in many ways

it helps motivate the students
it shows continuity in the process
it shows relationships by means of facts, figures and statistics
it presents matter symbolically
it presents abstract ideas in visual form
it shows the development of structures
It summarizes information
it creates problem and stimulates thinking

Types of Charts (Helnich 1993)

1. Organizational Charts- These show the structure or chain of command in an organization.

Usually they deal with the interrelationship of the personnel or departments.
2. Classification Charts- These are similar to organizational charts but are used chiefly to classify
and categorize objects events or species.
3. Timelines- These illustrate chronological relationships between events. They are most often
used to show historical events in sequence or the relationship of famous people and these
events. Timelines are very helpful in summarizing series of events.
4. Flow Charts- These are also called process charts, which show a sequence, a procedure or a
flow of a process. Flow charts show procedures or activities that are usually drawn horizontally.
5. Time Charts- are tabular time chart that presents data in ordinal sequence.
6. Tree or stream Charts- depict development, growth and change by beginning with a single
course which spread out into many branches
7. Comparison and Contrast Charts- used to show similarities and differences between two
things
8. Pareto Charts- bar charts that shows a glance which factors are occurring most
9. Gannt Charts- these are activity time charts

Advantages
Quick way for the audience to visualize what you are saying -- numbers, trends, up or down
Forceful -- emphasizes main point
Convincing -- proves a point, see and hear
Compact way to convey information
More interesting than just talk or print (Remember to use as many of the five senses as
possible)

Disadvantages
Time consuming to make -- decisions must be made in advance for layout, color, materials, etc.
Technical in nature -- audience knowledge to interpret, or understand
Costly -- depending on the medium used (poster board, transfer letters, etc.)

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GRAPHS
Graphs are visual representation of numerical data. They also illustrate relationships among
units of the data.

Uses of graphs
Graphs are used to present statistical results.
Graphs can give a birds eye view of the complete information.
Graphs are an effective tool to compare and contrast complicated facts.

Types of Graphs (Heinich, 1993)

1. Bar Graphs- These graphs are used for comparing similar items in different categories or
groups. Bar graphs are easy to read and can be used with elementary age students.
2. Pictorial Graphs- These are represented by a drawing instead of using numerical data.
3. Pie Graphs- These graphs represent a whole where each part represents a percentage of the
whole. Pie graphs help you see clearly the percentage value of each part to a whole.
4. Line Graphs- These graphs are used in plotting trends that show increase or decrease in data
over time.

Advantages of Graphs
Can help the audience grasp visually the message that has to be conveyed.
Useful if there will be a great deal of details that would normally take up too much time
explaining and you need to compact the information to a visual summation.
Can be very powerful in visual presentations if done effectively.

Disadvantages of Graphs
There are many different formats that can be used in creating graphs that could make it quite
difficult or frustrating to choose the correct one to effectively use.
Too many graphs can come across to be very confusing, lack clarity or irrelevant.

DIAGRAMS
These are symbolic representation of information according to some visualization technique.

Types of Diagrams
1. Venn Diagram - also called primary diagram, set diagram or logic diagram composed of two or
more overlapping circles that shows all possible logical relations between a finite collection of
different sets. These diagrams depict elements as points in the plane, and sets as regions
inside closed curves.
2. Cycle Diagram - used to represent a continuing sequence of stages, tasks, or events in a
circular flow. It emphasizes the stages or steps rather than the connecting arrows or flow.
3. Radial Diagram -shows relationships of core elements
4. Pyramid Diagram - has the form of a triangle with lines dividing it into sections. A related topic
or idea is placed in each section. Because of the triangular shape, each section is a different
width from the others; this width indicates a level of hierarchy among the topics.
5. Target Diagram -show a steps toward a goal
6. Affinity Diagram- used to cluster complex apparently unrelated data into natural and
meaningful groups
7. Tree Diagram- used to chart out, in increasing detail tasks that must be accomplished to
complete a project or a specific objective
8. Fishbone Diagram- cause and effect diagram that show the relationship of possible causes
and sub-causes directly to an identified effect/ problem.

Advantages
Like charts, diagrams show relationship of a large amount of data in a condensed form.
Diagrams are easy to use because they do not require special equipment.

POSTER

Are materials which combine images, lines, colors, and words.These materials intend to catch
and hold viewer`s attention to present a brief, persuasive message.
Can be obtained from a variety of sources.

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Typically posters include both textual and graphic elements, although a poster may be either
wholly graphical or wholly text.
Used in schools largely to announce events to remind students of events and projects.

Good Poster
Simple and should be able to convey a message quickly.
It should be attractive, pleasing to the eye and with good color and design.

TYPES OF LEARNING POSTERS

Learning posters can be grouped into four categories.

illustrate a concept or thing

demonstrate a process
differentiate between similar things
Capture interest and stimulate emotion.

