Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
com
Download From Boilersinfo.com ./otniJlQ \1
•
'
Teskera.._
19&-;.
..
Download From Boilersinfo.com I
'
Download From Boilersinfo.com I
OF
THERMAL PO\iVER STATIONS
M. 11. P eammoe, 10. M. Jiunon
IIAPOBhiE KOTJl hl
TEIIJIOBhiX 8JIEKTPOCTAI-IIJ;MV:I M. I. Reznikov, Yu. M. Lipov
<<8 n epronap;aT>> • Mo ci\Ba
Trans la ted fr om the Russinn
by
Vadim Afanosycv
t}
11.2. Hydrodynamic Stability of 17 .1. Heat Absorpti on by Evaporat- 23.5. Shut-down and Load -shedding 24 .4 Nuclear Reactor as a Steam Ge-
Flow in Horizontal Evaporat- ing Surfaces and Their Layout Regimes . . . . . . : : . . . 303 nerator . . . . . . . . . . · 321
202
1-.ng 'l'ubcs - . . . . . . . . 126 1. 7. 2. Reliable Designs of Water Walls 23.6. Regimes or Bo1ler fmng and
203 324
11 .3. Hydrodynamic S tabil ity o( 17 .3. Gas-li ght Water Walls and Me- Unit StarLing ...... . 306 Chapter 25. l\lelals £or Steam Boilers
Flow in Vertical Evaporating th ods for Enhancing T hei r He- 25.1. Metal Behaviour at High Tem-
Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . 130 liability . . . . . . . . . . 210 Chapter 24. Steam Generators of Nuc- peratures . . . . . . . • . 324
11 .4. Maldistribution of HeaL . . . 136 17 .4. Refractory-faced Water Wails 216 lear Power Stations 312 25.2. Metals for Steam Boilers . . 327
11.5. Effect of Headers on the Di- 25.3. Stren..:th Calculations . . 330
stribution of Working fluid Chapter 18. Steam Supcrhcat.crs and 24.1. Classification and Characteri- •
stics of S team Generators fot· 25/t. Metal Contro l in Operation 333
Between Tubes . 1ld Superheat Control . . . 217
I H .6. Flow P ulsation s . . . . . . Nuclear Power Statio ns . . . 312 ll c fere nces • • . .. 335
143 •
18 .1. Classification of Superh eaters 217 24.2. Steam Generators \\'i Llt Aqueous
18.2. Operation and Reliability of Coolant . . . . . . . . . . 314 Index . . • 337
Chapter 12. Hydrodynamics of Closed Superheaters . . . . . . . . 24.3. Steam Generators with Liquid-
Hydraulic Systems 145 222
18.3. Positioning of S uperheaters . . 223 metal and Gaseous Coola~Ls 317
12.1. Laws of Free Circulation . . 145 18 .4. Superheat T om perature Control 225
12.2. Calculation of Circulation Cir-
cuits . . . 148 Chapter 19. Low-lcmt>erature Heat-
12.3. General Hydraulic Characte- ing Surfaces 232
ristic of Evaporating Tubes and 19.1. Arrange ment of Low-Lempera-
Tts Hole in Estimating the Ro-
liabili ly of Circulation . . . luro Heating Su rfaces . . . . 232
151 19.2. Economizers . . . . . .
12.4. Hydrodynamics of Descending 234
Tubes and Its Effect on t he 19.3. Air Heaters . . . . . . . . 236
Reliability of Circulation . . 155
19.4 . Corrosion Control of Air Hea-
to.rs . . . . . . . . . . . . 2U
Chapter 13. llydrodynamics o f Bu bbl- Chapter 20. Heat Exchange in Heat-
ing Systems 157 ing Surfaces of Boilers . . . . 246
13.1. Laws of Bubbling . . 157 20.1. Thermal Characteristics or Wa-
13.2. Dynamic Layer in S team Wash- ter Walls . . . . . . . . . 2lt6
ers . . . .. ... . 162 20.2. Flame Emissivity . . . . . . 2t,!)
13.3. Effect of Non-uniform Heat 20.3. Calculation of Radiant Heat I
Helease and I mpuri ties on the Transfer in a Furnace . . . . 251
Dynamic Two-phase Layer . 162 20.4. Radiant Hed Trmsfer in Boi-
ler Flue Ducts . . . . . . . 255
Chapter 14. Physico-chemical Prin- 20.5. Couvcc tive H eal Transfer in
ciples of Behaviou r of Im- Boiler Flue Duels . . . . . . 257
purities in Work ing Fluid 1.65 20.6. Velocities of Gases and Working
14.1. Impurities in Feed Water and Fluid in Convective H ealing Sur-
Their Effect on Equipment 165 f aces . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11o.2. Solubility of Impurities in on
Aqueous Heat- transfer Agent Chapter 21. Layout and Heat Calcu-
and Formation of Depos its . . 166 lation o£ Steam Boiler . . 262
14.3. Passage of Impurities from 21.1. Boiler Layout and Structures 262
Water to Saturated Steam 172 21.2. Thermal Diagram of a Boiler 270
21.3. H eat Calculation of a Boiler 273
Chapter 15. Waler Condi tions 178
15.1. R emoval of I mpurities from Chapter 22. Steam Boilers of H igh-
tbe Circuit . . . . . . 178 capacity Monobloe IUnlts 276
15.2. Water Conditions of Once- 22.1 . Selection of Boiler Desigp. Ac-
through Boilers . . . . 180 cording to the Type, Capacity
15.3. Non-scaling Water Conditions md Operating Conditions of
. of Dru m-type Boilers . 1.83 Power Station . . . . . . . 276
15.4. Methods for Generating Clean 22.2. Characteristics of Modern Steam
St~am . . . Boilers . . • . . . . . • . . 281
Cbapter 16. Processes on lbe F ireside Chapter 23. Stea m Boiler Operation 2QO
of Heating Sudaces 192 23.1. Operating Conditions and Cha-
16.1. Mech anism of Scaling . . . 192 racteristics . . . . . • . . . 290
16.2. Abras ion Wear o f Convective 23.2. Steady Regimes of Boiler Ope-
Heating Surfaces . . . . . 196 ration . . . . . . . . . . . 202
16.3. Corrosion of Healing Surfaces 198 23.3. Unsteady Rogimos of Operation
Witltin Allowable Loads . . . 294
Chapter 17. Evaporating Heating S ur - :!3.4. Starling-up Circuits o[ Mono-
faces . . . . . . 202 bloc Units . . . . . . . . . 298
Download From Boilersinfo.com Preface 9
PREFACE cesses occurring in the steam boilers many years of lectw·ing a course on
of thermal power stali!)ns and steam steam generators of power stations at
generators of nuclear power st~t~ons the l\•foscow power engineering insti-
are discussed in parallel. In addttiOn, tute, which has been initiated by Acade-
a separate chapter is devoted solely mician M. A. Styrikovich.
to the steam generators of nuclear The authors would like to express
power stations. special tl18nks to their colleagues on
Tho authors have carefully selected tho faculty of steam generators of
' the illustrations for the book. For power stations at tho 1\'loscow pow~r
deeper analysis of the proble~s hei~g engineering inslitule [faculty cha•r
studied different types of b01ler cu- Prof. V. S. Protopopov, Dr. Sc. (Eng.)],
This textbook has been written as to power-producing fu els and their cuits a~d designs are compared in illu- the reviewers or the book, the faculty
a higher-education course in steam characteristics , fu el prepnration for strations. In some illustrations, boi- of steam generators at the Saratov
boilers for thermal power stations. combustion , the theoretical princi p- lers or their elements are shown in a polytechnical institute [faculty chair
It presents the theory of the processes Ies of combustion, techn ology of fuel simplified form to facilitate the rea- Prof. A. V. Zmachinsky, Dr. Sc.
which occur in steam boilers, designs combustion , and effi ciency with which
der's understanding of how they func- (Eng.)] and B. I. Shmukler, Cand.
of boilers for thermal power stations heat is u tilized in steam boilers.
tion and the processes which take Sc. (Eng.), for their valuable com-
and steam generators for nuclear power Next the hook focuses on the prin- ments on the manuscript.
stations, and the operating principles ciples of hydrodynamics and the tem- place in thoro.
Tho present book is the result of
of boilers and steam generators. perature and water conditions in steam
The material in the book is based boilers. This constitutes the r ange of
on four fundamental principles which probl ems r elated to the procc!:ses of
are cl osely interrel ated and reflect steam generation.
the current stale of progress in science Having studied the processes of fu el
and technology: (1) the phys ico-chemi- combustion and steam generation, the
cal processes in the fu el, gas-air , and
water-steam paths of modern high-
reader is acquainted with several par-
ticular designs of s team boilers and
'#
•
capacity boilers; (2) the correlation steam boiler elements. Special empha-
between these physico-chemical pro- sis is placed on the processes and plants
cesses and the design , layout and for high and supercritical steam para-
arrangement of steam boilers and their meters, monobloc units, the uLiliza-
elements; (3) advanced technological tion of non-traditional fuel s, and
processes and their technical and eco- methods for increasing the reliability
nomical substantiation; and (4) the and efficiency of power plant equip-
carrel ation between the processes oc- ment.
curring in boilers and the principles Furtheron, the book explains tlw
of boiler operation. This method of principles, stages and sequence of heat
analysis encourages the optimal selec- and hydraulic calculations for steam
tion of technological processes, boiler boilers, including data on the appli-
designs, and operating regimes. cation of el ectronic computers and
At the beginning of the course, we the development of mathematical mo-
explain the role and place of the steam dels of steam boilers. Tho concluding
boiler in the general scheme of elec- chapters are of a generalized nature
tric power production at modern high- and describe certain particular de-
capacity steam-turbine power stations, signs of modern steam boilers, trends
give the classification of steam boliers, in their development, and principles
describe the functions of the princi- of boiler operation.
pal boiler elem ents and, in introduc- In view of recent progress and pers-
tory form , the physico-chemical pro- pectives in nuclear power engineering
cesses which occur in the water-steam, and the construction of high-capacity
fuel and gas-air paths of boilers. nuclear power stations, of l arge theo-
Thus, th e students are immediately retical and practical interest are data
introduced to the range of topics which on tho steam generators of nuclear po-
are later discussed in more d etail . wer stations. For the first time in
A n u mber of chapters are devoted higher-education textbooks, some pro-
Download From Boilersinfo.com 11
1.1. Steam Boller at Power Statton
' 5 5 5
- 5
of the mass flow rate or circulating
water Gw, kg/s, to the quantity of
at starting and the plant operates by
the circuit as in Fig. 1.6b. On attai-
( q) (6) (C) (d) steam formed per unit time, G,, kg/s, ning the specified load, the circula-
Fig. 1.6. Principal schemes of steam generation in boilers is called the circulation ratio (circu- tion pump is switched off and tho
(a) nnturul clrculallon; (b) mulllplc forced circulation; (c) once-through scheme; (d) combined circulation·
lation rate): back-pressure valve is closed automa-
1- tccd pump; .11- cconomlzer; J-drum; 4-downtake tubes; 5-hcndc.r · 6- evoporatlng tubes· 7-super~
k = GjG. (1..2) tically to run the boiler by the scheme
heater; 8- pump lor multiple forced circulation; 8- mlxcr:' 10- bacl<-prcssure valve of F ig. 1.6c.
In natural-circulation boilers, th e
circulation boilers, forced-circulatio n natural circulation: circulation ratio is within 4-30 or 1.3. Flow Diagram of Steam Production
boilers and once-through boilers. sometimes more.
Natural-circ ulation boilers. Let us Sdr = H (p' - Po) g (1.1) The working fluid can be moved The flow diagram of steam produc-
considet· a closed circuit (Fig. 1.6a) forcedly in evaporating tubes, for tion in a steam-turbine power sta-
comprising two sys tems of tubes: a where Sdr is the driving head in ua- instance, by means of a pump inclu- tion with once-through boilers fired
system of lleatod tubes 6 and a system tural circulation, Pa, II is the height ded into the circuit. Such plants are with pulverized solid fuel is shown
of unheated tubes 4, which all are of the circuit, m, p' and Pa are the called forced multiple circulation boi- in Fig. 1.7. Solid lumpy fuel is deli-
connected to a drum 3 at the top and densities of water aod s team-water lers (Fig. 1.6b). The driving head o[ cir- vered in railway cars to the fuel de-
to a header 5 aL tho bottom. This clo- mixture, respectively, kg/m 3 , and g culation in that case is several times poL. Cars are pushed into dumpers
sed hydraulic system of heated and is ;he _acceleration due to gravity, the driving head in natural circu lation. to be turned on the axis through 180°
unheated tubes forms a circulation rn/s . Smce the steam-water mixture This makes it possible to arrange the for discharging the fuel into bunkers
circuit. The volume of the drum oc- in heated tubes moves upward, these evaporating tubes in any manner dic- beneath. Automatic fuel feeders sup-
cupied by water is called the water are called ascending, or uptalce, tubes, tated by the boiler design and to ef- ply fuel onto belt conveyers of the first
space and that occupied by steam is while the unheated tubes in which fect circulation with the steam-water lift which transfer it to crushers.
tho steam space. The surface that sepa- water moves downward, are called mixture moving not only vertically Crushed fuel (of a size not over 25 mm)
rates the water space from the steam descending, or downtake, tubes. upwards, but also horizontally or even is delivered by the second-lift conveyer
space is called the steam-relieving, Steam boilers in which the motion downwards. In steam boilers of this into the boiler room bunkers. The
or disengagement, area. The water space of the working fluid in the evaporating type the circulation ratio may be 3 crushed fuel is then fed into grinding
of the drum and the evaporating tu- tubes is due to the head formed by to 10. mills where it is ground to the final
bes aro filled with boiler water. circulation only which appears natu- Steam boilers with natural multiple size and dried. The fuel-air mixture
Boiler water is made to boil in the r ally on heating the tubes, are called circulation feature a drum which is formed in the mills is supplied into
evaporating tubes 6, which tllus turn natural-circulation boilers. a reservoir providing working fluid the boiler furnace .
out to be filled with a steam-water In contrast to the motion of water circulation in a closed hydraulic system In Soviet power engineering, steam
mixture of a density p0 . Unheated in the economizer and of steam in the and separation of water from steam. boilers of n -shaped profile are roost
Lubes 4 are filled with water of a superheater, where the working fluid The drum determines all the prin- popular (for more detail see Sec. 21.1).
density p at the existing pressure in passes through tho heating surface cipal zones of a boiler: economizing, The boiler consists of two vertical
the drum. Therefore, the lowermost only once, the working fluid moves steam-generating and superheating. prismatic shafts connected at the top
point of the circuit, i.e. the header, multiply through a circulation circuit. Drum-type boilers operate at sub- by a horizontal gas duct. The first
is subjected on the one hand to the This means that a[ter a single pas- critical steam pressures, p < Per· (larger) shaft serves as the boiler fur-
action of a water column in the un- sage through the evaporating tubes Once-through steam boilers have no nace. Its volume may be within a wi de
heated tubes, which is equal to Hp'g, water is converted to s team only pa1·- drum and the working f.luid passes range h-om 1 000 m 3 to 30 000 m 8
and on tl1e other hand, to the pres- tially and enters the drum in the through the evaporating tubes only or more depending on boiler capacity
sure of the steam-water mixture which form of steam-water mixture. With once (Fig. 1.6c), since the circulation and type of fuel. Tubular plane sy-
fills the heated tubes, Hp 0 g. As steam natural circul ation, th e mass steam ratio is equal to unity (k = 1). A OllCe- st'ems , or water walls, are arranged
is formed, the resulting pressure dif- content at the exit from evaporating through boiler rep rosen ts an open around the entire perimeter and along
ference H (p' - Pa) g causes motion tubes is 3-25%. With the steam con- hydraulic system. Hs another typical the whole height of the furnace chamber.
of wa ter in the circuit and for that tent at the exit, say, 20%, water feature is that there are no disti net They are heated directly by radiant
reason is called the driving head in should b e passed fiv e Limes through boundaries between the economizing, beat of the flame and are essentially
2-0 15 2~
1.8
Download From
_____ _
Boilersinfo.com
Cit. 1. Steanl Generation at Electric Power Stations
_..;....;.;;_
--------------------~1~~~-~F~lo~w~D~'=·a~g~
ra~r~
n~o~f~S~t=e~a~m~P~ro~d~u=c~tw~n~---------------- 19
can be arranged within the furna ce; 250-420°C at the outlet (hot air), de-
the working fluid passes from the pending on kind of fuel and method
lower radiation section directly into of combustion.
the water walls above it where steam With pulverized fuel combustion,
is superheated (radiant superheater). t.he preheated air is separated into
The radiant superheater can inc!ude two flows. T he prirnary air is used
either two heating surfaces: the me- for drying of fu el and transport of
dium radiation section and the upper fu el dust through burners into the
radiation section, which are connected boiler furnace. The temperature of
in series, or only the upper radiation this fu el-air mixture is 70-130°C. The
section immediately downstream of secondary air is directed immediately
the lower radiation section. Partially through burners into the furnace (by-
Fig. 1.7. Flow diagram of steam generation superheated stoam flows into tho last passing the fuel mills) at the te mpe-
1- coo l pile; 2- bclt conveyer; 3 and 4- bunkcrs; 5-car dumper with a car; G-crushing plant; 7- crusher h eating surface which is arranged in ra lure it has had after the a it· heater.
hunker; 8- coal;:rlndlng rnHI; 9- prhnary air; JO- IucHlir mixture· 11-bumcrs; a - boiler rronl; 13 - the convective duct; this is the con- Downstream of tl1 e air heater, the
Aicnm holler; 14- lurnnce space; J5- secondary nlr: JG - Iower rntllntlon section; J 7- mlddle radlat.lon sec-
tion: 18- upper rndlnllon section: 19- superhcn lcd steam; 20- convcctivc s uprrhc:Aler: 21- alr Intake· vective superheater whoro s t.earo is hea- combustion products have already a
rrom holler room: 22- air intake rrom the outsido•; 2J- cold air duct; 24-rcbcat superheater; 25- horhon-
tal gns duct; 2G-eonvective s h!!lt (vertical gas duct); 27- economher; 28-lccd water : 29- al r hea ter; ted to the specified t emperature. Su- rather low temperature (110-160°C).
JO- Iorced-drn rt t on: JJ- ash coll ector; 32-lnduced-drnll ran; .>J-stack ; .74-sl:~g-ash channel perheated steam of the required para- Further utilization of their heat is
motel'S (temperature and pressure) is economically inefficient and they are
the ra.diant hea.ting surfaces. In modern Feed water contains certa in impu-· directed into the turbine. Like any ejected through the s tack into the at-
plants, water walls in the furnace arc ri Ues. During the process of steam gene- heating sur:faco, the convective super- mosphere. They ru·c called waste, or
often made of finned tubes which are ration, the content of steam in the heater is a system of a l arge number of chimney, gases.
welded together to form a continuous steam-water mixture increases, water steel lube coils connected in parall el Upon bm-ning, fu el leaves fly ash
gas-tight (gas-impermeable) shell, which evaporates, and the concentration of and interconnected by headers at the which is mostly carried o[f by com-
is covered on Lhe outside by a shell impuriti es increases. At a certain con- inl et and outl et ends. bustion gases. Fly ash is catched (col-
of a heat-insulating material to mini- centration at the end of the steam- The tempornt.ure of combustion pro- lected) in a fly-ash collector which is ar-
mize beat losses to the surroundings; generating zone, impurities may be de- duels downstream of the convective ranged upstream of the induced-draft
this ensures proper sanitary conditions posited on the internal surfaces of s uperheater is quite high (800-900°C). fan. This arrangement prevents abra-
in the boiler room, and prevents burns tubes as scale. The cond uctivity of Part of the worked-off steam can be sion wear of the induced-draft fans
o[ the personnel. deposits is only a small fraction of r eturned from the turbine for secon- and contamination of the atmosphere
The second vertical shaft and the that of the tube metal. This impairs dary (intermedia.te) superheating, usu- w ith fly ash. The collected ash is re·
horizontal dueL that connects i t with heat transfer to the working fluid and , ally to the same temperatm-e as that moved by means of ash-removal devices.
the furn~ce serve for accommodating with intensive heating in the boiler of steam from the main superheater. Part of ash falls oot.o the bottom of the
beating surfaces which receive heaL furnace, can cause overheating of the This is the intermediate (reheat) super- boiler furnace and is removed con ti-
by convection (convective sm-faces) metal which then loses strength and heater (or, s imply, reheater) . nuously by the ash-handling system.
and are called respectively the convec- can fracture under the pressure of the The combust ion products at the Tho flow diagram of steam genera-
tive shaft and the convective duct. working ri u id. outlet from the intermediate supel·- tion i11 drum-typo boil ers di£fors frorn
H aviog given up their heat t.o tho The heating sm-face in which steam heater are s till rather hot (500-600°C) that described above only in the de-
water walls, com bustion products leave generation is completed and steam and their heat can be utilized in a sign and operation of the boiler pro-
the furnace at a tcmpet·ature of superheating begins is called the tran- convective economizer . Feed water per (Fig . 1.8). In this case, the steam-
900-1 200oc (depending on the type sition zone. Dcposil.ion of scale takes supplied into the convective economi- water mixture formed in the fumaco
of fuel) and enter the horizontal duct. place most! y in this zone. In earlier zer is preheated to a temperature be- water walls is fed into the boiler drum.
As water moves through the boiler designs of once-through boilers, the low the saturation point and is fed The steam separated in the drum is
tubes, it gradually transforms into conditio ns of operation of the metal into the lower r adiation section. The practically dry and is fed first into
steam. The heating surfaces in which of this zone were made easier by brin- temperature of combustion products the superheater and then into thf)
st.eam is formed are called evaporating, ging the transition zone out of the downstream of the economizer is 300- turbin e.
or steam-generating. In once-through furnace into the convective duct where 4500C or sometimes more. F urthe1· As follows from the flow diagram
boilers, the evaporating beating sur- the int eusity of heating was roughly heat util iza I. ion is effected in a n ext of steam generation (see Fig. 1.7),
face is arranged in the lower portion one order of magnitude lower (ofiset convective h eating surface, the air a boiler plant has the following basic
of the furnace and is called the lower transition zone). In modern practice, heater. It is a system of vertical tubes, paths :
radiation section. Vli Lh su percritical once-through boilers are fed with with combus tion products flowing in -the fuel path, i.e. a combinatioq
steam parameters, it also includ es a practically pure water, so that no the tubes and air, between them. Tho of elements in which solid fuel is trans-
radiant economizer. W a tor suppli ed scale forms und er normal opcraLi ng tcmperatUl'e of air is 30-60°C at the ported, crushed, groun d, and delivere<l
to a boiler is call ed feed water. conditions and the tran siti ou zone inlet to the air healer (cold air) and to the boiler furnace for combustion.
20
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 1. Steam Generation at Elutric Power Stations 1.4. Principal Chara cteristics of Steam Boller• 21
Superheated steam following elements : an economizer,
5 to lur6ine furnace water walls, and steam super- a
heaters;
7 r---- Steam !"rom - the air path includes a combina-
re!Jealer t o tion of elements for suction o( atmos-
turbine
pheric (cold) air, its preheating, trans-
I port and supply into the furnace. The
4 6 I
I air path comprises a cold air d uct,
air heater (ils air s ide), hot-air duct,
and burners ;
-the gas path is a complex o[ ele-
9 ments in which the combustion pro-
Feed water
ducts flow from the furnace into the
10 atmosphere ; it begins in the boiler
furnace and passes throug h the super-
heaters, economizer, air heater (its
gas sid e), ash collect or and stack. Air Air Air
11 Steam healer Exhaust
6lower heater
The air an d gas paths are connected (air side J boiler fgas sit/e) fan
Cold air in series forming what is call ed the
... gas-air path. The transition from one Fig. 1.10. Pressure distribution in gas-air path of (a} supercharged boiler plant and (b)
to the other t akes place in tho Lloiler balanced-draft plan t
~.u.w.'t:::'=-; Wo s te
furnace space. The diagram or a gas- of a boiler with balanced draft and heat and power s tations, smaller hoi-
air path is shown in Fig. 1.9a. In this in that wilh a supercharged furn ace . l ers fo r lower steam parameters are
Fig. 1.8. Diagram of free-circulation drum- circuiL, a ir is transported b y ulowers employed.
type boiler and the corresponding air path in tho S uperheated steam is ch aracterized
1-Cumace space; t-wn ter walls· ~-b~trnero; port ion between th o blower and furnace 1.4. Principal Characteristics by ils parameters: the pressure and
4-downtnke Lubes; s - drum ; 6-rndla nt superhea- of Steam Boilers
ter; 7- convecllvc su perheater; 8- lnLermedlatc is at a pressure higher than the atmos- temperature in the outlet header of the
superheater (rehcntc r) ; 9-economizer; JO-con- pheric. Combus tion products are trans- superheater. The boilers employed at
vectlve gns duct; 11-air heater
ported by induced-draft fans arranged The steam-generating capacity D, power stations differ in the pressure
The fuel path comprises the crushing downstream of t he boiler, and there- t/h (or kg/s), is the quantity of steam of steam, which may be high (10 or
equipment, conveyers, crushed-fuel bun- fore, the furnace proper and all gas produced by a boiler per unit time . 14 MP a) or supercritical (25.5 MPa).
ker, grinding mill, and pulverized-fuel ducts are at a pressure b elow the A boiler is calculated for a rated steam- Steam boilers for pressures of 14 MPa
duct leading to the furnace. Up to the atmospher ic. This is what is called generating capacity D , , which is under- and more are as a rule made with se-
crushed-fuel bunkers, fuel is transfer- the balanced draft scheme. stood as the highest load of th e boiler condary stearn superheating.
red by conveyers. Beginning from the The transport of air to the furnace in stable operation for a long time on B oiler preassembling. The time of
grinding mill, the resistance in the and of combustion products to the the s pecified fuel and with the rated construction and mounting o( boiler
fuel path is overcome by the head of atmosphere can be ensured by forced- parameters of s team and feed water. pl ants can be shortened appreciably
the fan· draft fans only, i.e. without induced- The steam-generating capacity of in- by making l arger (preassembled) hoi-
'
-the water-steam path, or circuit, draft fans (Fig. 1.9b). In that case, dustrially made boilers ranges within lor units at the manufactuiing works.
.is a system of series-connected ele- the furnace and gas ducts are under very wide limits . Preassembled units must match with.
men ts for the transport of water, steam- a certain excess pressure (supercharged). At present, power engineering in the dimensions of railway cars. Preas·
water mixture and superheated steam . For comparis on, Fig. 1.10 s hows the the USSR is b ased on th e use of b oi- sembled units are transported to the
The waler-steam circuit includes the pressure distribution in the g as-air path ler plants producing 1 000, 1 650 or boiler plant site to be mounted into a
2 650 t /h o£ steam of supercritical boiler. T he coof[icient of preassem-
parameters (pressure 25.5 MPa, steam bling, which is the ratio of the total
Forcl!ll·ilrort
fan superheating 545°C, intermediate su- mass of preassebled units to the whole
t
perheating 545°C} and having the ef- mass of a boiler plant , may be as h igh
Mill as 80-90%. The l argest d iHiculties
I D Steam boiler
- --
lnduCI!d-drart
ficiency of 92-94%. Such boilers sup-
ply steam lo turbines of a power respec- arise in manufacture of preassembled
fan Steam 6oiler tively of 300 , 500 or 800 MW. The lUlits of tho boiler structure. Preas-
( 6 ) ' - - - ----....J steam boil er and tho turbine consti- sembling places certain requirements
tu te a monobloc unit. R ecen tly a mo- on the b oiler des ign , since preassom·
Fig . 1.9. Diagrams of gas-air pa ths nobloc unit for a power of 1 200 MW bl ed units should s atisfy th e spe-
~a) pulverized coaHired bul a nced-drufL bollrr: (b) fue l oil-fired superchurgcd holler: ---fuel; - a ir:
J- primnry ui r; 11- S<•condnry u lr; - · - ·- · -co mbus t ion products.
with a boiler or a capacity of 3 950 t/h cial conditions of their transport and
has been put into op eration. At some mounting.
Download From Boilersinfo.com
•
22 Ch. 2. Power-producing Fuels and Their Characlerlsllcs 2.1. 1\irzds and Compositions of Fuels 23
Brown coal
PO,:VER-PRODUCING FUELS - 75 . /j : -5 ; 37- -
Coal § -
AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS .90 - :r: 4: .9 -
Anthracite ~ ~ §
9J 2 2 4
2.1. Ki nds and Compositions of Fuels diffusion plants to ra ise the concen-
tration of um to 1.5-3.5%, after
The development of power engineer- which it can be charged into nuclear Cru.de petroleum is a mixture of materials for various branches of na-
ing is directl y linked to the const- reactors. One kilogram of U 230 libe- -organic compou nds, including minor tional economy. On the other hand,
ruction of new thermal and nuclear ra tes on fission roughly 85 mln MJ -quantities of liquid su lphur and nit- the reserves of coal exceed 7'1% of
power stations, i.e. plant s operating of heat, which is equivalent to the rogen compounds, paraffins and re- the total expl ored reserves of fuel in
on organic or nuclear fu els. combustion of 3 500 l of coal with :sins. Upon dis tillation of I ighL It· ac- th o world and th erefore coals are the
Orga nic fuels are those which can the heating va ltto 24.5 MJ/kg. tions and oils (petrol , nnphta, kero- principal organic fuel.
generate subs tant.ial quantiti es of heat In the USSR, thet·mal power sta- :sene, gas oil, straw oi l), there remain Tile organic mass of solid and liquid
(per unit mass or unit volume) by tions consume roughly 40% of the viscous heavy fractions - fuel oil which fuels consis ts of a large number of
reacting with oxygen. total organic fuel. Coals, fuel oil is used as a liquid power-producing compl ex compounds of the pri ncipal
Organic fu els suitable for produc- and natural gas are tho predomin a nt -fuel. The m ineral impurities present five elements: carbon C, hydrogen H,
tion of l arge quantit ies of heat with kinds of organic fu el in their fu el in the crude petroleum are mainly oxygen 0, sulphur S, and nitrogen
a sufficien t economy are termed power- bal ance. The share of coals burned at -concentr ated in fu el oil. N. Besides, any fuel contains mineral
producing. Their reserves must be thermal power stations increases gra- Natural gases either form together impurities A, which enter the origi-
enormous and relati vel y easily ex- dually due to tho exploitation of new with petroleum or aro produced by nal bed mainly from the outside, and
plorable. Besides, they mus t be of coal fiel ds in Siberia and Northern synthesis in the presence of water and moisture W. For that reason, the
low v alue as starting materials for Kazakhstan . The consumption of fuel metal carbides at Large depths under chemical analysis of solid and liquid
other branches of industry. The most oil and natural gas is ap proximately the action of high pressure and tem- fuels is determined not in the terms
popul ar kinds of power-producing fuels at the same level as coal. Other k inds perature. In many cases, natural gas of their compounds, but as the total
employed at thermal power s tations of solid fu el , such as peat and oil shales, accompanies petroleum. This is what mass of chemical elements in 1 kg
are as follows: solid -coals and l ig- constitute only 6-7% of the total fuel j s called a casing-head gas; it can be of fuel, i.e. the elemental analysis of
nites and some products prepared consumption by thermal power sta- used as a power-producing fuel. a fuel is determined .
from them, anthracite and scmianth- tions. In new coal fi elds, l ess expen- Heplacement of solid fuels by li- One should d istinguish between the
r acite, liquid-fuel oil , and gaseous - sive opencast mining will be employed ·quid and gaseous improves the opera- following fiv o elemental masses of
natural gas. Peat, oil shal es, st abi- increasingly. ting conditions of power stations and fuels:
lized oil and industrial gaseous fuels All fossil fuels, i.e. solid fu els and -can decrease sensibly the cost of the working mass
(bl ast-furnace and coke-oven gas) are petr oleum, h ave formed in the process equipment and increase its efficiency. cw+Hw+Ow+Nw+S:,O+Aw+Ww= {00%
used to a lesser extent, though in of long transformation of the original For instance, the capi tal expendi tu-
(2. 1)
some regions of the country t hey con- vegetable mass and died-off animals res for the construction o[ a power sta-
stitute an appreciable share of the under a layer of earth or water. The tion to be fired with gas or fuel oil analytical mass
fu el balance. process occurred at, a different rate are lower by 20-24% than those for ca + lJo+Oa+Na+S~+ Aa+Wa = 1.00%
Of late, electric energy is produced as regards tho carburization of the a solid-fu el fired station of the same (2. 2)
more and more at nuclear power sta- fuel, i.e. increasing carbon concen- power. The efficiency of fuel oil-
tions which utilize the energy of nu- tration and decreasing cortcentrati on fired plants is 4% h igher (in terms dry (moisture-free) mass
clear fission of r adioactive heavy me- of oxygen and hydt·ogen (Fig . 2.1). of electric energy produced) than th at C<I+Hd + O'L+Nd+S~ +A<' = 100%
tals: uranium (U 235 ) and plutonium The degree of carburization, which <>f a solid-fuel fired plant. (2. 3)
(Pu 239). The richest uraniu m ore, ura- characterizes the dopt.h of chemical The exp lored reserves of natural resolved combustible mass
ninite, contains 65-90% of uranium transformations in fu el (which is cal- gases and petroleu m are however li-
dioxide UOz in which only 0.72% led t he chemical a.ge of fuel) is not de- mited and constitute only 6% of the CC+ II•+O•+N•+S~=iOO % (2.4)
falls on radioactive U 235 and the ba- term ined directly by its geological age, total world r eserves of organic fuel. and organic mass
lance is the common U 238 • The ori- i.e. the duration of carburization pro- Besides, n atural gases and petroleum
gin al nuclear fuel is processed in gas- cess. a re of the highest value as starting c o+ Jio+ Oo+ No + So =1.00 % (2.5)
24
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 2. Power-producing Fuel1 and Their Characteristics 2.2. Characteristics of Fuels 25
and Coke residue Fig. 2.2. Diagram of elemental ana- butane ClH10 , etc.) which are often The higher heaLing value of solid
lysis of solid fuel written generally as CmHn (1-6%). and liquid fuels can be determined
Kon·com6usli6le experimentally by burning a sample
Volatiles muss _Besides, natural gas contains minor
quantities of non-combustibles: nit- of fuel in a calorimetric apparatus.
rogen N 2 (1-4%) and carbon dioxide The h eating value of fuels can be
cot (0.1.-0.2%). d etermined approximately from their
elemental analysis.
In this respect, the most simple and
2.2. The Healing Value and Resolved accurate are Mendeleev's formulae
I mass
Characteristics of Fuels
The quantity of heal liber ated on
combustion of n unit m ass or volume
which contain empirically found coef-
fici ents for various combustible ele-
ments. For instance, the formula for
determining the lower beating value
of fuel is the principal thermal cha-
The work ing mass of fuel is the of a fuel. The former includes moisture racteristic of fu els, called the heating, of the working m ass of solid and li-
mass in the form it is delivered to and mineral matter and the latter or calorific, value. One should di- quid fuels is as follows:
the plant. The consumption of fuel incl udes oxygen and nitrogen which st inguish between the upper and lower Q'{' = 339Cw + 1 030Hw
and the vol umes of combustion pro- enter the original organic matter. heating val ue. The upper heating value - 109 (OW - SID) - 25WU' (2.8)
ducts formed are calcul ated in terms Combustible elements in fuel are caT- Qu is the quantity of heat l.iberate~
of the working m ass. The working bon, hydrogen and sulphur, with carbon on combustion of 1 kg of sohd or li- where C"', H "' , etc. aro the concentra-
fuel upon grinding to pulverized state being the principal combustible ele- quid or 1 m 3 of gaseous fuel under the tions of elements in the working mass
and when dried in laboratory to ment. It has a h igh beating value (34.1 conditions that water vapours are of fu el, %. For gaseous fuels, if !h ei r
the air-dry slate, loses the free mois- MJ /kg) and constitutes the major por- condensed and the combustion pro- analysis is known exactly, the heattag
ture, and its mass is then called tion of the working mass of fuel (50-75%
analytical. The r emaining moisture in solid fuels and 83-85% in fuel
in fuel, wa, which is combined in the oils). Hydrogen has a very high hea-
I ducts are cooled to 0°C. The lower
healing value Q1 differs from tho up-
per heat.ing value by the heat of ev~
value of 1 m 3 of dry gas can be deter-
mined by the formula:
original substance, is more often cal- ting value (120.5 1\0/kg), but its con- poration of the moisture present m
Q1 = +
0.01 (Qa2 H 2 QcoCO
led hygroscopic moisture, i. e. wa = tent in solid fuels is not high (Hw = the fu el and the moisture formed on + Qca,CH 4 + Qc,a,C2 Ha+ ... ) (2 .9)
= W h. = 2-4%) and is somewhat higher combustion of hydrogen. In power where H 2 , CO, CH 4 , C2H&, etc. are
l Upon h eating of fuel to 102-105°C, in liquid fuels (10-11%). Sulphur plants, moisture of the combustion the volume concentrations of com-
all its moisture evaporates, thus leav- has a low heating value (9.3 MJ/kg} products remains in a vaporized state bustible gases in fu el, % , and Qa,
ing the dry mass of fuel. The combus- and is present in fuels in minor quan- and the heat consumed for ·its evapo- Qco. Qca,, Qc,a•• etc. are their hea-
tible mass of fuel includes the ele- tities (S10 = 0.3-4%) and for that rat ion is lost. With a higher moisture ling values, kJ/m3 .
content of fuel, Q1 is lower.
l
ments of the origina.I organic matter reason is of low value as a combusti- Steam boilers of the same steam-
and the su lphur of inorganic combu- ble element. The presence of sui phur The lower heating value, kJ /kg, generating capacity can consume w_ide-
stible compounds (for instance, py- oxides in combustion products in- can be found by the formula : ly different quantities of fuel, s•nce
rite FeS,); for that reason, it is cal- creases the risk of corrosion of metallic Ql = Qu - Qw (2 ..6} the heating value of various fuel s may
led the resolved combustible mass. heating surfaces and in certain con- ;
vary within wide limits. For compa-
In equations (2.1) to (2.4), S., is the centr ations may be dangerous to ve- In the general case, the heat of rison o[ the efficiency of various po-
volatile sulphur, i.e. the sum of pyri- getation and animals; this necessi- moisture condensation, k J/kg, · is: wer plants and for simpler calcula-
te sulphur and organic sulphur which tates measures fqr the collection of sul-
can be oxidized in the boiler furnace: phur from waste gases. According to Qw = 2 500 ( :~ + ~) =22SH+25W tions of the combustion of various
fuel s , the concept of reference fuel
S., = Sp +So. their sulphur content, fuel oils are (2.7) has been introduced. It is a cond itio-
The organic mass of fue·l is essential- divided into low-sulphur (Sw < nal fuel whose heating value is Q, =
! y its combustible mass plus pyrite < 0.5%), medium-sulphur (Sw = 0.5- where H and W are the concentrations
of hydrogen and m oisture, %, and = 29 .33 MJ /kg (7 000 kcal /kg).
sulphur. Apart from the two kinds 2%) and h igh-sulphur (S"' > 2%) gra- The consumption of various kinds
of sulphur mentioned, there is also des. 2 500 is the heat of condensation of
I 1 kg of moisture at atmosph eric pres- of fuel at power plants can b e calcu-
the sulphate sulphur S. which enters In contrast to solid and liquid fuels, 1a ted in terms of the reference fuel
the composition of higher oxides (such gaseous fuels are mechanical mixtur·es
as CaSO,) and cannot be fur ther oxi- of combustible and non-combustible
dized in combustion. The various gases. Nat ural gases consist pref~rabl y
I sure, kJ/kg.
When finding the l ower heating
value for other masses of (uel, except
by the formula:
B, = BQ,
Q'f
(2.10)
m asses of solid fuel are shown dia- of methane CH 6 (up to 90-96%) , witl't for the analytical and working mass,
grammatically in Fig. 2.2. It should minor quantities of heavier hydrocar- formula (2.7) becomes simpler be- wh ere B r and B aro the consumption
be distinguished between the external bons (ethane C1 11 6 , propane C3 H8 , cause the moisture term is excluded: of the r eference fuel and natural fuel,
and internal ball~t in the composition Qw = 225 H respectively.
26
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 2. Power-producing Fuels and Their Characteristics 2.3. Technical Characteristics of Solid Fuels 27
The method of expressing the ele- sive characteristics of fuel s whi ch, Fig. 2.3. Cone test of ash
mental analysis of fuels and theii apart from the heating value, include J- hcro re heati ng; Z-bcglnning or dcror-
mntlon; J -sortenin((; 4-lluld state
external ballast (moisture and ash the ash content, mois ture content,
content) as percentage of the ori- the yield of volatiles, etc.
g inal mass of burned fuel is used wide- Ash content. Mineral impurit ies are
ly in power engineering. This me- present in all kinds of solid fuol.
thod, however, is not always conve- Their major portion is not associated
nien t for the analysis of operating with the org,a nic mass of fuel. As l'e-
~onditions of steam boilers. For in- g ards their origin, mineral impurities increasi ng temperatu re. Tho melting Lion of the air basin . In th at case,
stance, as the external ballast. of a can be divided i nto internal which temperature of ash is determined by the s peeds of gases in convective ducts
fuel increases, the heating value of accumulate in fuel bods in the course the standard con e t est, i. e. a .cono of of boilers are reduced to avoid abra-
the fuel becomes lower, and therefore, of fuel formation and external which s tandard sizo is pressed from ash and sion weat· of tubes , while depositi on o£
more fuel must be burned to maintain pass into the fuel from the surroun- placed into a furnace (Fig. 2.3). Du- ash particles on the h eating s urfaces
the same steam-generating capacity ding gangue during exploitation. ri ng h eaLing , the following characte- impairs the cond it ions o£ heat trans-
of I he boiler . As a result, the mass As fuel is burned, its mineral com- ristic temperatures are marked: for. As a resu l t. , the boiJor plant beco-
of the ballast en loring t.he furnace ponents are subjected to high -tom- t 1 is the beginning of d eformation , mes too bulky in design.
increases much more appreciably t,han perature transformations. Complex m i- when the sha pe of the cone starts The yield of volatiles and coke resi-
the fuel cons umption, which can form neral compounds of Ute type of clays ·changing, t , = 1 000-1 200°C; due. If a sa mple of dry solid Iuel
intolerable condilions for boiler ope- Al20 3 ·2Si0z·2H 2 0, felds pars K 2 0· t~ is softening, when tho top of the is placed into a cruci ble and heated
ration . Thus, the percentage of moi- · Al20u · 6Si0 2 , s ulphates and carbo- cone drops to the base or assumes a gradually in an inert medium without
sture, ash or su lphur in fuel is not nates CaSO 4 • 2H 2 0 · CaMg(C0 3 ) 2 , etc. ·dropl et-like shape, t~ = 1100-1ll00°C; air, i ts mass will decrease. At high
sufficient to characterize the valua- are destroyed and partly afteroxidi- and tern per a tures, oxygon-couta i ning mo-
b ilit.y of a fuel. zed by atmos pheric oxygen . The resi- t 3 is the fluid state, when as h beg i ns lecules of the fu el dissociate and form
The mass consumption of fue ls bur- due r emaining af ter t he combustion of to spread ove1· the plane base, t 3 = gaseous s ubsta nces which arc called
ned in steam boilers can be characte- fuel, i.e. ash, consis ts mainl y of a = 1 200-1 500°C. volatiles (CO, 11 2 , CJI 4 , C0 2 , etc.).
rized more reliably by relating the number of oxides: Si0 2 , Al 20 3 , Fe 20 3 , The basic characteris tic of slag is The evolution of volatiles from solid
concentration of chemical clements and CaO, MgO, K 2 0, Na 2 0 and its mass its v iscosi t. y. fu els takes place in the temperature
ballas t, per cen t , to the unit of the turns out, on the average, to be 10% Mol ten slag, if i l is in an actual range 110-1 100°C. The hig hest yield
lower heating value, 1 MJ , which is s maller than the original mineral mass liquid state, flows freely along a ver- (up to 95%) occUIS at a temperature
called the resolved characteristic of fuel. of fuel. The percentage of the ash re- tical or inclir1ed wall when its vis- near 800°C (Fig. 2 .4). For that rea-
The resolved moisture content, ash sidue r elative to unit mass of original ·cosity is less than 200 P (poise). The son , the yield of volatiles fro m solid
~ontent and sulphur content (%·kg/ fuel is called the ash content. temperature of mol ten slag at which fuels is determined conditionally as
/MJ) are determined by the formulae: The properties of ash play an .i m- i t can now out freely from a hole is the decrease of the mass of fuel sam-
W' = ww S' = sw portant part in the operation of a -called the temperat ure of normal I i- ple upon holding it in a crucible at
Qf , Q7 steam boiler. Finest solid particles of quid slag removal, tsr- The tempe- t = 850 ± 25°C for 7 min utes, rela-
ash are entrained by tho flow of furn ace rature of fus ion of as h and the typical ted to the combust ible mass of fu el,
(2.11) vc %.
gases and carried off from the furnace; -coefficients of viscosity can be found
For instance, with the same ori- this is what is caJled fly ash. Another from tables of power- producing fuels.
ginal s ulphur content (S"' = 3%) of part of ash is melted in the flame core In burning, the major portion of yc
fuel oil (Ql" = 39 MJ /kg) and brown and drops to the fumace bottom or mineral composition of fuol is trans- 50 - 1,- -
coal (Q't' = 12 MJ/kg), the mass of
sulphur oxides car-ried off with com-
s Licks to the s urrounding f urnace walls formed into fine fl y ash which is car-
/ ~
and forms slags on solidification, i.e. ried off by the gas flow. In furn aces 40
bus t,ion products is in th e latter case
3.25 t imes h igher, according to the
solid solutions of minerals whose corn-
posi tion may differ from that of fly
·operating un der different th ermal con-
·d iti ons of combustion and slag remo- JO
/
r atio of the resolved sulphur con tents :
S' = 0.077 of fuel oil and S' = 0.25
ash.
