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dipesh.patle@vit.ac.in
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Laplace transform
Its properties
Example
2
Convenient representation of a linear, dynamic model.
A transfer function (TF) relates one input and one output:
x t y t
system
X s Y s
x y
input output
forcing function response
cause effect
3
Definition of the transfer function:
Let G(s) denote the transfer function between an input, x, and an
output, y. Then, by definition
Y s
G s
X s
where:
Y s L y t
X s L x t
4
Development of Transfer Functions
Example: Stirred Tank Heating System
5
Recall the previous dynamic model, assuming constant liquid
holdup and flow rates:
dT
V C wC Ti T Q (1)
dt
Suppose the process is initially at steady state:
T 0 T , Ti 0 Ti , Q 0 Q 2
where T steady-state value of T, etc. For steady-state
conditions:
0 wC Ti T Q (3)
wC Ti Ti T T Q Q
dT
V C (4)
dt
6
But,
dT d T T
because T is a constant (5)
dt dt
dT
V C wC Ti T Q (6)
dt
where we have introduced the following deviation variables,
also called perturbation variables:
T T T , Ti Ti Ti , Q Q Q (7)
Take L of (6):
V C sT s T t 0 wC Ti s T s +Q s (8)
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Evaluate T t 0 .
But since our assumed initial condition was that the process
was initially at steady state, i.e., T 0 T it follows from (9)
that T 0 0.
Note: The advantage of using deviation variables is that the
initial condition term becomes zero. This simplifies the later
analysis.
T s K
(12)
Q s s 1
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Transfer Function Between T and Ti :
Ti
Suppose that Q is constant at its steady-state value:
Q t Q Q t 0 Q s 0
Thus, rearranging
T s 1
(13)
Ti s s 1
Comments:
1. The TFs in (12) and (13) show the individual effects of Q and
on T. What about simultaneous changes in both Q and Ti ?
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Answer: See (10). The same TFs are valid for simultaneous
changes.
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Properties of Transfer Function Models
1. Steady-State Gain
The steady-state of a TF can be used to calculate the steady-
state change in an output due to a steady-state change in the
input. For example, suppose we know two steady states for an
input, u, and an output, y. Then we can calculate the steady-
state gain, K, from:
y2 y1
K (4-38)
u2 u1
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Calculation of K from the TF Model:
If a TF model has a steady-state gain, then:
K lim G s (14)
s 0
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2. Order of a TF Model
Consider a general n-th order, linear ODE:
dny dy n1 dy d mu
an n
an1 n 1
a1 a0 y bm m
dt dt dt dt
d m1u du
bm1 m1
b1 b0u (4-39)
dt dt
Y s
i
b s i
G s i 0
(4-40)
U s n
i
a s i
i 0
14
Definition:
The order of the TF is defined to be the order of the denominator
polynomial.
Note: The order of the TF is equal to the order of the ODE.
Physical Realizability:
For any physical system, n m in (4-38). Otherwise, the system
response to a step input will be an impulse. This cant happen.
Example:
du
a0 y b1 b0u and step change in u (4-41)
dt
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3. Additive Property
Suppose that an output is influenced by two inputs and that
the transfer functions are known:
Y s Y s
G1 s and G2 s
U1 s U2 s
Y s G1 s U1 s G2 s U 2 s
The graphical representation (or block diagram) is:
U1(s) G1(s)
Y(s)
U2(s) G2(s)
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4. Multiplicative Property
Suppose that,
Y s U2 s
G2 s and G3 s
U2 s U3 s
Then,
Y s G2 s U 2 s and U 2 s G3 s U 3 s
Substitute,
Y s G2 s G3 s U 3 s
Or,
Y s
G2 s G3 s U3 s G2 s G3 s Y s
U3 s
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Linearization of Nonlinear Models
So far, we have emphasized linear models which can be
transformed into TF models.
But most physical processes and physical models are nonlinear.
- But over a small range of operating conditions, the behavior
may be approximately linear.
- Conclude: Linear approximations can be useful, especially
for purpose of analysis.
Approximate linear models can be obtained analytically by a
method called linearization. It is based on a Taylor Series
Expansion of a nonlinear function about a specified operating
point.
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Consider a nonlinear, dynamic model relating two process
variables, u and y:
dy
f y, u (4-60)
dt
f f
f u, y f u , y u y (4-61)
u y y y
where u u u and y y y . Note that the partial derivative
terms are actually constants because they have been evaluated at
the nominal operating point, u , y .
Substitute (4-61) into (4-60) gives:
dy f f
f u , y u y
dt u y y y 19
The steady-state version of (4-60) is:
0 f u , y
dy dy
Substitute into (7) and recall that ,
dt dt
dy f f
u y (4-62)
dt u y y y
Linearized
model
Example: Liquid Storage System
dh
Mass balance: A qi q (1)
dt
Valve relation: q Cv h (2)
A = area, Cv = constant
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Combine (1) and (2),
dh
A qi Cv h (3)
dt
Linearize term,
h h +
1
h h (4)
2 h
Or
1
h h h (5)
+ R
where:
R 2 h
h hh
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Substitute linearized expression (5) into (3):
dh 1
A qi Cv h h (6)
dt + R
0 qi Cv h (7)
dh 1
A qi h Cv (8)
dt R
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Summary:
In order to linearize a nonlinear, dynamic model:
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State-Space Models
x = Ax + Bu + Ed (4-90)
y = Cx (4-91)
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where:
x = the state vector
u = the control vector of manipulated variables (also called
control variables)
d = the disturbance vector
y = the output vector of measured variables. (We use
boldface symbols to denote vector and matrices, and
plain text to represent scalars.)
The elements of x are referred to as state variables.
The elements of y are typically a subset of x, namely, the state
variables that are measured. In general, x, u, d, and y are
functions of time.
The time derivative of x is denoted by x dx / dt .
Matrices A, B, C, and E are constant matrices. 25
Example 4.9
Show that the linearized CSTR model of Example 4.8 can
be written in the state-space form of Eqs. 4-90 and 4-91.
Derive state-space models for two cases:
(a) Both cA and T are measured.
(b) Only T is measured.
Solution
The linearized CSTR model in Eqs. 4-84 and 4-85 can be written
in vector-matrix form:
dcA a a12 cA 0
dt 11 T
s
(4-92)
dT a a22 T b2
dt 21
26
Let x1 cA and x2 T, and denote their time derivatives by x1
and x2 . Suppose that the steam temperature Ts can be manipulated.
For this situation, there is a scalar control variable, , and
no Ts
u modeled disturbance. Substituting these definitions into (4-92)
gives,
x1 a11 a12 x1 0
x a u (4-93)
2 21 a22 x2 b2
A B
which is in the form of Eq. 4-90 with x = col [x1, x2]. (The symbol
col denotes a column vector.)
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a) If both T and cA are measured, then y = x, and C = I in
Eq. 4-91, where I denotes the 2x2 identity matrix. A and B are
defined in (4-93).
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