TYPES OF POSTER

Advertising

Advertising posters are everywhere and are used to announce an event or a new product, according to
the Free Library website. They are usually full-color and placed in high traffic areas, where they can be
readily seen.

1. Informative- These types of posters do just what it seems like they should doinform or
educate people about something. They might be used for a social awareness campaign or to
help save an endangered species.
2. Subject- Subject posters are about something. They are sold at concerts or at art functions
typically. The portrait of a musician or an art exhibit are often the subjects of these posters,
hence the name.
3. Affirmation- Affirmation posters feature inspiring or motivational sayings. They can feature
Bible verses or beautiful pictures, plus some sort of affirming slogan to keep people motivated,
cheered up or comforted.
4. Propaganda- Propaganda posters often receive negative press because they are very often
associated with political campaigns or corporate communication. They often feature logos and
portray the values or philosophy of a company or political candidate.

Advantages
Posters can be easily prepared by teachers and students.
Posters can be easily convey a message.
Because of its color, poster can easily catch attention.
A poster speaks for itself; the presence of its author is not necessary. It is therefore possible to
reach a broader audience when compared to a presentation limited in time.
It is possible to present several posters in the same room and at the same time; visitors can
have a look at those posters they are interested in.
Limitation
Posters can portray different interpretation.

Utilization Guidelines
Posters should be bold and simple.
Should be pleasing to the eyes and should incorporate elements of dynamism and shock
Posters should have limited text and keywords should stand out by means of type size or
position

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MAPS AND GLOBES

MAPS- Is a representation of the surface of the earth or some part of it.(Dale 1969) These are
instructional materials which represent the Earth`s or the portion of the Earth`s surface.

KINDS OF MAPS

1. Physical Map- Combines in a single projection data like altitude, temperature, rainfall,
precipitation, vegetation and soil.
2. Relief Map- Has three dimensional representations and show contours of the physical data of
the earth or part of the earth.
3. Commercial or Economic Map- Also called product or industrial map since they show land
areas in relation to the economy.
4. Political Map- Gives detailed information about country, provinces, cities, and towns roads and
highway. Oceans, rivers and lakes are the main features of most political maps.
5. Road Map- This is the most commonly used map that is use for navigation.
6. Topographic Maps- This is the most same as physical map. However, it uses lines to show
changes in elevation.
7. Climate Map- This type of map shows information such as average number of cloudy days,
temperature ranges and average rain or snowfall.
8. Resource Map- Shows the economic activities or resources that can be found in the particular
area.
9. Thematic Map- This type of map shows a theme or topic in a particular area. It usually shows
the average number of cloudy days, temperature ranges and average rain or snowfall.

MAP LANGUAGE

1. Scale- shows how much of the actual earth`s surface is represented by a given measurement
on a map. Scale must be shown so that the map reader can used the distances and areas
shown on the map in measuring or figuring out the real distances and areas on the earth`s
surface.
2. Symbols- Usually map has a legend that explains what each symbols mean.
3. Color- The different colors of the map are part of the map language.
4. Geographic Grids -The entire system of these grid lines are called grid lines. These grid lines
are called meridians and parallels.
5. Meridian - Is a north to South Pole line
6. Parallels- Are lines drawn around the globe with all points along each line with an equal
distance from the pole
7. Longitude- Is the distance in degrees of any place east or west of the prime meridian
8. Latitude- Is the distance in degrees of any place north and south of the equator

CLASSIFICATION OF MAPS

Physical Maps
Emphasize terrain and topographical concepts.
Political Maps
Emphasize man-made phenomena such as state or cities.
Special-purpose Maps
These are the maps that used for peculiar purposes like those presenting amount of rainfall, population
distribution and travel routes.

GLOBES
Spherical model of the Earth
However, even though a globe is a three-dimensional, it can be classify as a graphic because of the
use of symbols, words and drawings.

CLASSIFICATION OF GLOBES

Political Globes
Show location and boundaries of cities, provinces and other man-made structure.
Physical-political Globes
Show some political features but emphasize land elevations and ocean depths.
Special-purpose Globes
These are globes constructed for specific purpose such as satellite globes, celestial globes, and
physical-relief globes.

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Advantages
Maps and globes provide a concrete visualization of the features of the earth, a country or community.
Maps and globes provide opportunities to learn about people, geographical influences, and places.
Globes give a good, visual indication of the earth's surface, the shape of the continents, and their
relative positions, and gives a true representation; whatever position it is viewed from.
Maps can provide detailed information and provide topographical data in much more detail that a globe.
Maps are easier to prepare, and can be modified as physical or political situations change.

Limitation
Maps and globes require a higher level of background information or experiences.

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