Of special importance fot· the fuol
val, the amount o£ fly as h carry-o ver,
CLc, may range from 0.85-0.95 to 20 II
I --- -
~
,_~
of brown coal. combus tion process are the fusibil i l.y •0.2-0.-1. The rema ining pot·tion drops 2
characteris tics of as h. Tho mel Ling down onto tho furnace bottom as s lag to _,........... J I
2.3. Technical Characteristics points of vat"ious minerals and th eir and is removed therefrom: a 3 1 = - -l
0
of Solid F uels alloys d iffer widely, ranging from = 1 - ac. ·w ith a higher ash con- . 4/JO 500 800 fOOO •c
600° to 2 900°C. For that r eas on , ash ten t of fu el and a higher concentra-
Efficient combus tion of fuels in is not melted at a fixed temperature, l ion of fly ash in furnace gases , more Fig. 2.4. Evolution of vola tiles depending
steam boil ers requires knowledge and but is softened gradually and changes intrica te and expens ive as h-collecting on tern peru ture
correct account of a number of deci- / - brown coal; 2- lean con i; J- ant11racit c; 4 -
from the solid to liquid s ta te with ·devices are needed to prevent poilu- ultimalc yield or volatiles lor particular tue l
Download From Boilersinfo.com 2.4. Characteristics of Fuel Oll and Natural Gases 29
28 Ch. 2. Power-prodrlclng Fuels and Their Characteristics
Grading of solid fuels. Solid fuels are F12), while medium and heavy grades
Since the yield of volatiles is deter- contact with water and remains on grad ed mainly according to their mois- are used as furnace fuel in boilers
mined in the first place by the con- its surface due to wetting. Its magni- t ure content in the working mass and other stationary power plants and
centrat ion of oxygen in fuel, it is tude depends on the particle size of ·(brown coals) or the yield of v olatiles in process plants. Depending on their
higher in 'yo unger' fuels (Fig. 2. 1). fuel and the external conditions du- (coals). For instance, brown coals ~re viscosity and other physical characte-
For instance, the yield of volatiles is ring transport and storage. Cellular, divided into th ree groups: B1 w1th ristics, furn ace fuel oils are subdivi-
y c = 45-50% from brown coals, 25- or capillary, moisture is determined moisture content W "' up to 40% ; ded into the following grades: high-
I 40% from coals, and only 3-4% from by the porosity of fu el structure. It B2 with ww= 30-40%, and B3 wit.h quality fuel oils 40V and 100V and
I anthracites.
The solid combustible residue re-
is most pronoun ced in peat.
A high ' moisture content in t he
working mass of fuel may cause se-
ww less than 30% . The grading of
coals is based on the yield of volatiles
furnace fu el oils 40 and 100 (40V and
tOOV are heavy grades of fuel oil) [9 1.
maining upon evolution of volatiles and the characteristics of coke (Table Viscosity of fuel oils is measured
is called coke. It may be either dense rious difficulties in fuel combustion. 2.1). .- in units or kinematic v iscosity (cen-
(sintered) or loose (powdered). In air, It decreases the heating value of fu - F ine fractions of fuel (screenings) tistokes, eSt) or iu degrees of Engler
coke ignites at a temperature of 900- el , increases fuel consumption and which remain after screening of the viscosity (0 E) as measured in an En-
12000C. Volatiles evolving from the fu- the v olume of combustion products, produced fu el are additionally graded gler viscometer by.the time of ~l ow of
el ensure earlier ignition of coke, since and involves higher h eat losses with by a letter that shows their parl.icle a portion of fuel 01l from a calibrated
they can ignite at a lower tempera- waste gases and greater energy con- size for instance: Sh - fractions from hole at standard tem perature (80°C
ture t han the coke residue (350- sumption for driving the induced- • •
for heavy fu el oils). F or normal trans-
6 mm and less; SSh- fract10ns from
600oC) and thus raise quickly the tem- draft fans. An elevated moisture 13 rom and Jess; R - ord inary (un- portation through pipelines and for
perature of coke particles. Their ef- conten t of furnace gases can cause screened) fu el, etc. fino atomization of fuel oil in burners,
fect is especially strong at the initi- s tronger corrosion of metal in the ils Engler viscosity should be within
al stage of fu el burn ing . Fuels wiLh a air h eater and increase contamina- 2-3.5°E. The viscosity of fuel oil hea-
higher yield of volatil es ignite mor e tion of the h eating surfaces. Wet fu - 2.4. Technical Characteristics vily depends on temperature (Fig.
quickly and burn more completely. el is sticky, which involves difficul- of Fuel Oil and Natural Gases 2.5). Its variations with temperature
Moistu re content. It is distinguished ties in its transport and preparation, The q uality of fu el oil has·groat ef- are due to the presence of paraffinic
between the adv entitious, adsorbed, and besides, it can congeal in winter fect on its combustion in boiler fur- hydrocarbons in fuel oil. For easy trans-
cellular, and inh eren t moisture. All t ime. The effect of tho sulphur pre- naces and the scheme of fuel oil pre- portation in pipes and for norm al
kinds of moisture, except for inherent sent in fuel on the boiler operation paration and supply to a power sta- operation of fuel oil pumps, the tem-
moisture, are removed from fuel on will be discussed in the section to fol- t ion. perature of fuel oil should be mainta-
lI heating to 102-105°C. The inherent,
or hydr ate, moisture is firmly bonded
with the mineral por tion of fuel and
low. Viscosity. Viscosity is ~ one of the
principal technical characteristics of
ined near 60-70°C .
Rheologic properties. At low tem-
peratures (10-25°C) viscous fuel oils
Table 2.1. Grading or Coals f uel oils and the basis for their gra-
enters the composition of crystals of ding. Fuel oils ar e divided into light, can stick to the surfaces of vessels,
I the substance.
Solid fossil fuels con tain mostly ad-
sorbed moisture which is determined
Coal type -
.,.."""
~
Yield or
volatil es,
V" , %
Chu ractcrls tic
or coke
residue
medium and heavy grades. Light
grades include marine fu el oils (F5 and
pipes, etc. and remain on them in a
l ayer whose thickness is greater with
a::>
by the adsorptivity of complex col- F ig. 2.5. Effect of temperature on tOO
loids of the organic mass of fuel . The t he viscosity or fuel oil 500 60
high est adsor ptivity is exhibited by Long-flarno D 36 and Powdered, 400
peat, brown coals and some younger
coals. Th e adsorptivity of a fuel de-
coal more poorly sin to
red
JOO
200
40 ('...
]0 It'-' I" t\.
Fiery coal G 36 and - 150 zo I'\
termines its hygroscopic moisture con-
tent Wh. This moisture characteri-
zes indirectly the age of fu el: it is lo-
Fiery fat
coal
Fat coa l
GZh
Zh
more
31-37
2'•-37
-
-
~ 100 . l5
-.;;.. 80 10
.[ 60 .,., 8
"'"' r--..
I'.)',.
MfOO
I'\ AffOOV
K "'
Leaned cu- 14-27 t\.
the admissible moisture content of ·~ 20 J r-._ ......
pulverized coal to avoid sticking of
king coal
Low-caking ss 17-37 Poorly SID- ~ 15 '
"
tered, pow-
2.5 r--.. r-._ r-._ ~'
particles (at an excessive moisture coal
content) or explosion of overdried de red "'E:~ 2 - - r--.. r--..
dust.
Lean con i T 9-17 Poo rly sin-
tered, pow- ·-
"' 10
50 50 70 80 90 tOO 110 120 fJO 0 'C
"
t'-. 1'\t'
The adventitious, or mechanically do red
retained moisture appears in fuel upon
30
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 2. Po roer-producing Fuels a nd The ir Characteristics 2.5. Matn Deposits of Fossil Fuels 31
a lower temperature. T his effect is W hen petroleum is processed, the ma- Fig. 2.0. Igni tion ranges of gas-air
due to the rheologic property of fuel jor portion of sulphur compounds mix lures at 20°C (p = 0.1 MPa) Bas Ff/.rmulo InfLo.,mmabililglimits,
oil , i. e. to the rearrangemen t in the
%by volume
(70-90%) passes to h igh-boiling fra -
structure of hydrocarbon molecu les ctions which are the main components Hgdrogen Hz
which takes place on a decrease of tem- of fuel oil. During combustion of fuel f:Jtf/r1de CH
perature. Sticking of fuel oil is avoi- oil or solid fuel, su l phur is oxidized Methane
ded by heating H to a temperature of to so~ and a minor portion of i t can
70°C or more. form the higher oxide 80 3 (if the1·e is [!IIane
Density. The densi ty of fuel oils en ough oxygen in the combustion Propane
is usually measured in relative uni ts, zone), which forms a corrosive medium ButontJ
i.e. as tho ratio of the fuel oil density on low-temperature healing surfaces.
to the density of water at 20°C which The content of sulphur in fuel oils is Elhglene C2 H~ 117.7.'77: '7A
is p 20 = 0.99-1.06. Wi th an i ncrease roughly the same as in solid fuels Acetglene C2H2 I P'Z "// ' / // '//. '// /"/, '////
of temperature, the density of fuel (Sw = 0.5-3%),' but the corrosive ab i-
oils decreases and can be found by tho lity of the gaseous medium that forms
formula: Na/urul gas
on the combustion of fuel oil is seve-
P:o r al Li mes higher. Th is is due to t he IOlust·rurnau
gas 1'/ ///. '//, /"//,'1
Pt =1 -H1 (t - 20) (2.12) fact that, unlike fuel oil , solid fue ls Coke·oYen gus V///////-
where Pt • p20 is the relative density of con t ain certain components in t he ash
fu el oil at a given temperature and at which can neutralize acid med ia. 0 20 40 liiJ 80
20°C and ~ is the coefficient of vol ume Jlolvme propor tion Of !l_OS
Congelation temperatu re . T he con- ifl !JOS·oir mixture, %
expansion of fuel oil on heati ng gelation temperature of petroleum pro-
by 1°C; for fuel oils, ~ = (5.1-5.3) X ducts is the te mperatu re at which they
X 10 - 4 • become so thick that. remai n in pl ace
Ash content:. During processing of and do not flow out for 1 mi nute from Density. Almost a ll kinds of gaseous flammab ility Jim i t, a gas-air m i xt.ure
crude petroleum, the mineral impuri- a test gl ass inclined at 45°. High- fuel are l ighter th an air, so that esca- burns without explosion .
ties present in it a1·c mainJy concen- sulphur fuel oils with a high concentra- ped gases may coll ect under roofs. Be- Toxici ty. Tox icity is t he ability of
trated in heavy fractions and especial- tion of paraffins (Grades M-100 and fore firing a boiler, i t is essential to gases to poison the living organisms.
ly in fuel oil. The ash residue remained M-100V) are characterized by a high check that there are no gases in places l n that respect, carbon monoxide CO
upon com bustion of fuel oil is not congelation tern perature (25-35°C). of their probable accumulation. Va- and hydrogen sulphide H 2 S are most
large, not more than 0. 1 % of the dry T he congel ation temperature of fuel rious gases are compared by using the dangerous.
mass. Fuel oil ash is ch aracter ized by oil should be considered properly concept of rel ative gas density which Since all components in natural gas
a certain content of vanadium whose when sel ecting the schemo of its tran- is the r atio of the density of a gi ven are intermixed evenly, the concentra-
concentration may be as high as 50% s port and storage. gas u nder standard conditions (0°C, t ion of harmful gases in air can be de-
or even mo1·e. F lash point. T he flash point is the 1 015 Pa) t o the density of air: termined by the pres ence of methane
Moisture content. Fuel oils usu ally tem perature at which a rnixttue of whose concen tration is measured by
contain 1-3% water. T heir moisture fuel oil vapours and air can be igni- (2.13) methanomeler. The test determines
content can rise substantially (up to ted when it comes in contact with an the explosiveness of the gas mixture.
10-15%) in tho course of f uel oil pre- open fl ame. Fuel oil grades used at where Pg and Pa are the densities of Almost all natural gases are odourless.
healing before pouring it from tank power stations have a flash point of gas and air respectivel y under stan- For easier detection of gas leakages
cars, owing to the condensation of low- 90-140°C, while h igh- par affiu ic fue l dard conditions, kg/m 3 . and taking proper safety measures, na-
pressure s team which is used for hea- oil may have a l ower fl ns h poin t, (up Explosive ness. A mixture of a gas tural gas is odoured before pum pi ng
t ing. A small concentration of mois- to 60°C); the fl ash point, of crude and air i n a certain proport ion can ex- i nto a gas pipeline, i.e. a s ubst ance
ture i n fuel oil is favourable for ils petr oleum is only 20-40°C. In order pl ode when in contact w ith open fl ame having a strong smell is added to it .
atomization i n burners and i mproves to av oid fire hazard, prehe:H i ng of 01· even a spark, i. e. it igni tes and
t he in flamma bil ity ch arac teristics. f uel oil in open systems s hou ld be car- burns at a speed near the velocity of
W ith an elevated concen tration of r ied out at tem per atures below i ts sound propagation. Explosive con- 2.5. Maio Deposits of F ossil Fuels
moisture, there is a h igh risk of cor- fl ash point and in all cases, no t. above centr ations of combus tible gasos i n a ir
rosion of convective heating su rfaces; 95°C to p revent boili ng of the mo is tu- d epend on the composition and pro- Fossil solid fuels a re dist ributed nvor
this also increases t he loss of heal with re ·which may be presen t in th e bu l k of perties of a particul ar gas (Fig. 2.6). t,he USSR terri tory extremel y un-
combustion products. fuel oil . In concentrations below the l ower li- even ly. The most developed ind ustri-
S ulphur conte nt. Petroleum and so- The basic technical characteri!'t ics m it of in.flammability (explosiveness), all y regions in the European part of
lid fuels contain sulphur in the form o[ natural gases are dens ity, ox plos i· a gas-air mixture cannot burn. In the country aTe not rich in fuel. Of
of complex sulphur compounds. veness and toxicity. concentrations above the upper in- greatest impor tance here is the Do-
32
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at Powcr..Stations 3.1. Met hods of Sollo l•'uel Combustion 33
----------------
netsk coal basin which possesses va- fuel of a high .heating value (around Fuel
,
/
rious grades of coal and anthracite, · 29.3 MJ/kg). Air
\''' .·.· ...
but its reserves can no more satisfy Petroleum fields in Tyumen di-
I
/
... . 0
·. . .. . : I
0 0
the growing demand. Besides, coal strict are being exploited intensi- I :. ·: 0 ' ;I
0 '•
I.. .. . .. . I
seams are thin and deep-lying which vely. The production of petroleum and :.
1r'· · .:' /.lJf •<·_.° ' IJ
0 0 •• '•: 0
The main mass of coals is concen- about 50% of the total production in ',.. :.···:r.:·. .......:·:·-i
I·.".
~
. : ...·., ._:_
~ ~
..::·.-·.
...:.:: ...
trated in the Central and West Sibe- the country.
ria and Kazakhstan. These coals are Natural gas fields have been found Fuel /
:·
·:·./
:. ·.:. :,
·.·....·:....:..
.. ~ . . . . ·. ;
. . 0 .,
cheaper than Donetsk coal, notwith- in various regions of the country, the
l Airt
_;
~-....:.~·
Air
standirlg the costs required to trans- most widely known being the Shebe- 1'
port them to the European regions. l inskoe, Dashavskoe and Gazliyskoe. 0.
Further, there are Iarge reserves of Of late, unique gas fields have been Motten stag-
brown coals in the Kansko-Achinsky found and are being exploited inten-
basin (Central Siberia), with power- sively in Turkmenistan, South Urals (a) (6) (c)
ful shallow-lying seams which can be and Tyumen district (Shatlykskoe,
Fig. 3.1. Diagrams of combustion of solid fuels
produced profitably by open cast te- Orenburgskoe, Medvezhye, Urengoi- (a) !lame combustion; (b) cyclone combustion; (c) fluidized-bed combustion
chnique; this is the cheapest fuel in skoe, Yamburgskoe). The gas reser-
the USSR. Similar characteristics ves in these fields constitute almost
have Ekibastuz coals (East Kazakh- 50% of the total explored reserves of
stan). Kansko-Achinsky brown coals natural gas in the country. Large re- over by the flow and burn off more sfer from incandescent fu el particles
will be processed by a complex techno- serves of gas and petroleum have been quickly. The cyclone method permits to heat-absorbing sur[aces, though the
logy into valuable chemical products, discovered in Komi autonomous di- the combustion of coarse coal dust temperature of gases in the burning
brown-coal fuel oil and coke breeze, a strict. and even crushed coal. A cyclone fur- bed remains at a relatively low level
nace develops a higher temperature (800-'1 000°C), which prevents the me-
with the result that the slags are remo- tal from overheating and d iminishes
ved in the molten state (slagging- the concentration of harmful nitrogen
t.ype furnace). oxides in combustion products . In
In recent times, a new combustion addition, this method of combustion
method has come into use in the field makes i t possible to introduce solid
o[ power engineering called fluidized- additions (say, limestone) into the
bed combustion (Fig. 3.1c). Solid fuel , bed in order to neutralize the" sul-
ground to a particle size of 1-6 rom, phur oxides that form on combus- '
is placed onto a grate and blown from tion.
FUEL PREPARATION AT POWER STATIONS beneath with an air flow at such speed Large power stations consume as
I that the fuel pal'Licles are li fted above much as 1 000 t coal per hour or more.
! 3.1. Methods of Solid Fuel Combustion suspended state in the furnace space.
the grate and are reciprocated in the
vertical plane. In this process, the
E ven when delivered in cars of a large
load-carrying capacity (60-125 t), 15-
T his is what is called flame combusti- speed of the gas-air flow within the 30 cars of fuel must be unloaded eve-
Solid fuel combustion in boiler fur- on (Fig. 3 .1a). In this method, fine fluid ized bed is higher than above it. ry hour, which is only possible with
naces can be effected by various me- particles of fuel are easily moved by The fine• and partially burned parti- the use of highly efficient car dum-
thods: flame combustion, cyclone com- the flow of air and combustion pro- cles rise into the upper portion of the pers.
bustion, or fluidized-bed combustion ducts through the section of the fur- fluidized bed where the flow velocity The process of pulverization, i.e.
(Fig. 3.1). Flame combustion is the nace. Combustion takes place in the decreases , and there they burn comple- transformation of lumpy fuel into
roost popular in modern power engi- furnace space within a rather short tely. In operation, the fluidized bed dus~. includes two stages (see Sec. 1.3).
.
neenng. time of the presence of the particles increases in volume by 1.5-2 times; In the first stage, raw fuel is crushed
The classification of combustion in the furnace (1-2 s). The rate of fue l its thickness is usually 0.5-1 m. to a particle size of not more than 15-
methods is based on the aerodynamic burning, and therefore, the amount Heat absorbing surfaces in the form 25 rom. The crushed fuel is then deli-
characteristic of the process which de- of heat evolved in time, depend on of in-lin e or staggered tube bundles vered into raw coal bunkers and tran-
termines the conditions of contact of the combus~ion surface. are arranged in and above the volume sferred to grinding mills where it is
the burning fuel with an oxidant [58). In cyclone combustion, fuel particles of the fluidized bed. The unit heat ground to a final particle size of no
The capacity of a furnace can be ac- go through intensive turbulent motion absorption within the fluidized bed greater than 500 !LID. During gri nding,
tually increased without limit by bur- (Fig. 3.1b). In contrast to flame com- increases substantially due to the in- the fuel is dried by hot air to ensure
ning pulverized coal (coal dust) in a bustion, the fu el particles are blown t ensive conductive (contact) heat tran- it has good dust fluidity.
3-015 2 4
34
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at Power Sta tions 9.2. Pulverization Sy3rcm.• 35-
more efficien l economically. especiall y the use of hot 11 ir only for fuel dryiug s upply can easily be automatically con-
3.2. Pulverization Systems troll ed . . .
when moist brown con I is pulveri zed, becomes economically inefficient and
The pul verizalion system is a com- but their equi pment is more intri- fu el combustion becomes unstable since The puhcrization syslem with closed
bination of equ i pment in which solid cate and ex pensive, and. in addition to the greater portion of puhcrizcd fu el 'drying an~ intermediate dust bun-
fuel is ground, dried and La nsf erred this, they are not sufficient I y rei iable fu el enters the combustion zone at a ke r (Fig. 3.3). ,A characteristic feature
to the burnCI·s of a boiler furnace. in operat ion. I nd i\'idu al systems reduced temp~raturc. I n such a case, of this system is that the prepared
By the method of delivery of pul- arc simpler and more rei iable and are fuel is dried by a higher-temperature pulverized fuel is separated from the
verized fu el to the furnaces; ·pul veri- widely employed by power stat ions agent, say, by mixing the primary air trans porting air i n a eyclone. The dust
zation systems can bo divided in to [29]. with a part of the furnace gases. is directed into an in termediate bun-
central and individual. In the former In dividual pul verizat ion systems If the pulverization system is ri- ker from which it is fed b y special
case, the system is .arranged in a se- can be subdivided into the fo llowing gidl y connected with the bo'iler, it feeders into ·pulverized fuel pipelines.
parate building (ceritral coal pulveri- ty pes: closed systems whid1 di rectl y should satisfy more stringent requi- The mois tened air at the exit from
zing plant) whore coal is pvlverized blow dust into the furnace s pace, clo- rements as regards the reliability of t.he cyclone hap a temperature of
on a centralized basis and Lhen die . sed systems with an i nter mediate its operation. The number of instal- 80-100°C and contains 10-15% of the
s tribu ted thro ugh pipelines between dust bunker, open syst e m~ which use led grinding mills must bo no less fin est coal .dust. This air cannot be
the boilers of the s t.alio n . In the lat- hot air as a dust carrier . The type of than three and the number of m ills disch arged through the stack and for
ter case, each boi ler is provided with system (either closed or open) is de- in operation minus one mi ll mus t en- this reason it is blown by the mill ex-
i ts own pulveri zing eq uipm en t, with termined by the way in whid1 tho dry- sure at least 90% of the rated load of haus ter into the primary air duct to
certain prov isions being made to tran- ing agent is utilized upon fuel dry iug . the boiler. Hence the productivity of be distributed among the pulverized
sfer th o pul vorized fuel to neighbou- In a closed system, it is directed in to a mill, Bm, should be: fuel pipelines {Fig. 3.3a). The number
ring boi le rs so ns to in crease t he relia- the furnace together wit h dried pul - of pulverized-fuel pipelines and dust
bility of t.h c fu el suppl y. verized fuel; in an open system, the feede rs is eq ual to the number of bur-
T he selecti on of a partic ular pul- drying agent is carefully c.lcanod from ners in Lhe boiler furnace.
,·eri zalion system for a power station fu el fines and ejected into tho s ta ck , where Bb is the fuel consumption by Due to the provision of the inter-
presents a co mplicated technico- bypassing the boil er furn ace. the boiler at the rated load, kg/s, mediate bunker, there is no need to·
economical probl em. Cen tralized pul- The pulverization system with closed and zm is the number of ins talled m ills match the productivity of the mill
vel'izalion sys tems turn ou t to be fuel drying and direct dus t blowing belonging to the boiler. with that of the boiler, thus each on
into the furnace. Crushed fuol is Upon exi ting from the m ill sepa- them can operate at the optimal load_
delive red from the coal bunker by a rator, fuel dust is divided between The mill exhauster forms a negative-
coal feeder into a g l'inding mill 2-4 pulverized fuel pipelines which pressure in the system, which avoids
(Fig . 3.2). Hot air at a tem perature are connected with different, not ad- dust ej ection to the surroundings. AUt
to t 1, 0 = 250-400°C is also fed into the jacent, burners. This is done in order inleakage through places where the-
1--..., mill in order to dry the fu el and tran- to avoid an uneven temperature d i- system is in contact with the surroun-
sfer i t further to the boiler furn ace bur- stribution in th e furnace space should ding atmosphere {raw coal chutes,
ners. This is what is called primary the mill he stopped for re pairs. dust chutes downstream of the cyclone)'
air. Coarse fractions of pul verized In the scheme of Fig . 3.2 the resi- is prevented by m eans of flapper
fu el a re separated in a sepa rato r, af- stance in the pulverized fuel path from val ves which open only for a short
ter which the fuel and ait· {which has the mill to the burners is overcome by time to allow the mass of fuel that has
been moistened by the moisture of the. head developed by the forced- accumulated on a valve to pass through.
II
fuel) are supplied at a temperature of draft fan, so that the pulverization In the combustion of low-active-
18
fJ
80-130°C through pulverized fu el pi- system operates under a slightly ex- fuels with a low yield of volatiles~
f§ pelines to the furn ace burners. T he cessive pressure (stLpercharged); the the temperature of the pulverized fu:..
r emaining h ot air, which is cn ll od pressure upstream of the mill is 1- ol air mixture should be raised to fn:-
secondary air, is fed sepnrntely l.o t;ho 2.5 kPa. An essential condition for ci litate the ignition of the dust. This·
burners. the safe operation of the pulverizati- is achieved in a system where hot air
The quantity of prirna1·y air I o be on system and for maintaining the is supplied together with pulverized
Fig. 3.2. Individual pu lv erization s ystem used for the drying and I rans port of required · .cleanliness in the room is fuel (Fig. 3.3b). In addition to the pri-
with direct blowing o[ pulverized fuel into pulverized fuel depends on tho fuel mary air which is fed into the pulver
furnace for the opera~ion on compressed hot that the equipment must be ke pt per-
nJr quality, in particular, tho mois ture fectly tight. rization system in an amount of 15-
J - r a w ron I bunker; f - cut-otr gnle va lve; J - coal content. The amount o[ pri mary nir The direct blowing system has cer- 25%, another portion of hot air
rccdc•·: 4- rnw coa l chute ; 5-coal mill; G- dust se- {r1 ) is us ually equal to 0.3-0.5 of the (20-25% ) is directed into the air duct
parator; 7- dusl duct; 8- burncr; o-stea m holler; tain advantages: it is s imple, the pul-
Jo- rorcQd-drnrt run; JJ- alr hea ter; 12-prlmnry total consumption of a ir for c.ornbu- verizing equipment is compact, tho and then into the pulverized fuel pi-
ai r path; 13- sccondnry nlr path; N -secondary
nir duct; J5- cold nlr lor mill venltlnllon; 16 - stion and increases with the mois ture consumption of electric energy for pel iues by an auxiliary hot blast fan:.
exploslon re lic! vnlve; 17- !ln pper ' 'a lve; 18- content. With extreme! y moist fuel, Tn this case, the temperature of th~
nutomatlc cut-orr gate vnlve pust transport is low, and the fuel
a•
36 Ch. 9. Fuel Preparatton
Download From Boilersinfo.com
aJ Power Statton•
3.2. Pulverization Systems 37
is too intricate and bulky. Further- for pneumatic transport and enables
7 more, the system bas an elevated hy- one to adjust the fl ow rate of primary
draulic resistance, which increases air to the boiler load, which is
2f the consumption of electric energy for an improvement over the earlier sy-
4 20 fj dust transport. Tbe storage of a large stems.
mass of dry dust increases fire and P ulverization with the open drying
explosion hazard. Noneth eless, the system. Open pulverization systems
17 to system can reliably supply steam boi- are employed only with fuels which
lers with pulverized fuel and for that have a resolved moisture content wr
I
reason has found wide application. of more than 3.6 % · kg/l\1J. The extra
I f9 5 26
fl The above-mentioned drawbacks of cost and more intricate design of the
..
this system become especially prono- system are compensated for by the
unced in the operation· of modern higher efficiency of the boiler due to
• 12 high-capacity boilers. In recent ti- smaller heat losses with waste gases
N mes, a new system of pulverized coal and lower unburned carbon loss in
supply h as been developed which is the furnace. A fuel with a high moi-
( a) characterized by a high concen tration sture content is dried by a high-tem-
7 28 of dust in fuel pipel ines. Jn conventio- perature agent, i.e. combustion pro-
f nal systems , the concentration of dust ducts a~ a temperature of 4.00-4.50°G,.
29 in the primary air fl ow is usually which are taken of£ in an amount OF
21 0.4.~0.6 kg per kg air. In the new meth- 6-10% of the gas volume from the gas
• 20 fj f7 2/l od, pulverized fuel is transferred duct downstream of the economizer
27 9
2F by compressed air, wi th a low air (Fig. 3.4.). In another version, drying
!0 flow rate (only 0.1-0.3 % of the total is effected by a mixture of hot air
air flow ra te to burners) and with a and combusLion products, with the
23 32 dus t concent ration as high as 30- mixt ure temperature being 500-600°C~
f9 60 kg/kg air. Since the quantity of air The worked-off drying agent from
is not h igh, t.he dust acquires a high tho cyclone is fed, Loge thor with the
Jf fluidity for motion through s mall- unseparated finest fuel fractions (ro-
24 13 •
diameter pipelines (60-90 mm). In ughly 10%), into the second stage of
f2 30 'f4' if burners, the dust is spread by hot dust collection, where coal dust is
air. The system does not require the separated in'1 multicyclones (a set of
(b) bulky, 300-500 mm pipelines for the 150-250 cyclone elements of small dia-
Fig. 3.3. Individual closed pulverization system with intermediate dust bunker
transport of dust from the dust bun- meter), electrostatic precipitators or
(a) wltb pulverized rue! carried by drying aecnt; (b) wttb pulverized fuel carried by ho t air and with drying kers to the furnace burners, sharply cloth bag filters. The separated dust
agent discharged Into boiler furnace. Items 1· 11 as In Fig. 3.2· additional Items: 19- lueHirying device; decreases th e unit energy consumption flows by gravity through chutes into.
1!0- Cbutc for rctur_n ol Coarse fractions; 21- Cyclone; 2.11- pulvcrlzcd fuel hunker; 1!3- pulveri1.Cd fuel feeder;
4- mlxer ·. 25- pnmnry uir duct; 26- mlll ventilator; 27- revers ible screw feeder; 28- molst drying agent
1!wl
11' fuel 1mcs; 29-!low meter; JO- valvc lor admitting cold air; J1-hol blast ran; J2- dlscbargc burner
pulverized fuel air mixture is close Usually two such systems are provi- 14
to that of the hot air. The quantity of ded for a boiler . Their productivity
~ir supplied to the burners turns out, in terms of fuel is 15-20% higher than
however, to be insuificient for complete the maximum fuel consumption by
fuel combustion. To correct this, the boiler , because of which one of the
low-temperature moistened primary systems remains inoperative for a cer- ro 18
16'
air with a slight concentration of fine tain time. The system can transfer
coal dust is fed from the cyclone into part of the prepared pulverized fuel
either the combustion zone through into the bunkers of other pulverizing 20
special discharge burners or into the an- systems through a reversible screw fl !3
nular channel around the m ain bur- feeder. The available reserve of pulve-
·ners. rized fuel in the bunkers allows short-
In the system described above, the term stoppage of both mills for inspe- Fig . 3.4. Open pulve rization system with gas drying of fuel
load of tho steam boiler is controlled ction or repairs. 1- ruw rurl bunker; 2- cul-oll gate valve; J - raw coa l I eeder: 4- b'11S and raw coni mi xer; ~-;-grinding mill;
6- dust scp!lrn tor; 7- cyc l one; a- dust co ll ec tor; 9- dusl bunker; JO- sl cam boil er ; 1 1. - ou beat er · J 2 -
b y the dust feeders by using the re- A disadvantage of the intermediate burncr; 13- lllnin electrostatic l} rccipl tntors; 14- tui l l v cn\ilutor; .15- hot blnst fan; IG- mduccd-drart
serve of pulverized fuel in the bunker. ran; 17-rtnppcr valve; J&- t orccd-drnf t fa n; H - pul verl zf·d fuel f c<•dcr: 20- pulvcrlzcd fuel-air mixer
bunker system is that its equipment
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at Power Stations 3.3. Characteristics of Coal Dust 39
an intermedia te dust bunker,. \Vhile and can be easily transpo rted in pipe- •
the drying agent after . the dust col- lines. : R I
J 4
lectorS is discharged· in to the m ain Sieve analysis of pulverized coal. The $0 ' J
. 80 \
I
I
~
electrostatic precipitators of the boi- quality of pulverized coal is determi-
ler plant and is then combined with ned by the milling fineness (milling 70 ~ i ·~ \ y •
n• t. 5
waste gases. The transport of the dry- dispersity) and the relative concentra- 50 \ \ I 1.2
ing agent is effected by t,be mill ex- tion of individual frac tions. These
50 1- -
\ 1?90 =55"/o I •
f.O
I\,
hauster, and the supply oJ primary ch aracteristics are determined by sieve
40 \ \ ' l'i l\
air by the hot blower (hot blast fan). analysis. A , sample of pulverized fls0 =.15~ . 0.8
The open system of fuel drying sub- coal is screened through 4-5 sieves 30 \.
"' l I ~ ~f.25
stantially improves the quality of fu - with a progressively decreasing mesh 20 ~ "\..Rzoole12"/. 0./l
} t0 ~n = f.O
el and increases the efficiency of fuel size. I n the Soviet Union sieves are n=0.8. ~ R~(J(J 2.3~· 0.4
combustion . The volume of combustion characterized by the clear size of
10 I .J' R41HJ 0.2.._"/o n= 0.85 '~ ~
2 1/ 0.2
products in the boiler flue ducts
diminishes, which results in lower ae-
mesh expressed in micrometres. Using
the standard technique of sieve aualy-
0
50 90 150 200 250 300
. 40.
0 40 80 120 lBO 200 210 280 pm
§1:_-
-
:r
el grinding if the surface area of the Dust explosiveness. \'Vhen coal dust of R 90 , tho boiler plant and th e pul-
dust is known. suspended in air is confined in a closed verization s ys tem arc tested at dif-
'l'he s urface of dust. As illustrated in volume, it will explode more inten- ferent degrees o£ fuel grinding.
Figure 3.6, the theoretical surface area sively if its unit s urface area is larger The optim al value of R 90 depends
of pulverized fuel consisting of d if. (i.e. if it contains mo1·e fine fract ions) even more on tho yield of volatiles
ferently sized particles can bo found and if it has a higher y ield of vol at il es . yc, type o[ mill, nnd lype of dust se-
with tho following simplified formula- The temperature of the mi xt ure is al- parator. Tho effect of these factors is
assuming the particles aro spherical so of crucial imporl,ance. The most expressed by l it o pol ydispersity coef-
or c ubic in shape and have the poly- dangerous concentrations of coal dust ficien 1. n . Tho opti mal fineness of fuel
dispcrsity coefficient n: lie within 0.3-0.6 kg/m 3 a ir. grinding can be fou nd by the formul a:
450 X 10
3
1 (ln -=--
100 ) 1/n
The ignition of nn nir-dust mixture R~C' = 4 + O.Bnvc (:~. 8}
I, , = Pi
-
n llt o
(3.6) in a closed volume res ults in a sharp
rise in temperature and pressure. The
(R;:')'
3.4. Pulverization E quipment
where p1 is the unit density of ground pressure may rise well above the li- Fig. 3.7. Determination of the optimal
fuel , kg/m 3 , usually p1 = 1 700- mits safe for pulverizing equipment. grinding degree of fuel The g rinding mill is lhe principal
1 840 kgf m3. Damage to the boil er plant by explo- J - luel with low v" a nd low h 1: z - tuel with higher element in an y pulverization system.
The actual surface area can be fo- sions is proven led by ins talling safe- values or vc and hr The characteris tics of the ma in types
und by introducing the shape factor ty (relief) valves which discharge part of grind ing mills ore given in Table
lc, in to the formula above. The aver age of the mixture from the system should The conditions in indus trial grin- 3.1. They d iffet· from one anot her in
vn lue of the shape factor for pulve- t he pressure rise excessively. The con- ding mi lls may d i[fer from the stan- the principle of fuel grinding and the
rized coal may be taken ask. = 1.75. centration limit of o~ in the drying dard laboratory conditi ons in tho ini- rotational s peed of the movable ele-
The actual s urface area is then found agent, i.e. tho concentration below tial moisture content o[ fu el and its ment. Ball-tube mills and hammer mills
as fd = k.fu,. which f uel d ust cannot explode, is equa I particlesize, therefore, th e grindab ilily are used mos t often for tho purpose,
The surface area of the dus t is de- to 16% for pu lverized peat and oi l k o£ working fuel may differ from the the form e r being preferred [or grinding
termined mainly by the concentration shales, 18% for brown coals, and laboratory value /c 1• fu els with a relatively low yield of
of fine fractions. The loss of heat with 19% for coals . The concentration of As foll ows from formula (3.4), grin- volatiles and the latter for grinding
unburned carbon in chamber furnaces 0 2 can be decreased by dr ying pulve- ding of fuel to a coarser size res ults in younger coals , brown coals, peat, and
is usually associated wHh a high con- rized fuel with a m ixtu re of hot air energy savings, fiE pu" but inevitabl y oil shales . Around 98% of the total
tent of coarse fractions (above 250- and combustion products. The proba- increases the time o[ complete combu- fuel ground in pulverization systems
300 ~tm for anthracites and coals with bility of explosion is lower in fuels stion in the furnace and tho heat loss fall on these two types of mill. Some
the yield of volatiles v· less than 25% with a lower yield of volatiles. With with unburned carbon fiB 1. Therefore, kinds of coal can be gro und more eHi-
and above 500-600 ~m at v• more than the y ield of volatil es less than 8%, each kind of fu el has a particul ar fi- ciently in roller mills . 'Soft' (with
30% ). It then follows that pulverized fuel is explosion-safe. A high tempe- neness range within which the total k 1 > 1. .5) and very moist brown coals
fu el s hould have n > 1, a small con- rature of tho dust-air flow promotes expenditures on mill grinding Em are ground i n pulverizing fans.
ceo tration of fine fractions (below the formation of explos ive mixtures, and the cost, of heat loss with unburned A ball-tube mill (or simply ball
25 ~m) and a small concentration of and therefore the temperature of the carbon in the furnace, q,, will be at mill) has a drum 2-4 m in diame ter
coarse fractions. air-dust mixture downstream of the a minimum. Expressing these items and 3-10 m long which is partially
Moisture content of pulverized f uel. mill must be strictly con trolled. For in tho same units, say, in roubles per fill ed with steel balls 30-60 mm india-
Moisture conten t W, %, is an impor- most pulverized fuels, it should not ton dust, they may be plotted and meter (Fig. 3.8). The drum is clad
tant ch aracteristic of pulverized fuel. exceed 70-80°C (fuels with a high yield compared in a single gra ph (Fig. with armour pla tes on the inside and is
An increase in moisture content above of volatiles) and 130°C in other cases. 3.7). The fineness of grinding is usua- heat- and sound-ins ulated on tho out-
the recommended level may res ult in The optima l degree of grinding. The lly estimated in terms of the sieve re- side. Raw fuel and hot air are sup-
lower boiler productivity and involve grinding properties of various fuels sidue R 90 • To fi nd the optimal value plied to the drum through the inl et.
d ifficulties in dust transport: the dust are compared in terms of the l aborato-
ry coefficient of grindability, k, Table 3.1. Grinding Mills Charact cris li <:l:l
loses fluidi ty and slumps in bunkers,
clogs feeders, chu tes, etc. On the oth er which is understood to be the ratio Rot.n llonn 1 sroccd , S peed char ncLe rls-
hand, overdried brown coal and of the unit consumptions of electric Mi II type G rlndln g principle s- • (rpm) lie
coal dust is liable to self-ignite energy for grinding , in a standard la-
in places where it is stored or accumu- boratory mill, a reference solid fuel I rnpact., abrasion ().25-0.42 ~1 5 -25) Low-speed
Ball-tube mill
lates and may be explosive when mi- and the fuel being tes ted, provided Roll er mi II Crushing 0.85-1. 3 50-80) l\·ledium-spood
xed with air. The moisture content of that both have the same inil ial parti- Hammer mill Impact 12.5-16.3 (750-980) High-speed
cle size and the s nme g round dus t cha- Paddle-type mill Impact 25 (1 500) Jl igh-spced
pulverized fuel is usually d etermined 12-24 .5 (735- 1470) Hi gh-speed
racteristics. Thus Pulveri zing fan Impact
in terms of the hygroscopic moisture
content Wh (see Sec. 2. 3). k 1 = E ,I E 1 (3.7)
42
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Cit. 3. Fttcl Preparation at Power Stations 3.4. Pul vcriztltiO n EqrL!pment
rue! suppl.f
Th o basic parameter that determi -
1 nes the effectiveness o£ grinding is
. tho circumferenti al s peed of the ham-
J
I
mers. T he prod ucti vi ty of a mill is
7 proportional to the cube of circumfc-
renli al s peed. T he productivity of
mills can be increased by increasing the
ro tational s peed or the ro tor diameter,
but this increases th o dynamic l oad
2 < •\ on tho rolor , resulling in a header
J~J~ 5 7 mass of the m ill and higher energy
5o I
co ns umption . As the coal charge of a
1.0 •.. 5 2.0 m iII i ncreasos , the energy cons u mcd
increases firs t rela tively slowly and
Fi" . 3.9. D cpeud e n c~ of ko/Jr on k1 thon rather quickly. The unit energy
"' ls k
g -Donc anlhl"acile c· oal; 2- Donetsk ~:as co ni ; cons umption for g rinding [see formu-
Fig . 3.8. Dall mill (general view and cross section) .:;-Ciu·J yabiu:-;k coa l gr·ade B: 4- VorkuUl cu al
,g rade G Zh; .s - Karagand;l <'onl ~rndr· GZ h: tJ-
la (3.11)1 decreases smoothly to a mi-
7- inlcl pipe; 2-s upporUnrr llcarln,;: 3-heat- and sound-Ins ulated mill drum; 4- ouL h: L p ipe ; ·1\fOSI;ow di stri ct l'OH I g-ru dc B ; 7- E stontnn oi l nimum at a certain charge o[ the mill,
s car whee l; 6 - rcducer gear; 7-c le<!tric motor •ha les making iL poss ible to vary the mill
•
pipe. The drum is t'Olated by an ele- the mill from the original mois ture The wear of the balls is compensated
ctric motor via a reducer gear and a content ww to the desired value t·ot· by adding new balls periodically
driven gear wheel attached to the Wd. The two characteris lics of a mill into the operati ng mill. Ball -tubo
drum. should be matched properly, which is mills are suitable for g rinding all
The optima l capacity o[ a mill is done by controlling the flow rate and "kinds of coal. "tl!etallk ohjecls occa-
obtained at a rotational s p eed temperature of the drying age nt at s ionally present in coal are not dange-
nd = 0.76n cr (3.9) the mill inlet. t·ous to them . On the other hand , ball
The power for mill rotation N m mills, as a 1·ule, make coal dust wi t h
where n c r is the critical rotational is virtually independent of the mass the polydis persi ty coeffi cient n less
speed of the drum, s-1 , at which balls of charged fuel in view of the large than unitv. For this reason and a lso
can 'stick ' to drum walls due to cen- mass of balls and drum. For this rea- 'because or" their l a1·ge d i mansions, they
trifugal forces : son, as the quantity of charged fu el have a typically hig h uni t cons ump t ion
decreases, the unit energy cons umpl ion <>f energy (15-25 kW hit for coals
(3.1 0) f?r grinding , E g, kW h/kg, increases, and up to 35 kW hit for anthracites).
smce The a pplica t ion of hall mills in pui-
where Dd is the drum diameter, m. Yerization systems with an in lermo-
With the optimal rota tional s peed E c = N n/ B m (3.'11 ) <liale bunker is profitabl e onl y when
of the drum. the balls firs l rise over Thus, it is advisable to run ball g rinding high-abrasive low-reactive fu -
the drum wall and then detach from mills at full load. els with R !lo ~ 10 % and k1 ~ 1.1.
it and fall. Fuel is ground by the im- The armour plates and balls of n A hammer mill has a s teel casing
pact of the falling balls and by Lhe ab- mill are inevitably s ubject to wear dad on the ins ide with s mooth armour
rasion between them. Fin al dust is during mill operation. The extent of plates 20-30 mm thick and a rolor
continuously removed from the mill wear depends on the abras ive proper- with d iscs to which hamme1· hold ers
by the ventilating agent - air. ties of fuel which can be characterized and hammers aro hinged ly attached.
The grinding capacity of a mill, by the relative abrasi vil.y k abro which In operation, the circumferential s peed
B "" depends s ubs tantially on the is the ratio of the actu al wear to that .of Lhe h a mmers attai ns 50-60 m/s .
drum leng th and diameter. Yet a taken as the re[orenco value 10.3 Hotaling hammers break fuel lu n~ps
larger diameter D rl a ppreciabl y increas- g/ (kW h)). i nto s maller pi eces which t hon s tnke
es the required power oE mil l motor As has been found by experiments, the armour au d are additionall y d i-
N m which is roughl y proportional to the two rei ati ve ch aractel'is tics , k 1 sint cgra ted by abras ion in the gap be t-
the third power of D d. and k , bro are cl osel y interrelated ween the hammers and casing. Tho Fig. 3 .10. Hammer mill with centrifugal
Grinding mi lis arc also ch aracteri- (Fig . 3 .9). Hard er fu els cause greater hammer mill is usually ins ta lled to- dus t separator
zed by the drying capacity, i.e. Lhe abras ion wear of t he mill elements ;gether with a dus t separa tor (l"ig . J- hnmtllc r mill ; 2- dust separa tor; J - ra"· fuel
quanLity of fu el that can b e dried in Inl et·; 4-c hutc for ret urn or coarse dust ; s -safety
[29]. 3 .10). va l ve
44
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 3. Fuel Preparation at P ower Stations 3.5. Preparation of Fllel OiL and Natural GGs 45
5 4 hand, 1·oller mills are advantageous moist coals prone to smearing) are
ff50
in having a low unit energy consum- most often employed.
ption (12-15 kW h/t), small dimensi- Dust feeders are arranged under dust
ons, and a low noise level. 3 5 bunkers and are used to control the
Soft b rown coals (k 1 > 1.5) of - -~~ dust supply in to the pipelines.
high humidity are pulverized in pul- •
c....t:s Screw-type and p addle dust feeders
..... !'>..
are the most common at power sta-
verizing jan.~. The rotor of a fan car-
ries a pulverizing wheel wil.h hammer
blades arranged at ils periphery. The·
Dust - air rtow
from seporafor '*
~~
~:;
6 ::s !:S
tions. The throughput capacity of a
feeder is con trolled by changing tho
grinding effect is produced by the im-
_£ \ ...-+- -A c::..!::
rotational speed of d.c. electric drive
(a)
pact from rapidly ro tating hammer
blades on fuel lumps. The blades crea-
te a head (1 200-1 500 Pa) behind the
A
1 ·- motors .
Dust bunkers are reservoirs for the
storage of a certain reserve of pulveri-
fan, which obviates the need for a zed fuel. The volume of a bunker is
Fig. 3.i1. Dust separators mill exh auster. Pulverizing fans are determined so as to ensure the opera-
(a) cent.rilugal dus t separator lor coals and anthrn tion of the boiler at the rated load for
c ites; J - pipc lor admlttins dust- ai r mix tu re · noted for th eir simple design, small
2- externa l hou• ing; J - intcrna i housing; 4 - dimensions and low cost. Their produ- 2-3 hours upon stoppage of the pul ve-
S\\' irl vanes: S- dust-dischnrglng p ipe; 6-chu tc
lor the rctum of coarse dust lrom extern a l hous- ctivity is , however , not high, ran- rization system. To evenly discharge
ing ; 7- d lllo , 11om intcma l hous ing; (b) In er tia l dust into the dust feeders, the height
separator l or br0\\11 coal and coats ; 1-ha mmcr g ing from 3 .5 to 45 t /h for brown coal
PalYerlzetl. of the dust bed in a bunker should be
mill; .!?- separator bousin,;; J - b n~: for collec ting
coa rse luel particles; 4- dust- discharging pii)C;
(at R uo = 55% and lc 1 = 1.7). filet to bin
5-conll'ollt ng gutc va lves ; G- c hule tor dc h vr·q ' T he auxiliary equipment of pul- no loss than 3 m.
or luol und drying ngcnl into mill Fig . 3.12. Cyclone dust separator
verization s ystems includes dust se-
parators , eye]ones, raw coal feeders, J - hou~lng ; :!- cont rol p ipe with v anes ; 3-lnte~
n a l cylinder; 4- explosion rellel valve; S- cxtl 3.5. The Preparation of Fuel Oil
charge in a rather wide range withou t dus t feed ers, and bunkers. Ol lTa nsler a gent (air); 6- tn!Cl pipe
and N alural Gas
noticeably worseni ng the mill effi- A dust separator is used for control-
ciency. For that reason and in con- ling the fineness of fu el dust produced In an inertial separator (Fig. 3.11b), To facilitate transport, filling and
trast to ball mills, hammer mills can in a mill. The separation of dust into· dust separ ation i nio fractions is disch arge from reservoirs, fuel oil
pal'ticipate in contl·oll ing the boilet· coarse and fine fractions in dust sepa- brought about by changing the direction should have a temperature of at least
load. rators is effected by using centrifugal, of dust-air flow, i.e. by utilizing the 60-70°C, at which ils v iscosi ty will
Hammer miHs may be recommended iaertial and gravitational forces. Th e forces of inertia . The magnitude of be not more than 30° E.
for grinding fuels with k 1 ~ 1.1 which effectiv eness of operation of a sepa- t.R ~0 can be controlled wi thin 10- The flow path of fuel oil preparati-
can be burned as a rather coarse dust rator determines to a l arge exten t the· 15% by varying the position of a gate on at a power station (Fig. 3.13)
(brown coals, coals with the yield of quality of the dust supplied into boiler v alve. Inertial-type separators are em- comprises a receiving-discharging fa-
volatiles Vc > 28%, pea l. and oil furnace bul·n ers . The type of separator ployed in combination with h ammer cility (pouring trestles with chutes
shales). With such fuels, the unit ener- is usually selected accord ing to the· mills fo r coarse pu l.verization of brown and receiving vessels with submerged
gy consumption of hammer mills is characteristics of the respective mill. coals , oil shales and milled peat pumps), main reservoirs for storing a
33-50 % lower than that of ball mills Centrifugal and inertial dustseparator& (with Ro 1 > 40 %) . permanent reserve of fuel oil, fuel oil
(8-12 kW h/t). are the most popular (Fig. 3 .11). Cyclones are employed in systems pumping house, fuel oil and steam pi-
Roller mills are usually employed A centrifugal separator (Fig. with intermediate bunkers for separa- pelines , fuel oil heaters , and filters.
in systems with direct dust blowing 3.11a) has two cones inserted on e in- tion of pulverized fuel from transpor- The preparation of fuel oil for com-
for grinding moderately hard coals to the othel'. The dust-air flow is sup- ting air (Fig . 3.12). The separation bustion consists in separating mecha-
with relatively low humidity and a plied into the separator bottom at a takes place as a result of the centri- nical impurities and increasing the
low content of bard fractions (pyrite) flow rate of 15-20 m/s . Owing to ex- fugal effect and the deflection of the pressure and t empera ture of fuel oil.
in the mineral portion, such as Ekiba- pansion, the flow r a te in the annula r flow into the central outlet pipe. The T his is essential for minimizing the
stuz coals . Series manufacture of rol - space between the cones drops down efficiency of cyclones is 80-93% and energy consumption of transporting
ler mills has recently b een started in to 5-6 m/s , producing the effect of increases inversely with the ,diame- fuel oil to steam. boilers and for its
the ussn. gravitational separation. The coarses t t er . fine at omization in burners. Tho tem-
A common disadvantage of all rol- particles slide down along the walls Raw coal feeders are used for unifor- perature of fuel oil when in tanks is
ler mills is that they arc sensitive to of the cone and return to the mill. mly controlling the supply of coal to maintained at a level of 60-80°C in
metallic objects-should these get oc- Tilti ng vanes arranged at the inlet to the grinding mills. The productivity all seasons by circulation preheating,
casionally into the mill with coal. the inner cone cause the flow to swirl, of a feeder is selected with a reserve i.e. by recirculating back into the sto-
Other drawbacks include uneven wear producing the centrifugal effect. The- of 20% above the rated mill producti- rage tank a part (up to 50%) ~f the
of the working members and certain necessary fineness of dust is obtained vity. At power stations, belt feeders fuel oil that has beert preheated tn ex-
r epair complexities . On Ll1 e othet· by varying the angle of the vanes . (for dry coals) and chain feed ers (for ternal heaters.
4G Download From Boilersinfo.com
(;h. 3. Fuel Prcparatiofl at Power Stat i ofls 4.1. Kinetics of Co m bustion R eac tio 1u 47
17 18
manometer: R- tlow me ter; 9- p ressure " '- ·
gulator sensors; 10- tlltcr; JJ-gas vent ;
12-~:as suppl)' to burner Igniter: 13-
druin: 14-gns sampling for anolysls
I
I
II
..., I
I.
I I
f-!Xi---t> < . I I
14 15 IS 1-~-1> <
1-~-1><
I 7 I
Steam extracted From nfllor . I I
from lur&itre
--- ---- steam /JoilerY
~
I r
11 ff!r-..~ I
I 1 =atJ-0.2HPc '
I
8 ---- - --- - - - - - ---'
Fig. ·3.13. Flow diagram oi fuel oil preparation at a power.statioo . .
J - fucl oil tank c~ r; t - dratnlng ~rY icc: J --;-conrse tille r: 4- heatcd discharge' t a nk; .1- JWrnp; 6- rnail)
fMlk ; 7, 8-furl 011 rcclrculnlion lmes; 9- flrsHIJt pump: 10- back-p rcs..ure ' ' nh·e: 11- fucl oil heater:
12- tinc filler: 13-second-Htt pump; H - c tosing gate valw·: 1 ~ -rJow ratr controller; 16-flow me ter; I
17- gate vatvc; I S- burner - · .
I
I
Ill t r .
A tn·o-stage scheme of fuel oil sup- Gaseous fuel is suppli ed to a power t+-r£:......:E._.!£.$t~~~-"'.:..om
..2.::.f!11S matn
ply is typi cal for th erma l power sta- station from n gas main or gas-d istri- "'=a7 - t.JHPa
tions. In this scheme, preheating the buliotl station at a pres:>urc of 0.7-
fu el oil , agitating it in tanks , and fil- 1.3 M Pa. P o\\·er :>lations ;~ro not pro- operating cut-off val ve slops the gas inaccessible t o people. Gas vents also
tering are performed nt a low fu el oil vided wilh gas holders. The suppli ed supply to the boiler furna ce in emer- serve to displ ace the gas-air mixture
pressure (around 1 MPa) , while se- gas is throttled in a gas-metering house gency situations when the supplied from gas pipelines before firing a boi-
cond-lift pumps supply fu el oil to the unt il it reach es the pressure it should gas m ight cause explosions (flame ler. The blow-through of a gas line is
main building at a high pressure have in the burners (0.13-0.2 i\fPa) . breakoff, l oss of a ir pressure at the bur- slopped when th e concentration of
(3.5-4.5 MPa). Since gas throttling produces much ners , shu tdovm of the motors of ex- oxygen in a sample is not more than
The fuel oil is ejected from the ato- noise and involves a hig h explosion haust or forced-draft fans, etc.). 1%.
mizing burners at a high rate, which hazard, the gas-metering house is lo- To avoid explosion h azard during All gas-supply facilities of a power
may result in the quick abrasive wear cated in a separate buil ding at t he sta- standstills, the gas pipelines are blown station shoul d not be operated witho-
and fa ilure of the burne1· channels. tion s ite (Fig. 3.14) . through with air through special gas ut observ ing the n ecessary safety pre-
Also , small channels (less than 3 mm Each gas-metering house has seve- vents. T hese vents are mounted out- cau tions.
in diameter) may become clogged with ral (roost often three) gas pipelines side of the building in places that are
large solid particles or blobs of tar or with pressure regu lators, one of which
asphal t. P urification of fuel oi l from is a stand -by line. A bypass line aro-
solid impurities is performed first und the pressure regulators is also
in coarse fil ters with a mesh s ize of provided . The gas is purified from me-
1.5 rom x 1.5 mm a nd then in fin e chanical impurities by filters arran-
fi ltet·s with 0.3-0.5 mm meshes, both ged upstream of the control valves.
of which arc mounted upstream of the The control valves main tain the spe-
pumps of h ot fu el oil in the second- cified pressure ' downstream'. Safety
s tage fu el oil line. valves are provided to protect the sy-
The fuel oil is preheated in steam s tem against occasional pressure THEORETICAL PRINCIPLES OF COMBUSTION
healers to a temperature no greater jumps . The quanLity o[ gus passing
than the ignition point of fuel oil va- through the gas-metering house is mea-
pours. Thefueloil temperature is main- s ured by flow meters. Each gas pipe- 4.1. The Kinetics the physical phenomena which pre-
tained at the specified level , irres- line leading to a boiler h ns an automa- of Combustion Reactions cede or accompany the ignition and
pective of the fu el oil consumption by tic flow governor ond quick-closing su~sequent burning of the fuel , spe-
the boiler, by continuously recircula- CUL-off valve. T he automatic n ow go- The combustion of fuel in a furnace cial emphasis should be l aid on the
ting the fu el oil through the storage vernor adjusts the gas fl ow rate to the involves a number of complex phy- process of mixing the fuel and the oxi-
tank. current l oad of the boiler. The pulse- sical and chemical processes . Among dant (aerodynamic factor). Among the
48
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch, 4. Theoretical Principles of Combustion 4.1. Ktnetlcs of Combudlon Reactions 49
I
chemical factor-s, the temperature and D.CA, mol/m3 or g/ro3, 111 a givon time f'~g. 4.1. Dependence of reaction
r ate on (a) temperature, (b) acti- Wr .tUr Wr
concentration of the reacting substan- i nterv a ! D.<, s: vation energy, and (c) concentra-
ces are the most essential. One also r
tion of combustible matter
has to deal with the complex fields of Wr = - D.CA/D.-r (4.1) ·c,L- Iower llmlt; U L-upper limit
r
I
velocities, concentrations and tempe- Tile rate of a heterogeneous reacti- I
ratures, which together determine the I
on is expressed as the quantity of sub- T E ' I Cr:
kinetics of chemical reactions. stance, D.g, g, that has reacted on the OLL Ul 100 1o
The reactions involved in fuel com- surface of solid combustible substance (a) (6) (C)
bustion proceed with heat evolution, S, m 2 , during a time interval D.-r, s :
i.e. they are exothermic. These include where k 0 is the pre-exponential factor, hest reaction rate can be attained at a
61! E is the activation energy, R is the gas
the burning of carbon, hydrogen and K. = - Sti-r (4.2) nearly stoichiometric ratio of the
sulphur in atmospheric air. At high constant, and T is the absolute tem- concentrations of reagents. An excess
temperatures, such as in the core of a Reaction rates obey the law of mass perature of the process. of fuel (rich mixture) or a fuel defi-
flame, some reactions may occur with action, according to which the rate o£ Thus, the rate of a reaction quickly ciency (lean mixture) will cause the
heat absorption. These are called a reaction in a homogeneous medium increases with temperature (Fig. rate of the reaction to decrease due to
endothermic reactions. The formation at a constant temperature is propor- 4.1a). A chemical reaction is possible lower heat' evolution . per unit volu-
of nitrogen oxides N 2 + 0 2 = 2NO- tional at any given moment to tho due to the collisions of the molecules me.
- 180 kJ / mol and the reduction of product of the concentrations of tho o£ reacting substances. If all collisi- Combustion cannot take place at
carbon dioxide to monoxide on the reagents: ons resulted in a reaction, combusti- any arbitrary concentration of fuel
incandescent surface of coke parti- w, = kC'X c~ (4.3) on would occur at an enormous rate in the mixture, but only in a definite
cles under conditions or oxygen defi- where lc is the reaction rate constant and the reaction rate constant would range of its concentrations .in the air
ciency C + C0 2 = 2CO - 7.25 MJ /kg which depends on the t,emper-ature and be equal to k 0 • Actually, a reaction (oxidant). Thoro exists a lower concen-
are both examples of endothermic chemical nature of the reagents, CA can take place only when tho energy tration limit below which combustion
reactions. Chemical reactions which o[ collisions can break the old mole- is impossible, and an upper concentra-
and C n are the current concent.t·ations
can proceed in either a forward or of the reagents A and B in tho gas
cular bonds and the fragments of old tion limit when any further increase
reverse directiou are called reversible, molecules can rearrange themselves of the concentration of the fuel pre-
mixture, and m and n are tho numbet·
though the conditions that foster the into molecules of new substances. vents combustion (Fig. 4.1c). Thus,
of moles of A and B, respectively.
reaction in the forward or r everse dire- Since the partial pressures of the The energy that is sufficient to de- combustion is possible only in the
ction may differ substantially from components in a gas mixture at a con- stroy the molecular bonds of the star- concentration range between these two
one another. For instance, the forma- stant temperature are proportional to ting substances is called the activation limits.
tion o[ nitrogen oxides can take place their concentrations, formu la (4.3) can energy E. With a higher activation If a gas-air mixture is prepared for
only at very high temperatu res, while be written in another form: energy, the molecular bonds of the combustion and completely fills in a
the reverse reaction, i.e. their dis- original molecules are destroyed less particular volume, an ignition source
sociation into gaseous oxygen and Wr = /cp':._p'JJ (4./t) easily, and consequently, the reacti- will induce the oxidation reaction
nitrogen , can occur in the earth's In heterogeneous combustion, the on rate is lower (Fig. 4.1b). For in- which will propagate with a high rate
atmosphere under the effect of solar concentration of the combustible sub- stance, the activation energy of the all over the volume, resulting in a
radiation. During fuel combustion in stance (solid fuel) is constant, and the- reaction C + 0 2 = C0 2 is Eco1 = sharp increase in temperature and pres-
furn aces, the rate of a direct process refore, the rate of this reaction depends = 140 kJ/mol and that of the reac- sure. This type of process is called
is immeasurably higher than that of onl y on the concentration of the oxi- tion C +1
12 02 = CO, Eco explovise combustion, or simply ex-
its reverse counterpart, meaning that dant (oxygen) on the surface of solid = 60 kJ/mol. It then follows that the plosion. In such cases, we speak abo-
the equilibrium of these reactions is fuel: r ate of formation of carbon monoxide ut the upper and lower explosive li-
shifted towards tho formation of the in the reactions of carbon oxidation by mits of a mixture, meaning that a gas-
Wr = lcCb 1 (4.5)
final products of the direct reactions, oxygen is substantially higher than air mixture is capable of exploding
and therefore, those processes can be where Co, is the concentration of oxy- that of the formation of carbon dioxi- in the whole range of concentrations
regarded as irreversible. gen on the fuel surface. de C0 2 , and therefore, carbon monoxi- between these limits. Thetemperature
Tho intensity of combustion is cha- If the concentrations of the ron- de CO will be formed predominantly above which a self-sustained rea-
r acterized by the rate of the reaction gents do not vary in time, I.he reacti- at the surface of burning carbon ction is possible in a. mixture (system)
involved. The rate of a homogeneous on rate is determined by the reaction [29, 481. is called the ignition temperature.
reaction is understood as the mass of rate constant k which depe11ds on the Combustion in furnaces requires the The rel ationship between heat evo-
a substance that reacts in unit volume temperature and nature of the substan- continuous supply of fuel and oxi- lution and heat removal at various
per unit time. Tho reaction rate is ces that enter the reaction. This rela- dant (air) to the combustion zone, and temperatures of a combustible mix-
measured in such a case in terms of tionship 1s expressed by Arrhenius' therefore, the concentrations of the re- ture can be represented graphically
the variation of the concentration of law: agents are practically invariable in (Fig. 4.2). Heat evolution at the ini-
one of the reacting substances, time. Under such conditions, the hig- tial stage of a chemical reaction can
4.-01 52.4
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. !l. TheorelicaLRrlni:lples. of Combustio n 4.2. Mechar~ tsms of Fu el Combustlor~ 51
50
Ou impossible. The state in point 1 can cular fragments (radicals and atoms of
be characterized by an 'insignifica~t H, OH, 0, etc.) particip~te along with
Or heat .evolution and low temperature. molec·u les. As a result, each of these
I This is the zone of slow oxidation intermediate reactions has a low level
which may continue for a l ong time. c::
I of the activation energy E, since radi- ·~ c:::
t;·~
I Let the temperature of the cooling cals and individual atoms possess a .......
c::: ..... ~
I walls be r aised up t o T n · Again free valency, and can therefore form ·~ Col Qa
~
·~
I point 1, the state in this point is un- preceded by a period d uring .which ac- l:1
T stable. A slight rise of temperature is ti ve reaction centres i n the' form of ~ Fi nn[
sufficient to make Or greater than. charged particles accumulate in the CQ protluc{
Tc
Oo again and heat evolulion will in- medium, owing to tho parlial des t ru- Chain
initiator ®®
P"ig. 4.2. Graphical determination o[ igni- crease more quickl y than heal remo-" ction of original molecules by other
ti on temperature (T1g). combustion tem p1!7 val. The temperature in point 2 is molecules which possess an energy
rature (Tel and ex tinction tcmpcrnt11re (Texl
at a given temperature o£ heat-transfer sur- exactl y what is called the ignition tem- higher than the energy of the atom ic
face (T,) perature Tign · The process now deve- bonds in the original molec ules. This
lopsJrapidl y to a stale of stable high- is what is called the induction period. etc. '
be found fl'om th e equat ion: temperature oxidation, or combustion The combustion of gaseous fuels. Com-
(point 3 ). This process w ill be stable bustion of gaseous fuels occurs by tho Fig. Chain reaction cycle of hydrogen
lt.3.
Or = koe - li:JR1'C';'Vmq (4 . 7) as long as the fuol and oxidant are· laws of branched chain r eactions which burning ·
0 - elwin rtuclion exciter; 0 - final product
The quantity of heat removed from supplied properly. If heat remova1 were discovered by Soviet Academi-
the r eaction zone is determined by is done more forcibly (along a slee- cian N. N. Semenov and C. N. llin - active reaction is preceded by the for-
the equation: per line 00 ), the combustion tempera- shelwood . The conversion of the ori-
ture will decrease to point 4 where the· mation of active centres:
ginal substances to the fin al products
Oo = a.S (T - T ,) (4.8) high-temperature process will be in- passes through a sequence of reaction H z+ Ma-. 2H+ M
In theso formulae, Ce is the con- terrupted since Oo becomes greater- links which are connected in succes- '
H 1 +0~ -+ 20H
centration of the combustible sub- than Or in the whole temperature- sion with one ano ther and develop in
stance, V m is the volume of the prepa- range up to p oin t 5. The temperature- the volume of a combustible mixture where Ma and 0~ are active molecu-
red gas-air mixture, q is the thermal of a combustible m i xture in point I like the b ranches of a tree develop les which possess high energy levels
effect of the reaction per unit mass of is called the extinction temperature. from its trunk. This results in the for- in the volume.
fuel, a is the heat- transfer coefficient, Combustion extinction al ways takes mation of the final reaction products Atoms and r adicals formed by this
S is the surface area of the cooling place at a higher temperature than and of an even greater number of active mechanism actively enter the reacti-
walls, and T and T, are the tempera- ignition does, since the concentra- centres which further ensure the de- ons with the surrounding molecules,
ture of the m ixture and the cooling tion of the starting s ubs t ances in the velopment ,of the r eaction in the con- i.e. chains of s uccessive r eactions de-
walls, respectively. zone of active combustion is lower fining volume. velop which result in the formation of
Heat evol ution at the initial stag~.> than their initial concentration at ig- Let . us consider the m echanism of the final reaction products and ever
of r eaction can be described by an ex- n i tion. branched chain reactions, taking as greater number of active cen tres .
ponential curve wHh Or rising sub- an example the combustion of hydro- Figure 4.3 schematically shows the
s tan tiall y. l n the region of high tem- gen in air. By the s toichiometric equa- first cycle of this reaction. As may
4.2. The Mechanisms be seen, each of the active hydrogen
peratures, the growth of 0 r is limited of Fuel Combustion t ion
atoms H that has given rise to a chain
by the possibilities of oxidant suppl y,
i.e. by the cond itions of m ix ing . Assu- As has been found by experimentt
2I-T2 + o. = 2fh0 reaction has produced three new active
ming a = cons tant, heat removal can the rates of combustion reactions sub- the r ate of the reaction between mole- centres, owing to which the rea-
be represented by a s traight line incli- stantially exceed the r ates calculated cules of the combustible substance ction progressively develops i n the
using the l aw of mass actior1 and Ar- volume confining th~ gas mixture. As
ned at an angle determined by a .
lf the fuel-air m ixture in a chamber rhenius' law by considering the number Wu 2o = k oC - Elll1'C~II 2cOe (4 · 9) tbe reaction products accumulate and
and the surrounding walls are prehea- of active molecules of the initial cannot be very l arge. Actually. howe- the concentrations of the starting sub-
ted to a temperature T . , , owing to heat substances entering a reaction. Actu- ver, combustion o£ hydrogen at tem- stances become lower, chains are dis-
evolution in the reaction, the mix- ally, reactio ns do not occur i mm edia- peratures above 500°C is an explosive rupted more often in the volume and
tely between the original moleculest at the walls of the r eactor:
ture will be heated to a temperature chain reaction proceedi ng at a v ory
T 1 > T.,. In point 1, Or= Oo and but pass through a number of i oter- high r ate. Indeed, according to H + H - H2
furth er preheating of· the mixture is mediate stages in which active mole- N. N. Semenov, t he beginning of the OH + H-+ H 2 0
4*
52
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. d. Theoretical Principles of Combaltion 4.2. !tfechanisms of Fuel Combustion 53
Tho aclual reaction rate is described the zone where r < rat> fuel vapours whence
by the equation: prevail, but their conc~ntration do- a = 2"A.Id = "Air (4.12)
WH vr
= 10 11 CuCo,e- E'fRT .(4.10)
c reases i nversely with the distance
from the liquid surface. The zone
where Nu is the Nusselt number.
As follows from formula (4.12), the
The dccisi ve factors for tho reacti- with r > r, 1 contains primarily com-
heat exchange between a droplet and
on rate arc tho concentrations of hy- bustion products mixed with the oxy- the surrounding m edium increases as
droge n atoms (reaction cen tres) and gen that bas diffused into the combu- the s ize of the droplet decreases, i.e.
oxygen molecules, with the aclivali- stion zone. The highest temperature wi t h a decrease in i ts mass. It turns
on energy E' of the reaction between is established in the reaction zone . Al- out thai. tho evaporation time of a
them being s ubs tan tially lower t han though at both sides of this zone th e dropl et is proportional to the square
E in equation (4.9). Similar laws of temperature decreases gradually, its
of its initial diameter.
chain reactio ns govern the combustion decrease is more intens ive in the inside The combustion of solid fuel. When
of carbon monoxide CO, methane CH, direction, i.e. on approaching l.he combined with air in a furnace, pul-
and other combustible gases. droplet, since some heat is s pent there verized coal first passes through the
lL follows from the foregoing that a for heating fuel v apours. stage of thermal preparation (Fig.
l!hort time, the i nd uclion period, pre- Fig. 4.4. Mechanism and combusti on cha- Thus, the burning rate of a liquid 4.51), wl1ich consists in the evapora-
cedes tho beginning of an active rea- racteristics of a liquid fuel droplet fuel droplet is determined by the rate tion of residual moisture and separa-
ction, during which a suJfi.ciently large of evaporation from its surface, tho tion of vola tiles. Fuel particles are
quantity of activo cenl.res (atoms and rate of chemical reaction in tho com- heated up to a temperature at which
radicals) accumulates in the reaction pose, the air flow is thoroughly t.ur- bustion zone, and the rate of oxygen I
bulized by special swirling arrange- volatiles are evolved intensively
volume. During th.is period, tho rea- diffusion to this zone. As staled ear- I
(400-600°C} in a few tenths of a se- I
ction is almos t unnoticeable and its ments. lier, the reaction rate in a gaseous me-
The combustion of l iq uid fuels. In cond. The volatiles are then ignited,
thermal effect is negligible. After this dium is very high and cannot limit
the combustion of liquid fuel s (petro- so that l.he temperature around a coke
period, the reaction rate increases due the total rate of combustion. The qu-
leum, fuel oil), both the igni Lion and particl e increases rapidly and its
to the development of a large number antity of oxygen diffused througl1 the
combustion temperatures (es pecially healing is accelerated (III'). The in-
of parallel reaction chains over the spherical surface is proportional to
the latter) turn out to be higher than tensive burning oi the volatiles (/I)
whole volume, uotil an equilibrium the square of sphere diameter , and
the boiling temperature of the indi- takes up 0.2-0.Ss. A high yield of vola-
between the appearance and disappea- therefore, a slighl. removal of the
vidual fuel fractions. For this reason, tiles (brown coal, younger coals, oil
rance o( active cent res is established combustion zone from the surface of
liquid fuel first evaporates from the the droplet (under oxygen deficien- shales, peat), produces enough heat
[361. The reaction then attains its
surface under the effect of t he suppli- through combustion to ignite coke
m aximum rate and will proceed at cy) noticeably increases the mass flow
this rate, provided that fresh porti- ed heat, then its vapours are mixed rate of supplied oxygen. Thus, the rate particles. When the yield of volatiles
with air, preheated to the ign ition tem- of combustion of the droplet is is low, the coke p articles must be hea-
ons of starting s ubs tances are regular-
ly supplied to the combustion zone. perature and start burning. A sta- mainly determined by evaporation ted additionally from an external
Combustion of a gaseous fuel in a ble flame forms at a certain distance from its surface. The combustion rate source(/ I r). The final stage is the com-
from the surface of liquid fuel (0.5- bustion of coke particles at a tempera-
mixture with air occurs at a very high of liquid fuels is increased by atomi-
rate (a ready methane-air mixture 1 rom or more). zing the fuel just b efore burning, t
burns in a volume o£ 10m3 in 0.1 s).
For this reason, I.he intensity of com-
Figure 4.4 schematically shows the
combustion of a liquid fu el droplet
which. substantially increases the to-
tal surface of evaporation. Besides t......_
(1 ,... ----
bustion of natural gas in steam boiler in stagnant air. A vapour cloud forms all this, as the size of the drople ts
furnaces is limited by the speed at around the droplet and diffuses into decreases, the intens ity of evapora- !--"
whicl1 it mixes with air in the burner, the environment, with the diffus ion tion per unit area of their surface in- /
/
i.e. by phys ical factors. The difficul- of oxygen of the air occuning in the creases. Fine liquid fuel droplets s u- / '-z
ties which arise when high flows of opposite direction. As a result., the spended in an ail- flow move at low ~----
gas and ail· should be mixed thorough- stoichiometric relations hip between Reynolds numbers, Re <t::1. In s uch
.
'C'
l y in a very short time in a burner are the combusti ble gases and oxygen is cases, the heat flow through a s phe- ][ c
linked with tho fact that the volume established at a certain distance r 8 1 rical surface is determined solely by [ Dl' /lf JY
flow rates of the gas and air dHfer sub- from the droplet, i.e. tho burning the conductivity A. through tho boun-
stantially, as approximately 10 m3 of fuel vapours form a spherical combu- dary layer, which is much thicker Fig. 4.5. Temperature conditions of burn-
.air are needed for the combustion of stion front around it. The magnitude than the droplet diame ter. Under ing or nn individual solid fuel particle
1 ro 3 of gas. For thorough intermixing, of rat is equal to 4-10 droplet r adii, such conditions, the heat-transfer co- J- t<'mpcroturc or ttaseous mediun1 around the
porlic lc: 2-pnrlicle"tc mperntur<•; !-thermal pre-
gas must be introduced into the air i.e. r 31 = 4-10rd, and depends hea- efficient a is given by Sokolsky's flMnllon zone; //-zone or burning or volatiles:
flow in the form of numerous fine jets vily on the droplet size and the tom- formula: 1 l/' - heullng or coke particle due lo burning or
Its vo lulll es: 1 11• -beating or coke particle rrom
and at a high rate. For the same pur- perature in the combustion zone. [n Nu = adi'J.. = 2 (<i.11) an ex ternal source; lV-burning or coke particle
Download From Boilersinfo.com 4.3. Kln~ttc. and Dlffuston . R~gtons of :Combustion -- 55
Ch. 4. Theoretical Principles of. Combustion
The highest supply of oxygen, to the
reacts with it within the boundary gas surface 1Jl~.l}gh the, boundarY layer
film to be oxidized to C0 2 , with the r'· will be observed a(· Cb; . 7= p. Then
result that tho concentration of. sup- .:. ....... r' ('-)
'
plied oxygen decreases sharply on ap- "''' ~, .... .... (K~)max = ctc:tC~2
'
proaching the surface of particles, :-- \ "' "' "' To simplify the solution, let us
while the concentration of C0 2 in- Cr 1\ N "' N 0 yo
creases (Fig. 4.6a). At a high combu- ----~-11 1 "' "'
,, 7
. "' "'
assume that all the oxygen supplied
by diffusion reacts on the particle sur-
stion temperature, carbon monoxide _.--.:::J,f; "' f:.tce. In that case the rate of the reacti-
'I .j '\o '\o
can consume all the oxygen supplied,
~ i' '\, '" on per unit surface area in terms of
which, consequently, will not reach
Fig. fo.(j . Variations of concentration of ga-
seous subst.a..oces at the surface of burning
carbon
the solid surface of particles (Fig.
4.6b). Under such conditions, the en-
7;:;e;, ,'',, ,''( ·' oxygen consumption will be expres-
sed by formula (4.5) as follows:
(a) burning Ht modera te tcmpcrntures; (b) burning
at higb t•·tnperaturcs; 6 -thickness or boundr.r y
1
dothermic reduction reaction will oc- 1 "t '\. 2 ~3 K~ = kCo 2 ( 4.16)
!lim cur on the surface of particles, i.e.
COt will be partially reduced lo CO. Fig. 4.7. Diagram of burning of carbon The maximum reaction rate will be
Thus, heterogeneous combustion of particle at Co2 = CJ'2
ture above 800-1 000°C (IV). This is 1-pat·tlcle surtur:n; 2-boundary !lim; J-turbu·
a heterogeneous process whose rate is a carbon particle from its surface can it'nL !low rc11lor: (K~)max = /cC&2
determined by the oxygen supply to be represented as a process embracing
the reacting surface. Tho burning of a four subsequent reactions (according also by the intensity of oxygenTsup- The pattern of variations of. them~
coke particle proper takes up the gre- to A. S. Predvoditclev), two of which plv to the reaction zone by turbulent ximum rates, (K~)mu x and (K,)max• lS
ater fJOrtion (1/ 2 to 2 / 3 ) of the total are the main ones: ar(d molecular diffusion. This complex shown in Fig. 4.8. Noting that the oxy-
time of combustion which may con- C+01=C02+q1 process can be analysed by \tsing t.he gen consumption in the surface rea-
stitute 1 to 2.5 s, depending on the follo\\·ing model of combust1on (F1g. ction must be equal to the oxygen sup-
2C+0 2 = 2CO +2q•
kind of fuel and the in i tia I size of par- 4. 7). ply through the boundary film, i.e.
ticles. the otl10r two being secondary A burning particle is assll:med ~o ~e K Id = K•I = K. equations (4.15) and
J •
Tho reacting mechanism between 2CO + O, = 2C02 I- 2q3 surrounded by a boundary ftlm wttl.un (4.16) can be solved together to give:
carbon and oxygen seems to bo as fol-
C+C0, = 2CO-q• the boundaries oi which afterburmng
lows. Oxygen is adsorbed from the gas of carbon monoxide takes place; mass (4.17)
volume on tho surface of particles and where q is the thermal effect of a rea- transfer is assumed to be due l.o mole-
reacts chemically with carbon to form ction, MJ / mol. cular diffusion only. Concentrations The structure of this equation is
complex carbon-oxygen compounds of The thermal effect of the first rea- of substances and temperature vary · similar to that of a common kinetic
the type c.;Ol/ which then dissociate ction q1 = q~ +q3 , while q4 = within the film. Beyond that film, equation with the reaction rate con-
with the formation of CO. and CO. = 0.57q 3 • The latter equation implies in the main flow around a particle, stant k being replaced by the resolved
The resulting reaction at temperatu- that even when the endothermic rea- int ensive turbulent mass transfer oc- coefficient lcr with due consideration
res near 1 200°C can be written as fol- ction takes place, the temperature of cms . Therefore, the main flow is co~ given to the reactivity of the fuel and
1 lows: combustion is maintained at a rather
I s idered to be homogeneous, i.e. It the conditions of oxidant supply to
4C+30, =2C0+2CO, (4.13) high level due to a higher heat evolu- h as no gradients of temperatures ~d the reacting surface.
I tion in the volume. concentrations. It may be assumed m Temperature has only a weak effect
l• As has boon . establishea by expe- As follows from an analysis of the-
riment ·(r.;.:· Moyer, L. N. Khitrin), tho final result that the oxygen CO?- on mass transfer by diffusion (ctdc-:>
se reactions, the combustion of car- c entration in the bulk of the mam c-:>T0. 5), but determines to an _appre-
the ratio of the primary products,
COtC0 2 , increases sharply with the
bon from the surface takes place with flow, CJ'2 , is equal t~ the oxygen cor ciable extent the rate of react10n on
partial gasification (formation of CO centration at the h im surface,! Co,· the surface (kc-:> e- EIRT). The nature
increasing temperature of burning par- and its afterburning in the volume).
ticles. For instance, tho resulting equ- The quantity of oxygen that passes of variation of tho maximum rates of
This process accelerates the burning-off by diffusion per unit surface area of oxygen diffusion to the surface and
ation at temperatures near 1 700°C
can be written in tho form:
of coke particles. particles is determined by Fick's law: oxygen absorption by t.ha~ surfa~e
(Fig . 4.8) suggests two pnncipal .regi-
3C+20.=2C0+C02 (4.14) K~ = ctti:(C~, -Co,) (4.15) ons of combustion of coke particles.
4.3. Ki netic and Dilfusion Regions
where the CO/CO: ratio is equal to two. of Combustion where a.d = D/o is the mass-transfer At relatively low temperatures (less
The primary reaction products arc coefficient which characterizes the ra- t:ban 1 000°C for coke particles), tho
follows from an analysis of the
te of mass transfer of the substance surface reaction proceeds rather slowly
continuously removed from the surface A:,
mechanisms of solid and liquid fuel
of particles to the environment. through the layer of thickness o, and oxygen consumption is only a
combustion, tho total rate of combu-
In this process, carbon monoxid e en- rn/s, and D is the coeffici ent of mole- small fraction of the quantity of oxy-
counters the difrusing oxygen, which stion is determined not only by the gen that can be supplied t.o the sur-
rate of chemical reaction:; propot·, but cular diffusion, m 2/s.
moves in the op\)osite directi on, and
I
56
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 4. Theoretical Principles of Comba1tlon 4.4. 1gnltlon of Fuel-<~lr Mlzture. Combartlon Front
57
k, cot to co takes place at the incandes- Fig. 4.9. Structure of free turbulent
jet development
cent coke surface, while the diffusing 8 9
oxygen is completely consumed in t11& . J -cnd portion of nozzl e (burn'er); 2-Jet 1
core; J- boundary layer; 1- tcmperature
boundary film by gaseous CO where dlstrl butlon In tile Jet; 5- dlstrlbutlon or
conccntrallons or combustible matler in tbc
this is oxidized to carbon dioxide )ct; G-veloclty dlag•am nt burner outlet;
co!. 7-velocity diagrams In the main region;
8-)et sprea d angle; 9- lntemal angle
T In this zone, the rate of combusti-
Co' I on increases with the increasing rate
1-~--~ ----,- - -COz~ of gas flow around particles and with
the decreasing size of solid particles.
I I T At intermediate temperatures
6
Initial sectiufl Main section
I li DI (1 000°-1 400°C), the rate of reaction ·'
at the surface becomes commensurable
with the rate of oxygen supply, and transient section and the distance from
Fig. 4.8. Regions of constant-size particle city w0 , temperature T 0 , and fuel con-
burning and variations of oxygen concentra- the total r ate of the reaction is deter- centration C 0 • At the interface bet- it to the burner end is called the
tion at i ts surface mined by both processes. This is cal- initial section of jet , S 0 • Downstream
1-1 II-respecllvely kinetic, transition and dlrtu- led the transition zone of combustion. ween the jet and environment , tran-
s lon reclon or burning sverse components of pulsation velo- of the transient section, the boundary
Its position in the temperature scale layer extends across the whole jet,
depends on the size of coke particles. city cause the penetration of the jet
face, i.e. k« ctd. In that case k, ~ /c With smaller particles, the transition mass into the surrounding volume. so that the parameters at the jet axis
begin to vary with distance from the
and C/]2 ~ C<S2 • Then zone appears at a higher temperature. I n the mixing zone, which is called
the boundary layer of a jet, the intera- transient section (jet velocity decrea-
K, = kCb 2 (4.18) The ignition of any fuel begins at ses and its temperature increases).
relatively low temperatures und er con- ction of the masses ob'eys the law of
conservation of mo~1on: The length of the initial section of the
i.e. the total r ate of reaction is limited ditions of ample oxygen supply, that
by the kinetics of the chemical rea- is, essentially in the kinetic zone. As jot is found as :
cting on the surface. This temperature the temperature rises, the oxygen con-
M 0 w0 +M 1 w1 = (M0 +M 1 )wm
(4.22)
(4.20)
region of reactions is called the kinetic sumption in tho reaction zone rapidly
combustion zone. In this zone, the increases and the process passes through where M0 and M 1 are the interacting where r 0 is the initial radius of a ro-
combustion process is independent of the transition zone into tho diffu- masses of the jet and environment and und jet or 1/2 of the equivalent dia-
the conditions of oxygen supply. sion zone. The end of combustion is w0 and w 1 are their velocities; under meter of a jet with a rectangular cross
At high tern peratures (above 1400°C), usually well in the diffusion zone where the conditions considered, w1 = 0. section, and a is the experimental coe-
the rate constant of the reaction on the residual concentrations of the In view of this , the average velo- fficient of the jet structure, which ac-
the surface increases rapidly and, at a oxidant turn out to be rather low, sub- city of translatory motion of the rn•x- counts for its initial turbulence and
certain moment, exceeds the maximum stantially retarding the burning-off ture, wm , may be found as the non-uniformity of the init ial ve-
rate of oxygen supply to the surface, of the remaining fuel [291. locity field.
which varies only slightly with tempe- (4.21) In a turbulent flow with Reynolds
rature. Then, k » ad and the total 4.4. T he Ignition of Fuel-air Mixture. number Re > 2 X 10\ the coeffici-
reaction rate is determined by the On approaching the external boun- ant a = 0.07-0.08, whence the length
Combustion Front dary of the jet, the proportion of the of initial section is S 0 = (4.2-5) dc,Jt
rate of oxygen supply:
In power engineering, chamber fur- mass entrained in motion, M 1 , incre- where d eq is the equivalent diameter
(4.19)
naces are the main type of furnace ases, and the velocity of the mixture of a jet. In the transient sect ion, the
In this zone, the reaction rate va- used for high-capacity steam boilers. Wm decreases. half-width, depending on the external
ries slowly, notwithstanding the in- The fuel-air mixture from a burner en- Owing to the turbulent m ass trans- angle of jet expansion , will be
creasing temperature. The oxygen sup- ters the furnace in the form of straight
plied to the surface by diffusion re- or swirled jets whose develop-
fer, the boundary layer gradually wi-
dens to the inside as well as to the out-
r 1, = r 0 +
S 0 tan ~Xex (4.23)
acts instantaneously and its concentra- ment in the furnace space determines side, so that its potential core, which thus, it exceeds roughly 3 times the
tion at the surface becomes virtually the conditions of ignition and combu- retains the initial parameters w 0 , initial jet radius.
equal to zero. The reaction might pro- stion intensity. T0 , C0 (undisturb ed portion of the The supplied fuel is heated to the
ceed at an appreciably higher rate, Let us fi rst consider the mechanism jet) , gradually diminishes. The exter- ignition temperature by two heat so-
but is retarded by an insuHicient sup- of development of a straight jet which nal angle of jet expansion is equ al to urces: by the radiant heat flux from
ply of oxygen. This temperature region flows into the furnace space filled 12-14°, while the in ternal angle of the flame core and , more important,
is called the diffusion combustion zone. with furn ace gases (Fig. 4.9). T he jet expansion of the boundary layer is by convective heating due to the in-
With oxygen deficiency at the surface, flows ITom the burner embras ure with around 6°. The section in which the termixing of the jet mass with hot
the reaction of the reduction of the initial parameters as follows: velo- potential core disappears is called the furnace gases.
58
Download From Boilersinfo.com
·Ch. 4. Theoretical Principles of. Combrut.t on 4.5. Burn-of/ Inte.nslty of Fuel 59
place where the translatory velocity Fig. 4.12. Fuel burn-or£ and gas temperature
of the flow turns out to be equal to variations along the flame height
the velocity of propagation of, a turbu- 1 - anthracilc burn-orr characteristic; 2- luel-oil
burn-orr characte •·is tic; 3- gas temperature on
lent flame. · · anthracite combustion; 4 -~as . temperature on
(a) (b) rucl-oil combustaon
without residue is called the theoreti- the furnace (1-2 s) is not sufficient
cally required air volume ,V0 • In that for the thorough intermixing of fuel
case, according to formula (5.1), the and air in ~he large volume of the
theoretical volume o( combustion furnace. For this reason, the actual
products is volume of air that can ensure complete
fuel combus tion is always somewhat
v~ = vcas+ l'so. + v~.o + lft.!. (5.3) greater than the theoretical value. The
COMBUSTION PRODUCTS We must distinguish between tho ratio of these volumes is called the
excess air coefficient (ratio) m combu-
theoretical volume of dry gases:
stion products:
V~g = V COs -1- l'S0 2 + 11¥-. 2 = l' ROt -1- n., a. = TTa/1' 0 (5.6)
5.1. The Composition mes of individual gas components in (5.4)
of Combustion Products combustion products, m3 /kg or m3fm3*.
Combustion products of a fu el can and the total volume of gases: The required excess air ratio of a
A knowledge of the composiLion of be convenienLly divided int.o throe ~ = v~, + v~.o (5.5) furnace, a.1, depends on the kind of
a fuel and of Lhe reactions by which its groups. Group 1 in formula (5 .1) in- fuol, method of combustion, and fur-
combustible components are oxidized cludes the products of complete com- In this case, the volume v~L,O in- nace des ign. High-reactive solid fuels
makes it possible to calculate the vo- bustion of fu el elem ents, i.e. dry tria- cludes all the water-vapour components with a high yield of volatiles. are igni-
lume of combustion products obtained. tomic gases usually denoted as l'Ro,: in combustion products which have ted more easily and burn off more
ln boiler plant operation, combustion been considered earlier, while the quickly, and therefore, require a lo-
products are analysed continuously or l'Roz = l'co2 + Vso, (5.2), volume v~. is formed mainly from wer excess air ratio than those having
periodically in order to control the the nitrogen of the air, with a slight a low yield of volatiles. In gas-air
completeness of fuel combustion and and water vapours Vu,o. In th e com- addition of t he nitrogen of the fuel mixtures, fuel can be intermixed effe-
the density of gases in tho wnste gas position of dry triatomic gases, V co. which evolves from the latter whe n cti vol y with air, for which reason fuel
path. is always much greater than llso , heated together with other volatile oils and gaseous fuels require a still
In thermal calculations of boiler since fuel s common ly have a low suf- components. lower air excess. The same grade of
pl ants, the composition and tempera- phur content. Gro up 2 con tains lh & The volume of dry triatomic gases (uel may require different excess air
ture of flu e gases are used to del ermine volumes of nitrogen and oxygen which l' RO· in formulae (5.2) and (5.4) is ratios when burned in various furnaces
the enthalpy downs tream of each represent the residual dry ai r left the ·same and does not depend on (say, in a straight-jet and vortex fur-
heating s urf ace. [ t is also essential upon fuel combustion and water vapo- whether the theoretical air volume naco) which difier in effectiveness of
to kno w tho volume of gases for cer- urs. In this group, l'N, is much lar- V 0 or a greater quantity Va is supplied fuel-air intermixing.
tain aerodynamic calculations. ger than Vo,, since oxygen has been for burning*, while the volumes of The rated excess air ratio a.1 can be
Combustion reactions at high tem- consumed in a large amount for oxida- other components of combus tion pro- found according to the Norms of ther-
peratures proceed at a high rate. The- tion. The volume of water v apours in- ducts will change. In this case, the mal calculation of steam boilers by
refore, the composi tion of the final cludes the evaporated moisture of the volumes corresponding to the theoreti- considering all the factors involved
combustion products is close to the fuel and the moisture conten t of th& cal conditions of combustion are m ar- [201. For the various kinds of fuel, it
equilibrium value. In zones where air proper. Group 3 denotes tho pro- ked by the superscript ·o·. can us ually be taken within the follo-
oxygen bas been deficient, products of ducts of incomplete combustion of fu- When the combustion of fuel is wing limits:
incomplete oxidation of the original el elements ; in this group, Vco > complete and there is any excess
> TTH, > VcH,· The r atio of volu- . • . . • i.15-i.25
combustible components may remain quantity of air in the combustion zono, Solid fuels
Liquid fuels . . . . . 1.03-i.i
•
in fuel gases. The composition of com- mes Vco:l'H , is 3:1 on the average. i.e. with l'a > lfO, there forms the Gaseous fuels . 1.05-U
bustion products formed on the com- The presence of l'cN, in the products same theoretical volume of gases v~.
bustion of 1 kg of solid or liquid fuel of incomplete combustion is indicative However, the actual gain in tho volu- A decrease in the excess air ratio
or 1 m3 of gaseous fu el can be written of strong deviations from the s pe- me of combustion products is deter- may save energy for driving blowers
in the following forrn: cified conditions of combustion. mined solely by the excess quantity and increase tlte boiler efficiency, but
Fuel (1 kg) + air~ Let us analyse complete fuel combu- of air 6.l'a = l'" - l'0 and by Lhe its reduction below the rated value
-~ V co2 + V'so~ + V H 20
stion, assuming the combust.ion pro- water vapours contained in it, 6.V"II,O· a.1 may result in a sharp rise in heat
' - - --....- - --' ducts have Vco = 0, l'H, = 0, l'cH = 0 Under real conditions, fuel cannot loss with unburned carbon and a lo-
I and no r esidual oxygen, i.e. V 0 ~ 0 b e burned completely at Lhe theoreti- wer boiler efficiency.
+ VN~ + Voz + V w 11 The quantity of air required f~ r th~ cally sufEicient air volume 1'0 s ince In steam boilers with supercharged
2 complete ~o.m IJustion or 1 kg (1 m3) of the short time the gases are present in [urrtaces , the excess air ratio at the
fuel to ut1ltze lhc oxygen of the air exit from the furnace, a.1 , is equal to
-1- V CO -1- V Hz -1- V CH . 1 ( 5. 1)
i ts value in the burner, a. 11 , and re-
3 • The concentrations of CO, and 50s ia
• In furthe~ di scussion, only uuit volum- atmospheric air are insignificant and disreg- mains unchanged along the whole gas
where l'co,, l'so,, etc. are th e volu- es and enthalp1es per kg fu el will be used. arded in calculations. path, since all gas ducts in this case
·62
Download From Boilersinfo.com
·· · Ch. 5. Combustion Products 5.1. The Compo1ttlon of Combustion Products 63
where c 4 is the volume specific heat ry corrections should be introduced if Gaseous fuels contain no oxygen, strial plan ts for the sake of both the
capacity of air, kJ/(m 3 ·K). the flue gases contain products of in- but their hydrogen conten t is sub- present generation and those of the
Calculated enthalpies of gases at va- complete combustion (CO, H 2 ). stantially higher, and therefore, R o~u future.
rious temperatures can be plotted as Another popular method for deter- turns out to be much lower than that Certain components in the gaseous
an I, {}-diagram, which is convenient mining the excess air in combustion of solid and liquid fuels. erfluents from power stations arc safe
for practical use (Fig. 5.2). products is based on finding the per- The RO~ax values of various fuels for man; these include water va pours,
centage of dry triatomic gases R 0 2 = are within tho follow ing limil.s : carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitro-
5.2. Determination of E xcess A ir R atio
= C0 2 + S0 2 in comb ustion pro- Solid fuels . • 18-20% gen. Other ingredients are h armful to
for an Operating Boiler ducts: Fuel oil . . . . . . 1.6-17% v arying degrees.
v Natural gas • • • • • 0 • •
11-13% Thermal power stations and l argo
The excess air ratio in the gas path R02 = vnos 100 (5.18) boil er houses pollute the atmosphere
dg With ex > 1, the volume of dry ga-
of a boiler plant should be continuous- ses will be: by ejecting nitrogen oxides (NO"' =
ly controlled in order to provide the With complete fuel combustion in =NO + N0 2 ), sulphur oxides (SOt+
optimal conditions for fuel combu- the stoichiometric ratio (ex = 1) and
provided that tho content of hydrogen
vdg = v~ 11 + ll V 0 + S03 ), solid ash par ticles, and
stion and to minimize air inleakage. and the volume or tri atomic gases is vanadium pontoxide V 2 0 5 • Moreover,
and oxygen in fuel correspond to the if combustion is incomplete, flue ga-
Two such methods of control are cur-
equality Hw = ow/8, all the hydrogen Vno ses may contain carbon monoxide CO ,
rently in use at power stations. The
most popular method is to directly
in the fuel is considered to be oxidi- R02 = v•dlf +;V 100 hydrocarbons, such as CH 4 or C2 H, ,
zed by tho oxygen of the fuel , and (I
ric anhydride 5 0 3 may form in fur- The highest p erm issi bl e concen t.ra- the gases in u much I arger concan tra- ase in the future due to t.lte increasing
naces from S0 2 at the fin al stage of tions of selected hnrm ful s ubs ta nces tion than N0 2 • Around 40% of the power of s t ations and the increMing
fl ame burning when t here is an excess are g iven i n T able 5. 1. total quantit y of nitrogen oxides ej e- usc of sol id fuels. l n this res pect, the
of atom ic oxygen or by cat al ysis on Table 5. 1. H ij!hcsl Perrnissiltle
.cted into the atmosphere is from power problem of how dee pl y to purify flue
the high-t emperature depos its of steam Concentrations of Selec ted ll armful stations [471. g ases from ash pari icles is growing in
s uperheat ers. Its y ield is 2-5% the Subs tances in ,\ ir, mg/m3 l n contr as t to gaseous so2 whoso magnilud e. Fly u.sh formed by the
vield
. -
of SO •. In t.he zone of l ow-tern-
p erature heat ing s urfaces, is so3 In inhabi ted a r ras:
presence in was te gases is uncontrol- comb ustion of solid fuels conLoios a
lable and de pe nds only on tbe concen- number c f harmf ul components, s uch
transformed int o s ulphuric acid vapo- .. tra tion of s ul phur in the fu el, tho ::s fh 10:·ide and arsen ic compounds and
urs and is partially spen t in t he pro- Suhs tnnce -
E
~
concentration of n itrogen oxides in t ile ox tdes Si0 2 and CaO. Ash colle-
cess of low- temperature corrosion (see
Ch . 16).
...
0 was te gases de pends heav il y on com ·· ction a t. thermal power s ta tio ns is most
bus tion org anization in th.e furna ce. oft en carded out in electros tatic pre-
The risk f rom the effect of a p arti- Nitrogen dioxide NO: 0 .085 0.085 N itrogen oxides are mainl y produced ci pitators. For many fu els wi th an ele-
cul ar substance on a living organism is Nitrogen oxide NO 0.25 0.25 from the at mos pheric oxygen a nd vated content of ash, t he degree of
det er mi ned as the ratio of the actual Sulphuri c anhyd· so3 0.30 0 .10 nitrogen in the high-tempera ture com- ash col lectio n must be no less than
concentration of the s ubs tance C, rid e bus t ion zone (at temper atures a bove 99% .
Sulphurous nnhyd- so~ 0.50 0.05
mg/m 3 to the highest perm issible con- r ide 1 600°C} and by the oxid a tion of th e For the presen t , until efficient indu-
centr ation (HPC), mg/m 9 , in air a t the Carbon monoxide co 3.0 1.0 nitrogen of fuel (this reaction can strial pl ants cap ab le of removi ng harm-
breathi ng l ev el: Benzpyrene C,o Ht: t x to-e: occur at temperatures below 1 600°C}. ful impurities from fuel or from waste
Vanad ium pen to- Y:O~ 0.002 T hus , the main means of r educing the gases are developed, one method of
k 1 = C 1/HPC 1 (5.23) xide
format ion of NOx in fu rnaces are to decreasing the concen tr ati on of toxic
Soot (gr it) 0 .15 0.05
T h is ra tio is called the tox ic ra te of Dust (ash pa rt icles) 0.50 0. 15 reduce the t em peratu re i n t.he com- substa nces in th o l ower atmosph ere is
an i- th s ubstance. Tl should always be bus tion zone ('I ow-tern pern t.u re ' com- to bu il d tall s tacks up to 320 m high
less than uni ty. P ower s t ations account for roughly bustion) and li mit the quantity of which can s pr ead flue gases to l arge
1I air contains a number of harmful 3/4 of tho total s ui phur oxides ejected excess air. It s hould b e noted , howe- distances. With high er stacks. the
subs tances with a s imilar biological i nto the atmosph ere. I n vi ew o[ the ver, that with improper operation of concentratio n of harmful impurities in
effect on th e living organism, its to xi- increasing indus tr ial utilization of the furnace or burners , these m eas ures the at mos phere at th e earth's s urface
city is enhanced. T herefore, the pre- h igh-sulphur fuel oils and solid f uels. m ay resul t in the a ppearance of other decreases in inverse proportion to the
sence of such substances in air is inad- reducing the total discharge of s ul- equally harmful subs tances (such as square of the stacks ' h eight ratio.
missible even in concentrat ions n ear phur oxides in the atmosphere is an soot or benzpyrene). Tall s tacks are n ot, however , a radi -
tho HPC l evel. In such a case, the t o- urgent concern. Si nce the volume con- Around 20% of the tota l contami- cal l y effeclive means of pr ot ecting the
xic h azard is es timated by adding t o- centration of sulphur oxid es in waste nation of the atmosphere with solid environment from in dus trial effluent;
gether th e toxic rates of the individual gases is rather l ow (around 0 .2%) and dust p articles falls on ash discharge by they si mply dim i nis h the local con -
substances. For waste gases, the addi- th e vol umes of was te gases are enor- power stations. Th e discharge of solid central ions of harmful s ubs t ances in
tivi ty principle is appli ed t o N0 2 , N O, mous, purification of gases from so~ fractions by power stations may incre- t he lower atmos phere.
S0 2 , 5 0 3 , and CO. No t ing this , the is difficul t to accomplish . I t seems
addi tivi ty formula of toxic effluents is m ore reasonabl e t o purify petro leum
as follows : fro m s ul phur at petrole um processing·
plants or to s ubject fuel oil and h igh-
c l'\ Os + CN o + Cso. sulphur solid f uels before combus tion
II PCNo" HPCNo HPCso 2 to a deep thermal processing which
can produce gaseous fuel and v al uable
Csos Ceo liquid prod ucts. In s uch processes,
+ HPCso + HPCco ~ 1 (5.24)
3 s ulphur compounds can be extracted
and collected much m ore easily. Such EFFICIENCY OF F UEL HEAT UTILIZATION
I n many cases , benzpyrene is inclu- methods of fuel processing are being
ded i nto this formula. For solid (par- used on an ev er i ncreasi ng scale.
ticulate) effluents, the addi ti vity for- T he extraction of NO"' from waste 6. t. The H eat Balan ce and E fficiency
m ula is : (1) complete combustion of the fu el
g ases involves even 1arger eng ineering or the Steam Boiler i n the boiler furnace;
Co + HPC.
c. + Cv~os ~1 (5 25) d ifficul t ies than th at of S0 2 • This is (2) deep cooling of t h e combustion
HPC 0 HPCv,o5 """"' • due to a lower concentration of NO" p-roducts during their p assage through
in gases (which is only 1/2 to 1/5 of T he effi cient u tiliz ation of fuel in the l1 eating surfaces ; and
where t he subscr ipts 'a' and 's' stand t h at of S0 2 ) and the lower chemical s t earn bo ilers is primaril y determined (3) minimization of heat losses to
for 'ash' and 'soot' . ac ti Yily of the N O whi ch is present i n by the foll owing three facto rs : the env ironmen t .
68
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 6. Efficiency of Fuel Heat Utilization 6.1. ll eat Balance and Efficiency of Stea m Bo ller 69
The extent to which the heat of the specific heat of air, tea is the tempera- where D • h and D rh are the flow rate of Table 6.L Heat Losses in Steam Boilers
fuel is transferred in the boiler to the t ure of cold air, and t; is its tempera- fresh superheated steam and s team
working fluid is determined by the ture at tho entry to the boiler air heater from secondary superlieating (re- Relallvc
Heat l oss llem Joss, %
boiler's gross efficiency. This is defi- (or behind the external ai r heater). heated steam), kg/s, D bw is the flow rate q. %
or Qw
at>
ned as the quant ity of heat absorbed The heat introd uced by steam for of blow-off water from the boiler
by\the working fluid Q1 , kJ/kg of so- fuel oil atomization is: drum to maintain the required salt
lid or liquid fuel or kJ /kg of gaseous conditions in the circulalion circuit , Wi th waste gases 4- 7
fuel, related to the available heat of Q•b = d,IJ (i,b - i ;) (6.5) kg/s, D bw must be considered if it is T hrough i ncornplcte 0-0.5
combustion
the working mass of fuel, Q::'v. kJ/kg: where d,b is the uni t flow rate of steam more than 2% of D.,,; i,., i1w, and i' Wi th unburned car- 0.5-5
for atomization , kg/kg fuel (usual- are respectively, the enthalpy of su- bon
l]b= g~ao 100 (6 .1 ) ly d,u = 0.05-0.1 kg/kg) , i,b is its perheated sleam, feed waler and wa- By cooling through 0.2-1
enthalpy, kJ/kg, and i; is the en- ter at the saturation line at the pres- the lining
The available heat of burned fuel is As physico l hea t of 0-3
thalpy of steam carried off by flue ga- sure in the drum, kJ/kg , iri. and i;,, removed s lag
dt' t.erroi ned by the general formula: ses at a temperature {}wg. kJ/kg. are the enthalpies of secondary super- Sum of heat losses 6-12
Q::'o = Q't' + Qph + Oaex The quantity of heat that is spent heated steam at the inlet to and outlet
on tho dissociation of carbonates in from the reheat superheater, k J /kg,
+ Q,b - Qed (6.2)
oil shales is proportional to the quan- and B is tho fuel consumption, kg/s Tho direct calculation of the boiler
where Ql" is the lower heating value t ity of carbon dioxide that evolves on or ro 3 /s. efficiency by formul a (6.1) may turn
of the working mass of fuel, kJ /kg, combustion , CO"f, so that the for- The heat utilized in a boiler can out to be insufficiently accurate and
Qp 11 is the physical heat of solid or li- mula for determining Oed is: also be expressed in terms of heat ab- involve difficulties in accurate measu-
quid fuel before burning, kJ/kg, Oae:r sorption by the individu al heating sur- rement of certain parameters, e.g. m ass
Qed = 40.5CQ~d (6.6)
is the quantity of heat absorbed by faces: fl ow rates of steam and fu el , heating
the supplied air during preheating To s um this up, the heal available v alue of fuel, and some components
outside tho boiler (most often in exter- on the combustion of various kinds of
Ot Q, + 0.~~ + Q,,, + Oee
= (6.8)
or the available heal.
nal air h eater·s) kJ/kg , Q,b is the heat fuel can be determined by the follo- where Q1 is the heat absorption by The gross efficiency of a steam boiler
of steam' used in steam burners for wing formulae: tho working fluid in tho furnace water can be found by the inverse balance
fu el oil atomization, kJ ; kg, and Ocd is - for anthracites, coals and brown walls , kJ /kg, Q·.~:· is the heat absor- method if we know the sum of its heat
the h eat from the dissociation of car- coals of a low humidi ty and l ow ption in tho convective surfaces of losses:
bonates in the mineral mass of fuel, sulphur conten t: superheater, kJ/kg, Q,1, is tho heat
kJ/kg (the last term is applicable only Q•c-
absorption in the secondary su per- Tl b = 100 - (q2+ q3 + q4
Qawo --
to oil shales). 1' heater, k J /kg, and Qe c is the heat ab-
sorption in the economizer, kJ /kg.
+ q~ + q,) (6.11)
The physical h eat of fuol before - for moist brown coals and for The inverse balance method, i.e .
burning depends on its temperature coals and fuel oil with a high sulphur During boil er operation, some of the
available heat is inevitably los t and determining the boiler efficiency by
content:
Qph = c1t1 (6.3) constitu tes heat losses. The dis t ribu- the sum of heat l osses, gives a more
where c1 is the specific heat of fuel,
Q;,"c = Q~ Qph+ Oae:r; + tion of the heat supplied to a boiler accurate value than the direct balance
- for fuel oil atomized by steam as useful heat and lost heat is the ba- method, since the sum of beat losses
kJ /(kg K), and t 1 is its temperature, constit utes roughly 1/10 of Q::'. and
oc. in burners: sis for compiling the heat balance of a
all its items can be reliably measured.
The average temperature of solid Q;,", = Q'{' +QPI• +0aex +Q,b; steam boiler. The h eat balance equ-
ation corresponds to steady-stale ther- This is the sole m ethod available for
fuels may range from 0 to 20°C, but estimating the therm al efficiency of
may be even sub-zero in winter time. - for natural gas : mal conditions or boiler operation . It
w _ Q1 . is usually written for 1 kg or 1 m 3 of now steam boilers at the design stage.
In the combustion of fuel oil, the Q01' - I ,
lf we know the heat losses and, con-
term Qph m ust always be taken into burned fu el :
- for oil shales: sequently, the gross boiler efficiency,
account since, for atomization, fuel Q::'v = Or +Qz + Q3+ Q, + Qs+Qa (6.9) we can use formulae (6.1) and (6.7) to
oil is preheated in the burnor up to Q::'. = Q't' - Qed· ~~h~
ca~t~l~o~ -
find the fu el consumption by the boiler,
100-130°C. D iv iding both sides of equation (6.9)
The heat absorbed by the working kg/s:
The quantity of heat absorbed b y by O::'v and expressing the result as a
the air for combustion during prehe- fluid (water and steam) in the boiler percentage, we get: B=
per kg (or m3 ) of fuel can b e found D 1 11 (iu - If wH- Drh (t;h - l~h) +Dbw (i' -iJw)
ating outside the boiler is fou nd from
fro m the formula 100 = q1 + qz + q3 + q4 + q& Q;:',TJb
the formula:
+ q6 (6.10)
Oau = ~a V 0 ca (t~ -tea) (6.4) QI = DB,,, ("L,. - t/w
. )+ Drh ( ""
B LrJo -
,, )
Lrh Tho typica l items of the boiler h eat
(6.12)
where ~ a isr the rela tive~ air q uanti ty balance and their values are given in The fuel consumption thus obtained
passing through a~ heater, c0 is t he + D; w (i!- itw) (6. 7) T able 6.1. is the rated value for calculating the
70
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 6. Efltctency of Fuel Heat Uttllzatlon 6.2. Analysis of Heat Losses 7t
pulverization system of the boiler. In 6.2. Analysis of Heat Losses be noted that f>w 11 depends substantial- and feed water with the temperature
solid fuel-fired boilers, more often ~y on the temperature of the feed wa- of hot air remaining the s ame, the
than not, fuel is not burned complete- Heat loss with waste gases. Accord- ter t 1,0 at the inlet to the "economizer additional expenditures involved can
ly, i.e. there is a heat loss with un- ing to Table 6.1, heat loss through .and the temperature of air at the inlet be found as follows :
waste gases is the largest item in the
burned carbon q4 • To find the actual
volumes of combustion products and heat balance. Its relative magnitude ,
to the air heater, t~. This can be exp- Z = !J.Sah + !J.Sec - flSwh
the air flow rate for combustion, the per cent, can be found by the formul a :
ressed by the following relationship
{61:
+ !J.Sbt- flStu+ t:J.S.t (6.20)
concept of rated fuel consumption is where !J.Sah and !J.S ec are the costs of
introduced:
02 tOO
q2 = QW
au
(6 .16) A
Vwg 6l fw •
+
= Cil-1 (t ..!- !J.t)
2
t~+ L\tl
Cil
th e additional heating surfaces of an
air heater and an economizer, !J.Sb
where Q2 is the absolute heat loss, (6 .18) is the extra cost of electric energy for1
B.= B (1- 0.01q 4 ) (6.13) kJ /kg:
where w = L(Vc) 111(l'aca) is the ratio driving the blowers, associated with
The gross efficiency characterizes Qz = (fw g - awgf~a) (1 - 0.01q 4 ) of the water equivalents of the gases the increased resistance of the air-gas
the perfection of operation of a steam (6 .17) and air in the lower stage of the air path, !J.S •t is the cost for constructing
boiler proper. Its normal operation, heater , !J.t1 is the temperature gra- a taller stack, !J.Swh is the saving in
Here, I wg is the en thai py of waste dient (between gas and air) at the feed water heaters, and flStu is the
however, depends in addition on a gases, kJ/kg, and I~a is the enth alpy
large number of auxiliary machines 'hot end' of tho air heater, and !J.t 2 fuel savings.
of the theoretically required volume is the temperature gradient (between The optimal" temperature {}':}'J is
and mechanisms, which consume a of cold air, kJ /kg. The first multiplier
portion of the energy produced by the gas and water) at the 'cold end' of the found by minimizing the calculated
in the equation gives the gain in en- economizer. expenditures, which is done by sol-
power plant (station). The use of thalpy of waste gases relative to that of
energy for this purpose is called the The recommended minimum values ving the equation:
the air suppl ied t.o the boiler (both of temperature gradients [20) are
auxiliary power consurnption, N oux• of organized and unorgan ized). The se- 8Z/a{1wg = 0 (6.21)
a boiler plant. The auxiliary power !J.t1 = 30 deg C and !J.t2 = 40 deg C; but.
cond multiplier is a correction for in- somewhat higher values are usually ta- Typical curves of the optimal tem-
consumption includes the power cou- complete combustion of fueL As fol-
sumed by forced- and induced-draft ken in tho boiler design, since the perature o[ waste gases as functions
lows from formula (6.17), the heat loss yalues i ndicated require excessively of the decisive economic factors are
fans, feed pumps, pulverizing equip- through waste gases Q2 is determined,
ment, blowing devices, and a large l al'gO s urfaces of air h eater and eco- shown in Fig. 6.2. The optimal tem-
first of all, by the enthalpy of waste nomizer. The ratio o[ water equiva- perature of waste gases depends sub-
number of electric motors in the auto- gases I we• i.e. it depends on their
matic remote control system. For len ts depends on the quality of fuel stantially on the cost and quality of
temperature f>wg and their volume and the excess air ratio in the air fuel, and, firs t and foremost, on its
boilers operating in monobloc units which is characterized by the excess
with turbines, the auxiliary power heater zone. moisture content. When the cost of
air ratio awg· For a particular kind of fuel and the fuel is high, the savings in consumed
consumption can be found as a per- By reducing the temperature of the
centage of the total power production selected values of !J.t1 , flt 2 and excess fuel can justify the extension of heat-
waste gases by 15-20 deg C, it is possible air ratio, formula (6.18) takes the ing surfaces and thus allows a lower
by the following formula: to decrease q 2 and thus raise the boiler
form: temperature of waste gases (Fig. 6.2a).
efficiency by roughly 1%. This can be (6.19) A high moisture content in the fuel
A Nau:x 100 achieved by arranging an additional increases the volume of combustion
LlTJaux = BQw -n (6 .14)
()1J'ISf convective heating surface !J.H c whose As foJlows from t he above, a comp- products and their s pecific heat, since
dimensions will be the larger, the lex engineering-economical approach water vapours possess the highest
where B is the fuel consumption by greater the reduction in the waste gas is essential for selecting the optimal specific heat in these gases. To cool
the boiler, kg/s, and lJat is the effi- temperature (Fig. 6.1). It should also temperature of waste gases f>':fi. A chan- by the same number of degrees flf>we•
ciency of power production at the ge of f>wg will substantially influence waste gases with a high humidity
station. the size of the heating surfaces of the must give up a greater quantity of
In high-capacity boilers, flTJau :x is economizer, air heater and regenera- heat, which requires a further increase
equal to 4-5%. By subtracting the tive heaters. This circumstance wi1l in the heating surfaces compared with
auxiliary power consumption flTJaux change the hydraulic resistance of the dry fuel. For the same or lower priced
from the gross efficiency of a boiler gas and water patlts and the energy moist fuel, extending the heating sur-
TJb, we obtain what is called the net consumption by feed water pumps and faces is not economically feasible,
boil er efficiency, which characterizes blowers. A probable change in the which means that the optimal tem-
the efficiency of t he boiler plant ope- h eight of the stack to better disperse perature of the waste gases will inc-
ration in terms of the electric energy LJH2 the waste gases should also be consi- r ease along with the moisture content
delivered to consumers: d ered . of the fuel (Fig. 6.2b).
Fig. 6.1. Variation of the additional heat- Thus, if measures are taken to lower An i ncrease in the initial parameters
ing surface area in various temperature
(6.15) regions tl1e temperature of the waste gases of steam (pressure and temperature )
72
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 6. Elftclency of Fu.el Beat UtUtzatlon 6.2. Analv 1 t1 of Beat Losses 73
2
Fig. 6.5. EHcct of hot air temperature on
heat loss with unburned carbon
0 Lmta tmtnlN lUlUL45
o(f
hailer surfaces and the surrounding air, and therefore, the relative heat loss
Fig. 6.4 . Heat losses with unburned carbon
in dry-bottom furnaces oc. increases:
The heat loss by cooling is the hig- (6.25)
·d ust collectors and discharged to ash h er, the higher the external tempera-
·dumps. The loss with slag is due to ture of the lining and heat insulation where the subscript (superscript) ·,.·
the fact that some unburned fu el par- <>f the boiler. Tho external surfaces of
t.iclos in t.he combustion zone are fu- relates to rated values. Heat losses q5
0 0. 2 0.4 0.5 0.8 b oilers and boiler elements should be at D < Dr are shown by dotted lines
.sod with molten slag and drop onto proper!y heat-insulated so that tbru is
the furnace bottom. not higher than 55°C. In rough calcu- in Fig . G.7.
Fig. 6.6. Variations of unburned carbon Heat loss with physical h eat or slag.
Wh en the optimal fineness of fuel heat losses in slagging-bottom furnaces as lations, the heal flux from the boiler
a function of the degree of non-uniform it v The slag removed from the bottom of
pulverization is obtained and under surfaces to the surroundings is taken
of air distribution between burners at tha · a boiler furnace has a rather high
normal operating conditions of the = 400"C a t an average level q11 = 200-300
t emperature, and therefore, possesses
boiler, the loss q4 depends on excess W /m 2 . For boilers with a different po- a certain quantity of beat wl1ich is
air and varies widely with changes in wer rating, the absolute heat loss lo transferred to cooling water in the
the yield of the volatiles (Fig. 6.4). of variations of hot air temperature the surroundings, Q5 , is determined by slag bath and is lost irreversibly. This
When the excess air ratio is below the and Fig. 6.6 shows the effect of a non- the ratio F bwlB ,. With increasing boi- constitutes the heat loss with the phy-
·optimal level, g4 may rise owing to an uniform distribu.tion of air between ler power, the absolute heat loss Q5 , sical heat of slag, Q6 • The relative
improper intermixing of fuel and air the burners on the unburned carbon k J /kg, and the relative loss q5 , %, loss, q6 , can be found by the formu ..
at the exit from tho burner or to the h eat l oss g4 ; in tho latter figm e, lla. is b ecome l ower, because the total heat
appearance of an oxygen deficiency the relative dev iation of excess air release and the volume of combustion la ( %):
zone though t he temperature level de- ratio from the rated value. .products increase more quickly than _ a,, (ct)8 t.A"'
q6 - owav (6. 2B)
veloped by the burner is quite high. Heat loss by cooling. Since the tem- the area o[ exposed boiler surfaces
With a> a 0 pt. the temperature in perature of the lining and casing of a (Fig. 6.7). where a, 1 = 1 - a, is the fraction
the combustion zone decreases, resul- boiler and of its other elements (such As is · seen from Fig. 6.7, the heat of the total ash that is removed as
ting in a lower rate of oxidation reac- as drum, headers, pipel ines, etc.) is loss item q5 for high-capacity boilers slag from the furnace, (ct), 1 is the
tions (see Ch. 4). On the other hand, higher than that in the surrounding i s not high. It. is commonly assumed
air, they give up heat to the environ- enthalpy of slag, kJfkg, and A"' is
the volume of combustion products th at. these losses are proportional to
ment. In general, the heat loss by the ash con tent in the working mass
increases, thus diminishing the time the heat absorbed by each heating
the particles are present in the high- cooling, Q5 , kJ/kg, can be expressed surface of the boiler and are accounted of fuel.
The heat loss q6 can be determined
temperature zone. These two factors by the formula: for by what is called the heat reten-
~re responsible for an increase in the
graphically' as in t~e wg~aph in
tion coefficient: F ig. 6.8, where A' = A !Qt IS the re-
hoat loss with unburned carbon. (6.23)
(6. 24) solved ash content of fuel. The heat
An elevated value of g 4 in low-re-
loss q6 depends substantially on ~he
active fue ls (anthracite, somianthraci- where F bw is tho exposed surface area
te) is due to the delayed ignition of of the walls and the high-temperature ln this formula , the ratio q5/(llb + method of slag removal from the boiler
·coke particles and prolonged burning elements of the boiler, m~. a, and + q~) characterizes the relative beat furnace (see Ch. 7). In dry-bottom
furnaces, a, 1 = 0.05-0.1 and the tem-
in the diifusion region. These kinds of a, are the coefficients of heal trans- :loss to the outside.
In boilers of a lower capacity, the perature of the slag is 600-700°C; in
fuel are, therefore, rather sensitive to fer by convection and radiation, that case and with a rel atively low
variations in operating conditions. As kW/(m2 K), and tbw and t,u r are respe- absolute heat loss through enclosing
walls remains virt.ually unchanged, ash content in the fuel, q6 is insigni-
an example, Fig. 6.5 shows the effect ctively, the average temperature of the
76
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 6. Efficiency of Fuel Heat Uttllzatlon 7.1. Principal Characteristics of Chamber Furnaces 77
I
82 Ch . 7. Pulverized Coal-fired Furnaces
Download From Boilersinfo.com 83
7 .2. B urners a nd Their Arrangement
Fig. 7.5. Slmightr-fl ow burners for Fig. 7. 7. Schema tic o[ a burner for
pulverized coal three kinds of [uel
(a) with lillfng noul~ at the exit ol fuel-air
mixture; (b) with ccntrn l channel for hot Numbering as in Fig. 7.4; addillonnlly:
air; J- s ul'ply or ru ~ l-nir mixture; 2 - 13-annular duct for natural ~as; H - pillCR
s upply or 10t air; .7-lur l-air mixture out- lor admitting natur11l r;as to burner. arrnn-
let; 4-hot nlr ou t let; s-suction or fur- ~cd around tlte pri mary ulr c;hnuncl 3; JS -
nace gases natural r:ns to lurnnce; JC-clcctrlc gns
Igniter 3
10
,' j
(a)
3
4
J .. tion in the fl ame core as possi ble, pro- a t a d istance of (2.2-3) D p fro m ono
5~ ;;; ::./\
.... vide favourable cond itions for the re- an other and at a distance of (1.6-2) Dp
"'
::· :.
c mov al of slag from the furn ace (in from the sid e walls of the furnace,
either dry or molten s late), and avoid which bel ps t.o prevent the flames
(b) clinkering of the furnace walls. The from interacti ng prematurely and
optimal arrangement of burners is touching the walls (571.
l ar sh ape, especially t hose extended in a burner assembly (Fig. 7 .6). found b y properl y consideri ng their Some t ypical arrangements of tur-
along the height, are char acteri zed by Str aight-flow burners arc main ly emp- type and characteristics. For instance, bulent pul verized-coal b urners in the
a high injection of the surrounding ga- loyed with high-reactive fuels : brown tmbulent burners give a shorter and furnace are illustrated in Fig . 7.8 . The
seous medium into the j et sides. For coals, peat, oi l shales and h igh-vola- wider fl ame than do the straight-flow front and double-fro n t arrangements
th at reason, such burners with the ex- tile coals. The velocity of the dust-ai r type. The prim ary and secondary air (Fig. 7 .8a and b) m ay have one or two
ternal mixing of dust-air fl ow {Fig. mixture at the burner outlet is taken fl ows ar e i ntensively interm ixed due to rows (tiers) of burners along the
7 .5b) possess certain adv an tages over as w, = 20-28 m/s and the op ti mal the energy of turbulent motion, which height. With a s ingle-fron t arrange-
t h ose with internal mixing, particu- velocity of secondary a ir, w~ = 1.5- ensures a t horo ug h burning-off of fuel . m ent, the rear water w all of the fur-
l arly in that they ensure easier igni- 1. 7 of w 1• in the flame core (up to 90-95% ). n aco has an eleva ted heat absorpt ion
tion. Str aight.-flow burners are, as a Combined burners. In some cases, The main parameter of t m·bulent (10-20% above t he average value) , so
r ule, o[ a relatively low tluoughput power stations h ave to oper at e, simul- burners is the diameter of their port , or that l.he furn ace depth (in a dry-bot·
capacity; in high-<:apacity boilers, a taneously or alternately, on a variety embrasure, Dp. Burners aro arranged t om furnace) must b e not less than
number of such burners are combined of fuels, and must employ combined b = (6-7) D p in order to keep the rear
burners which can eff icien tl y burn wall fl·om clinkering . The opposite
J 2 1 each kind of fu el. As an example, double-front arrangement of uurners is
-.....J I I F ig . 7.7 s hows a combined burner in typical of h igh-capacity steam boilers
0 L I J a high-capacily steam boiler which wh ere the required number of burners
can operate on th ree kinds of fuel: ®®® cannot be arranged on a single front
<1---:E
-f · . . . ;-...
I
. .
.. . . . .. . . - . . . . ·. .
-<J4• '· -···-- · · .. ·.·:··-···.
_,.
' solid {basic), fuel oil and natural gas.
The burner h as an enl arged diameter
w al l even in two tiers.
W ith the opposite arrangement of
:. : . ........ ·.·:· .
in the central channel in wh ich the bur ners, heat absorption by water
main fuel oil b urner and a whirling 'r.? '
• • • .. 0 ••
walls in a furnace is m uch more uni.
device for turbulizing the axial air form . The opposite burner arrange.
.... ..
\ __-
• • • 0 • flow are arranged. N a t ural gas is fed m ent is employed p1:imarily in slag•
through feeder tubes in thin jets into ging-bottom furnaces, since colliding
the space between the turbulizecl axial ' flam es are de£l ected both upwards and
[ J and secondary air flows ensuring tho- downwards and thus can m aintain a
rough intermixing and stable burning a
(OJ {6} (c) high temperature level at the furnace
Fig. 7.6. An assem bl y of three straigb tr-flow of fuel. bottom . Efficient int eraction of oppo-
pulverized-coal burners Fig. 7 .8. Arrangement of pulverized-coal
Burner arrangement. Burners are turbulent burners on furnace walls site fl ames is achieved if the furnace
1 -sup pi y or fuel-air mixture to burner; .t-secon-
dnry nlr supply to burner; J-pipe lor mounting arranged on the wal ls of a furnace so (a) front arrangement; (b) double-front (opposite) width is b = (5-6)Dp . In low-capacity
~he !Iring Juel-oil burner with electric gas lgni~r; as to ensure as complete fuel combus- nrrangemenl; (c) opposite arrangement on side
4 - tilting air pipe walls boilers, burners are usually arranged
84
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 7. Pulverized Coal-fired Furnaces
7 .9. Dry-bottom Furnaces 85
l distance between them decreases at the tem perature ncar the water walls be
7-'
I
Fig. 7.:16. Cyclone (urn aces wers wbich can develop a head o[ 10- on, air suction into the furnace decrea-
(o) furnace witb horizontal c yc lone-type
primary furnace: (b) bottom-type prima ry 20 kPa (1 000-2 000 mm H 2 0), i.e. ses, with the result that, heat loss with
furnace open at the top; J - prlmal')' fur- 2~3 times the common air head. The was te gases is somewhat lower. Fur-
nace (cycl one); 2 - slo g-ca tc hing tube bun -
dle ; .J-coollng chamber: 4- burner· $ - design of furnaces with cyclone- type thermore, slagging-bottom furnaces nre
secondary olr nozzles: 6- • lo!f"holc;' 7 - primary furnaces is more intricate than characterized by lower expend i Lures
1'- J slag bath
that of conventional single-shaft fur- on ash disposal.
naces and their cost is correspondingly On the other hand, slagging-bot tom
) w
I'
higher.
In the slaggiog-bottom furnace do-
sign developed at the Barnaul boiler
furnaces possess certain drawbacks.
For instance, si nee more ash is remo-
ved as high-temperature slag, the heat
'}'\ ~ -.... I
-~ ~ :' works, a vertical primary furnace in loss with slags, q6 , is higher and in
§ r- which gases exit from the lop is ar- many cases can overbalance the redu-
ranged below the cooling 'chamber ction in q4 • In single-shaft stagging-
f Jl,;..
G
(Fig. 7.16b) . The primary furnace is
octahedral in shape and is assembled
bottom furnaces, the possibilities of
boiler load control aro restricted by
(!J) ~-==-
(a)
-- 7 from plane water walls connected to
the circulation circuit of the water
the conditions of slag removal (which
must remain liquid). A higher tempe-
ged so as to turbulize the flame around furnace . The ratio of these forces de- walls of the main furnace. This fur- rature level in the flame core resulLs
a horizontal axis. The flame makes a pends on particle size, because of which nace design is much less expensive to in a higher yield of harmful nitrogen
full turn in the zone of refractory- fuel particles are unevenly distributed implement than that with a horizon- oxides. Therefore, the choice between
faced water walls, after which hot in the primary furnace: coarser parti- tal cyclone. Usuall y two primary fur- dry-bottom and slagging-bottom fur-
gases pass in inters paces between the cles are thrown agains t the walls and naces are provided for a single cooling naces for a particular kind of fu el
burners, in te rsect the jpts of fresh becom e involved in the vortex motion chamber. Straight-fl ow slit-type bur- should be made by properly conside-
dust-ai r mixture and thus ensure their until they bum off completely, while ners are arranged on the four walls r ing all their advantages and draw-
quick heating and stable burning. The finer fractions burn in the centre. of the primar·y furn ace; the jets are backs. One should also take into
organized motion of gases along the A cyclone-type primary furnace can directed tangentially, with the velo- account that not all kinds of fuel can
walls and bottom of the furnace pro- operate on coarse pulverized fuel and cities of primary and secondary air be burned in slagging-bottom furna-
vides favourable condi tions for the in some cases (horizontal cyclones) , being in the common ranges (w 1 = ces. Those which form low-fusible ash
s table removal of molten slag even at on crushed fu el, which can thus redu- = 25-35 m/s, w 2 = 40-50 m/s). All (t 3 = 1 150-1 300°C) cause no diffi-
boiler loads 40-50% of the rated va- ce the cost of fuel pulverization. In- water walls of the primary furn ace culties, while for fuels with t 3 >
lue. The heat release rate of the pri- tensive vortex motion also ensures are refractory-faced. > 1 350°C the conditions for the for-
mary furnace is 500-600 kW/ m3 . that a 1arge fraction of ash be remo- The advantages of slagging-bottom mation of molten slag should be pro-
A more efficient separation between ved to slag (a, 1 up to 0.6-0.85), the furnaces over the dry-bottom type are perly calculated.
the zones of combustion and gas coo- greater value relating to l10rizontal essentially as follows. When burning SJ.agging-bottom furnaces are ad-
ling is attained in furnaces provided cyclone-type primary furnaces. the same kind of fuel, the heat loss vantageous for the combustion of low-
With cyclone-typ'e primary ,furnaces Horizontal cyclone-type primary with unburned carbon, q4 , in a slug- reactive fuels (anthracite, semiauthra-
(Fig. 7.16). These furn aces 'may be furnaces (Fig. 7.16a) are made to a ging-bottom furnace can be reduced cite, lean coals), when they e nsure a
classed with · two-shaft furnaces. The diameter of 1.8-4 m. The length of roughly _by 30%. The total heat relea- noticeable reduction of Lhe heat loss
cycl one method of combustion con.:. the cyclone is 1 .2-1.3 times its diame- se rate per unit furnace volume turns wi th unburned carbon, and of fuels
sists essentially in the flame in the ter. T he heat power of a cyclone may out to be 20% higher on the average, with a low tem perature of ash fusion
priTTUI.ry furnace being whirled by be as high as 150-400 MW. The h eat which means that the slaggiog-botLom which might cause strong clinkering
either , tangential high-speed jets of release rate in cyclones is r ather high furnace can be made smaller. Due to of the water walls in dry-bottom fur-
secondary air (80-120 m/s) or tangen- (qv = 2-6 MW/m 3 ) at the gas tempe- better tightenillg of the bottom porti- naces.
ti al 'dust-air jets from buniers (see rature 1 800-1 900°C and excess air ra-
Fig. 3.1). Tbe entire surface of the tio etc = 1.05-1.1. Since, however, an
primary furn ace is covered by water extended shaft is needed to coo l the
walls made from refractory-faced pin- gases, the total heat release rate of
ned tubes. Fuel particles in the pri- furnaces with horizon tal cyclones does
m·ary furnace are acted upon by two not exceed 200-300 kW/m3 , i.e. it is
forces: the centri fugal force which only slightly higher than that of the
throws th em onto the walls of the conventional single-shaft slagging-bot-
pri mary furn ace and the aerodynamic lom furnaces.
force which lends to carry off fuel High s peeds of the secondary air arc·
particles and gases from tho prim ary attained by using s pecial-type bl o-
90
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch . 8. Gas and Fuel Oil-fired Furnace~ 8.1. Fumace Design 01
With intensive burning, both fuels sit y o r heat fl ows on to t he furn ace
i or m a rela t iv ely shor t flam e core zo- w ater walls {Fig. 8. 1d) . T he h igh
ne nea r the b urn ers. In f uel o il com- turbuli za t.i o n o f fl ow in the cyclone
.bustion , this zo ne is cha racte ri zed by prima r y I urn ace e nabl es 85-9 0% of
a rathe r h igh temperature l evel and the fuel to be burned. Cyclone prima-
.an e xtremely intense h eat flu x radia- ry furnaces a re covered with pin-
ted onto the water wa ll s. This may finned tubes with carborundum re-
GAS AND FUEL OIL-FIRED FURNACES .l ead to the overheating of the tube fractory fnci ng . This design, however,
metal and the appearance of high- leads to a h ig her temperature of the
temperature corrosion, res ulting in a flame and hig her heat flow onto the
8.1. Furnace Design (300 kW/m 3 for fuel oil and 350 kW/ma ~tigh concentra tion of nitrogen oxides water walls, making it not t h e best
for natural gas). Thus , for the same i n t he flame core. ·., solut ion for some kinds of fuel.
Tho conditions of combus tion of na- steam out put of a boiler, the furnace In the vert i cal s ection , gas and Gas eous fuels a re known to produce
tural gas and fuel oil h a ve much in dimens i ons for these two k inds of fuel fuel oil furnaces m ay be open , with flames of a l ower emissivity than fuel
c ommon , and t herefore, b oth fu els can c an b e taken to be practic ally t he 'restr ic tion or w it h cyclone primary oil so tha t when a boiler is chang ed
be burned in furnaces of tho s amo d e- same. f urnaces (Fig . 8.1). Most industrially fro:U fuel oil to natural gas firing,
s ign . In most cases, s uch furn aces a re 3. Both fuels form almos t no ash on made gas a nd fuel oil-fi red boile rs a re he a t absorpti on by the furnace s pace
d esig ned primarily for fuel o il with c ombustion (t he ash content of fuel pro vided with conve n t ional furnaces decreases, while the temperature of
natural g as as the auxiliary fu el. The oil Ad is less than 0.3 %), which avoids -of prismatic shape with a s ingle-front combus tion products at the outle t
combus tion characteristics of fu el oi1 clinkering of the water walls in the -or doubl e-front (opposite) arrangement from t.he furnace bec omes higher. In
and natural gas are similar in the fol- furnace and makes slag-handling fa- -of burners. I n the single-front arran- open fu rnaces at I,be rated load, this
lowing res pects: cilities unnecessary. In view of this( gement, burners are mounted in seve- temperature difference may be as high
1. Both fuels contain prac ticnJly no furnaces for both fu els are made with ral (three or four) tiers. This a rrange- as 100 d eg C, which inevitably chang es
advcntilious moisture and fo rm roug h- a horizontal or s lig htly inclined bot- mont is Jess e xpens ive and m ore con- the temperature co nditions of the sub-
ly the same volumes of combus tion tom, with m a n-hol es provided for re- v enient in o peration , b u t cannot ensu- sequent heating s urfaces , primarily
prod uc ts ; therefore, the blowers of a pairs (Fig. 8.1). re uniform filling of t h e furnace space that of t he s uperheater. In o pen fur-
steam boiler can efficien t l y operate 4. Since the fuel is in the gaseous by t he fl ame and is i napplicable in naces with m ulti-tier s ingle-fron t bur -
irrespective of whether fuel oil or na- (or vaporized ) s t ale, i t c an be more furnaces of a short dep t h (l ess th a n ner arrang ement, the tempera t ure of
tural gas is being burned in the boiler easily intermixed with a ir, which en- 6 m), s ince the tempera tu re and heat gases at, the furnace outl et is equalized
furnace. sures virtually complete combustion a bsorption of the rear water wa ll wo- in such cases by changing the pattern
2. Burning of fuel oil and natural at a high heat releas e rate and low uld then increase intolerably. of the flame core: when burning natu-
g as occurs in the vaporized s tate {ho- excess air ratio a c = 1.02-1.05. For In an opposite arrangement of bur- ral gas, only two or three lowermost
mogeneous medium) following the laws both fuels, air can be preheated to ners the water walls of the furnace burner tiers are in operation; for a
of b ranched chain reactions (see Sec. the same temperature (t 11 a = 250- <>perate' under more favo urable con- change from gas to fuel oil, burners of
4.2). The intensity of burning in both 3000C), which makes it possible to ~itions. The flame is concentrated in the upper tiers are fired; in later de-
cases is determined by the conditions employ combined gas-fuel· ·oa burners the central high-texnperatu re zone of signs, the gases are recirculated into
of intermixing, and the hig h est allo- with close values of the volume flow the furnace space. The opposite mo- the furnace to accomplish the same
wable heat release rates of the furnace rate of air and almost the same resis- ·tion of . the flam es creates unfavou- purpose.
volume are rather close to each other t ance. nble conditions for turbulization and Recently, it has been proposed to di-
better fuel burn-up in the tail por- minish l ocal heat flows on furnace wa-
tions of the flames and , under ident i - t er walls by arranging the burners in
~al c onditions, resul ts in an inc rease the bottom of an open furnace and by
controlling the whirling of the se-
\ in t he h eat release rate in the flame
condary air flow (Fig. 8.1e). In fuel
~ ~ore zone by 20-30%. A constriction
I oil combus tion, the degree of whirling
~j
\
in the furnace can increase flow tur-
Jmlizati.on in the flame core zone and is d ecreased, so that the fl ame extends
ln the zone where fuel ufterburoi ng to a greater height in the furnace and
. -occurs at the outlet from the combu- thus noticeably decreases local heat
~ -- ~ s tion chamber. flows onto the water walls, while the
- ''-- te~peruture of g as es at the furnace
(a) (6} (C) (d) (e)
In an e x perimental series of s team
b oilers for 300-MW monobl oc u nits, outlot ris es s ubstan t.ially. When bur-
fig . 8.1. Types of fuel oil-fired furnaces a new proposal is to organize combus- ning n atural gas, the d egr ee of whir-
(a) open-type furnace with single-front multi-tier arrangement of b urners: (b) f urnace with constriction
t ion i n opposite cyclone-ty po pri mary ling is increased t,o m ake t he fl ame
and OIIPOSite (double-front) burner nrrongcmcnl; (c) open- type furnace wit b opposite double- tier burner
a rrangement: (d) f urnace With oppositf! cyclone primary furna ces; (<) furnace wHit strnight.-Ciow or turbu- {urnaces in ord er to decrease the inten- wi der and shor ter.
lent bollnm burners (dotted lines)
92
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 8. Gas and Fuel Oil-fired Furnaces 93
8.2. Fuel Oll Burner~
r
the axis of the burner and that of the supporting
Gas and fuel oil-fired boilers are tangential ch annel. f plane
provided with combined burners sin- The whirled flow has a reduced
ce the volume flow rates of air for the pressure in the core which is filled \
combustion of natural gas and fuel with a gas whirl, so that the fuel
oil are practically the same. The type fl ows from the nozzle through an ann-
of burner is selected depending on the ular section of a thickness r0 - r;""
heat power of the boiler and on the where r 0 is the nozzle radius and r; 111 is 2 fuel oil
(a) e(it
burner arrangement on the furnace the radi us of the internal gas whirl. 2
walls, so as to ensure the best filling Depending on the ratio of the tangen- . I 2 4
of the furnace space by the flame. For tial and axial velocity components, ..
more efficient combustion, fuel oil is the fuel film at the burner outlet
atomized in nozzles (see Sec. 4.2). expands at an angle qJ and is disinte-
A fuel oil burner comprises a nozzle, grated by the oncoming air flow inl~
a channel to sup]>ly hot air, and a de- numerous droplets which move along
vice for air whirling (air register). a parabolic patlt.
Depending on tho method of atomiza- The theory of centrifugal burners
tion, burners at·e classified as mechani- has been developed by G. N. Abra-
cal, steam-mechanical or steam ato- movich. T he principal characteristics {6)
mizer burners [131. of a b urner are the dimensionless geo-
Mechanical burners arc t ho most po- metric parameter: Fig. 8.3. Steam atomizer fuel-oil burnet· type 'fKZ-4
(a) sclJematic; (b) long i ludlnal scc:Uon through burner Mad; J - lucl oll Inlet; 2-sleam inle t;
pular type of fuel oi l burner. Atomi- A = Rrolrtnl (8.2) 3- hea d houslnr;; 4- whll'l er; 6- cllssector
zation is effected by supplying fue l
oil under an excessive pressure (2.5- which is determined by the design
characteristics of a burner (see Fig. / 0, mt, and the fuel pressure Pm• droplets. The flow rate o[ steam
4.5 MPa) into tho whirling chamber [or atomization is not more than
and ejecting it through a narrow hole, 8.2); the coefficient of the free cross- MPa:
sectional area 10% or that of fuel oil. The burner
or nozzle (Fig. 8.2a). Fuel oil enters Bm = bJJ.fo V PmPm (8.4) capacity can be controlled within
tho whirling chamber through a num- ~ = 1 - (rin l/r0) 2 (8.3)
wher e b is in addition a numerical 20-100% of the rated value.
ber of tangential channels and is tur- the flow rate coefficient ll which cor- Multi-nozzle steam-mechanical oil bur-
bulized into an intensively rotating relates the total pressure of the fuel factor and Pm is the fuel oil density,
kg/m3 . ners, which form a flat flame, are also
whirl with the potential velocity di- at the inlet to the centrifugal cham- in use (Fig. 8.4).
stribution: ber with the energy of the outcoming The throughput capacity of power-
ful centrifugal burners with tho nozzle In solid-fuel fired boilers, steam
w 1r = w 0 R (8.1) flow, and the jet expansion angle Cj) atomizer oil burners are employed
(see Fig. 8.2b). d iameter d 0 = 4-10 mm may range
from 0.83 kg/s t o 4.5 kg/s (3-16 t/h). only at boiler start-up. They are
where w 1 is the tangential velocity at T he throughput capacity of a me- inefficient in long-term operation be-
a distance r from the axis of the outlet chanical centrifugal burner, Bm, kg/s, The burner capacity can be control-
section of the nozzle, w 0 is the vel ocity depends in· the first place on the cross- led within 60-100% of Lhe rated
A -A
at the inlet to the tangential chan- sectional area of the ej ecting nozzle. -value by lowering the fuel oil pressure.
Steam-mechanical burners have a
wider range of capacity control since
~ at lower loads the fuel oil is atomized
~
'f
....s rinl
JL
rp
by the energy of steam. A burner of - -1--- · -+---2
t.O lOfT this type is essentially a common
~
__ j { --
0.8
0.6
'~
/
I" t-o.'-
80
60
mechanical oil burner provided with
an additional annular channel to
.supply steam at t.he pressure p. 1 =
0.4 1,0
0.2
1/
0
I
•1
""' 2
>
J 4
e zn·
ff A·
= 0.2-0.4 MPa (Fig. 8.3). In Lho
burner design shown in tho fi gu re,
the centrifugal whirling chamber is A
( _. f.'
~. /
../J
.
.
·-
replaced by a n axial whirling dev ice '..,_ _
(a) (b) with a conical dissector. The steo m T
flow, whose speed is near tho cri-
Fig. 8.2. Principal diagram and main characteristics of a centrifugal mechanical burner
!a) princopal diagrnrn; (b) cllcct or the geometric cbarac lerisllc or a burner (A) on the tree area coctrlclrn t
IU. !low rat e cocrtlclcnt (;l), and Jet expansion angle (<J)
tical value, penetrates the fu el oi I
jet and disintegrates it in to ri no
""'
Fig. 8.1,. I lead of a Ila t-fl ame burner
z- ruel oil lnlt·t; 2-stcam inlet
j
Download From Boilersinfo.com
94 Ch . 8. Gas and Fuel Oil-fired Furnaces 8.3. Combrutton of Natllral Gas 95
ca use of the high consumptiou of flow more slowly than tho surround- 8.3. Combustion of Natural Gas unifo rm distribution of gas in the vo-
steam for atomization (30-40% of ing gases, and therefore. the time· lume of air, tho dep th of penetration
An essential feature of natural gas of the individual gas jets must be dif-
fuel oil consumption). Steam is ejec- of their presence in the furnace is- combustion is that the mixture is
ted at a pressure of 0.4-0.6 MPa and somewhat longer. ·with the help of ferent. The penetration depth h is the
fo rmed from sharply different volu- decisive characteristic in calculations;
disintegrates t ho fuel oi I jet into steam-m echanical burnm·s , the heat mes of gas and air: combustiou of
fin e droplets. The fuel oil can be release rate of the furn ace ca n be it is determined by t he ratio bot.ween
1 m 3 of natural gas requires roughly the momenta of a gas jet a nd air flow
supplied at a ]ow pressure. Burners of increased. 20 m 3 of bot air. For this reason,
this type are simple in design and Controlling the burner throughput and char acterizes the distance along
the gas supply channel in a burner the normal from the jet root to the
ensure fine ato mization of fu el oil capacity. The flow rate of fuel oil has a rather small cross-sectional
even at a rather low preheating supplied for combustion can be von- point where its direction becomes
area. Proper intermixing of the gas coincident with that of the a ir flow
temperature (up to 80°C). Starting- trolled by two methods: by varying and air can be ensured only by· intro-
up burners can usually cover up to the fuel oil pressure in all operating [26].
ducing the gas into the air flow in The depth of jet penetration is de-
30% of the rated boiler capacity. burners (qualitative rnethod) or by the form of thin jets of a high pene-
Due to centrifugal force, fu el oil switching some of the burners on termined mainly by the diameter of
trability (the gas velocity is up to a jet and by the ratio of ga~ and. air
is ejected from the nozzle of a mecha- and off (quantitati~.;·e method) . 120 m/s while the velocity of pri mary
nical burner as a thin llollow cone. As follows from formula (8.4), the velociti es . With gas h oles bemg onen-
air is only 25-40 m /s) . Gas burners ted along the air flow and .arrauge_d
The tl1ickness of the initial oil film first method requires substantial re- belong to the class of b urners with
is {) 1 = 0.56f.Lr 0 , which is 0.5-2 mm. duction of the initial pressure, since in two or three rows, a umform dt-
partial internal mixing, since com- stribution of the gas in air flow can
Tho film then expands and breaks Brn is proportional to p':;, 6 • For instan- plete intermixing of gas and air is
into fin e droplets, the largest of ce, to diminish the throughput capa- be achieved by decreasing the diame-
not effected in the burner proper, ter of holes in the direction of air
which are roughly equa l to the film city by 40% (from 100% to GO% but is att ained in the furnace space.
thickness in diameter. of the rated value), the fuel oil pres- motion (Fig. 8.5c).
As a result, part of the gas in th e The principal parameters of a gas
Oil droplets move at n sp eed of sure must be reduced to 0.37 of the- high-temperature zones, where oxy-
60-80 m/s and arc furth er atomized initial value. On the other hand, a burner are as follows:
gen may be deficient , is subjected to 1. The relative length of the in ter-
by the dynamic pressure of the on- sharp pressure reduction in mecha- thermal dissociation (p yrolysis) with
coming gaseous medium (air or steam). nical burners is inadmissible, since nal mixing zone l.,. = Lm1D 0 , where
the form ation of soot particles. This D is the diameter of tho outlet por t
This process is called secondary atomi- a lower intensity of whirling will is why a gas burner, 1ike an oil bur-
zation. result in a thicker oil fi lm, lower ve- ner, form s a sufficiently bright flame,
ol the burner (Fig. 8.6); it ch aracte-
The average diameter of oil dro p- locity at the nozzle outlet, and larger rizes the conditions of partial internal
with the highest combustio n tem- mixing of flows.
Jets in mechanical burners is roughly droplets. An increase in the initial perature appearing at a certain di-
{)a v = 300 flm; il depends propor- pressure of fuel oil will require more· 2. The aerodynamic parameter
stance from tho burner port, which
tionally on a;- 6
and i n inverse pro-
portion on p.,;.:&. As may be seen ,
intricate and expensive equipment for
oil transport and flow rate control
diminishes the risk of burner burn-up.
which characterizes the intensity of
turbulent mixing:
In most cases, gas is introduced at
oi 1 pressure has only a slight effect and higher operating exp end itures. right angles to the air flow or, in
on the size of the droplets. The burner For these reasons, the throughput some cases, a t a cert ain a ngle a
nozzle diameter d 0 has a somewhat cap acity of mechanical burners is: (8.5}
to the air flow lines (Fig. 8.5). For a
great er influence on t he finen ess of controlled by using the combined qua-
atomization. litative-quantitative method .
In steam-mechan ical burners, 60 v = When the number of oil burners in
= 50-100 11m and depends on the a furnace is sufficiently high, the
energy of supplied steam and the load on the boiler can be diminished
efficiency of its utilization for fuel by switching off some of the burners-
oil atomization . in a group. In such a case, the pressure
in powerful mechanical burners, of fuel oi l supplied to the remaining
the largest oil d I'Oplets may be up burners increases, allowing the boiler c (a) c
to 1.5-2 mm in size. The time for load to be further controlled by vary- / / / /////////////////////
their evaporation and burning is rou- ing the fuel oil pressure. .
ghly 2 s. H ence, the heat release I n high-capacity steam boilers. //
rul e per unit volur.oe of t he furnace steam-m echanical burners are more po- - . .,....:::::
must not be more than 200-250 kW/m 3 pular, as they ensure proper control Fig. 8.5. PeneLmtion o£ gas jet
•I
J.'/ ..,- (c)
..... ~ 5
.....
t:s '
:t.., J
~
'-' Ca~t
~
l..·:::
. 2 2550
I
~
.fll ill!
/ Fig. 8.9. Gas-fuel oil burner with peripheral and central gas supply
Fig. 8.7. Air registers 1, J'- centra l a nd periPheral air boxes; 2-Lnngenlial vanes; 3-axial vanes; 4--<:hannel or mechanical
s t<!11m burne r; s - a ir inlet to central air flow; 6- gas Inlet to coaxial channel; 7-perlpheral gas supply;
.(a) scroll ty pe; (b) tangential vane-type; (b) (c) a-arrange ment or water wall tubes around tbe burner
(c) ax ial vane-type (a)
7-01 52 /o
98
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 9. Parameter• a nd Motion Eq!UJtlon• of Working Flatt:! 9.1. Principal Hydrody namic and Heat-transfe r Equa tions 99
the hydrostatic pressure o( a fluid have in a particular cross section of The mass water content, or wetness
- equation of state
column of height h): a steam-generating tube if it occu- fraction is determined by the for-
p = p (p, i) (9.10)
,, pied that cross section completely: mula:
g ~ pdh
E quation (9.3) is excluded from the
system (9.1)-(9.4.), (9.6), since q1n = (9 .15) 1- X= 1- g: = ~= (9. 20)
0 = qex = q. As follows from equa- The velocity of steam-water mixture
tion (9.7), the mass flow rate under The resolved velocity of steam w;,
Thus, the hydrodynamic and heat- Wm, m/s. Using the expression for
steady-state condi tions is the same m /s, is the velocity t hat s team would
t ransfer processes that take place the circulation velocit y, we can write:
in all sections of the channel, i.e. have in a particular cross section of
i n the water-steam path of a boiler a steam-generating tube if it occupied Gm G8 +G ~ (9 21 )
can be described by a set of equa- G (z) = constant. Noting this, we ob-
tain from equation (9.8): that cross section completely: Wo = fp' = fp' .
tions: the equation of mass balance ••
(9.1), equation of energy balance of ( In turn, t he mass flow rates, kg/s,
(9 .11) (9.16) of water and steam are:~
the working fluid flow (9.2), the equa-
tion of heat balance for the heated or where G3 is the mass f low rate o[ steam Gw = V10p ' = w~p' f
channel walls (9.3), and the equation tl•rough the tube system, kg/s, and
of motion (9.4). They can be supple- (9 .12) G, = V,p"( = w;p• f
p" is its density, kg/m 3 •
m ented by the equation of state The relative velocity of steam Wr, where Vw and v. are theJvolume flow
p = p (p, i) (9.6) 9.2. Characte ristics of Motion m/s. The actual velocities of water r ates of water and steam, m 3 /s.
of a Steam-water Mixture and steam differ from their f low Substituti ng for Gw a nd G, i nto
which relates a thermody namic para- rates, since under the actual conditions equation (9.21), we obtain:
meter to two other parameters, and The principal characteristics of a of combined motion of wa ter and
steam-water flow are as follows: steam in a mixture they move with (9.22)
by the empirical relationships for the
heat-transfer coefficient a and the The rna1;s velocity wp of a nwdium different velocities: w. =/= w,,. The velocity of the steam-water
coefficient of fri ction, k. The set of (wat er, steam or steam-water mixtu- In an ascending flow, steam moves
equations (9.1) through (9.4) and (9.6) re). The cooling effect o[ a Oow de- faster than water, w. > w10 ; in a d es- mixture cnn be written as the sum
together with the empirical relation- pends on its density p, as well a s on cending flow, w, < ww; their dif- of the volume flow rates of its com-·
ships for a and A. represent a closed velocity w. The cooling effect of a ference is equal to the relative velo- ponents, v. + v w• related to the to-
system: the number of unknowns flow is estimated in terms of the pro- city of steam: tal cross-sectional area for the passage
(G, p, i, tm, and p) is equal to the duct of these parameters, i.e. through of flow:
t he mass velocity wp, kg/(m 2 s), (9.17)
m--
number of equations (since w = G/fp) . - V....!•:.-+.!.:--V-"w~i
T he exter nal actions on the system:
q.," Glnh ilnh and Gout are assumed
which is essentially the mass flow
rate per unit area of the tube cross
The relative velocity of steam has a
vital effect on the motion of the
w
section:
to be known.
Under steady-stale conditions, all wp = -
G
(9 .13)
steam-water mixture (see Sec. 12.1).
The mass steam content, or dryness Wm = Wo I + Wo• (9.24.)
derivatives with respect to -r in equa- 1 fraction, x, is the mass fraction of the Substituting w~ from equation (9.22)
tions (9.1) to (9.4.) and (9.6) are equal The circulation velocity w 0 , m/s, is flow rate of steam in the flow rate into (9.24) gives:
to zero, and all the parameters are the velocity of water at the saturation of the steam-water mixture at w, =
functions of the coordinate z only, temperature; it corresponds to the -- IJ)
w·• (9.25)
because of which the fundamental flow r ate of the working fluid in tubes: X= G,/Gm (9 .18)
equations take the forms: It is often essential t o express Wm
-eq ua tion of mass conservation (9.14) For a flow in thermodynamic equi- through the mass steam content x.
librium, the mass steam content can Taking into account that the sum of
(9.7) where Gm is the mass flow rat e of the be expressed by the formul a: cross-sectional areas occupied by s team
steam-water mixture through tho tube Itt - t' and water, f 3 and fw is equal to f, we
system, kg/s (at the entry of water x = .....<.:.-- (9. 19) h ave
-equation of energy conservation r
into steam-generating t ubes, G,., = • . f.w.+ fwWw = wmf (9.26)
d (Gi) = G10 ) , f is the free cross-sectional where in is the unit enthalpy of the
Oz =q (9.8)
area for the passage of tho working flow in a particular cross section of which may b e re-written as
fluid, m 2 , and p' is the density of the tube system, k J /kg, i' is the
-equation of motion
water at the saturation temperature, unit enthalpy of water at the satura- G,v• + Gwv' = GmVm
dw w'p . dp kg/m3 . tion line in that section, kJ /kg, and r whereby
wp d:
1
+ rc 2
± pgsma= -Tz is the heat of the phase transition at
The resolved velocity of water w~,
(9.9) m /s, is the velocity that water would the same pressure, kJ /kg.
102
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 9. Parameters and Motion EqrUJtlom of Working Fluid 9.3. R egimes of Steam-water Mtztare Floro 103
or any p ressure, d~/dx decreases as x in a flow where wat er and s t eam have
f .O
Vm = xv" + (1 -
x) v' (9.27) i ~creases. These relationships have a
~ .,.... /
the same velocity:
It is also known that v1tal effect on the regime and tempe- 0.8
I/ y I/ _ G, + Gw (9.39)
rature of t wo-phase flows through 0.5 Pm - w'Qf IDo/
W _
m-
Gm"m
f (9.28) tubes.
0.4
r; :r: 7
T~ actual steam content (p is the The actual density of the steam -
./
Substituting Vm from equation
(9.27) into (9.28), we have:
fract10n of the tube cross section
occupied by s team , /,, which corres-
ponds to tho actual velocities of water
O.'l
0
v 20 40 50 80 %tOO
l
water mixture, Pa• kg/m3 , i.e. the
density at the actual v el ocities of
s team and wa ter, can be found from
Wm = Giv' [1 -j- X ( ~~ -1 ) J and s team:
rp = /,If (9.32)
the Eollowing consideration. Let us
s eparate a tube element of height !J.h
Fig. 9.2. Variations of ~. <p and z along
= W0 [ 1+ X ( f - 1) J The actual steam content q> accounts
for the rela tive velocity of steam
lhe length of a steam-generating channel filled with a steam-water mixture
(Fig. 9.3). L et steam and water i n
or the inlet (iE i 1,. 1 = i') and x = 1 at the element be represented by corres-
Wn i.e. it relates to cases when w, =fo ponding elementary volumes. The frac-
Wm = Wo [ 1-J- x ( f- 1) (9.29) J =I= Ww· As indicated earlier, the volu-
me steam content assumes these velo-
the outle t (i[ i 0 u t = i"), (Fig . 9.2).
On the other ha nd, t he volume steam tio ns of the cross sections occupied by
content ~ and the actual steam con- steam and water may be denoted as
The volu~"Le steam content ~ - The vo- cities to be equal to each o ther , w, = f , 1 and !w a nd thei r sum, as f. The
l ume fracllon of steam in a steam- = Ww. T he relationship between the tent rp, which both have zero initial
values, increase sharply in the initial masses of t he two components may be
v:ater mixture flow with equal veloci- actual steam content and volume written as /, 16.hpw and fw!J.hp' and
Lles of water and steam is called the steam content is as follows: portion of a tube. Further in the
tube, they increase less intens ively their s um is the mass of the sepa rate d
volume steam content: volume of the steam-wa ter mixture,
~= v. (9. 33) to the maximum value oE unity at the
(9.30)
v.+llw - tube end. Wi th an increase in pres- f!J.hp 0 • This gives us an expression
whereby s ure, rp and ~ approach x . for the actual density of steam-water
Taking account of equations (9.18) The pressure steam content q> is an mixture:
(9 .34) i mpo rtant flow characteristic, since Pa = p' - (p' - P *) = (1 - cp) p'
and (9.20), we have: !p
·- •
.-.• column moves aloog the tube core
-•- . • and i~ ·surrounded hy a continuous ..
,_
--.
·- --
·- • .
..-·-
•
.
.
.,_qr_.
••
.• '
•••
••
•
annular water film which moves aloog
the tube wall. The water film intensi-
vely cools the internal surface of the
• -
a
_ _o _
'- -'
_ G_ a_
.... ..
--~~'
-r--·
•• •
••~ : .
tube. This is what is called the disper-
se-annular (wet-wall) flow (Fig. 9.4d).
--
0
a !~..
••t . -
. ••
• The thickness of the water film de- (a)
0
0 0
.
•0 •
•• pends on the ratio between the flow
0 !..~
o__o_ . . rates of water and steam. At a high
•• •
•
•
--•
•
0 •
• pressure and high steam velociLy,
-'-· •
.!...!..... the major mass of the film is broken
... - 0
•••
• •
•• off and carried as droplets by the
-.-
--~
•• •• • ·-. -
-.!.-
- - '- •• = steam flow, leaving only a very thin • (6)
(a) {b) (c) (d) (e) water film on tho wall, which soon
evaporates. In heated channels, some
Fig. 9.4. Steam-water mixture flow modes
in vertical tubes specific flow regimes may take place. Fig. 9.5. Two-phase flow modes in horizontal tubes at (a) high and (b) low inlet velocity
(a) bubble !low; (b) emu ls ion flow; (c) slug now; In film boiling, for instance, a vapour
(d) dispersed annulnr flow; (c) inverse dispersed film may separate the liquid from the two phases, so that at a high dary between them. The difference
annular f low
the heat-exchange surface, while li- steam content the flow in a tube in densities increases with an increase
quid fills in the core of the channel; becomes almost axisymmetrical and in the vertical size of a channel or of
regime of flow are determined by the this is called the inverse disperse-annu- resembles the; disperse-annular re- the tube diameter.
spatial orientation of the heating lar flow (dry-wall flow), Fig. 9.4e. gime in vertical tubes. In tube bends, some portions of
tubes, which is used to organize the The flow regimes described above \Vith a low velocity of water at the the tube surface may be washed less
motion of th e working fluid in are rather conditional since they gra- inlet to a steam-generating tube intensively by the fluid than others,
steam-generating tubes. dually change from one typo to ano- (w < 0.5 m/s), asymmetrical motion which is due to the centrifugal effect
Vertical tubes. An adiabatic flow of ther with no distinct boundaries be- of water and steam may result in the by which water is thrown towards the
a steam-water mixture at a low steam tween them. exposure of substantial portions of outside surface of a bend, while the
content and slow velocity is essen- Horizontal tubes. The flow of the the tube surface (Fig. 9.5b). The flow tube wall at the inside surface is insuf-
tially liquid with rare fine vapour steam-water mixture in a horizontal then becomes essentially asymmetri- ficiently cooled by water.
bubbles distributed in it. This is tube is characterized by a non-uni- cal along the whole length of the
what is called bubble flow (Fig. 9.4a). form distribution of structural flow tube, with the steam moving along
As the steam content increases and components over the tube cross sec- the upper tube wall. In other words, 9.4. Hydraulic Resistances
if wp is high, the moving mixture tion. Since steam has a lower density, the two-phase flow is separated, as Since tubes offer resistance to the
I contains a larger number of fine it moves primarily along the upper it were, into two individual flows. motion of water, steam-water mixture
vapour bubbles; this is the emulsion tube wall, while the main mass of This flow regime is unstable. With or steam, a pressure gradient forms
flow, or frothy flow (Fig. 9.4b). At water is concentrated at the lower an increase in the flow velocity, waves between any two sections along the
low values of wp, an increase in wall. The asymmetry of flow rela- may form on the separating surface length of a tube. The general equa-
steam content may result in the coa- tive to the horizontal depends on the with their tops periodically touching tion of the total pressure gradient l~ns
lescence of fine bubbles into larger velocity of the steam-water mixture the superheated upper wall. been given in Sec. 9.1. For practical
formations whose size may be com- and tube diameter. At higher veloci- At supercritical pressures, the work- calculations, it can be written in a
parable with the tube diameter and ties, the flow is less asymmetrical. ing fluid is a homogeneous medium . more convenient form:
whose l ength may be many times In steam-generating tubes 30-40 mm Nonetheless, even with a directed
the diameter. These formations are in diameter and at relatively high motion of the fluid at supercritical t:..p = t:..p/r + t:..p, + t:..Poc ± t:..ph
called 'slugs' and, correspondingly inlet velocities (w > 1 m/s), vapour pressure in a horizontal channel, free (9.42)-
the flow regime is the slug regime bubbles form in the initial tube sec- convection may take place in a trans-
(Fig. 9.4c). Behind a slug there is a tion. They are detached from the verse direction, resulting in density i.e. the total pressure gradient between
thin liquid bridge containing fine tube surface and move along with variation along the height of the any two sections of a heated tube is
vapour bubbles. the liquid (Fig. 9.5a). The vapour flow. This inhomogeneity can be the sum of pressure gradients due to·
With a further increase in the steam bubbles increase in number in the characterized by the motion of a fdction, t:..p1,, local resistances t:..p,
content, water bridges between the direction of the flow and begin to lighter (less dense) medium along acceleration t:..Pac• and hydrostatic
slugs disappear and the slugs merge merge into larger · formations. An the upper surface of a tube and of a head t:..p h·
into a continuous vapour column with ever increasing quantity of steam is heavier (denser) medium, along the The resistance due to friction is
atomized water droplets in it. This involved in the combined motion of lower surface, with no distinct boun- caused by the viscosity of the moving:
1 06
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Cit. 9. Parameters and Motion Equations of Working Fluid 1.07
.•
9.5. Thermoph ytlcal Properties of Working Fluid
fluid. For a single-phase isothermal The pressure loss due to friction For a two-phase flow: 9.5. Tbermophysical Properties
flow in a straight channel of constant for a flow of variable steam content of Working Fluid in the Path
-cross section, this term is found from can be determined from the formula: ilPtb = s;b ~~ p'[ 1+ x( f.--1)](9.53) of a Monobloc Unit
the formula:
l
w~
l!.pfr = "-ol--fp' [_1+XI!J p' -
- - ( rr 1) J The pressure loss due to accelera- Va1·iations of the parameters and
t.p,, = Ik
•
(9.43) (9.49)
tion is caused by a change in the volu-
me, and therefore, in the velocity of
physical properties of the working
fluid in various sections of the water-
0 a flow. It can appear as the steam steam path of a supercritical-pressure
where x is the average steam content -content of a fl ow increases due to monobloc unit are shown in Fig. 9.6.
whore t.p1, is the resistance due to in the channel and
friction, Pa, A. 0 = A.ld is the resolved heating, as the fluid passes through a T he highest pressure of the fluid is
friction coefficient, 1/m, l is the - \~jXJ-IJ>t.:Z:j reduced cross section, or both. at the inlet to the high-pressure water
"' = --'-....;___ _ The pressure loss due to fl9w acce- heater, downstream of the feed water
length of the channel , m, w is the Xf - Xj
velocity of the fluid, m/s, and p is l eration can be found by the· formula: pump, Pw 1, and tho lowest pressure
the density of the fluid, kg/m 3 • where 'IJ 1 and 'i'J are correction factors is in the turbine condenser, p c· For
Tho friction resistance for a two-
phase flow can be principally deter-
to account for the effect of the initial
and final steam content, x 1 and x 1 , D.Pac =tot wp dw (9.54) supercritical-pressure pl ants, this pres-
sure range is from 32 MPa to 0.003 MPa
mined by tho formula for single-phase on tho flow structure. wl and for high-pressure power plants,
flows, by replacing the s ingle-phase Pressure losses due to local resi- For a steady-state flow: from 17 MPa to 0.003 MPa. In the
Jlow velocity by the velocity o.E steam- stances are explained by the energy condensate path, which includes a con-
consumption for detachment of the WtPt = w 1 p, = wp = constant densate pump, and in the feed water
water mixture wm, provided that tho
two-phaseflowcan be considered homo- boundary layer from the tube wall Therefore, at p >Per path with a feed water pump, the
geneous, i.e. obeying the following and the formation of whirls in the llPac = wp (w, - w 1)
relationship: flow. Local r esistances appear in pla-
ces where the shape or direction of a = (wp) 2 (v1 - v 1) (9.55)
(9.44) channel changes; conditionally, they For a two-phase flow, p < p cr·
are considered to be localized in a t
Expressing v1 and v 1 through the (A
particular section and do not include mass steam contents:
Noting the law of mass conservation fr iction resistance. I
{soe Sec. 9.1), we can write: The pressure loss in local resistan- v1 = v' (1 - x1) +
u·x, I
pressure of the turbine condensate is ter-steam path or a supercritical mo- other properties (heat conductivity, p
Pu
raised to a value equal to tho pressure nobloc power unit, this involves cer- heat capacity' and dynamic. viscosity)
at the inlet. to the high-pressure water tain changes in its thermophysical continue to decrease smoothly. I~
heater, which ensures the motion of properties. As shown in Fig. 9.6, the [n tho fifth zone (reheater), steam
the working fluid through the entire water-steam path can be divided temperature is raised again at an 2'::::,.·..... / / ~
water-steam path of the boiler. in to seven zones in which typical
changes in the th ermophysical proper-
almost constant pressure roughly
/
/--x-:o :r:~t
'
In tho turbine, steam moves due to
a pressure gradient between tho inlet,
where the pressure is equal to that
ties of the working fluid take place.
The first zone includes the conden-
3.5 MPa, resulting in an appreciable
in crease in its enthalpy and slight
increase in viscosity and beat conduc- ~
/:// t'
.
downstream of tho boiler, and the sate and feed water path of the power tivity. The dielectric permittivity of
outlet, where it is equal to the pres- unit with convective and radiation- steam decreases by 67-80%, whereas
~
.....
sure in the condenser. heated economizers. In this zone, the density and isobaric heat ca'pacity
The highest temperature of the work- feed water pumps create tho highest diminish only slightly. ~
ing fluid is the temperature of super- pressure in the water-steam path In the sixth zone (low-pressure cy- r\Pm
heated steam and the lowest is that needed to produce steam of the requi- linder of turbine), the physical para- \ \
\
in the condenser. In high-pressure
and supercritical-pressure plants, this
red pressure. The working fluid in
this zone remains liquid and therefo-
meters of steam are changed in a
manner similar to the fourth zone, the ~ r-.... ~ ._
temperature interval is from 545° to re, its thermophysical characteristics only difference being that the pres- '\em
30°C. are changed relatively weakly, not- sure changes much more substantially \
'
Turbine condensate is preheated in withstanding the high rise in pressure; t han in the fourth zone. For that :>..,
~
: ._..,. -
the low-pressure water heaters and its dielectric permittivity e, however, reason, the density of steam decreases I
the deaorator of the condensate path decreases to a smoll rraction of its roughly to 1/300 or 1/400 o[ its ini-
from 30° to 105-165°C aud further in initial value. t ial value. Its enthalpy also decrea-
....
.I!
-~ f11rnaco ·~ ~ •
the higl1-pressure water heaters of The most t.yp ical is the second (near ses Sllbstantially, wh ile changes in ""
l::"
c::S"-
"'til~
wafer walls ~\,.
•"'
~~~
c.a";-
the feed water path to the feed water critical) zone which is usually located the other properties are rather s mooth.
temperature t1w (usually 145-270°C). in the boiler furnace. In this zone, The seventh zone includes the tur- Fig. 9.7. Variations of density p and die-
Water pressure in this path varies the change from water to steam takes bine condenser. The condensing lectric permittivity e in evaporating zone
from p = 0.3-1.0 MPa to 15-17 MPa place, so that even a small rise in the steam hero has constant parameters: 1- lcmperaturc or the working !luid at subcr!tical
pressure; B- d!tto, at sul?ercri tical pressure (for
in high-pressure plants or to 30-32 MPa temperature of the flow causes sharp pressure 0.003 MPa and a temperature compartson)
in supercritical-pressure pl ants. changes in the thermophysical charac- of around 30°C. Only the enthalpy and
The total pressure gradient in the teristics: near tho temperature of steam content of the flow are dimini-
path, flp = flP ec+ flPdca + flp31, the highest heat capacity, the enthalpy shed. As steam is condensed fully , sures the change from the proper ties of
water to those of steam suddenly
constitutes 20-30% of the pressure of of tho flow increases sharpl y, while the density, heat conductivity, heat
superheated steam. On the other hand, the viscosity ll• heat conductivity A., capacity, viscosity and dielectric per- takes place at the saturation tempe-
the temperature of the working fluid and, what is especially important, mittivity increase sharply. rature. As seen in Fig . 9.7, as the
is raised substantially, from t1w to the density p and dielectric permitti- The specifics of subcritical pressure water to steam transition takes place,
superheated-steam tomperature t ••. vity e decrease substantially, though units are most pronounced in the tho density of the water, Pw• abruptly
Superheated steam is fed into the smoothly, not jumpwise. second zone of the water-steam path, changes to that of steam, p., which
turbine with the parameters t,. and In the third zone, which iocl udes which is within the boiler furnace results in an increase in the enthalpy
p ••· As steam expands adiabatically the main superheater, the temperature (Fig. 9.7). This zone is characterized of the working fluid. Similarly, the
in tho turbine, its pressure and tem- and enthalpy of the superheated steam by the conversion of water to steam dielectric permittivity of water chan-
perature decrease. In power plants increase further, but all other para- (boiling); steam generation takes place ges abruptly to that of steam. In the
of high and supercritical parameters, meters, including density and dielec- at a constant temperature t' with zone of constant temperature at the
the total efficiency is increased by tric permittivity, change less than in two phases: water and steam, existing saturation line and constant pres-
taking off steam from an intermediate the previous zones. simultaneousl y (curve 1). For com- sure, bot;h phases (water and steam)
stage of t.he turbine (at a pressure of In the fourth zone (high-pressure parison, the figure shows temperature co-exist; in the whole range of steam
3-4 MPa and temperature of 290-320°C) cylinder of turbine), the thermal ener- variations in the working flu id at contents of the two-phase flow, 0 <
and recirculating it back into the gy of the superheated steam is con- supercritical pressure (curve 2). < x < 1. The dot-and-dash lines in
boiler where it is reheated, usually verted into mechanical work and its As may be seen from Figs. 9.6 and tho figure show variations in the den-
to the initial steam temperature, pressure and temperature decrease. 9 .7, the thermo physical characteri- sity· of the steam-water mixture, Pm,
54SC, in an intermed iate steam super- Accordingly, the enthalpy and density stics of the working fluid in the zone of and in its dielectric permittiv ity em
beater (rehoater). of the steam decrease, the dielectric high heat capacities at suporcritical along the flow.
Since t,he working fluid changes its permittivity increases somewhat (due pressures vary smoothly (though ra- The thermophysical properties of
pressure and temperatm·e in the wa- to temperature reduction), and tho pidly), whereas at subcritical pres- water and steam are determined by
i10
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 10. Temperature Conditions on Heating Surfaces 10.1. Claulflcatlon of Heating and Cooling .Modes 1U
vity of water and steam; as may be faces arranged in the reactor core.
,1/r J11alt?r r t?!IID/1 seen, these characteristics are sub- The heat in the reactor is liberated
stantially different in a wide range of due to nuclear fission in ·a very rest-
subcritical pressures, but come closer ricted volume around the pl ace where
and closer together in the critical nuclear fission occurs. This makes
point. it. possible to ass ume that practically
The above relationships between all the heat released by tho core is
\ e~ , the parame~ers and properties of the concentrated in tho volume of fuel
working £lu id determine the hydrody- elements.
Pcr,tcr
namic and heat- transFer processes on The maximum amount of heat relea-
Fig. 9.8. Effect of pressure on the density of sed, qmax• through the s1.1rface of c c' D/Dr
wn ter aod steam, p, and dielectric pcrmi Ui- heating surfaces and the carry-off by
vity e at the saturation li ne steam of impurities present in water; fuel elements is in mid-height and
they also pl ay a v ital part in the the zero value (in the absence of Fig. 10.i. Effect or boiler load on mass.
pressure. Figure 9.8 shows v ariations formation of deposits on boiler and reflectors), a t the end faces. Reflec- velocity
t ors can substantially equalize the J - gravlly clrculntlon; t-mulliple forced c ircu-
in the density and dielectric permitti- turbine elemen ls. lati on: J-c lrculotlon In once-through boiler;
intensity of heat released. 4-comblned circulation
In the second region, heat transfer
takes place by convection at a mode- increases sharply to a maximum value
rate temperature of the heat-transfer and is then almost stabilized or oven
agent (water, liquid metal or gas) . decreases somewhat , since the increas-
For instance, in a water-healed pri- ing steam generation at. a high unit
mary circuit, water Lem perature does volume of steam results in an increased
not exceed 330-350°C (at a pressure resistance of the Lubes (curve 1 in
of 13-15 MPa); in ci rcuits heated Fig. 10.1).
by liquid metal or gas, this tempera- In mul t iple forced circulat-ion
ture may be higher, up to 700-800°C. plants, the circulation of the water
TEMPERATURE CONDITIONS ON HEATING SURFACES Under such conditions, ther e is no and steam-water mixture in evaporat-
immediate danger of tube burn-out ing tubes is effected b y a circulation
should the heat-Lransfer conditions pump , so that the mass flow rate of
10.1. Classification of Heating lumes is still subst,anLial and the gas worsen, but the durability of the the working fluid is almost constant
and Cooling Modes temperature is quite high (1 200- heating surfaces' metal can be im- irrespective of boil er load (curve 2).
8000C). This group of heating surfaces paired and cause emergency situa- In once-through boiler plants, tl1e
U A knowledge of temperature distri- includes primarily platens and water tions. mass flow rate is proporLional to t he
bution in the metal of heating surfa- walls in the horizontal duct of the Present-day engineering has made boiler load (curve 3). At a low load,
ces, which operate under complicated furnace. possible the release of enormous quan- the mass fl ow rate may turn out t<>
and heavy conditions, is essential for The heating surfaces in the third tities of heat in the boiler furnace be inadmissibly low and cause burn-
estimating the reliability of a steam reg ion receive heat mostly by convec- or the core of a nuclear power reactor. out of tubes. For this reason , load
boiler. tion. T his r egion has a r elatively low Irrespective of t,he type of power shedding is restricted to no less than
In boilers operat ing on organic temperature of combustion products plant, the beat released must be acti- 30% of the rated load.
fu el , there are three differen t regions (800-900°C at tho inlet, to the convec- vely r emoved through heating surfa- Curve 4 in Fig. 10.1 depicts the
of heat transfer. The first region inclu- tive shalt and up to 100-150°C at i Ls • ces. This is ensured by the motion of characteristic of a boiler plant in
des the heating surfaces (water walls) outlet) and accommodates convective the working fluid at a definite velo- which tho motion of the working fluid
arranged in the furnace; they receive heating surfaces: an economizer, air city. is based on the principle of mulLiple
heat mainly by radiation. The most heat er, and some superheater banks . The motion of the steam-water mix- forced circulation at low loads and
important factor of heat transfer in These heating surfaces have a small ture, and therefore, cooling of the on the once-through principle at high
this region is the pattern of distribu- Lube pitch, i .e. small spaces between evaporating tubes of steam boilers loads. When operating on the prin-
tion of the heat flow along tho height tubes for Lhe passage of hot gases. and steam generators can be orga- ciple of mult-iple forced circulation,
of the furnace (see Fig. 20.2) and over Under such cond itions, the fraction nized in a different manner (Fig. 10.1). the mass flow rate is expressed by
the cross-sectional periphery of water- of radiant heat transfer from combu- In free-·c irculation plants , the steam- the sum of the ordinates ab- the mass
wall tubes (see Sec. 10.4). stion products onto t ubes is not high . water mixture moves under the free- flow rate corresponding to recircul a-
The second heat-transfer region com- In the steam generators of nuclear circulation head that appears when tion through the steam-generating sur-
prises the semiradiant heaLing surfa- power st ations , Lwo r egions of heat the tubes heat up. With an increase faces, and be- the mass flow rate in
ces which are arranged in the boiler transfer are usually distinguished. The in load, tho mass fl ow rate at the the economizer and superheater in
zone where radiation from gaseous vo- first r egion includes the heating sur- inlet, to the evaporating tu bes first once-through operation. With a chan-
Download From Boilersinfo.com
112 Ch. 10. T empera ture Conditfons on Heating Surfaces 10.2. Heat-tran•fer Crl1ll In" Euapor4tlng Tabu 113
ge to the once-through operation, the cross section of a tube (noting vapour bubbles appear on tho tube and size diminish in the course of
the mass flow rate is the same in all that heat supply or heat r emov al may walls; they coal esce with .o ne another further vaporization. T hus, a con-
the heaLing surfaces of the water-steam b e uneven around the periphery of a and may eventually form a conti- tinuous steam layer forms at the
path, the ordinate a' c'. Thus, the tube}. nuous vapour film· which will separate wall, while the core of the flow con-
comb ined circulation system ensures the flowing liquid from the heated tains ii slightly superheated steam
adequate cooling of all the heaLing 10.2. Heat-transfer Crisis tube wall and thus sharply impair with wator droplets whose concentra-
surfaces irrespective of the load. Ac- in Evaporating T ubes the conditions of heat transfer. T he tion decreases gradually in the direc-
cordingly, fo rced-circul ation single- effect of a sharp worsening of heat tion of the flow. Under such condi-
pass motion of water and steam takes For a g iven heat release intens ity, transfer on a change fro m bubble t ions , water dro plets do not roach
place in the economizers and super- the temperature conditions on an boiling to film boiling is called tho the tube walls. Besides, on entering a
heaters. evaporating tube are m ainly determi- boiling crisis (burn-out conditton.~) and hotter zone of the tube they evapo-
The thermal conditions in the Lubes ned by the steam content, mass flow t he corresponding heating · ·t oad is rate. Since vaporization is more in-
of tho steam-water path of a steam rate and pressure of the flow . called the critical load qcr· tensive at the walls, the water drop-
boiler or steam generator are establi- Various inadequate temperature con- On occurrence of the boiling crisis lots are repulsed from tube walls back
shed depending on the ratio between ditions which may appear in evapo- (point 2), the layer of superheated into the steam flow. T:Jnder such con-
the quantity of heat s upplied by the rating tubes can resu lt in a substan- steam at the heated wall becomes ditions, heat transfer occurs through
heat-trans[er agent \.o the outside tial rise in tho temperature of the thicker, the heat-transfer coefficient a continuous steam layer, i.e. the
surface and tho quantity of heat metallic tube wall which carl some- drops down sh arply, resulting in a heat-transfer · c.oefficient decreases
removed by tho working fluid from times cause tube burn-out. One should sharp rise in the wall temperature sharply and the wall temperature
the inside surface. T he si multaneous differentiate between tho inad equate and often in burn-out of the t ube increases (poin t 2' in F ig. 10.2b},
processes of heat rel ease and heat temperature condition s in bubble El ow wall (point 3). These temperature resulti ng in a boiling crisis . In con-
removal ensure that any point of a and in disperse-annular flow . conditions can occur in bubble flow trasl. to , the previously mentioned
heating surface is in the necessa ry With bubble flow of a s team-water if the heating rate of one of the evapo- case of a boiling crisis at a mode1·ate
t herma l s tate and has a specific mixture having a moderate steam rating tubes is t oo high and a thick steam content during a cbange· from
t emperature. The temperatures in va- content, a thick layer of liquid coveL"S layer of steam accumulates oo the bubble to "film boiling, this type of
rious points of a heating surface form the tube wall (Fig. 10.2a) and the superheated tube wall. boiling crisis is caused by a · change
what is called the temperature field . temp erature of the tube is maintained In disperse-annular (wet-wall) flow, fro m disperse-annular to disperse flow
One can distinguish between a tem- at a substantially low level (section saturated steam with susp!:nded liquid with a complet e drying out of the
perature field along the motion of 1-2). Even with intensive heating, it droplets moves in the core of a tube liquid film at a high steam content
t he working fluid, i.e. along the length exceeds the saturat ion temperature and a water film flows along the tube of the £low. This type of boiling
of tu bes (assuming that t hey are hea- only by a few tens of degrees. walls (Fig. 10.2b). Without heating, crisis can even · take place at a · low
ted uniformly around their periphe- As th e working fluid moves and is the thickness of th e liquid film depends h eating load and rel atively high .heat-
ry) and a temperatu re field across heated in t he tube, more and more on the ratio between the flow rates transfer coefficien t as th e liquid phase
of water and steam, the quantity of evaporates almost completely. Since
J moisture t hat is separated from the the unit volume of steam is much
I flow core and wets the wall, and . the. higher than that of water, the linear
quantity of moisture r emoved from velocity of the flow increases sub-
-- the wall due to break-off and mecha-
nical carry-off by the steam flow.
stantially. In a boiling crisis when the
liquid fil m dries out, the temperature
f'
In heated tubes, the intensity of heat- of the tube wall rises less significantly
,
f 2 ing has a strong ,additional effect on (line 2' -3'), as in tho former case.
t - - - -- - t'- - - the thickness of•'"the water film. A Boiling cris is in the one-sided heat-
continuous water fil m can still ensure ing of evaporating tUbes. We have
proper heat removal from the heated discussed the mechanism of boiling
q, surface and the wall tempeL·ature can crisis in an ascending flow of working
be maintained at an allowable lovel fluid in vertical tubes heated u ni-
(line 1 ' -2' ). In further heating, the form ly all over their periphery.
q2rrrrrn""T"T"i-rrhrTTTTTT1rTTTTT"M water film becomes thinner owing l n modern powerful steam boilers,
gUll.LLLI.Lj.J.lll.UJJ u~~~~~~~~ to ev aporation and break-off, so that th~ main steam-generating surfaces
• • only a very thin fil m (micro-film) nrc formed by furnace water walls
.
. .......... . ... .. . .' . re mai_ns on the wall. Under a parti- which are unevenly h eated over their
. . : . .. ' Fig. 10.2_ General pattern of tempe-
. .'•
.
,.
.. . .
• • t I
ratures in a steam-generating lube at
cular heating load, t he microfilm periphery. The distribution pattern
(a) bubble Oow and (b) dispersed nn- is destroyed and separated into indi- of the heating load over the periphery
(a) (h) nular Oow of steam-water mixture vidual islets and streaks whose Iiumbor of a water-wall tube is shown in
8 -01524
Download From Boilersinfo.com
114 Ch. 10. Temperature CondLttons on Heating Surfaces 10.9: Temperature Conditions Along the Channel H5
ce-through boilers are shown in In the economizer section, heat ex- through boil ers, the steam content
Fig. 10.4. In boilers of any type, the change between the wall and the water varies along the length of the evapo-
temperature of feed water in the takes place at a low heating intensity rating tubes in the range 0 < x < 1.
economizer, t 1w, is raised to the (q ~ 5-10 kW/m2 ) and high values In tube portions where x is relatively
saturation point (in the limit), so o[ the heat-transfer coefficient [a. = low due to extensive boiling, a 2 is
that the heat absorbed by evaporat- = 2-5 kW/(m 2 K)}, so that the wall rather high and can be calculated by
ing tubes is almost fully spent on temperature is only a few degrees formula (10.2). Under such conditions,
vaporizatioi;I, and the temperature of higher than that of the water. t 1 is close to t'. ··
the steam-water mixture t' remains In section II, the temperature of Beginning hom a certain steam
almost constant. In the superheater. the flow t 1 is lower than t', while content Xcr. which depends on pres-
the temperature of steam is further the wall temperature is higner than sure and heating intensity 1 th_e tem-
r aised to the rated value t ••. t'. This means that vaporizatfon (sur- perature of the wall rises st~;bstantial
In the economizer section I, the face boiling) has already started on ly (boiling crisis associated with ' wa-
temperature of the flow t1 and that the wall. As steam bubbles are for- ter film drying, see Sec. 10.2),, which
of the tube wall, tt. are below the med, they pass into the water flow is indicative of deterioration of the
saturation temperature: t 1 < t' and· and are condensed. In this section, heat exchange conditions (section. IV).
t 1 < t'. The thermo physical proper- the water flow is heated in the tem- For this section, i.e , in the zone x >
Fig. 10.3. Heat distribution in a smooth
tube heated from one side
ties of water in the layer near the walL perature range up to t'. This section > X cr. or upon occurr~nce of a. .boiling
vary only slightly with temperature. too, belongs to the economizer, but crisis, it may be assumed with a good
Under such conditions, heat transfer the heat transfer in it is more inten- approximation that the coefficient of
Fig. 10.3. The front side of the tube, is mainly governed by the laws of sive than in section I. heat transfer from the wall to steam-
which faces the furnace, is heated convection: As heat is further supplied, stable water mixture (rz1 ) varies . roughly
most intensively and the rear side, bubble boiling begins in the tube: proportionally to the linear velocity
least intensively. Uneven heating cau-
(10.1) t1 = t' and t 1 > t'. In this boiling of the steam-water mixture to 'wm
ses transverse circulation of the work- Where zone (section I II), heat transfer takes the power of 0.8; a similar relation-
ing fluid from the less heated to the o:d Re - wp1d Pr - cptf.Lr place irrespective o[ the flow velocity ship may be assumed fr9~ the. coef-
more heated portions of the tube N u -
,_'J..!' ! - ~lf. 1- ,,, (at velocities typical for steam boi- ficient of heat transfer t.o · dry satu-
periphery; some heat is also trans- lers), but is determined by the heat- rated steam a*. Therefore: • • t ••
ferred by conduction in the metal The subscript 'f' implies that the· ing intensity q and the thermophysical
wall. These two circumstances en- flow temperature is taken as the deci- properties of the liquid and steam at (10.3)
hance the cooling effect of the working sive parameter. For straight channels,. the saturation line, which depend uni-
'.
fluid, thus retarding the appearance c = 0.023 .
' '
quely on pressure p. In the pressure '
10
~
.....-::
/,....
\
4
J
""""~
2
t'<
!'...
N u 0 = ------=~-=----
1.07 -l- 12.7 V{ (Pr2f'-1)
(10.8)
r·"
......
5
y :: 1 -0.1 ( ~: - 1 (1 - x(" ' 5 l
Other quan liLies needed fo1· the cal -
0 cul ation: Gr is the :G t·ashof number:
On atlaining a maximum, the te m- -...... t
IJOO 2000 JrJ/Irg
Cr - g
I
(Pt -r.~!l'!:. .
·perat ure of the heated tubes decreases. Fig. 10.6. Effect of the working fluid enth-
alpy and of heat flux on the }teat-transfer VJPt
I 'T his is due to the fact that heat coefficient at supercritical pressure
"transfer is mor~ in tensive with an ~ is the coefficien t of hydraulic resi-
:increase in l.he linear velocity of Fig. 10.5. Wall and flow temperatures in
the water-steam path of a supercriti cal-
P - 24 MPa, wp = 700 kg(m' s); q, k\V/m':
350; 2-520; 3-64 0; 4-7 50; S- 870
J-
stance, s
= (1.82 log Re - 1.64) - 2 ;
• :steam in the zone where the liquid cp is the mean specific henl.:
p ressure boiler
pl1ase is evaporated completely (sec- 1- tl ow temperature; 2- wnll temperature al low
ln region II, the temperature of -c It - it
tion V). A t the boundary between q; 3-Wnll temperature at high q the flow remains lower than tp 1., - _..:.......__,_
p - It - It
sections IIf. and IV for drum-typo but the temperature of the wall is
boilers or lf and VI for onco-tllrough. higher th an tp 1, . For this reason, the cp 1 is the specific heat of the flow~.
boilers, tile• mass steam con tent be- porating tube d epending on certa in tbermophysical properties in the boun- and Pt and p 1 arc the How density at.
-comes equal to unity (x = 1) and the operating factors. T he metal at that dary layer and in the main fl ow may the flow temperature and wall tem-
•enthal py is i •, so that any further boundat·y is subjected to temperature differ substantially (see Sec. 9.5) perature, respectively. The exponents'
:supply of hoat results i11 steam super~ ch anges which may cause thermal fa- resulting in the features s pecific to n and m can be foun d by empiricaL
.heatiug. '· tigue. The amplitude of tempet·ature the heat transfer in that region : heat formulae.
In all types of boilers, in tho super- variations can be decreased by I imit- transfer is intensified at low values of At Gr/Re 2 = 1 0 -~-0.4, the contri-
:hoater region (section VI), heat trans- ing the temperature g•:adient between q (line 2 in Fig. 10.5) and, on the bution of gravitational forces is large·
lfer to s uperheated s team again wor- the in ternal wall Of a t ubo and the con trary, is impaired at high values and heat transfer deteriora tcs owing:
:sens and the temperature of the tube flow in the transition region (6.t :s;;;; of q (line 3). Figure 10.6 shows the to a partial degeneration of the turbu--
metal increases. In this region, the ,s;;;; 80°C}. This is attai ned by main- effect of q on a. 2 in the phase tran- lence in an ascending flo w. For such•
laws of convective heat exchange for taining a sufficientl y high flow velo- sition region. As may be seen , a. 2 has condi tions , the calculation should be·
a s ingle-pllase medium become valid city. a maximum at a low q and decreases corrected for the effect of free convec-
.again - but for superheated steam we Curves of the temperature varia- to a minimum at higher values of q. tion, i.e. for Lhe ratio Gr/ Re 2 •
.have: tio ns of the flow and tube wall in a With a decrease in the flow velocity The conditions described by curve 3.
N u ,, = cR e.0 · 6p rl0·8 (10.6) vertical once-through circuit o[ super- or an increase in the heating load, the (see Fig. 10.5) can ap pear at q > · qt,.
critical pressure at various heating region of unit enthalpies typical of the at a given value wp or at qlwp >-
·u nder impairment 'of heat transfer intensities are shown in Fig. 10.5. The im paired beat tr ansfer becomes larger. > lq (wp)Jb 122).
conditions, the coefficient a. 2 is sub- entire region of steam generation cart Ats'upercritical pressures, heat trans- In region III, the temperature of'
stantially lower than in intensive be divided into three h eat-transfer fer in this region is caused by two m ain the flow exceeds t 1, 11 and heat trans-
boiling, but is still sufficiently high regions: I or I' -water preheating; factors: tho effect of varying proper- fer is governed b y the laws for super-
I to ensure reliable operation of the m e- II or [['-pseudo-boiling; and III- heated steam [formula (10.6)].
ties of the fl ow on the processes of
tal of the heating surfaces at a pro- steam Superheating. [n l'egiOil f , tho turbulent mass exchange and the Bent channels. T he tubing of a boiler·
perly selected mass lvelocity of the temperature oE the fl ow and woll at a appearance of noticeable thcrmogrn- or steam generator has straight tubu-
ilow (see Sec. 10.2). given pressure is below the tempera- v itational forces (free convection). lar portions and numerous tube bends ,
vVilh an increase in pressure, sur- ture of conditional phase transition, such as bent tu bcs in cylindrical cyc-
I face tension decreases , so that impair-
ment of heat transfer occurs at a lower
tph· The thermophysical prope.·ties of
the working fluid in t he boundary
Th errnogravilutional forces can be
characterized by the ratio Gr/Re 2 .
At Gr/Re2 < 10 - 2 , the effect of free
lone primary furna ces , coi led tube-
banks in nucleat· steam generators,
value of Xcr· T he same effect on Xcr layer on the wall vary only slightly. convection ca n be neglected and boat bends in multi-p ass sections of water
has an increase in tho heating load (due UndeL· such cond itions, h eal, Lransfer transfer in a vertical ascending flow wall, bent tubes around burner ports
to quicker ovaporaLion of moisture is governed by convection and can can be calcul ated by the formula m a nholes, etc. '
in the tubes). be calculated by formula (10.1). The proposed by V.S. Protopopov: Tlto motiou of flui ds in bent chan-
The boundary of the transition to wall temperature in r egion I increases nels can be characterized by the ap-
.deteriorated heat-transfer conditions
·can move along the length of an eva-
slowly, following v adations in l,he
flow temperature.
Nu, =- Nu 0 (.2_)n
c ,t
1
(_E_I_
PJ .
)"' (10.7) penl'ance of centrifugrll forces directed
towards the outsid e of a beud. The·
Download From Boilersinfo.com
i20
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 10. Tempuatu.rc ·Conditions on Heating Surface.s 10.4. Temperature Conditions around Periphery of Channel 121
at that point should t)le heating . be For a ,platen wall, the. t.emperatur&
uniform with a heat flow qmnx· . 180"
of a fin root 'is found froui the for-
Non-uniformity of the temperature 0.9 ~ ......... qfurl' =0.2!! /7 mula
I
field is most essential for horizontal 0.8 ~~ 0.42 ./ /I
2
tubes of subcritical-pressure plants
and also for tubes of any orientation
of supercritical plants in zones where
0.7
0.6
,\
\ "--._0.53./ I
VI (1! ~) J
"0.84 / v '(10.16)
the working fluid has a high heat ca- 0.5,2{10 1600 2fl01l t.lrJ/Ir!!
pacity. When it is essential to obtain the·
3
At supercritical pressures, the ther- mass velocity of the flow, use is often
mophysical properties of the \\rorking Fig. 10.10. Ratio a~~Javer at supercritical made of multi-pass hydraulic systems
o 9o tou 27fl Jofl"
fluid may substantially change in a An!lle from lower· line of tube pressUJ'e (p = constant) in t.he form of individual banks or
rather narrow temperature range (Fig. sections connected in series so that,
9.6). In vertical heated tubes, this Fig. 10.9. Overheating of the upper surface as the working fluid [lows through
may result in a density gradient along of a horizontal tube with a separated flow heating load near the front wall on a them, its temperature· and . enthalpy
the radius and the formation of a inside, relative to its lower surface smooth and a finned tube is roughly gradually increase. 011 the qther hand,.
zone of lower density and lower con- J-p = 11 MPa; Z-p = 1 B MPa; 3-p = 22.4 MPa' the same. This makes it possible to these sections are arranged in parallel
ductivity near the heating surface calculate the wall temperature on the relative to the heat-transfer· agent
whose temperature is naturally higher. by gravitational forces (see Sec. 9.3). front surface of finned tubes of water (combustion products), so that each
This can lower the intensity .of heat Waves which form on flow separation walls (equal one-sided heating of pa- of them absorbs roughly the sam&
transfer and worsen the temperature can periodically splash onto the over., rallel tubes) as for smooth tubes [see quantity of heat. Under such con-
conditions on the heating surface. heated wall. Repeated water splashes formula (10 ..12)1. ditions, an unsymmetrical tern pera-
In horizontal tubes of a diameter cause a sharp cooling of the tube wall. To estimate the reliability of the ture field can appear in the extreme
more than '15-20 rom,. even if h eated Temperature variations in Ute metal tube metal, it is essential to know tubes of adjacent sections. If these
uniformly over the periphery, in Lernal can cause fat igue phenomena. For the temperature of metal at the tip tubes are welded together, as is done
heat transfer in the upper portion this reason, in free-circulat ion boi- of fins . According to (14], with a in gas-tight water walls, the tempe-
is much worse than in the lower, lers, which are characterized by low symmetrical temperature . field (the rature difference between connected
which is due to asymmetry of the velocities of flow in evaporating tubes, same diameter of welded tubes and fins can give rise to appreciable tem-
mixture flow under the effect of gra- horizontal tubes are not heated. In the same temperatures of working perature stresses, sometimes causing
vitational forces. F or this reason, once-through boilers, flow velocities fluid and h eat -transfer coefficients a 2 fracturing in the welded sections.
the range of deteriorated heat trans- are substantially higher, and therefo-. in the tubes), the temperature at the Temperature asymmetry in gas-tight
fer is larger in horizontal tubes than re, flow separation does not occur wi- tips of the fins can he found from the (membrane) walls creates the problem
in vertical. In inclined tubes, even thin a v,rider range of heating loads. formula: of proper temperature distribution in
when heated uniformly over the pe- The superheating /:;.t of the upper (10.13) such walls. The problem is solved by
riphery, unsymmetrical two-phase flow portion of a tube relative to i ts lower applying the superposition principle:
can also appear under certain condi- portion (upon flow separation) can The coefficient lew considers the with a number of external actions.
tions, resulting. in poor beat transfer be somewhat diminished by increasing, effect of welded seams; this can be it is assumed that their effects can
in the top portion of a tube. Thus, the the thickness of the tube wall and • taken from reference data. The tem- be added together. The quantity of
region of deteriorated heat transfer is the heat conductivity of the tube me- perature gradient between the root heat absorbed by a finned tube c,:on-
l arger in inclined tubes than in ver- tal, which causes heat to spread and tip of a fin can he found as: sists of two components: the heat
tical, but smaller than in horizontal thr~>Ugh the tube metal. absorbed in the cylindrical portion
tubes. At supercritical pressures, the wor-. (10.14) (from the front point to the fin root)
At subcritical pressures and sepa- king fluid can separate in horizontal and the heat absorbed in the fin pro-
rated flow of the working fluid, heat tubes by density in the vertical direc- where A is the coefficient of the fin per. Each of these portions has a par-
transfer is unsymmetrical and the tion. For th is reason, under identical shape depending on the geometrical ticular tempera Lure field which can
temperatures on the upper and lower conditions, Lhe temperature of the characteristics hlbr and b11br of fins be added together to obtain the total
surfaces of tubes are different (Fig. upper portion of a horizontal tube (to be taken from reference data) . temperature field of a finned tube.
10.9). Heat transfer at the upper tube turns out to be higher than the wall The t emperature in the root of the P roblems with temperature sym-
surface, where the wall temperature temperature of a vertical tube. The fin s of a furnace water wall can be metry (Fig. 10.11a) are solved by as-
is close to the saturation point, is ratio a.h";,~/a ocr depends on the en- expressed by the formula: suming that the heat absorbed by the·
worse than at the lower surface. This thalpy of the flow and the parameter connecting piece between two tubes
is associated with particular condi-
tions of two-phase flow in horizontal
q/wp (Fig. 10.10).
F inned tubes. As has been given
tr = t}l + ~J.Lrqmax [ a 2
1.
+ Am (1~~)
fit
J is distributed evenly between the tu-
bes, and that the maximum of tem-
tubes where the flow can be separated earlier, under id en tical conditions the (10.15) perature is in the middle of the piece.
1.22
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 10. Temperature Condition s on Heating Surfaces 10.5. Heat Exchange In Steam Generators 123
Tubef • Tube2 i!t =t,.,-Lr sistance across the wall to the working which always takes place over the
0 t' 0 fluid is higher, and thus, .the wall will cross section of the core (especially
have a higher temperature. The conduc- with intensive heating which is typi-
t ivity of deposits depends on the com- cal o£ nuclear reactors), the differences
position of impurities in the water in the flow rates of the working fl1.1id
and may vary within very wide li- in the cells and over the periphery
mits-from 0.1 to 0.5 W /(m K) for of rods may result in different unit
mineral deposits and u p to 3-5 WI heaL absorp tion dq/d (wp) (per unit
H /(m K) for ferric oxides. Since the flow rate of the coolant) and the ap-
(a) conductivity of deposits is substan- pearance of temperature gradients bet-
(a)
tially lower than that of the metal, ween the rods. Since there is no acti-
'L( l
s(IJ/tf 1
even slight deposits, in a · layer of ve turbulent mass exchange of the
fluid through the narrow spaces bet-
<>nly a few fractions of a millimetre,
\ j· I s(2)/lf
in the tubes of water walls, which are ween the rods in t he cells, the velo-
}r.. Y . heated quite intensively, can raise city field of the working fluid may
h \
//Jjd the wall temperature to a value that be distorted oven more by deforma-
' -......:..., is inadmissible for reliable operation tion (bonding) of the rods undel' the
mH ( -m H
II
-<~ action o[ temperature gradients.
<>f the t ube metal. Since d eposi t.s grow
gr adually during boiler operation, The critical heat flow at which de-
{h) " . "'1
t h is circumst ance limits the conti- todorated conditions of heat transfer
can appear on heating surfaces de-
l~ig. 10.11. Temperature distribution in n nuous operation of a plant. For this
connecting piece 0 '/( reason, one of t he most essential prob- ponds on the following principal fac-
{<>) lbcrmnl symmetry , t< 1l - t< 2l; (b) nsymmclricnl lems in boiler operation is to prevent tors : steam content x , mass velocity
cond itions. t< 1 l > t< 1 > Fig. 10.12. Temperature distribution over or restrict the formation of deposits wp, and pressure p. For a system of
the outer surface of a finned tube of water on the steam-water side of heating parall el channels in a boiling reactor,
With Lam perature asymmetry (Fig. wall (a) at different values of internal hent- surfaces (for more detail see Ch. 15). these parameters are average if each
10.11b), Lhe temperature maximum t~ansfer coefficient a 2 (cd < ai < al); (b) at
different relative pitch s/d (s 1 > s~ > s3) of the channels receives the same quan-
is shifted towards the tube with a tity of the working fluid, so that Lhe
lower temperature level, so that the 10.5. Heat Exchange in Steam heat transfer crisis in rod bundles
distribution of heat between the tu- stantially c1t the fin tip and again de- Generators of Nuclear Power Stations is qualitatively the same as in evapo-
bes will be uneven: it will be divided creases from the fin tip to the rear side The unit heating load on the surface rating tubes, but the quantitative
in proportion to tho length of the of the tube. <>f fuel elements is quite high (1 000 relationships turn out to be substan-
piece from the point of the highest The effect of deposits on temperature kW/m 2 or even more). This circum- tially different. Considering all the
temperature to a particular tube, i.e. conditions on heating surfaces. We st ance makes the appearance of poor geometry specifics of rod assemblies
mH for the tube at a higher tempe- h ave discllSSed temperature condi- cooling conditions in fuel elements and Lhe condi tions of their operation,
r ature and (1 - m) H for that at a tions on clean (deposit free) heating very probable. differences in unit heat release or heat
lower temperature, where m is the surfaces. S1.1ch conditions can be en- • The steam-genet·ating channels of absorption can result in differences in
coefficient of displacement of the tem- sured by proper organization of the nuclear reactors have an intricate sha- the flow rate wp and steam content x.
perature maximum; its calculations processes of steam generation. On the pe. In reactor construction, wide uso Since qcr is a decreasing function of
can be found in reference book~ [141. other hand, in boiler operation there is made of heating surfaces in the form x, a boiling crisis is more likely to
Temperature conditions in a finned is almost always a potential danger of bundles of heat-releasing rods bet- occur in the space between tubes at
tube arc determined by its thermal and that deposits will form from impuri- ween which the heat-transfer agent a lower limiting steam content than
geometrical parameters . In Fig. 10.12, ties whi ch are presen L, in a d isso I ved flows in a longitudinal direction. in tubes.
typical temperature fields are shown or susp ended state, in water (see Chs. The geometry of chan nels formed Various types of flow whirlers are
in terms of excessive temperatures, 14 and 15). b etween the rods may have a signi- mounted in tho outlet section of a reac-
i.e. tempet·ature differences between When deposits are present on the ficant effect on the hydrodynamics of tor channel to increase its power ;
t he metal and the working fluid, for inner surface of tubes, th e wall tem- t he working flu id: the flow rates thro- they are often made integral with
a developed half-tube. For all tho cur- perature is found from the formula: ugh the cells of a rod bundle may turn spacers. Under the effect of whirlers,
ves shown, it is typical that tho hi- out to be different or the velocity of water droplots are thrown from the
ghest temperature is in the front zone t~n=tfz +qin(...!...+
as
~'1 1
" ')
r!cp
(10.17) the working fluid may vary over tho flo\v core onto the walls and reple-
<>f a tu ho a nd at the tip of fins. Bet- cross section of a cell; this may result nish the moving liquid film on the
w een these points, the tomperat1.1re With a larger thickness Odcp of the in the formation of diffori ng cooling walls . Thus, a boiling crisis caused by
decreases monotonically from the front deposited layer and with a lower hea t conditions over the periphery of Lhe Liquid film drying is delayed and at
point to tho fin root, then rises sub- conductivity 'J..dcP• the thermal re- rods. With uneven heat absorption, the outlet the steam-generating reac-
Download From Boilersinfo.com 11:1. Classification of Open Hydraulic Sydem1 125
I 124 Ch. 11. Hydrodynamics of Op en Hydrazlllc _S ystems
tor can operate at a Jaigh er s team con- Moreover, the wall in the zone of . ..
•
• ..• .
tent. liquid film drying is a lternately wa- Heating surfaces '
I n steam generators operating in com- shed with liquid and steam, causing-
bination with pressurized water-cooled temperatu re pulsations in the wall ra diant plalen-lgpe convective
reactors or sodium-cooled fast-neutron (which can be quite substantia l in.
reactors, during evapora tion the wor- liqu id-metal heating) a nd varying stres-
.
king fl uid passes through the same
stages as in organic-fuel steam boi-
ses in the m etal, which can resu lt ifr
tube cracking. .. v .
~ . '
B . \ \ \ .
lers . The only point of significance is All these phenomena arc probable- I
~
that deteriorated heat tra nsfer in the
steam generators of nuclear reactors
in steam generators where the working-
fluid mo ves in the narrow cells of a
•
I
I
v·
I/ \_i ._~ \_ j
••
'- - ~
does not involve failure of th e appa- channel or in chann els of a substAntial (a) '(b)
ratus, since the temperature of its
elem ents cannot exceed that of th e
length.
- On the other hand, boiling crisis in
I
I
•
F F
l " (g ) (h)
heat- tr~n s[er agent. However, . an in-
~~
the reactor core is extremely dange-
crease m the length of the boiling cri-
s is zone, where th e i nlcnsity of heat
rous. To prevent i ls occunencc iu wa-
t er-moderated water-cooled power reac-
I'
'I
• (i)
I
I (l)
.
--
transfer is low (sec Sec. 10.2), r e- tors, th e heal-transfer agent of th o- . (ti}
sults either in an increase in the steam primary circuit. has a tom pornl.u re a '
'
(C)
'
6 F F
generator size or in a loss o[ its capa- few tens of degrees below th o hoi ling n t
city . point (subcooling margin) . . '
•
(m}
{j) {k)
feJ (f)
Fig. 11.1. Principal types of hydrau lic circuits with forced motion o[ the working fluid
( a) horizon tally wound water wall tubes; (b) vertica l nrrnnl!Cment of water wa ll tubes; (c) U-sbaped water
wa ll : (d) N-shaped water wall;(<) multl-pa'l.• water wnll witll vcrli cul tubes; (f) mulli-pa_ss wa ter wall with
hor izontal tubes; (g) L-shaped platen: (h) double L-sllaped platen: (i) horizontal platen: (J) U-sbaped platen;
( k ) multi-pass vertica l platen; (I) vertica l convection bank; (m) horizontal con'l'eclion bank
.
HYDRODYNAMICS OF OPEN HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS . .
d ecreased cri tical heating load, cyc- 11..1a), the length L of a single tube
lic temperatu..re variatio ns in the hea- may be as high as a few hundred me-
11.1. Classification t ed walls a nd, as a fi nal result, to tres and tho tube has a large number
liLy. S ince instability, per so, is a of bends and therefore, a high hydrau-
of Open Hydraulic Systems dynamic process, tho term 'static emergency situations.
Out of all the causes or hydraulic lic resistance D.p hr· The hyd rostatic
inst ability' is rather cond i tiona!. component D.p,. of the total pressure
The principal cliagrams of open Under statica lly unstable conditi- i nstability, and therefore, of maldi-
s trib ution of heat , special attention gradient in such a circuit is not large
hydraulic circu its in heating surfaces ons, the fl ow . rates through various
s hould be g iven to the effect o[ a n in view of the small heigh t of the
are sh own in Fig. 11.1. In any circuit tubes (channels) are different and
the r eliabl e oporaliou of the steam~ u nsteady hydrodynamic cltaractoris- circuit compared with the length
may vary in limo with an appreci-
generating channels depends substan- t ic, flow pulsat ions and hoadet'S on of the developed tube, i.e. H « L.
alJle hequ ancy. Th o flow rate in in- T ho resistance due to flow accelera-
tially on stability of mot ion, i. e. a dividual tubes may turn out to be- ; he distribution oE the flow between
s table flow rate of the \vorld ug flu id [) arallel tubes. The pressure grad ient tion 11Pac is also not large, especially
insufficient to ensure proper heal- at a high pressure. Therefore, t.he
through parall el tubes anct channels . transfer conditions. Varying condi- n _heated tubes can be represented as
Under parti cula r condi lions (pres- tions of cooling of t he t.uLes aud va- the sum D.p = 11Ptr D.p, 'D.P ac± + +'
total pressure gradient in a circuit
sure, mass velocity, cuthalpy of the riations of the wall temperature may ± D.ph (see Sec. 9.4). Combining t ho with horizontal or slightly inclined
h yd raulic resistances in a si nglo torrn, tubes is mainly determined by the
wo rking flu id a t th e inl et heating cause ther mal fatigue of the metal.
intensity) a nd depending o~ the de- Jn som e cases, especially in operntion 11p1, + 'D.p 1 = flp 1.,, we obtain: hydraulic resistance:
sign of th o s tcam-generati ug channels. at, variable or off-design loads, dyna- D.p = 11Phr -1- 11Pac ± flp,, (1.1.2)
uns table motio n of the work ing fluid mic (or oscillating) insta bility of mo- . (11.1)
(i.e. with a variable flow rate) can tion appears in lh e for m of excessive B oiler circuits w ith ver tical ascen-
appear in them. One must distinguish, flow pulsations which lead to vari- In o nce-through boilers with hori- ding or ascending-descending motion
b etween static a nd dynamic instabi- able flow r ate of the worki ng fluid . zontal or slightl y inclined lubes (Fig. of tho working fluid (Fig . 11 .tb to e)
Download From Boilersinfo.com •
126 Ch . 11. H ydrodynamics of Open Hydraulic Systems 11.2. Hydrod ynamic Stability of Flow In Horizontal Tubes 127
.dp head {see Sec. 11. 3). The s ituation is For the same heat release rate, an where
complicated oven more by the fact increase in the water flow rate in- A= ~ (v" - v') t.t!ubf
t hat the effect of hydrostatic h ead ·creas es the length of the economizer 4dqt r (11.10}
in ascending and descending motion p ortion . while shortening that of the
of the working fl uid is different. All evaporating portion, which is asso-
ciated with a lower quantity of s team
B = ifr[t.i~ub (v• - v')-v'] (11.11)
this results in i ntri cate analytical
t!p relationships which are represented produced by the heated tube. and
gra phically fo r each particular object: If a tube has an economizer portion C= ~ (v• -v') l2ql
0 2' I' 2 11 hyd raulic circuit , geom e Lrical pa ra- {Fig. 11.3), we have: 4jdr (11.12)
me ters of th e tube system , pressure,
Fig. H .2. Hydraulic characteristics: (1) entha lpy of the working fluid at the If there is no water subcooling at
stable, (2) unstable the inle t of an evaporating tube,
inle t , etc.
The hydra ulic operation of a ny {11.4) !::,.i,ub = i' - i 0 = 0 and the coeffi-
are charac terized by a s mall number circuit is de~cribed by its hydraulic cient A turns to zero and B changes.
of passes, and therefore, by a relati- ch aracteristic. H owever, becaus e of Tho unit volume of the working s ign. Equation (11.9) then takes the
vely short tubes and low number of Lhe above-m entioned s pecifics of hyd- fluid in the economizer and evapora- f o m:
bends. Tho hydraulic resistance of
such circuits is low. The hydros ta tic
raulic s ystems with horizontal unc.l
ver tical t ubes, t heir hydra ulic cha-
ting portions is different. The lengths
of these portions are different too.
+
!::,.p = B {wp) 2 C {wp) {11.13)
head in v ertical tubes, however, ma- racteris tics will b e anal yser! separa- The unit volume of water varies only i.e. it is a quadratic equation which
kes up a substantial portion of the tely. slightly along the economizer portion, expresses unambiguously tho hydrau-
total pressure gradient, especially at and therefore, we have: lic characteristic.
low loads when the contributio n of
th e hydraulic res is tance is subs tan- 1 1.2. llydrodynamic Stabilit y - v0 + v'
2 - {11.5)
Equa tion (11.9) is the equation of
the hydraulic cha racteris tic of a n
tially lower. Thus, of Flow in Horizon tal evaporating tube at !::,.i•ub > 0, i.e.
Evaporating Tubes In the evaporating portion, the unit in the presence of economizer portion.
!::,.p = !::,.p hr ± !::,.ph {11.3)
The decisive factor that determines volume of water changes sharply, and In this case, the h yd ra ulic charac teri-
The ratio between !::,.p ilr and !::,.ph the hydraulic characteristic of eva- it is reasonable to take its mean value stic is described by a cubic equation
in the total pressure gradient may porating tubes is the temperature of in calculations. For tubes that are whose solution can have either one·
have a vital effect on the hydraulic the fluid at the tube inlet. It may heated uniformly along their le ngth, real and two imagin ary roots , or all
stability of the flow in straight-flow be equal or close to the saturation quite accurate results are obtained three real roots. I n the former case,
elements. The hydraulic s tability of temper a ture at the pressure at the by assuming a linear law of variation th e characteristic !::,.p = f (wp) has nei-
flow is described by the hydraulic tube inlet, t 1n ~ t', or be substantially of the steam content in the flow, and ther extrema nor common points with
characteristic which gives -the total lower than that temperature, t 1, < t'. therefore: a h or izontal tangent {curve 1 in
pressure gradient !::,.p as a function of
the flow rate G of the working fluid:
If a tube is s upplied with subcooled -Veo = V '+ z(v· - rl)
2 {11.6)
F ig. 11 .2) and is unambiguous, since
any value of pressure gradient !::,.p
water, st eam generation begins not
!::,.p = f (G). If all tubes in an element immediately at fts inlet, but a cer- has only one corresponding flow rate
are of the same diameter , the hydrau- tain dis tance downstream. The whole' With uniform heating, the heating of the working fluid, wp. In the latter
lic characteristic is a fu nc tion of the length of the tube can then be divided load per m e tre of tube length, q 1 = case, the characteris tic has an inflec-·
mass velocity: !::,.p = f (wp). into two portions: tho economizer por- = Qll, is constant. The length of the tion point a nd two extrema; it is
The hydraulic characteris tic is u nam- tion and the evaporating portion economizer portion will then be found ambiguous, since any value of pres-
biguous if a particular to tal pressure {Fig. 11.3), their lengths being deter- as sure gradient !::,.p has three corres-
gradient in the tube system has only mined by the ratio between the heat lee = (i' - io) QG l = lH,ub (wp) f (11. 7) ponding different flow rates {curve 2).
one corresponding flow rate of the rel"ase and flow rate of water. ql Ambiguity of the hydraulic characte-
working flu id {curve 1 in Fig. 11 .2), ristic will become clear from the follo-
and ambigt1ous if the same total pres- and the length of the evapora ting wing r easoning. For the same h eat-
UQ;i 0 v';i';:r=O x= :" v;c;ix;:r" portion:
sure gradient can appear at two or
more differen t flow rates {curve 2.)
The hydraulic characteristic may
b ecome ambiguous on a change i n the
c
t in <l'
t t t t t t h
- (11.8)
Subs tituting Vee • z•• , Veo • and z••
release rate, as the flow rate of water
s ubcooled ur1der the saturation point
increas es, the volume v elocity of the
mixture is not increased, but decrea-
lee ley into equation {11.4) and arranging
thermophysical properties of the wor- the terms according to the powers sed . An increased flow rate of sub-
king fluid, s ay, the unit volum e, which l of (wp), we obtain the cubic equation: cooled water leads to an increase in
may be caus ed by a change from one the le ngth of the economizer portion
flow ra te to anothe r (see S ec . 11.2) Fig. 11 .3. Vari ati ons of the working .fluid
D. p = A (wp) 3 - B {wp)2 + C {wp) and in the quantity of heat spent for
or u nder the effect of hydrostatic param eters in a heated tube a t tin < t' {11.9) b eating the water to boiling . Accor-
Download From Boilersinfo.com
128 Ch. 11. Hydrodynamics of Open Hydraulic Systems 11.2. H11d rodynamlc Stability of Flow in 1/orlzontal 1'ubcs 129
JJp 4p
IU')'
4 0~------------~~
0
Fig. H .5. Region of the hydraulic characte- Fig. 11 .(). Effect o[ pressure on tll'e sta bility
ristics of a tube producing steam-water of hydra ulic charac teristic {P1 < P 2 < P 3 )
lt!Cf mixture Fig. 11.8. Tra nsfo rma t ion of an unsta ble
lease r a te, t his can cause t emperature hydraulic charac terist ic into stabl e by throt-
has neither an economizer nor evapo- varia tions in the tube wall and the tling subcoolcd water fl ow
l
rating portion, bu t is essentially a a ppearance of critical fa tig ue s t resses
Fig. 11.4 . Effect of the flow rate of sub- superheater along its whole length. and , eventuall y, d amage of the evapo-
GOo led water in a steam-generating tube on At very high flow rates of water, ra ti ng tubes . a nd wa ter in t he header , so that some
flow velocity at tube outlet (ri.lp) > (wp)w, the available heat is Sin ce t he ambiguous hydraulic cha- tubes will rece iv e more wa ter and
1-11- wnter now rates insufficient to heat the water to the less steam than othe rs, i.e. the flow
racte ris tic is mainly due to a l a rge
s aturation point , there is no s team d ifroronce between the u nit volumes of r ates of water and s team in them will
dingly, the re remains less h eat avai- generation , and t he whole pa th is wntor a nd steam, a n incr·ease in pres- be sharply different and uncontrol-
lable for evaporation, and therefore, essentially an economize r which d eli- suro can ma ke th e ch a rac teris ti c more la ble; this can lead to overheating,
tho velocity at tho outlet decreases vers w a ter. For those extre me cases, s ta ble and tho motion of the wo rking and even bur:n-throng h of tho ev ape-
s ubs tantia lly {Fig. 11.4). This con- the hydra ulic ch arac te ristic is des- fl uid more stead y-s late {F ig. 11. 6). ra ting tubes whic h a rc hea ted q uite
tinues until the evaporating portion cribed by the p arabolic equation: As noted earlier, i nstability of t he intensively i n t he boiler furnaces.
disappears in the tube. As soon as hydL·a ulic characteris ti c is associated For the a bove reasons, once-through
steam generation is interrupted, a b.p = S (wp)2 l) (11 14) with the presence of an economizer boilers are made with a non- boiling
2 economizer section. N o-boiling condi-
further increase in the flow rate of po r·l ion in a tube. F or this reason ,
water causes a proportional rise of the As follows fr om this equa tion, with wi th a hig her degree of water s ubcoo- tio ns m ust be ensured no t onl y a t the
velocity along the whole length of the same mass v elocity o'f the flow , ling a t t ile tube inle t , the ch aracteri- r a ted load, but also in ope ration under
the tube, and therefore, a change in the resistance to the motion of ·steam s tic is less s ta ble (Fig. 11.7). On th e nny load and with any kind of fu el for
the hydra ulic resis tance of the path. is greater thari tha t to tho motion of o the r ha nd, if s t:ilicooling is decreased which the boiler has been designed.
As the w a ter flow ra te increases, t he water, Since V 1 is greater than V w • by rais ing the in le t te mpe rature c lose An unstable hyd raulic characteri-
hydraulic resis tance of the economizer If a s team-water mixture forms in to . t', another proble m ma v result: stic can be stabilized by introducing
portion, !:.Pee• increases while that the path [the range of flow rates as tho s team-water mix t.m·e enters the a n addition al res is ta nce in tho econo-
of the evaporating portion , t:.p •• , (wp). < (wp) < (wp)wl. the characte- inle t header of a bank of evapora ting mizer portio n of the hydraulic s ystem,
decreas es . Depending on t he ratio ristic may become uns table and the t ubes, i t will be separated into steam which will va ry by a parabolic law
between !:.Pee and t:.p •• , t ho to tal flow rates ma y v ar y, so that a steam~ depend ing on the flow r ate of t he
hydraulic resistance of the path may water mixture with widely different .tlp wo rking fl uid . As s hown in F ig. 11.8 ,
I
either increase or d ecreas e with an s team contents will be delivered pe- tho initial a nd the addi.tion al charac-
inc rease of the load in a pa r t icular riodicall y . S ome of t hese steam con- t.e ri s ~i c a1·e added graphically so that
ra nge of flow rates , resulting in t he tents m ay turn out to be excessive for t he resul Ling characteristic is stable.
hydraulic characteris tic being either the give n heat release rate, meaning T he hydra\Jlic resistance of t he econo-
unambiguous (steady-s tate) or ambi- that the cooling of the tubes will m izer portio n is us ually increased
g uous (uns teady-state). become unreliab le. by two me thods: by increas ing its re-
L et us consider the hydraulic c ha- An unstable h ydr aulic charac teri- sistance locally (moun t ing a n orifice
racteristic of a once- through element, stic can result in differe nt flow rates plate) or at a n app reciable l en ~th
which bas three real roots by equation through individual parallel tubes that (providing a s tepped tube) . "'
(11.9), see Fig. 11.5. At v ery low are connected to a com mo n heade r. Orifice pla tes. Orifi ce plates produce
~ig. 11 .7 . Elfcct of water 6ubcooling a t the
flow rates of water, (wp) < (wp), and A m ore dangerous s i tua t i on , however, •!llct of a steam-generating tu be on the slabi- a pressure g radien t proport ional to
s uperheated s team will form at a r~sults when the flow r a te through a lt ly or hydrauli c characteristic (p ~ con- the sq uaro of the flow r ate of t he
g iven heat release rate , since the path tube c ha nges. For th e same heat re- sla nt) s ingle-phase fl uid tha t passes t hroug h
9- 0 1524
Download From Boilersinfo.com
132
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Cll . 11. llydrodyllllmtcs of Open Hydraulic Systems
133
11.3. Hydrodynam ic Stability of Flow in Ve rtical Tubes
I Fig. 11.18. n-shaped circuit wit h un - o( instability in opor·alion of evapo- is the coefficient of non-uniform heat
I
dp heated downtake Lubes (a) nnd its absor ption ;
hydraulic characler isl ics (b) rating tubes) and differe nt thermal
1-J-J'AI'IIIh•l heated wnlcr wn ll.• nnd lhciJ· cluwacteris tics (different heat absorp- (11 .24)
f 2 .i n!spcct i vc h)'di'Clulic c h aract~rit-~Hcs: 4 - \.ion due to their dirforcnl. arrangement
unhcn lcd downtak•.. lubes; S- Uf•llt.'J' mixing is the coeffi cient of hydraulic non-
h e aUt~r rei aU ve to the flow or combustion pro-
duels, uneven slagging. fouling, etc.). un i rormity;
31 Differences in tho hyd r aulic and (11.25)
\![ thermal charactel'istics of tuhes are
especially evident in high-capacity is the coefficient of structuroJl non-
dp (a)
plants with developed heating s urfa- identity. .
gradient /::,.p1 ), ambiguity of tho cha- ces where deviation of some ·..Plements Taking the coefficient of maid is tri-
ructed by ad ding together the chaL'ac- bution of h eat. as a basis, we ca n estab-
racteristic may result in section 2 teristics o[ t he elements at the same from the rated conditions are· more pro-
malfunctioning and havi ng a low flow bable. Undor s uch condi t ions, the lish the relations hip between the coc[-
flow rate of tho working fluid (Fig. ficients indicated:
rate on the lcfL-hand branch 2' of the working fluid m ay be distribu ted
11.19a). Tho hydr aulic resistance of
characteristic. Thus, under completely such a system is higher than the unevenly between the tubes, and thoro-
favourable operating conditions in sec- fore its uni t enthalpy at the outlet = tli,,J = qm!Hm/: qezffez (11 .26)
resistance of anyone of its clements.
tions 1 and 3 (the corresponding fl ow In complex once-tluough circuits com- or s~me tubes mny differ s ubstan tially pq t!.ier Gmf Gel
r ates arc denoted as 1' and 3'), sec- posed of a number of elements corl- from the average value. In some mal- or, on substilu Ling Ll1e corresponding
ti on 2 will operate unreliab ly. Re- nected in para llel, the hydraulic re-
function ing tubes , d angcrous \.em pe- values from (11. 21), ~('11. 23) and (11 . 25):
liable opemtion in the circui I, can be rat ure conditions m ay a ppear.
sistances of the elements are constant. pq =
I] II a 1]< t r
(11.27)
achieved by providing a pressu re gra- T h e reliable operation of a once- p,
The general char acteristic of the sys-
dient /::,.p 2 at which the working points through element can bo characterized
tem is obtained by addi.ng together the The coefficient of structura l non-
will be on the extreme branches of the by two groups of factors:
characteristics of the elements taken ident i ty 'll•tr is not associnlcd with
characteristics of all the sections and (a) paramcl ors of an element tba t
at the same pressure gradient in the tho processes wh ich occur in a I u be
will have close velocit y values. It is operates under average condi tions in
circuit (Fig. 11.19b) . In such oJ case, system ; it is usually estimated as
also possible lo elim inate ambigu i ty the system:
the hydraulic resis t ance of tho ci rcui t
of the hydraulic characteristics of the l')•t r = 0.95-1. .
is smaller than that of anyone of its t~/' , !::,.i. 1, 0 . 11 q.z. z. 1, H e1
sections by providing a mixing header The coefficients oi thermal and
cleme nts. (b) parameters of a maHunctiouing hydra ulic m aldistr ibut ion are in lor-
at the ir top.
The operation of complex circu its tube (or channel) : related as foll ows:
with a number of once-through ele- t 1.4. l\laldis tri bution of Heat t~~' /::,.iml• Gml• qml• Zmf• H m/ (11 .28)
Pq = 1l ha1Ph
ments is analysed by using their r e- For reli able operation of a heating , where G is the flow rate of the wor-
sulting hydraulic characteristics. Tho- Maldistribution of heat m ay be·
surface (section), i t is extremel y im- king fluid in an element, q is t~o caused by different thermal characte-
se are obtained graphically by adding portant that all its parall el tubes quantity of beat transferred to 1t ,
the characteristics of individual ele- ristics of parallel tubes, while llydrau-
oper ate und er roted (average) con- /::,.i is the beat absorbed by an ele- 1ic rnaldistributioo is due to differen-
ments together, taking account of the ditions. Jn practice, however, one me nt , H is the area of a heating s ur-
scheme of th eir connection. If some ces in their hydraulic characteristics.
has to b ear i n mi nd that the tubes of fa ce, z 1s the coeffi cient. of hydraulic As follows from equation (11 . 28) ,
elements are connected in series, the a section may have differen I. hydrau- resistance, and t"" is the temperature
flow r ate of the working fluid is the maldistribution of heat can be caused
lic characteris tics (d ue to Yllrialions of the working fluid al. the outlet from either by different beat absorption,
same in all of them. For this reason, in thei r diameter, length, surface parallel tubes; the s ubscrip ts 'el' and
the resulting characteristic is const- by hydraulic maldistribution, or by
roughness, effect of headers, or effect ·mf' s tand respccti vel y for an elemen t both. Maldislribution of beat depends
dp. under average cond itions and a mal- not only on the extent of thermal non-
2 I fun ctioning tube. uniformity and hydraulic maldistri-
1+2 Let us i ntroduce some additiona l bution, but al so on a particular com-
des ignations: bination of these t.wo fact ors. Tubes
p11 = Gm 11G. 1 (11.21) wbich are h ealed the most intensively
is the coeffi cient of hydraulic maldi- and, on the other hand, with Lhe
stri bution; lowest flow rates tluough them , turn
0 WJ' 0
out to be operating under the most
p 9 = /::,.im / f>iel (11.22) dangerous conditions. If the grealest
(a) (!>) is the coefficient of maldistribution of d ifferences of various kinds (in h eat
Fig. 11.19. S ummutiou or hydrauli c chamclcristics for series co nnec tion of once-through h oa 1.; a bsorption, flow rnte, structura l d if-
clements (a) and £o1· th eir parallel conn ection (b) (11. 23) ferences, etc.) arc found not in a s iugle·
•138
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 11. Hydrodyn amics of Open Hydrau lic S y&te ms 11.4. Maldtstrlb ution of Heat 139
tube, but in various t ubes, t hey a ll nec ted in pa ra llel in the system , it ln non-boil i ng con vecti ve economi- rn
some cases, t h e hydraulic c ha-
s hould be checked separately .for mal- can be wl'itten that 6prn/ = 6 pel· ze rs with hori zo nta l t ube coils , tho racteristic is s t ab ilized by moun t ing
·dis tribul.ion of heat. Those with the Solving s imultaneous ly equations <:.oeffi c ion t of hyd rau I ic maid is tri bu- orifice plates ut the entry to tubes.
worst mal d is tribution of heat should (11.29) and (11.30), we obtain the lion us ually does not exceed 0.9 . In steam genera tion zones , the pres-
be checked additionally for l ong- expression for hydraulic mald istribu- If d o wntake mo tio n t ak es place in a s ure l osses 6Pa c a nd tlp,,cad are us u-
term streng th and scaling con di t io ns . tion: non-boiling econo m izor a nd the hydra u- ally negl ected . For s uch conditions,
H ydraulic maldistribution. In a sy- l ic characteristic m ay be ambiguous, and no ting t he assumptions made ear-
s te m of parallel t ubes conn ected t o _ (wP)mf
Ph - (WPJel t he hyd rostati c co mponent sh ould be li er, formul a (11.31.) takes t he for m :
head ers at the inlet and outl et and
t aken in t o acco un t; t his is a lso neccs- , - ~ el el
with forced motion of the work i ng ·1--=-tt• )- ~ ZefVcl + 'oorVor . ( 1 _ Mpt. )
V. -
- -=--+-2-(---:;- ~ a r y for all b oiling econom izers. _ \
= •ctVct Uf - uin
fluid, m easures s hould be take n to Ilydraulic m a ldis tribution-jn super- p,, -- / - .J. ~ '"'v"' ! t.p,,
· mt'lrnt + 2(V_;m/ - m/) Zm jU ru j 1 'bor or
-distribute tho fluid evenly between V;n
h eaters h eavily de pends on amorc nces
the tubes. Unde r practical cond iUons, t11. 35)
• in t h e total coeffi c ients of tube resi-
the distri bution of flow rates is al- (11.31) ~ "' ' , v" 1
X (1- s ta nce, and in the ir heat absorption , l 1ere e-'
v..r ';:)on ~or or' v"'
or cai·e tl1ecoeffi c icnts
wa ys m ore o r l ess uneven, i.e. h ydrau- a ud o n pressure changes along t he of resistance of t he o rifice plates a nd
lic m aldist ri bution occurs [s ec for- where ot..p,,cad = tlp'hfnd - tlp~1tad is 1tcade rs. Negl ecting I he pressure varia- un it vol umes of the flu i d flow ing
mul a (11.21) 1. Hyd ra ulic mald ist ri - the d ifference of pressure g rad i ents in l io n c aused by s tea m fl ow accel e ra- t h rough the orifice plates mounted in
bution m ay appear due t o h yd t·aulic the heade rs between t ho sections wi t h tio n , we got : a n el ement and malfunct ion ing tube.
non-i d enti ty of the parallel tub es, The difference in hydros tatic heads
which may be caused by differences in
a m a lfunctioning tube a nd an ol em en t, ,. -
their hydra ulic resis tance, due to th o
Mp 11 = t..p;:•t - tlp•J. is the d i He-
,fl /, -=- lI ·1
l] -
VcJ 1 ·-
(
66Pil earl + Ot!. p,, ) be tween a mnl fun c tioning tube a nd
renee of h ydros ta tic h eads in the mal- 11. ''mI
L\ Pil r an clement can be writte n in l,he foi-
h eader effect, o r through pressure va- func tio ning tube and el em ent, tlp 1" l owing for m:
riation a long the length of tho h eader ( 11.:-l4)
and tlp 0 0 nre ta ken for t ho c leme nt. Mph= t..p;~ 1 - D.pf.'
(see Sec. 11 .5). T his ki nd of mal dis tri- H ydraulic maldistribution in s uper- The head er e ffect s hould be consi-
bution appea rs mainl y i n the heating
·s urfaces of s uper heaLers a nd , to a
healers a nd non-boiling economi ze rs. d e red when ot..p,.eodi tlp ,, 0.05. >- = <t z u~'P>:1 - z (l~;;r:o:.,
T he form ul a for the coeffici ent of The hyd rostatic co mponent of t h e - I - tl
lesser extent, in economizers. total pressure g r ad ieut is s u bst an tia l - [ ~ (hp)~ . - Z (hp)fl-.1} g
hydra ulic maldistribu tion ac quires t he
T o d eri ve t ho equation for hydrau- simplest for m for non- bo iling eco- o1d y in s ing l e- pass s uperheaters a l 1
= {[l:" (hp)
- "' "' (I- 11-. l
~p )<I
lic m aldis tribution, l et us write the
·equation for total pressure g t·adient in
nomizers in w hich the working fluid ?Jtlp,,! flphr >-
0.05.
01 - "-'
an element: in a hori zonta l or ascending motion, llydraulic maldis tribution in the zo- - l ~ (hp)d:,~ - Z (hp)~}.. J} g (11.36 )
has a n ampl e reserve of subcooli ng. nes o[ sudden c hanges in the uni t
W ater walls of st.carn bo ilers in
In this cas e: ve
1 ~ ve 1 = cons tant;
vol ume of the work ing fluid. In mode r n
-once- thro ug h boi lers. stea m-ge ne rati ng high-capaci t y monobloc uni t;> are mad_e
Vel ~ vm/; t he difference of h ydrosta- in t he form of ver tical sections , hon -
~l em en ts are usually arranged i n t he
+ ll Pi/,ad + t..p~1 (H .29) tic hea ds between a malfunctioning zontally coiled sections, U- and_ N-
tube a nd cl em ent and the resistan ce l ower rad i a tion section which is heal ed
th e most iutcnsiv el y. sh a ped sections , multi-p ass sect 1 o~s
:and simil a rly for a malfun ctioning due to fl ow acceleration a re negli- with horizonta l tubes , etc . H y dra ullc
.I -tube g ible: Otlpll ~ 0, flPac ~ 0. With a
uniform wa ter s uppl y to and removal
The -combin a tion of a subs tantial
hy draulic mald is tribution and_ inten- rnaldistribution in s ome of these types
will b e discussed below.
' A (wp);nl - ·s ive hea ting can , uud er cert am con-
-U PmJ = Zmj - - 2- Vm t from the head ers, the coeffici ent of Horizontal circuit. In horizonta l tu-
hydra ulic mai d istributio n for these d il ions, resul t i n H s ha rp rise i n tem-
bes t here is no h y drosta tic head, an d
+ (wo) 2
• m 1 (v"'' -
1 v~"')
1n -r
' t.. prni
ltt ad + A
u
pmf
II
co nd itions is d etermined by tho ratio pe rature and unit vol ume of t he wor-
king flu id in a malfuncti oning tu~e , therefore, the for mul a of hydraulic
of the coefficients of hydrau l ic res i- mal distribution with throttling t a kes
(11.30) stance: reduct ion in the fl ow rate through 1L,
and o verheati ug of t he tube m etal the form:
_ ~ ( 'L1. 32)
When thoro is a large n um ber of u ut i l bum-o ut occurs 1351. Hydra ulic
p a rall el tubes, the effect of a ch a nge p,, = 1./
v Zet
Zmf
= --
,r,,,, mal d istri butio n in s uch tubes m uy (11.'37)
in heal. absorption in a malfun ctio- nppear on nn a pprecia ble change iu ~h e
ning tube on the total pressure g ra- With t he workin g fluid s u pplied to
and re mo ved fro m a head er t hro ugh uni t vo lume of tho hea ted wod(ln g
·dien t can be neg l ected , and t he re fore, fluid . It a ppears m a inly in tho h ea l,ing If there is no t hrottling, t he fo r mula
its end faces, the head er effect is s ub-
v
tlpct = cons tan t . S ince the prcss ut·e s urfaces of t he high-heat capac il y is s i mplified:
gmdien t between the inl et sec tio n of stantial and the formula for h ydra ulic
m aid is tri butio n t akes the form: 1.oncs of su porc ri 1leal- pressure boi I ers ,
~cl
the supply header and the outle t sec-
t ion of t he d is charge head er is t he
Ph = V _1_ ( 1 - {jf:o.pr,.ad )
iu 1 he e \'nporat ing surfaces of s ub-
-cri t ic a l- press ure boil ers, and in boi -
Ph -= II :dVe/
-
=mJUmf
= -
1
ll h Vmf
·same for a ll t ho tubes whic h are co n- ( 11 .:!3) ('11. 38)
l'JI, t!.f'ttr J ing econo mize rs.
Download From Boilersinfo.com 141
140 l1 .5. Distribution of Worlclng Fluid Be t ween T ubes
Ch. JJ. ll ydrody na m ics o f Op e n /J ydrcwlic Syst ems
500
lat
;- occur in s ome t ubes, can cause a
sh nr p i ncrease in the unit volu me of
flui d, v, a nd t. h c1·e foro, in h y dr a ulic
condi tio ns are l ikel y to occu r in eva-
porating tubes, es pecially at hig h
s JdcratiOn th o cHect of va ri ous fac- - - heating intensities. For this r eason,
~
tors [in form u la (11.36)1, the eq uation resis tnnce. T his i11 tu r n l eads to a l o-
500 J mu ld istribution of heat in evaporating
v
for hydraulic maldislribulion (11.35) wer flow rate through the tube, i. e.
If ' I 1uhes s hould be not more than 20-'tO%.
lakes tho form: i mn l dislribution in the tube is aggrn-
400 / I I vatccl furth e r , whil e the un i t h eal In su percri lical -prcssure boi lers,
s ing le-pass ascend ing section: t.he zo ne of high h eat. ca pacities is
absorpti on 6i. inc reases al ong with
300
I I the volu me of fl u id in il, IJ. The pro- m ost sens i tiv e t o va ri a tions in h eat
P'' -
- ..VI r-
1
_
_;C/
. . :;. :_ -cess c onti nues unti l a flow ···rate is absor ption. In t his zone, tho ther m o-
--
lh "mf f.O physic al proper ties of the wo rki ng
/'It )~ -established which has a correspond i ng
I flu id vary roost significantly w i th v a-
2gh (Pel - Pm/) 0.0 \ ~ r--...... I stat e of mal dislrihu tion of heal a t. a
- ., (1Ul0) gi v on h e aling l oad. l n some cases, ri a tions in enth alpy. T h er e for e, i t is
ZefVe / (u:p); l
\ T'0 es pecia ll y i rn por t a n l I o cons t r u c t t h e
! "'
I this m ay l ead t o emergen cy s ituations .
s ing le-pass descending sect i on:
0.8 I \ T he a ll owabl e heat ing lond is estab- charuclcl'is lic t<;;;, = I (1l tra) for this
r
\ I lished for the particular opornting con- zone.
0. 7
Ph - .. I_..!_ _-;,r/ T
v lJ/1 Umj
0.5
I i\ •I d itions of a heating s urface. For steam
s upe rh eat ers in whic h the outlet por- 11.5. E ffect of H eade rs
I t i ons o f tubes o per a te u n der almos t o n t he Distribut ion ol' Wo rking fluid
2gh (Pel- Pm f) ( 11.40)
,3 1\J 'It>< -ext re m e temperatu re condiUons, th e
0.5 B elween T ubes
=et~e/ (wp); l f.O l2 t4 1.5 t.8 zo a ll owabl e h ealing load sh ould not
-exceed '15% of the to t a l hcnl abso r p- There arc three main types of h ea-
t ,,·o- pass U-s h oped sect ion :
Fig. 11.:1.0. Ma ldisl.ri bu tiou characteristics ti on h y the s u perh eat er. F'or bett er re- ders (Fig. '11.21): (a) sttpply, or dist-
.tfp[n ~ Steam
inlef
111111111 11
I
·-"'~
":; 11Pcotl we, I i lli'l l ll 111 11111111I IITu 1111111111 1
~·
~
... I I I I
•
I ~
~
-
~
Steam
outlet 0
I
0 0 0
Ill
••
,,,
'I
0 0 ••
~ , I
• (a) (6} (C) {d)
llp f,r
Fig. H. 23. Pressure di s tribution in a n- Fig. 11.24. Static pressure di stributi on along the leng th of a header depending on the method',
shapod hydraulic circuit containing a single- of supply and di scharge o£ a single-phase flow
Fig. I 1.22. Hydraulic cbaructoristics of a phose fluid
Z-shnped superheater circuit
(a) distribution or velocity nnd velocity head: ce the former requires a higher pres- multiple forced circulation boilers,
(II) prORSUI'C dls trlbUtiOil
the header end faces, more favourable sure in the boilet· and a higher auxi- tho resistance of evaporaLing tube
conditions can form, though the ope- liary flow rate, while the latter re- coils is high, so that the effect of pres-
how sl,earn is su ppliod to, or t·emoved ration of parallel tubes in the sysLem quires larger headers, and l,herefore, sure variations along the length of
from, a header. ln some plants, hea- may be substantia] ly non-identical. more metal. headers may be neglected.
ders were used in which steam was For instance, with concentrnted sup- The effect of velocity head can be
admiLLed and discharged as a con- ply and removal of steam through the diminished if steam is introduced and 11.6. Flow Pulsations
centrated jet through the end faces. header end faces in a IT-shaped circuit removed nol, through the end faces of
For instance, in a Z-shapod super- (Fig. 11.23), the conditions of steam a header (as in Fig . 11.24a and b), Tho steady-state operating condi-
h eater circuit (Fig. 11. 22), as steam admission are similar to those of a but from its middle (Fig. 11.24c). tions of a boiler may be disturbed by
is distributed between the coils, its Z-shaped circuit, so that the pattern In this case the axial veloci ty of steam various factors, l eading to pulsations.
axial velocity in the supply header, of static pressure distribution a long decreases by 50% and the velocity in the working fluid flow. The distur-
w 1n, decreases, and accordingly, the the supply h eader remains essentially head by 75%. Still better r esults can bing factors are variations in the hea-
pressure head wr.p/2 decr eases and the same, i.e. pressure increases along be obtained by distributed steam ad - ting intensity pressure, now rate and I
changes to static pressure t.p;l' (Fig. the motion of fluid. ln the discharge mission to a supply header and dis t- temperature of feed water. There are-
11. 22a). In con I rast to this, the static header, static pressure decreases to- t•ibuted removal from a discharge hea- two main t ypes of flow pulsations:
pressure at the outlet from the dis- wards its outlet. der. With two supply or discharge tu- boiler pulsations and intercoil pulsa-
charge header, t.p~~, decreases. As As follows from Fig . 11 .23, the left- bes provided in a header (Fig. '11. 24d), tions .
foll ows from Fig . 11.22/J, the leftmost most coils are at a pressure gradient the a.xial velocity and velocity head Boiler pulsations are oscillations in
coils of the superheater operate at a 6p~~ + 6P coil and the rightmost ones can be diminished respectively to 1/4 tho £low rate of the working fluid in
pressure grad ient 6P coii +
t.p!~' + at 6Pcoil + t.p~~ . Tbe difference in and 1/16 of th eir values in a header individual elements, circuits or the
+ t.p~, which is higher than the pres- the pressure gradients b etween them with a single tube. In modern boiler whole plant. They may be caused by
sure gradient 6P co il in the rightmost is determined by the difference in the plants, fresh steam sup01·hoaters are sharp variations in the indicated para-
coils. The difference between the pres- static heads in the supply and dis- connected to a number of supply and motet'S. In similar sections of parallel
sure heads in the coils is equal to the charge beadm·, t.p!? - t.p~"f. discharge tubes, so that headers have tubes, flow parameters vary synch-
sum of static heads in the supply and Since the unit volume of th e fluid only a slight effect on steam d is tribu- ronously. Boiler pulsations are aLLe-
discharge header, i.e. 6p!~1 t.p~~.+ in the coils is higher upon heating tion. In reheaters, where the t·esi- nuating (Fig. 11.25a); they disappeat·
The difference in pressure gradients than before heating, the effect of the stance o£ tube coils is relatively Jow as soon as the disturbance is elimi-
appears not on ly between the extreme discharge headers on fluid distribution and the resistance of h eaders is high nated.
coils, but also between any two sections between parall el coils in any hydrau - (because of high steam velocities), the Flow rate pulsations can attain a·
along tho l1oader length and is deter- lic system is more substantial than effect of headers can b e substantial. level characteristic for the gi von con-
mined as t ho sum of the respective the effect o£ supply headers. In economizers, where the unit volume ditions, after which they do not. dis-
values of 6p $1 '1~ and t.pex
~ , , for these The header effect can be d ecreased of water is naturally low and tho axial appear s pontaneously (Fig . 11.25b).
sections. either by increasing 6Pcoll or by velocity in headers inossen tiul, the This means that the flow rate of
In other circui ts with concentrated decreasing t.p. 1 in the headers . Both effect of velocity head presents no water (wp)w through some l.ubes firs!.
supply and removal of steam through measures are ineffi cient, however , sin- problem. fn once-through bo il ers and increases to a maximum, then decrca-
jft4
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 11. llydrod!lnamics of Open Hydraulic Systems 12.1. Laws of Free Clrculatton
upper surface of the tubes and forming where (wp} 0 is the boundary mass velo- Ascending-Jl1Scending and slightly
fatigue cr acks. city at a pressure 10 MP.a which can inclined tube elements in which fl.ph
Intercoil pulsations can be charac- be found on curves plotted for the gi- does not exceed 10% are calculated as
terized by the pulsation period -r and ven conditions of inlet throttling and are horizontal tubes, with (wph increa-
amplitude (see Fig. 11 .25). subcooling, and kp is a correction fac- sed by 20% . With a higher contribu-
As has been established, intercoi I tot· for the given pressure. t ion from tho hydrostatic component,
(11)
pulsations obey the follow ing regu- In vertical tubes (coils), the hydro- the calculation is done as for vertical
larities: static componon t of the pressure gra- channels . Tho actual mass velocity
(ruj')w.fu;pJs. r1 (a) the~' can appear in some tubes dient, 6.p 1., decreases the probabil ity should always be greater than tho
of an evapontliug section even under of the appearance o[ pulsations, and boundary value: {wp)w > {wp)b.
lt steady-state l1eating and hydraulic therefore, decreases (wp) 1,: If this condition is not satisfied,
~ conditions in a boiler;
I :-_ (wp)g = c (wp)~ · {11.43) the hydraulic resistance of the econo-
I (b) pulsations of the flow rate of mizer porlion of tubes can be increased
the fluid in pat·allel Lubes of a section where (wp)~ is the boundary mass ve- by mounling orifice plates. These are
are shifted in phase so that the total locity for a similar horizontal tube, arranged at the inlet of tho tubes. For
flow ra te and other· parameters of the Isee formula ('l1.'12) I and c is the once-through boilers, throttling con-
fluid at the outlet from the heating coe£ficient for vertical tubes which
ditions to avoid pulsations should
sect ion remain cons tant; can be found on curves:
be calcul ated for the lowest value of
(c) the amplitude of flow rate pul- (wp)g . mass velocity wp. The degree of thrott-
C= I = f(l:!.tltlt p)
'Fi g . 11.25. Pattern of attenuating oscilla- sations at the inlet of a tube is much (wp)b ling required to prevent intercoil pul-
tions (n) and sclf-s ustu ined osci llul.ions (b) higher than the amplitude at: its out- sations also elim inates instability in
·in 11 s ingle tube of a once-th rough element let, while tlto pu lsation period is the where 6.iin i.s the degree of subcooling
same; of the working fluid a t. tho inlet and p the hydraulic characteristic of the
coils.
(d) the hig hest flow rate of water is pressure.
ses, passes llu-ough the average value. at the inlet corresponds to the lowest
drops to a minimum (sometimes nega- steam fl ow rate at the outlet , i.e.
tive), and then increases again. This the phases are d isplaced by 180°;
process may be repeated more than (e) in intercoil pulsation, the pres-
once. In this case, tho flow rate of sure in evapot·ating tubes oscillates
i water in other evaporating tubes also with a period equal to the period of
pulsates, but the process is shifted in pulsation of the fluid flow rate.
phase. Therefore, the flow rate of Since intercoil pulsations are caused
wat or through some t.u bes i ncreascs primarily by variations in the phy-
periodically while at tho same time s ical properLios of t;he working fluid
docreasi ng in other tubes , wi Lh the in t.he zone where eva porat ion begins, HYDRODYNAMICS OF CLOSED HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
' total pressure gradient between the the probability of their appearance
r''"~: . The ~ ifference b &tween the driving is rather high. As the pressure and
Sus
crrculatmg head and the resistance of saturation tempernture increase sur-
" -7
f ascending tubes is called the useful
circulating head:
~ace te~sion decreases and 'slugs' break
mto fm ~r bubbles , thus decreasing
th e rela ttve steam velocity. At piPer>
Su, = Sdr - b.p 0 8 (12.7} > 0.7 (see Fig. 12.3), the effect of
Comparing formul ae (12.6) and relative steam velocity can be neglec-
H (12. 7), we fi pd the principal equation of t ed.
,.---'-----., circulation: Let us recall that the actual den-
s ity of \.he s team-water mixture p4
Su 8 = 6-pdtu (12.8) O L---------~-------~
~0~ depends on \.he actual volume steam
Fig. 12.2. Effect of circula tion v<!locity on con te~t q> [see formula (9.40)1. Using
i.e. the useful circulating head is s pent
2 J to overcome the resistance of the des- the useful head at w;; - constant; (ro;h < equat ton (12.5), we obtain a conve-
cending sections . < (roOlt nient formula for th e driving ctrcu-
Fig. 12.1 . To derivation of the principal The driving circulating head, and laLing head:
equation of circulation therefore, the useful circulating head pressur~ m the circuit (Fig. 12.3).
depend heavily on tho relative velocity At a h1gher pressure, the density of Sdr = H (p 1
- Pa )g
of steam (w,) in the ascending tubes . the steam-water mixture in ascending = H <p (pI - p *) g (12. 9)
Similarly, for sections 2-3 (lower tubes is higher, and therefore, s~~. . is
hendor), 3-4 (uptak e tubes), and 4-1 With the same mass flow rate of the Formula (12.9) h as been derived under
fluid, as the relative velocity of steam lower. As pressure approach es the cri-
(water space of the drum) it can be tical value, s,.. decreases to a r ela- the assumption that the ascending
written: increases, the fraction of the tube cross tubes of a circulation circuit con lain a
section occupied by steam, <p, de- tively low value, so that free circu-
l ation becomes ineffective. The ul ti- steam-water mixture al ong their whole
creases while th at occupied by water h eight. Actually, developed boiling
(1 - q>), increases; thus , the densit~ mate pressure at which reliable free
b egins in the ascending tubes at a
of the steam-water mi x ture in the circul ation is still possible in boilers
is equal to 18-19 MPa . On the other certain distance above the inlet and
W:i• , ascend ing tu bes increases . In turn, accordingly, the whole length of th~
Pl + TP =Hpag + p, the relative velocity of st eam, and h and, even at supercritical pressures,
but at low fri ction losses in the cir- tubes should be divided into an eco-
' A IDe • (12.3)
therefore, <p, Pm• and Su depend on
cuit of once-through boilers , free cir- nomizer portion H e c and evaporating
•TPo + uPJ-4 circulat ion v elocity w 0 , resolved velo- portion H . 0 •
tr 1 w•
city of steam w;, pressure p, and tube
•
culation turns out to be sufficient to
fire the boiler at a water How rate that Tho section in which developed
l.:.p g+ P4 +-f Pa = (H - h) pig + p1 diameter d:
is reduced by 50% and wi th the recir- boil.ing begin ~ . is called the boiling
Pm = f (wo, w~, p, d) culation pump switched off. sectwn (or bo£lmg point). The height
(12.4) of the evaporating portion in ascen-
s...
= f (w 0 , w~, p, d) The effect of relative steam v elocity
depends on pressure in the circuit. ding tubes can be found by the for-
Adding together the pressure gra- These relationships aro rather com- At a low pressure, large formations mula
dients in the sections of the circula- plicated and hove not yet been solved of steam are possible in a tube (slug He o = H - flee (12.1 0)
tion circui t and noting formula (1.1), anal ytically. Their graphical solution flow), and the relative s team velocity
we obtain: is also impossible in view of the large a nd subst!luted into formula (12.9)
number of the parameters involved. to determ1ne the driv ing circulating
H (pi - p~) g = 'Lb.Phr = Sd, head.
For this reason , S,. , is usually repre-
(12.5) sented graphically as a function of w 0 f With a non-boiling economizer, tho
at various values of w~ and constant water enthalpy at its outlet, i:C, is
With steady-state motion, tho pres- 1
less than i and therefore, tho tem-
v~ues of the other parameters (p, d). ,
sure difference between the water co- perature of water in the boiler drum
lumns in the downtake t ubes and the Figure 12.2 sl'IOWS w 0 -Su. curves
obtained at various values of resolved i~ b elow tl.1~ boiliog point. The quan-
columns of the steam-water m ixture ttly of hodlfJg water that enters the
in the uptake tubes is counterbalanced steam velocity w~. For the same
calculation velocity w 0 , as the heating rlrum is greater th an the quantity
by the sum of hydraulic resistances of feed water by the magnitude deter-
to the motion of the working fluid in rate. is increased I (w~) 2 > (w;)1 l, the p
denstty o[ the steam-water mixture
I mil;led by tho cir culation ratio K, so
the circuit. Having related all resi- O.lJicr Per that the degree of water subcooling
stances to the down take and up take in ascending tubes decreases and Su, in-
creases . in the drum can be found as
tubes , we get : Fig. 12.3. Effect of pressure on the useful
Under identical condi t ions, the use- circulating head
(12 .6) ful circul ati ng head depends on th e 1-w, neglected; 1- w, considered (12.11)
to•
148
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 12. Hydrodynamics of Closed Hydraulic S ystems
12.2. Calculation of Circ ulation Circuits 149
Therefore, in the general case, water where Qc is the hea L absorption o f
at tho inlet to the d escend ing tubes the c irc uit, kJ/h , and H e is lhe Fig. i 2.5. Circulation diagrams of
heated h eight or the c ircu i t, m. simple circui ts
i s s ubcooled*. The degr ee of su b- ·(a) with stcam-f:Cncrntlng tubes connec-
cooling increases as water moves in The height o[ the economizct· por- ted direc tly to the drum; (b) with stcnm-
clrcul nl.l ng lube•; A- working point;
th o descend ing tubes, which i s du o tion can be found [rom t h e IJal ance 1o~r-nctuu t circul ation \'el oci ty (wntt.:l'
to an increase in its hyd rostatic o£ heat fo r tha t portion, i.e. the quan- rlow rnle)
pressu re, and nllains a m aximum in tity of heat that s hou ld be transferred
the lower h eader of the circulation t o w ater per unit time to preheat i t
circuit: to boiliug in the economizer portion
[formula (1.2.1 5)1 a ud the quautity of
heat a bsorb ed for the same Lime by
the ccouom izer portion from the fur-
+
lii'
flp P'g (H _ flPde•)
d~·
p'g
(12. 12) nace [formula (12.16)1. H ence we have:
(0)
(b)
t:.i' , ( t:.Pde• )
where -t:.!' p' g is the change of wate r flid+ L\1) P g fides- P'll
flp
enthalpy p er unit height, k J /(kg m) , H ec = Oc 6 i' '
11 cG I flp p g may h ave commo n elements, such as construct the -circula lion diagram
and !J.Pdes is the h ydraulic resistance descending tubes whi ch supply the (Fig. 12.5a), i.e. the curves S"• =
of Lhe descending tubes, Pa. (12:l 7) working fl uid to the ascending ele- = f (w0 ) a nd !J.Pdu = f (wo). Then
Tbis is the degree of subcooling m e n ts of all sections w hi ch form the act u a l circulati o n velocity W:: is
th a t. water h as at the entry to the 12.2. Cnlculat ion a complex circulation circuit [22 1. found for the working point o[ the
ascending tubes. As it moves there of Cir cula tion Circu its S imple circulation c ircuits . The prin- diagram; toge ther wil,h the qu a ntity
to the boiling secti on, the hydrostatic cipa l circulation equation (12.8) is of steam formed in the cir cu it, G,, it
pressure decreases and subcoo ling di- Free-circulation circu i ts may be solved g raphoanalytically. Both s ides makes it possible to det ermine t he
minish es by the magnitud e: either s imple or compl ex. In a simple of t h o eq uatio n depend on the water circu latio u r atio K.
circuit (Fig. 12.4a a nd b), all ascendi ng flow rate (circulation velocity), i.e . In moder n steam boilers , primarily
A • H • 61' (12.13) tubes h ave the same geometrical cha-
Ll ~ce = ecP g flp S 11 , = I (w 0 ) a nd IJ.fJdes = I (w 0 ). With simple ci rc u lation c irc uits are em p-
racteristics (diameter, l ength and sha- an incr ease in w 0 , the useful circula- loyed in the form of water-wall sec-
Therefore, the degree of water sub- pe) and arc heated under identical ting h ead decreases (see Fig. 12.2), t io ns connected to s t eam-circulating
cooling per uni t flow rate (1 kg) up conditio ns. Simple circuits have no while the hydrau lic resista nce of tho tubes (Fig. 12.4b). In s uch c ircui ts,
to t he boiling section is common olements with other cir cuits. descend ing elements of the circu it the d riving head a ppears both i n
An example of such a circuit is the
A .
Ll~c/
+ 6i'
t:.p P IJ1
'
des -
(H t:.Prles \
p' g J water walls of boiler furnaces. Com-
increases i n proportion to the square
of the flow r ate. Intersection of the
heated water-wall tubes and unhea t ed
steam-cir culati ng tubes, since t hese
plex circuits (F ig. 12.4c) may have curves Su s a nd !J.pde• determines the are also filled with the steam-water
H , flt' (12.14) different geometrica l characteris tics
- ccP g t:.p worki ng point A of the circul a tion mixture (Fig. 12.5b) . ·
and different heating cond i tions . They diagram (Fig. 12.5a) whose coordin a- The corresponding usefu l heads are:
or for the total flow rate of c irculating tes satisfy the circulatio n equation S;:'~ in h eated water-wall tubes and
1 1 1• 5
water, G, kg/ h: (12.8 ). s~~ in unheated steam-circulating tu-
. +
[ 6 ~d
l!.i'
Pg
, (H des _ flPc te.• ) Three different values of circula- bes. The total usefu l h ead of the
. . s sww + sse .
flp p' g . 5 tion v elocit y w0 1, w 02 , and w 03 are ClrCUlt, c =
... U& u•' IS s pen t
Fig. '1 2.9. Effect o[ pressure on the Fig. 12.11. Non-uniform hea t ab- .
SuJ s," total hydraulic charact eri sti c or a sorption by parallel tubes in the .
"- B,!~
....
..• , 0'
\c
['..A
".. OJ "'-, , c
-~ A E'
steam-genera ling tu be
(a) lower pressure; (II) bl gbcr pressure
wa ter walls of boiler furnaces
(a) acros.' the furnace width; (b) nlon~
the height where some tubes arc shaded
to form a burner port - .
~ ~\
"' 0
"...... If"- £
_, A
!:"
"' ll
"> :'--.... A
f' E
::-
T I
I ··~~ ~
. ).
/,
0 lllmu . 0 fVmlt
.....
:;
(a) (D) '
(a)
positive and negalive circu lation velo- appear in circui ts with 0\' aporaling
cities (hatched area in Fig. 12 .8) is tubes connected to the water space of
usually excluded from analysis. the drum, i.e. below the water level ••
The right-ha nd branch of the gene- in the drum (Fig. 12.10a). With tubes therefore, circulation stagnation is mo- ty, its layer will transmit substa n-
ral hydraulic characteristic corres- connected to the steam s pace of the re probable (Fig. 12.9a); at a high tially less heat. In som e cases, say,
ponds to tho ascending motion of drum (Fig. 12.10b} , the useful head pressure, the head of r eversal is if tube fastenings arc loosened , some
fluid, and the left-hand one to the of water, which moves very slowly, ach ieved earlier and circulation rever- tubes may protrude from a tube
descending (reverse) motion. Th e rela- is insufficient to overcome tho resis- sal is more likely to occur (Fig. 12.9b). row (off-rank tubes) , Fig. ~ 2.12~, a nd
tive position of the branches depends tance of the down take tu bos and to Circulation circuits are systems of will obtain more heat, whlle adJacent
on the pressure in the circuit. At a low raise the working fluid to th o topmost tubes connected in parallel which may tubes will be shaded by them a nd
pressure, the effect of relative steam level in t.he uptake tubes or the be heated differently under actual r eceive Jess heat.
velocity is high , and therefore, the circuit. Thus, a free water level can conditions in a boiler. Non-uniform Figure t 2.13a shows a system o[
left-hand branch passes higher than form under such co nditions. The leH- heating of some tubes may b e caused parallel ascending lubes in a circula-
any point on tho right-hand branch hand branch of ·the characteristic, by structural factors in the system tion circuit which have identical goo-
(Fig. 12.9a). In contrast to this, at which describes steady-state descend- or by operating conditions. Fot· in- metrical and structural char acteris-
a high pressure, the steam velocity ing motion , has a minimum io point 8 stance, tubes in the middle of a fur- tics. Sl!ppose that some of them are
and hydraulic resistance are low, and (see Fig. 12.9). The transiti on from nace wall usual1y obtain a quantity eli nJ<ered. Unclinkered {clean) tubes
therefore, an appreciable portion of ascending to descending motion passes of heat roughly twice that absorbed (say, tube 1) will operate und er the
the left-hand branch lies lower than through the zero velocity and is by corner tubes (Fig. 12.1.1a). Tubes rated conditions, i.e. they receive the
the portion of the right-hand branch called circulation reversal. Tho ordi- around burner ports and at a certain specified quantity of heat and deliver
'
nate of point B gives us the useful
III in the region of low circulation veloci-
ties (Fig. 12.9b). In the right-hand head of reversal, sr::: ' i.e. a head
at which a chango from ascending to
height above the port turn out to be
shaded, i.e. they are not dir ectly
the specified quantity of steam D.
L et tube 2 be clinker ed in the top
branch , we can find point C which exposed to the r ad iant h eat of flame half only so that no steam forms in
determines tho flow rate of water at descending motion occurs in an eva- (Fig. 12 .1.1b). In the operation of that portion; the lower half will then
I the tube. Circulation stagnation may stagnation is achieved earlier, a nd it docs not r eceive heat at all, and
therefore, produces no steam (D = 0).
Assuming that all the tubes are hea ted
u niformly along their height, it may
bo taken that the quantity of steam
in Lhem increases linearly (Fig.12.13b}.
(a) As may bo seen from the figure,
Fig. iZ.iO. Connections of evaporating differently heated tubes prodliCe dif-
lubes to the drum
Co) Into tbc water space; (b) Into the steam
spncc
tIH+--' Fig. 12.12. Non-uniform heat absorption by
lu bes of water walls (a) due lo cli nkering;
(b) du e to misalignment of so me lubes
ferent quantities of steam, and there-
foro, develop different driving circu-
.•
Download From Boilersinfo.com 155
154 Ch. 12. Hydrodynamics. of Closed Hydraulic System• 12.4. Hydrodynamic• of Derc• nJing Tubes
0 0/2 D/2 0/2 0 • 0 0=0 D/2 .D Fig. 12.13. Effect of clinkering of culation reversal involves a chango 0 o'
stez.m-genera ti ng tubes on the quan- from ascending to descending motion, /Pd-....., I'd tif
a
"6
tity of generated steam a'
i.e. the passage of velocities through
zero . All these regimes can disturb ~i~7 ~ c c' ~h'
f ~d
heat removal from the internal surface i:'.t' ~ d'
t:
of evaporating tubes and lead to "' I
.....
.- I
i)verheating an d even burn-out of tho
tubes.
I
I
I
=
~
=
..., Circuits operating at pressures p 1\
above 11 MPa or with local heat r X m J )rn m' n'
(a) 1 2 J 4 5
absorp t ion r ates q above 400 kW/ m 2
are additionally checked for ·'tho pro- ~
.. I
I
laling heads ; clean tubes deliver the moo headers and operate under the
bability of heat transfer impairment
(burn-out conditions), soc Sec. 10.3.
"' I
specified quantity of steam and deve- same forced pressure gradient D.p which I
lop the highest driving head: sdr = is equal to Su, [see formula (12.8)1. I
= If 8 QJ (p' - p ") g. On the other hand, Hence, the useful circulating h ead 12.4. Hydrodynamics of Descending I
the cliukered t.ul>es which obtain the should be the same for all the tubes Tubes and I ts Effect on the Reliability ' I
sa me qu antity of heat and thus deliver in the circuit. Owing to non-uniform of Circulation ( ) pf k e p' k'
the sarno quantity of steam JJ/2, are heating, however, this useful h ead, {If) [b) (c)
slnggod d ifforontly and will develop which is common for all tho tubes , Heliable operation of ascending tu-
differcut drivi ng heads (always lower corresponds to diHerent flow rates of bes in circulation circuits is ensured Fig. i 2.15. Distribution of pressures and the
than that in tho clean tubes), since, the water that circulates in th em. by a continuous supply of the required corresponding entbalpics of water a t the
saturation line along the height of down take
at the given hent absorption and th e With generally favourable tempera- amount of water. A decrease in the tubes
corresponding p0 , s team fill s them to ture conditions for the main number water supply through descending tu-
a different height: in tube 3, steam of tubes, uneven heating may result bes to intensively heated ascending
form s only in the top half, H/2; in in that little water will pass through tubes can lead to insufficient cooling With a boiling economizer, water
tube 4, i l I ills the whole tube height; some of the tubes. Thus, circu lation and, furthermore, to overheating of temperature at the inlet to the des-
in tube 2 , it also fills the whole tube disturbances, such as stagnation or the tubes. The situation is dangerous cendin!; tubes is tin= t' {Fig. 12. 15a) .
height, but has a lower density. even circulation reversal, are likely and most often results in burn-out As water moves through the drum to
Figure 12.14 shows curves of useful to occur in these Lubes . of the heated evaporating tubes. If the inlet of the descending tubes, its
circulating h eads for a system with Circul ation circuits are checked for water supply is fully stopped, the velocity is negligible, so t hat the
non-uniformly healed tubes . As has circulation reliability, i.e. for the temperature of the walls of h eated velocity head due to the non-parallel
been demonstrated, tho driving cir - absence of circulation disturbances, tubes may rise at a rate of u p to drum walls can be neglected. Pressure
culating heads in the tubes are dif- by using the reliability criteria given 20-25° C/s, meaning that 10-15 seconds changes can only occur due to a rise
ferent. I n such a system, all the below. The checking is done for the are sufficient to got t he plant out of in the hydrostatic pressure by a li-
ascending tubes are connected to com- least heated tubes (with 10 % reserve). order. near Jaw (line ab in Fig. 12.15b).
The crit~rion of stagnation is: Descending tubes of a circuit may The pressure at the inlet to the
(12.19) turn out to have a water flow rate descending tubes is higher than that
too low to ensure proper temperature at the water level in the drum by the
1 the criterion of circulation reversal is conditions in evaporating tubes if magnitude (section be):
srcv;sc > 1.1 (12.20) they have an excessive hydraulic
U3 U8
resistance or if steam is entra ined D.p~ = h;,p' g (12.22)
and the criterion of free water leve l is from the drum into them. Upon entry into descending tubes,
H ydraulic r esistance of descending water velocity increases substantially,
(S ~,'.- 6Pwt)IS~, > 1.1 (1.2.2 1)
tubes. Vlhen analysing the operation since t he hydrostatic pressure decrea-
whore D.pwt is tho pr c~sure loss fo r of descendi ng tubes, we should distin- ses because of the appearance of velo-
l' raising the mixture a·bovo tho water guish between two cases: ~a) w~ ter city h ead and inevitable energy losses
Fig. 12.14. Effect of non-uniform h ea ting
of parallel evaporating tubes in a circula- level in the dru m, hwt (sco F ig. 12.10). supplied from the econom1zor 1n to on local resistances. Thus, tho pres-
tion ci rcuit on the direction and velocity of The phenomena discussed arc extre- the boiler drum at the saturation tem- sui·o at the inlet to the descending
circu Ia tion mely dangerous, since circulation stag- perature (boiling economizer, t;. = t ubes decreases (section bd) by:
J-s". or strongly hcnlcd tubes (most lubes in nation or the appearance of free water = t') and (b) water fed at a tempera-
Lhc c lrcuiL) ; 2- S u• or poorly heaLed tubes (some
tubes In the circuit); 3-S u• of the worst hea t ed
level can interrupt the motion of walor ture below the saturat ion p oint (non- (12.23)
tubes (a few Lubes In the c ircuit) in the cirCillalion circuit, while cir- boiling economizer. t;. < t').
156
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 12. Hydrodynamics of Closed 1/ydrau/ic Systems 13.1. Laws of Bubbling 157
With furth er motion of wnLor in to or. greater than tlp~, the pressure cend i ng tubes. This degree of s ub-
~he descending tubes, press ure ngui n of water at the in let to the descenrl i ng cooling is equivalent to the degree of
mcroases, due to an increase in Lhe tubes will drop to s uch a level that subcooling provided by forming a pro-
hydrostatic pressure of tho water the water will turn out to be su per- per water level in the drum.
column a long line de by tho leng t h heated at the drum pressure or will Water subcooling in the drum is
of section ef: boil in the zone of reduced pressure. no t a useful means of ensuring the
Stearn bubulcs thus formed will be stahlo operation of descending tubes
(12.24) in view of the comp lexity and incon-
entrained uy circulating water into
or, i[ we additionally consider the the desce nding Lubes where th e pros- venience of this method. As with
pressure Joss by fri ction and on loca l sure is higher; Lhus, water wil l turn a boiling economizer (t 1n = t'), t ho
resistances out to bo subcooled there and s tea m stable operation of descending tuLles
bubbles will condense. Complete con- in a circuit with non-boiling economi-
flPa e• = [Ila e• - w;i-. densation of steam requires a certa i o zer (t 1n < t') is achieved by preve n-
2g Fig. 12.16. Determination of tbe minimal ting the formation of steam cones
ti me. As a result, steam bubbles wi'll wa tcr level above the inlet to down take
above the entry to the descending
X ( ': + l:£ )] p'g (12.25) be curried by the water flow an ap- tubes
tubes. Subcooling of water at the i.nlet
preciable distance in tl te descendin<r
where Luhcs, i.e. these will be filled wiLh both free and forced circulation. Their to descending tubes at tin < t' me re ly
a steam-water mixture, rather than formation can be prevented by ma in- e ns ures a certain reserve of reliability.
wiLh water, al a suuslantial length, taining the wate r level in the drum Entrainment of s team from the water
which will noticeab ly increase th e at a safe height above the inl ets to space of drum. The normal supply of
Re[el'l'ing to Fig. 12.15, as water resistance of t.he descending tubes and the desce nding tubes. The probabi lity water to the descending tubes can be
moves in the descending tubes, iLs somewhat diminish the driYing cir- <>f formnlion of steam cones increases disturbed if steam uubbles in the
pressure increases continuously, ex- culating head. The presence of a s light with au increase in the diameter of water space of the drum are entraine d
cept for the t ube in let prop or , where quanti~y of steam in the descending the descending tubes. As recommended by water and carried into tho des-
it docrouses somewhat. If, however, tubes IS, howeYer, not dangerous . by the standard method of hydraulic cending tubes. When velocity of water
assume that flp~ > tlp 1n, i.e. Appearance of steam in descending calculation of steam boilers 122 1, the flows in the drum is substantial,
w2 tubes. The main causes for the appea- ratio of the minimal water level h steam bubbles below the water s urface
h In >(i + 'oln
t ) dt~
g (12.26) to the diameter of descending tubes have no time to separate and are thus
2 rance of s team in descending tubes*
are as follows: dde. should be chosen by tho curves entrained by the water into the d es-
it will follow from Fig. 12.15b that (1) formation of steam cones at the given in Fig. 12.16. cendi ng tubes. Such conditions may
t he water pressure in any point of entry to the descending tubes, i.e. the With a non-boiling economizer, the appear, for instance, when the ends of
the descending system exceeds its direct entrainment o.f steam through temperature of feed water supplied to the evaporating tubes in the drum are
pressure at the water level in the the tubes from tho steam space of Lhe the drum is below the saturation arranged too close to the inlets of
drum Pa· The enthalpy of boiling drum, and point. This water is mixed with boiler Lhe descending tubes. The entrain-
water is distributed according to (2) entrainment of steam bubbles water . and forms a mixture whose ment of steam into the descending
the increasing pressure (a'b'd'k' in from tho water space o[ the drum by temperature is below the 'saturation tubes is prevented by properly orga-
Fig. 12.15c) . The actual enthalpy of circu I a ti ng water. point under pressure at tho water nizing the water flows, for instance, by
water i.n any section of the descending Formation of steam cones. The ope- level in· the drum, tin < t'. Water arranging partitions or by separating
tubes IS equal to id; it corresponds ration of evaporating tubes becomes at this temperature enters the des- the steam-water mixture in cyclones.
to tho pressure at the water level in less reliable if steam forms in the
the drum Pd and is constant if there zone of reduced pressure at the entry
is no heating of tho descending tubes to the descending tubes, i.e. when
(line a' p'). The horizontal sections condition (12.26) is not observed. Jo
between these lines determine the ~uch a case, steam cones may form
degree of wa tor s uucooling in the I': the water surface in the drum (see
respective s~cti o n s of the descending Ftg. 12.15a), so that hrrge quantiti es
tubes; .for 1nsLance, the subcooling of steam will pass from the steam
ill SeCtiOn X- X is determined by tho space into the system oi descending HYDRODYNAMICS OF BUBBLING SYSTEMS
section m'-n'. Therefore if condi- tubes and thus disturb water circula-
tio n (1 2.26) is observed, 'boiling and tion in the circuit. The formation of 13. I. Laws of Bubbling mt)ltiple forced circulation boilers ,
steam generation in unheated descend- steam cones is pos.c;ible in boilers with its motion is caused by the pressure
ing tubes is impossible. In free-circulation boilers, Lh e wor- head developed by the feed pump.
If the pressure drop at the inlet * Steam can also form in descending king fluid moves as it is hcnted in In ei Lhet• case, the fluid in evaporating
tubes on a sudden pressure drop in tb c ascending tubes; in once-th roug h and tubes is two-phase and its motion is
to the descending tubes tlp 1n is equal boiler.
:1.
158
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 13. Hydrodynamics of Bubbltng Syst ems 13.1. Laws of Bu bbli_n_,g'---- - - -- -- -- -1...:..;.
59
separating surface between the phases (erent in various points of the cross
(which is usually called the disenga- section. A uniform distribution of
gement surface). The disengagement steam can be attained by mounting
. surface is not smooth but seething, or a perforated steam-distribution plate
5 r 1 f- • .
-<::
~ turbulent, with high splashes being in the water space. The hydraulic
-,--1-
."\.
5
-- - - -- - ------:
-- - "" - -1- formed continuously by steam bubbles resistance of the pluto is much higher
-:.......--- 1f -- - - 1- which rise to the surface. In the course than that of the free cross section of
~~
'// 12 of bubbling, steam bubbles entrain t he column and is thus a decisive
/ wa ter which then moves downwar d at factor in steam distribution. The plate
2 Steam
the walls and in the spaces between is perforated evenly, and there(ore,
(a) (!J) . (C) bubble chains and is thus forced into steam is distributed uniformly ovet·
8 9 circulation. As a result, a zoro··average the cross section. A gap is left. bot-
flow rate of water (i'Vw = 0) and ween the plate and column walls to
Fig. 13.1. Devices !or steam bubbling through water layO!r
(a) In boUer drum; (b) In separating drum or c hannel-type; boiling reac~or; (c) In s t::am washer; 1- downtal<e a positive flow rate of steam (w, > 0) perm it return flow of the water. The
tubes; Z-dlstrlbutlon plate; J-drum; 4-stenm-clrculating tubes; ~-steam-generating tubes; 6- GCparat- are established in bubbling. edges of the plate are bent downward
lng drum; 7- steam·wnter mixture from process channels; a-steam box; 9-feed water he ader; 10- dlstri-
butlng perlorated tubes; 1 J-feed water (wash water); Jt- wasb water drainage Bubbling is eUected in a bubbling to prevent a sudden outburst of steam
apparatus, such as a vertical column at the walls and to form a steam
essentially the combined motion of heavier phase (water). Bubbling oc- (Fig. 13.2). The water level indicated cushion beneath the plate.
the two components, water and steam, curs in the drums of boilers ami steam by the water-level gauge glass at the A steam cushion is essential for
which may have different velocities. generators when the steam-water mix- column is lower th an that in the normal operation o[ the steam-dislr:i-
Three principal cases are then pos- ture is introduced below the water colu mn proper, since water in the bution plate in which steam bubbles
sible: level, in the separating drums of apparatus is at the boiling point and, flow continuously tluough its holes.
channel-type boiling reactors, in s team besides, is saturated with steam bubb- At the moment of formation of a steam
w. > 0, ww > 0-ascending motion; washers, etc. (Fig. 13.1). It ca n also les and forms a steam-water mixture cushion, steam bas a definite (mini-
w. > 0, W w < 0-flow reversal, and occur in evaporating tubes on certain of a density Pbu b · Water in the gauge mal) velocity wm"1n in the perforations
w. < 0, ww < 0-descending motion. hydrodynamic disturbances of flow, glass is subcooled below the satura- of the plate. For the stable existence
such as the formation of a free water tion temperature at the pressure of of the steam cushion, the actual
In contrast to these cases, in which level or circulation stagnation (see ·bubbling and its density is Pe· Since velocity of steam flow through the
both phases are in motion, there may Sec. 12.3). The layer of the s team- the pressure at the bottom of two perforations must be higher than the
be a special case when only the water mixture in which steam bubbling communicating vessels (point A) minimal value, i.e. w" > w m"in· This
lighter phase (steam) is moving, while takes place is called the dynamic should be the same, we have: is easily accomplished if perforations
the heavier phase (water) is stagnant, (movable) two-phase layer. have a diameter d 1 = 2-3 mm, i.e.
i.e. it has a zero average velocity: Bubbling is usually effected by hphf>bubg = (hr.oetPg + D.hp.) g {13.1) smaller than the break-off diameter
w. > 0, Wr.o = 0. This is known as feeding steam under a perforated of steam bubbles.
Noting that the density of steam p. In the steam boilers of thermal
the process of steam bubbling through distribution plate (Fig. 13.2). As is much lower than that of water in
liquid. Steam bubbling is a specific steam moves through holes in the power stations and the steam genera-
the gauge glass, Pe• we obtain: tors of nuclear power stations, sub-
kind of motion of a two-phase mixture plate, its jets break into separate
in which bubbles of the lighter phase bubbles which rise through tho bulk merged distribution plates have larger
hplrf>bu b = hweiPg (13.2)
(steam) rise through the bulk of the of water above the plate to the holes of a diameter of 8-12 mm or
Since Pbub is smaller than Pe• the even more. Under such conditions,
physical level hph es tablished in the a steam cushion can form if steam
I rrf v·t J ... ..... .. .•... .... column is higher than the weight passes through the boles in con tinuous
.
llil I ~ · A f.lr.JI
f •o I •
f.)!.
o
level h r.o ei observed in the gauge glass jets. Steam jels can entrain a slight
_; i~~ -..- if.•~ ~"-' by the magnitude D.h. The physical quantity of water droplets from the
-·
-- - --
- 'f'' I
I
I
~
~ -.-
-. . . .. _.._._,...., ~,- level in the apparatus is essentially water space of the apparatus, hut this
- ~ - 0 0 0 0 o-
6:16
I 'I•''
'"'
-
·-~ '"":' ' ,-. .
~ - • ..- ••- • ., - • - , r
-·
I
~
~
A/
(j
0
-o-.
--
0
0
0
0
0
.---
0
0 :o-
'o • o -
0 0 , n l
I
I "'
....
'fap
i
I
"'
, 'f....
• • ...- •
.-·-· -· ·- _.
' 0 ' .- '.-' '~ L.
,- --- ]
_, '· -··-··~ v 1
tho level of tho working fluid at
a steam content q> close to unity.
Tho difference D.h is called the water
has no substantial effect on the hydro-
dynamics of the d istribution plate.
The hydrostatic head needed to
- -·
.--.
- ....
~~.L., /,'.::.71
- - -- i . .. - 0
- z(a)
I 'f 0
{6)
A
.-
-
.
~ ,-.·.-::
.!. •--~41
... .
• ._
Lo
'
- · -•'-= 2
swell.
The supplied steam is distributed
form a stable steam cushion is deter-
mitred by the difference in the masses
- - - over t he column cross section accord- of water and s team columns of a heigh ~
Fig. 13.2 Analysis o[ the bubbling process and steam content distribution along the heigh t ing to the hydraulic resistance of the equal to the thickness of cushion o:
of apparatus . wat er layer; with a concentrated steam
(a) at low
0; (b) nl 111gb to0; I-IIJ-zoncs
to or dynamic two-phase layer; 1-ateam cushion; .e- nonle s upply, this resistance may be dif- D.p = 0 (p' - p") g (1:-1. 3)
!
1I
160
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch . 19. llydrodynamlcs of Bubbling S yst em s 18.1. Laws of Bubbling 1.61.
Fig. 13.3. Analysis of operation o£ a interval: from the value corresponding . •
submerged di stribution pi n le
to the s team flow rate immediately h h;s
- - - •a -n - o- - o ['60 - -
above the distribution plate up to h2
- 7/: - ~- ~/
~--· - almost unity in the steam cushion h, I
----
-- --- - --
.
- - -
""'"" d 1• 2R1
---
and in the steam space. Tho distribu-
tion of CJ>bub along the height depends
mainly on the steam flow rate or,
p
I
what is the same, on tho resolved
steam velocity w~.
/f f
I
/'
For a particular value of one w;, ~ c::; ~~ ~~ I
This head is spent to overcome the closed nt Lhe bottom ends, which nrc can distinguish between three zones ~ ~ ~ I
hydraulic resistance of perforations mounted in the holes of n distribution in the dynamic two-phase layer' above I
and to form an excessive pressure plate (Fig. 13.4). The number a nd the distribution plate (Fig. 13.2).
r equired to break through the water arrangement of pipes and the number With an ample steam supply, this
film at tho exit of steam into the of perforaLions in them are determined layer is filled with steam, and there- lf
water space a bove the plate (Fig. 13.3). by the desired range of varialion of fore, CJ>oub = 1. The first zone o.f the 0 ~dp .i
A wa ter [ilm can be broken through the steam-generating load. two-phase dynamic layer is immedia- Fig. 13.5. Effect of resolved steam velocity
by a force 2nR 1a which develops Steam accumul ates in the water tely above the plate. In this zone, the on the distribution of q> along the height of
a pressure 2nH 1a/nRi = 2a!R,. Then spnce under the plate and forms steam flow is sta bilized: the larger apparatus
bubbles break down into finer bubbles, w01 < w02 < w03; h,, h,, h,- rcspcclivc heig hts
we have: a steam cushion of 11 height up to tho oI steam sf)ncc
while fine bubbles combine to form
A t:
l..l P = '<>peri
(w") • •
2 P
+ 2o
R, (13.4)
length of the perforated pipes . [ t
flows through their perforations into larger bubbles , i.e. all bubbles are
the water layer above the distribu- essen t ially transformed i nto the same depends on w~ . At a low w~, indivi-
T he combined solution or equations tion pl ate. At a chaugo in tho steam- stable size. The s team content CJ>bub dual r ising bubbles are distributed in
(1 3.3) and (1 3.4) gives the minim al generating load, tho number o[ 'acti- changes from the value corresponding a relatively large water volume and
thickness o[ n stable stouro cushion: ve' perforations is self-regulated by to the relative free cross-sectional therefore cannot influence one another.
_ 2a a change in the height of tho steam area of the plate q>p 1 to a certain Rising bubbles only slightly deform
0 mi n - R,(p' - p") g cushion. This ensures uniform bubb- constant value !J>bub whlch is determi- the disengagement surface, so that
p" (w")l ling and uniform load on the disenga- ned by the particular conditions of there is a distinct boundary between
+S perl 2g (p' -p") (13.5) gement surface in a wide range of bubbling: steam flow rate and pres- the second an d third zones and the
steam-generating loads. sure. The initial zone of the dynamic lat ter has a low height (curve w;,
where a is the surface tension, Sperl As in [orced motion, the principal layer has a limited height, usually of in Fig. 13.5). W ith an increase of
is the coefficient of resis tance of the characteris tic of bubbling is the rela- a few centimetres. w~. the quantity of bubbling steam
s team-distri bution plat.e which is de- tive cross-sectional area occupied by The second zone is characterized by increases, bubble chains move in the
t ermined by the free cross-sectional steam, CPtmb· The distribution of steam a constant value q>~~b = constant water and combine into steam jets,
area of its perforations; R 1 = d 1/2. and water along the height of a bubb- which has been attained due to sta- and a return circulat ion of water
A steam-distribution p late vvith per- l ing apparatus is different, and there- bilization at the exit from the first appears in the apparatus. The number
foration holes can operate efficiently, fore, CJ>bu b can vary within u wide zone. The bubbling process in the of steam jets then incr eases and impe-
with a stable cushion, only in a nar- stabilized zone is described most accu- des the return circul ation of water ,
row range of heating loads near t he
rated boiler load. With an increase
Steam
ou/let t rately by tho generalized formula
proposed by M.A. St yrikovich and
i.e. water entrained by the rising
steam cannot flow back as easily and
in the steam-generating load, the UnilA S. S. Kutateladze [31]: is retained for a longer time in' the ·
h eight of the steam cushion increases upper portions of the dynamic layer,
in proportion to the square of the t I
q> ~~b ::::::
p• )O. H (w•o V4t !:.,_
p'-p")0. 7 thus leading to water swell. The phase-
ratio of loads (D:r!D,)Z, and may
- l.tJ "IT .
0 ·4 ( p• g c..
a"'" separating surface becomes less dis-
rosu lt in tho hreak-th:rough of steam
at the plato edges. At lower loads,
steam is distributed unevenly over
-- .
- -- -1-::-- • ....
-- - -·-
- - - -- ---- - - -
·- ·-::~
(13.6) tinct, the transition zone of the dyna-
mic l ayer increases in heigbt, and
Tho formula is applicable at steam the height h of the steam space in the
the cross section. content q>~1ub::;:;;; 0.7. apparatus diminishes accordingly (cur-
A new ty-pe of steam-dis tribution
plate has been developed at tho
In the third zone (transient zone}, ve .w;1 in Fig. 13.5). The hydrodyna·
CJ>bub increases continuously from the mics of bubbling depends substantial-
Krzhizhanovs ky power engineering in- Fig. 1.3.4. Steam distributor stabilized value q>&~b t o q> = 1, w hich ly on pressure. With ao increase in
stitute: it has numerous pipes per[o- 1- perlorn lcd steam-dis tribution plate; ll-perfo- exists above the two-phase dynamic pressure, steam density increases, so
rated lubes; J- stcam cus bion; 4- slcnm-llcncra t-
r ated along their whole length a nd ing healing surface layer. The height of the third zone that steam bubbles rise in water more
11 - 0 15 2i
Download From Boilersinfo.com 163
162 Ch. 13. Hydrodynamics of Bubbling Systems 13.3. Effect of Non-untform Heat Release and Impurities
slowly and are retained in the water and by the force due to surface ten- tion of an apparatus. This is mainly
sion: h due to a non-uniform heating inten-
space for a longer time. This increases
IJ>bub' and therefore, causes water F 0 = :rt da (13.9) sity which, for instance, in the high-
swell and an increase in the height capacity horizontal-type steam gene-
that is rators of nuclear power stations may
of the stabilized and transient zones.
Thus, an increase in pressure is qua- Ft.p=Fc+Fa (13.10) c, vary along the length of evaporating
litatively equivalent to an increase elements by a factor of two or three
Substituting from formulae (13.7)
in w~. For a given weight level, the (Fig. 13 .7).
to (13.9) into (13.10), we obtain the
height of the transient zone, h 1r, The heating intensity can be equa-
formula for steam velocity w" in the ~ !----_J__ __ l __ __;Cfl~ lized either naturally, under the effect
depends on the fraction of the cross- boles of a perforated plate, that 0 1 1 1 of a water layer for steam bubbling,
sectional area occupied by steam. The enables the water layer to be 1·etained
height of the transient zone has a di- ·' height
Fig. 13.6. Distribution of q> along' the
or by means of various devices, such
on the plate: as a submerged steam-distribution
rect effect on tho moisture content of of apparatus at different concentrations
tho steam supplied from the apparatus , , I 2gp' (c1 < c 2 < c3 ) and constant weight level plate.
into a steam separator. With a higher w = . v ~.
..P
(13.11) Figure 13.8 shows the curves of
h 1 n the height of the steam space bubbles rise more slowly in water. steam content q> at various levels
is lower (see Fig. 13.5) and the mois- in which ~ is the r esolved coefficient Stronger water films are broken with along the height of a bubbling layer
ture content of the steam is higher. of resistance of the bubbling device: a certain time delay, so that the with a symmetrical (steam is supplied
process of passage of steam bubbles at the centre of the cross section) or
s=spert+swf (13.12) into the steam space is retarded. asymmetrical initial non-uniformity
13.2. Dynamic Layer in Steam Washers Under such conditions, the dynamic in a vertical column without a perfo-
In formulae (13.7) to (13.11), d is two-phase layer is satmated with rated plate, where steam content is
The washing of steam by pure water the diameter of holes in a perforated a greater amount of steam, thus equalized naturally. As may be seen,
is a widely employed method for plate, hw is the level of water above leading to water swell and an increase the steam content at the entry to the
improving steam quality (see Sec. 15.4). the plate, H is the actual height of in the height of the layer. two-phase layer is distinctly non-
It is commonly effected by passing the bubbling layer, and ~JJcr/ and ~w The general distribution pattern of uniform, but is equalized along the
the steam through a water layer that are the coefficients of resistance to steam content along the height of the height dlle to bubbling in a free
is retained on a perforated plate. the steam flow in a bole and in the dynamic two-phase layer at a con- volume of water.
Water overflows the peripheral enclo- wash water layer. stant steam flow r ate and various A non-uniform steam content leads
sure of the plate, whose height is The height of the steam-washing concentrations of impurities in water to the appearance of transverse gra-
chosen so as to obtain the desired layer of water is usually not high is shown in Fig. 13.6. As may be dients of density in the steam-water
water level (Fig. 13.1c), but cannot (50-70 rom) and its resistance is low seen, the steam content q> at a given mixture that fills in the apparatus.
flow through the holes, since the compared with that . of perforated concentration of impurities increases In turn, these gradients lead to orien-
water column above a hole is acted holes, i.e. Sw <~per/· Therefore, it along the layer height. At a low con- ted convective currents which equa-
upon by a force F 6.p which appears may be assumed in formula (13.11) centration of impurities the steam lize the steam content and density.
due to the difference of steam pres- that £ = Sperl· content at the exit from a steam- Figure 13 .8 shows curves of q> for
sure below the plate and above the Formula (13.11) gives a certain distribution plate is not high. It re- four sections at various heights in the
water level. This force is equal to the reserve of the velocity of steam flow mains almost constant to an appre- bubbling layer. As may be seen, non-
hydraulic resistance for the passage through perforated holes since the ciable heigllt (q> increases slowly), uniformity decreases along the height
of steam through the perforated holes actual velocity of steam is higher and increases rapidly in the transient zone, due to steam redistribution, tlwugh
and through the water layer above is certainly sufficient to ensure the which has a low l1eight, and attains complete equalization is not achieved
them: hydrodynamic stability of steam wash- a value q> ~ 1 above the physical
ing by bubbling. water level. With an increase in the
concentration of impurities in water,
13.3. Effect of Non-uniform Heat the steam content at the exit from
1_1: (w") 2 1 • FI rnt2
(13. 7) Release and Impurities on the Dynamic the plate increases and the length of
-, _..., 2· p d 4 the zone where q> is almost stabilized
J
Two-phase Layer
becomes smaller (or even completely
Up to the moment the steam breaks Boiler water may contain surface- disappears at a high concentration).
through a hole, this force is counter- Fig . 13.7. Zone of different steam-generat-
active substances which are concent- In contrast to this, the height of the ing intensity in the steam generator of a
balanced by the gravity force of the rated mainly at the boundaries bet- transient zone in creases substantially. water-cooled water-moderated power reactor
mass of the water column: ween phases. This increases the In steam-generating plants, the ge- (horizontal section)
strength of water films which envelop neration of steam may be substantial- J- housl ng; 2- cooln nt in: 3- coolan t out; 4-
(13.8) zonc or lnl en•h·c steam gener ation: s- zone or
Fl!.= and diminish steam bubbles. Finer ly non-uniform across the cross-sec- modcrule stcnm ceneralton
I 1*
·I Download From Boilersinfo.com
I 164 Ch. 13. Hydrodynamics of Babbling Systems 14.1. lmpzlrttles In Peed Water 165
I h
•
•
3
PHYSI CO-CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES OF BE~VIOUR
OF IMPURITIES I N WORKING FLUID
Fig. 13.9. Effect of resolved steam velocity
w;; on the height at which cp is equalized
-..
..J.The effoctRof w;on tho height at
14.1. Impurities in Feed Water
and Their Efrect on Equipment
heat carrier of thermal power stations
are given in Table 14.1.
Impurities may be present in boiler
water in either a dissolved or a suspen-
which flow equalization is achieved During tho operation of any lype
0 is shown clearly in Fig. 13.9. The of boiler-turbine installation the W<Jrk- ded state. Under particular conditions,
0 R left-hand portion of the curve relates ing fluid becomes contaminated with they can precipitate from water and
(a) tSteam to the low values of w~, and conse-
quently, low density gradients, so
impurities. The quantity and compo- form deposits on the heating surfaces,
thus impairing h eat transfer and rai-
sition of impurities depend on th e t ype
h ~--+-- that flow equalization' occurs at a grea- of plant, composition of str11 ctural sing the t emperature of tube walls.
t er height. At a higher steam-genera- materials, and operating conditions. Deposits are especially dangerous in
ting intensity, flow equalization oc- The principal sources and composi- intensive l1eating zones (water walls
curs more quickly, notwithstanding tions of impurities in lhe aqueous in boiler furnaces and fuel elements
the higher initial non-uniformity.
Therefore, the height of s tabilization Table 14.1. Principal Sources and Compos itions of I mpu rities in an Aqueous Hea t
is lower. It might be expected that Carrier
t h is trend would continue with a fur-
ther increase in w~ which leads to an .
Sources Principal lmpu rllies
increase in the density gradient.
Actually, however, at very high flow
1 rates of steam, the axial compon ent of • In leakages: Salts (chlorides, sulphates and bicarbonates of
the velocity of the steam-wat er mix- in condensers calcium, magnesium and sodium), colloidal im-
purities (organic matter, silicic acid), suspen·
ture increases sharply and the process
tstea~ ~ is extended along a greater height in
dcd matter and gases (02. COt, N2)
{D) the layer. I n a certain range of high
• values of w;, t he effect of velocity is in feed water and tap water hoa- Salls (calcium, magnesium and sodium chlorides,
Fig. 13.8. Curves of steam content at va- predominant and the height of the tors su lphatos and bicarbonates), silicic acid, and gases
rious [cve!s (1, 2, 3, 4) ~ong the height of
a layer wtth {a) symmetncal and (b) asym- equalization layer continues to in- .
. metrical initial non-uniformity crease. Finally, at very high flow Make-up water (demi nera 1izcd, cl i- Sodium compounds, pro- Gases: 0 1 (in dcminern-
rates of steam (w~), it begins to stilled) ducts or metal corrosion lized water); COz (in
{ carry off much moisture from the distillate)
~j.p.ce
the water entrained by bubbling layer . Extrapolation of the curve to ·
steam flows down mainly along the its intersection with the axis of Softened water Sodium com pounds, silicic acid, gases (tho com-
walls. In columns of a large diameter, abscissae will give a poio t at which posi lion or gaseous impurities depends on tho
the effect of walls is smaller, so that water will be completely carried off water treatment method)
ascending and descending currents, from the apparatus, i.e. the process
a,nd therefore, thelsteam content, are of steam bubbling will change to the Products of corrosion of structura l Oxides of Fo, Cu, Cr, Ni , Zn, Co, Al, etc.
distributed more ·· evenly over the forced motion of the steam-water materials •
cross section. mixture.
Products of radio lysis nncl othcz· Hod ioactivo products o[ corrosion of metals: Fe,
' .• iJroccsscs und er the effect of neutron Mn, Qo, AI, Zr, etc.; gase~: N2, 02, Xe, Kr, etc.
luxes
• •
·I~~~
Download From Boilersinfo.com U.2 . Solubtllty ofl mpurltles in Heat-transfer Agent
167
166 Ch. U. Behaviour of lmpurltlel In Working Fluid
increases with temperature while that of them can crys tallize on heating ducts does not exceed a few hundredths 1
of others decreases. '· · of a gram per kilogram* (Fig. 14.3).
surfaces and form scale; these are
Sli'ghtly soluble impuri'ti.es. Calcium ~alled scale formers. Others crystallize The highest quantity of corrosion
and magnesium compounds and metal m the hulk of the solution and form products enters the steam-water path
o~i des which be.long to the group of sludge and are thus called sludge in the form of oxides of iron which is
shghtly soluble Impurities, come into formers. Rough elements (protrusions the main structural material of boiler
• the steam-water path of steam-tu rbine plants of any pressure. Iron combines
and rocesses) on solid heating surfaces
I plants from different sources and can sorv,e as centres of scale forma- with oxygen into a number of oxides,
!
what is most important, behave dif~ t~on, and disperse and colloidal par- two of them, hematite Fe 2 0 3 and
ferentl y in an aqueous heat-transfer ticles and gas bubbles susp ended in magnetite F e30 ,, being the most im-
a?ent. For this r eason, they will he
discussed separately.
In normal operation of boilers the
water can serve as centres of sludge
formation.
portant in steam-generating plants.
Of h ighest interest are tho. properties, t t t t t tr
The conditions required to avoid solubility in particular, of magnetite Fig. 14.5. Diagram of circulation in a depo-
concentrations of slightly solubl ~ im- scale formation from Ca and Mg as it is the main oxide of iron that sited iron oxide layer
purities in feed· water, mainly of cal- cations and so;- anions present in can form a t temperatures below 550- J - wa tcr Claw; 2-lhlckness or deposited Ioyer;
J - cupllla rles; 4-stenm ou tlet from n 's t.cam
cium and magnesium salts, are low. water can be written in the following 5700C, i.e. at the operating tempera- pipe• at pressure p 8 ; 1' w Is the pressure or wat.cr
They may inc!ease on certai n distur- form: tures in high-pressure and supercriti-
bances in the system of condensate cal-pressure plants. firmly to the metal ; it forms through
cleaning and water treatment or due aca2+ . asoi- < SP } The solubility of magnetite in high- corrosion on the metal sur face . Tho
to excessive inleakages in condensers. (14 .3) temperature water depends substan- external layer is loose and porous a.nd
aMs2+ . a,so:-< SP
In any electrolytic solution, a dis- ti ally on the pH index of the medium. only weakly bon ded to the surface.
solved substance partly dissociates In order to de term ino the allowable The solubility curves of magnetite in The internal layer is not dangerous-
into ions (cations Mcm+ and anions concontraLions of Ca (or 1\Ig) and boiling water depending on tempera- to operation of the metal and is even
Ac"-) and partly remains in the form scalo-f_?rm ing anions in water, it is ture and at various values of pH (in desirable, since the dense fi rm oxide
o.f mo~ecules . The degree of dissocia- essent1al to know the solubilities in oxidizing and reducing media) are film pr otects the metal from further
tiOn, 1.e. the fraction of dissocia ted water of all the substances which illustrated in Fig. 14.2. As may he corrosion. On the contrary, tho loose
molecules, depends on the properties may form under particular conditions seen , in a wide r ange of high t empera- porous external layer (which forms
of the solute and t emperature. and their dependence on temperature. tures 250-350°C (4-18 MPa) and pH= 6- mainly from colloidal and disperse-
For a saturated solution at a given Such data for the principal scale for- 9, the solubility of magnetite in re- particles) has a low conductivity and
t emperature, the product of active mers are given in Fig. 14.1. As may ducing media does not exceed 40- thus impairs heat removal from the-
concentrations of ions a~rem + · aAcn- be seen, they have n egative tempera- 50 J.l.g/kg, in oxidizing media it does metal surface.
:Vhich is calle.d the solubility product, ture coefficients of solubility, so their not exceed 20-30 1.1glkg. The actual In addition to the above, bubble-
Is constant, I.e. solubility in water at high temperatu- concentrations of this subst ance in boiling can l ead to the 'wick effect'
r~s is only a few mg/kg, i.e. three- water are much higher, which means in porous iron-oxide deposits: water·
-
Sp -aM m+ ·a n-
n m is sucked in through numerous capil-
e AC (14.2) five orders of magnitude lower than that water contains colloidal and
that of easily soluble salts. When the disperse particles of iron oxide, as lary pores in a layer to the h eating-
where n and m are stoichiometric solubility of a p articular impurity, well as dissolved iron oxides. Suspen- surface where it. evaporates. Stonm is-
coeUicients. say, of CaS0 4 , at a given temperature ded (colloidal and disperse) iron-oxide then ejected back through a wide-
For substances with a positive tem- is known, one can determine the particles, irrespective of their size, channel, or 'steam pipe' (Fig. 14.5).
perature coefficient of solubility, active concentrations of respective can form deposits on heating surfaces. With such local circulation and eva-
d (SP)Idt > 0 and for those having ions Ca2 + and so;- and then calcula te The heav iest deposits (a few hundred poration of water, impurities (includ-
a negativ~ coefficient , d (SP)Idt < 0. the solubility product from formu- grams per m 2 in a year of oper ation) ing corrosion-active impurities, such
Dependwg on the composition of la (14.2). can form on the elements of the steam- as alkalies, chlorides, etc.) are con-
feed water, boiler water may contain
. c a2+ and Mg2+ and anions materials Products of corrosion of structural water path which are heated most centrated at the metal surface and can
ca t Ions . Feed water can bring into intensively. 70-90% of these deposits enhance corrosion.
SO'- Sio~-
a , P0 3
-
• , C0 2-
an d Cl- . the steam-water p ath of boilers the In porous deposits, an appreciable-
4 , 3 , are iron oxides .
As evaporation proceeds the con- corrosion products of a number of Deposits of corrosion products of portion of h eat is removed due to th&.
centrations of all ions u;_crease and structural materials, such as ir on , iron usually have two layers possessing ev aporating effect. This determines.
approach the solubili ty limits of the copper, zinc, cobalt, aluminium, etc. different physico-chemical properties. a high ' effective beat conductivity'
substances involved. Their compounds can form deposits The interval layer is dense and bonded of deposits, which includes heat con-
Dissolved substances can crystallize on boiler surfaces which are determi- ductivity as a physical costant and
from water. Those which have the ned by their solubility in the aqueous h eat transfer from the wall to the·
lowest sol~b_ility product under parti- medium under the process conditions. • At typi cal pH values of boiler water at working fluid. For this reason, the·
thermal a nd nuclear power stations (sec
cular conditiOns crystallize first. Some The solubility of most corrosion pro- Ch. 15). temperature of the metal in 'wick
Ia
I
170
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 14. Behaviour of Impurities In W ork ing Fluid 14.2. Solubility of I mpuritles In Heat-transfer A ge nt 171
I boiling' increases by not more than d epending on tho particular condi- pg/kg
10-20 dog C even under substa ntially tions, a balance is establish ed between '{:(Mf
v J1
thick deposited layers (afew hundredths
()r even tenths of a millimetre). Heat
d eposition and wash. ing-·off, and there-
fore, a particular rate of deposition.
1\ J
siOr
transfer may be sharply impaired if Products wash ed off from some por-
~apillary pores are clogged due to tions of th& surface can be deposited
d eposition of other impurities present .
()n other port ions. Th.is property of
in water. deposits has an adverse effect on the
Since porous deposits h ave a rough ' ()peration of circuits in nuclear power 1-.
surface and an appreciable thickness,
they can d imin ish the free cross- oL---------~~------~~
I plfg stations since it is o ne of the causes If\
appro~. 7 of radioactivity transfer along a c ir-
coPY
sectional area of tubes and increase
their hydraulic res istance, which lowers
the working pressure.
Fig. 14.6. EHccL of pH 0 on the rate of
deposition of iron oxides
<mit. ,'.>
Easily soluble substances. Figure 14.4
/
/0 ' c-Fe3(4 ' I\
oP
./~
-
JO a further increase in t emperature at
i'-. a constant pressure, however, although k~o =ro+kd= g: (14.4)
20 " . the steam density continues to decrea-
["'- p:f4MPa
se, the crystalline bonds in the solid where (J) is the water content of
v are weakened and th e solubility of steam, %, which characterizes the
10
0
'
p =JMPa
I
I
~
t he substance respectively increases.
Figure 14.9 shows isobaric (constant-
concentration of impurities which can
p ass int o saturated steam with water
(d) (e)
Fig. 1.4.1.0. Formation o( condensed moistu-
re in the steam space of a drum with evapo-
MO 450 500 •c pressure) curves o( the solubility of droplets, kd is the distribution coef- rating tubes ent.ering the water space
N aCl depending on temperature. As. ficient, %, which characterizes the (a) ris ing stcnm bubble: (b) bubble at the discnga·
may be seen, the effect of both factors concentration of impurities due to the <cmcnl surrncc: (c) belorc brealt-tbrough or water
Fig. 14 .9. Solubility of NaCI in superheated
st.eam at subcri tical pressures (pressure and temperature) at the dissolving power of steam.
7ilm·
·
(d) and (e) brcak·tbrougb or water tilm nod
rormnlion or moi sture droplets
minimum of solubility is roughly the Tho relative role of the components
pends substan tially on th e intensity same . In the left-hand branches of in the carry-off coefficient depends on
of b eating, so that the surfaces heated the curves, the effect of t emperature a number of factors , primaril y on pres- the bulk of the water, and the steam
more intensively (such as the lower variations in density is predominant, sure. For instance, at low pressures, bubble is freed and enters the steam
radiation sections of once-through boi- while the pattern of the right-hand the dissolving power of steam for most space. As an annular \vave forms in
lers) are fo\1l ed with iron-oxide depo- branches is determined by bond forces non-volatile impurities present in the process, water droplets break off
sits much more substantially than in the cryst alline lattice. water is n egligible (kd ~ w) , and from its edge and are ejected into the
tl10se operating at lower b eating rates. The pressure of superheated steam therefore, kc~ ~ ro. With an increase steam space (Fig. 14. 10d). Water tends
Solubility of impurities in superheat- also has a strong effect on its dissol- in pressure, t he dissolving power of to fill iu the newly formed crater and
ed steam of subcritical pressures and ving power. At higher pressures, steam steam increases, r esulting in a h igher water currents collide with one another
the formation of deposits. The solu- has a higher density, and therefore, contribution by the distribution coef- in the centre and rise forming a verti-
bility of substances in superheated a higher dissolving power, but the ficient, so t hat it may turn out a t cal column from which water droplets
steam of subcritical pressures is deter- effect of pressure lessens with an a sufficiently high pressure that led ~ can also break off (Fig. 14.10e). In
mined by the properties of the sol- increase in the temperature of super- ~ ro and kc~ ~ led. steam bubbling through a layer of
• ven t (superheated steam) and the heating. The isobaric solubility curves The mechanism and laws of water low-mineralized water, water films
properties of the solid impurity with of other compounds, say, Na 2 SO, or carry-off by steam. Tho mechanism whicb envelop steam bubbles may
which steam is in contact, with both CaSO, , have essentially the same of the formation of water droplets have different thickness, and there-
fore, form water droplets of various
I• being dependent on the process para-
meters, i.e. pressure and tempera-
pattern, but the quantitative relation-
ships are different.
in the steam space of a boiler drum
may be different depending on the sizes .
tu.re. Tho practical significance of the scheme of steam supply. If steam- When steam enters the drum above
The strength of the bonds between solubilit y of subst ances in superhea- water jets are ejected below the water the disengagement surface, water drop-
ions, molecules or atoms of a solid ted steam consist s in the following: · level into the drum, steam bubbles lets can appear in the steam space due
impurity depends substantially on tem- if the concentration of an impurity riso to the disengagement surface and to disintegration of the moisture that
perature. With an increase in t em- in steam is lower than its isobaric form a two-phase dyn amic layer is carried by the steam supplied from
perature, these bonds are weakened solubility, it will be dissolved and (Fig. 14.10a and b). A steam bubble evaporating tubes (Fig . 14.11). The
and the solid phase can pass over in to carried off by steam and will usually is acted upon by two forces: the force degree of water atomization depends
steam. Pressure variations in th e form deposits in the turbine. rr' howe- of internal pressure which tends to on tho kinetic energy of s~.~am-water
r ange of operating pressures in steam ver, its concentration is higher than rupture the wat er film that envelops jets. At high heating loads, and there-
boilers have little effect on the beha- the isobaric solubility, the excess the bubble and the force of surface fore, a high velocity of exit of the
viour of the solid phase. will be deposited in the superheater t ension of that film which resists the steam-water jets into the drum, they
Temperature and pressure which path and the r emainder in the turbine. rupturing force . In pure water, water possess a high kinetic energy and can
determine the density of superheated flows down from the upper spherical atomize water into finer droplets,
steam, have a strong effect on its 14.3. P assage of Impurities from surface of the film which consequently resulting in a more intensive water
ability to dissolve solid impurities. Water to Saturated Steam becomes thinner (Fig. 14.10c). A hole carry-off. A dynamic equilibrium is
At a constant pressure as the tempera- There are two kn own ways for im- forms in the top of the sphere, which established in the steam space bet-
ture of superheat incr eases, the steam purities to pass from wat er to steam: is widened by the forces of surface ween the water droplets which enter
d ensity decreases, resulting in a dec- they can be carried off as droplets of t ension. The fil m is retracted into the steam space and those which
!II
174
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. U. Behaviour of Impurities In Working Fluid 14.3. Pauage of-Impurities from Water to Steam 175
not make steam free from impurities. Lions of the process. In order to clean- Tab l e ! a. l. A llowable Contaminatio n ol I nte rnal Surlaces ol Tubes
The distribution coefficient is a phy- the steam from impurities which have· . Conccn\ra l.ion Of impuriti es, g { m2, ut beating lOads,
sico-chemical constant and, if water passed into it from water due to the· kWJrn2
contains impurities, steam will have distribution law, it should be washed Stnl•• o r surface
an equivalent quuntity of these im-
purities in accordance with tl1e condi-
by cleaner water than thuL from which.
it has formed (see Sec. '15 .4).
up l O 100 100-300 300 -~ 50
I above 450
Clean 25-50 up to 25 up Lo 25 up to 20
Requires cleaning 200 -300 150-200 100-200 1.00-150
gen and carbon dioxide can cause in- ssible to completely control corrosion,
tensive corrosion of the metal·'o[ boi- the activity of the working fluid and
ler equipment. To prevent this , t.hese dep ositions on the work ing surfaces
elements arc removed by thermal de- and produce absolutely clean steam
aeration. (free from impurities). The optimal
The water conditions at nuclear water conditions o[ a power unit
power s tations are l argerl y d etermi- should ensure the relialJle un interrupted
WATER CONDITIONS ned by their operation specifics, i.e. operation of the equipment for a long
by neutron irradiation of the heat- time before chemical washing is re-
Lransfet· agent as it passes through the quired. The pl'incipal tasks are: to
!5. t. RemoyaJ or I mpurities and water and for this reason are not. react or core . Further, the corrosion restrict, the fo1·mati on of internal
from t he Circuit properly carried off by steam (sodium products of structural materials are deposit s which might cause the tempera-
salts and sodium hydroxide). Blowing- continu ously accumulating in t.lt e cir- ture of heating surfaces to increase
The reliable operation of steam- down is ineffi c ient with impurities cuit. I£ they are not removed in due intol.erably; to restrict the [ormation
turbine plants is ensured by maintai- which have a high coefficient of di- Lime from the heat agent, th ey can of deposits "·hich might d iminish the
ning the proper level of cleanliness of stribution and are carried off in a I ar- form deposits on the surfaces of the power of the unit in tho flow path of
the working fluid, i.e. by removing ge quantity by steam (silicic acid and' circuit. These impurities are subjected the turbine; to suppress the corrosion
impurHies from the circuit in accor- metal oxides). to neutron irradiation in the 1·eactor of structural materials in the steam-
dance with the rate of their passage to In once-through boilers, the evapo- and become ndioactive, thus crea- water path and l.o minimize erosion.
the water (see Sec. 14.1). Methods for ration process takes place with all ting a radiation hazard in the zone wear.
removing impurities may vary depen- the water being vaporized continuous- around the reactor equipment.. Deposits on the surface of metal are-
ding on the type of boiler. Drum-type ly. Blowing down once-through boi- Since used water at nuclear power removed by chemical cleaning o£ the·
boilers operate under the principle of lers is impossible, so impurities settle stations is radioactive, it cannot be equipment. This procedure is carried
multiple forced or gravity circulation. on the heating surfaces as deposits ac- blown down and discharged to escape out in a new boiler before starting
The steam content of the fl uid flow cording to their soluhil i ty in water channels, as is clone at thermal power up and then periodically during ope-
in the uptake tubes of circulation cir- and steam. Eas ily soluble deposits stations. As at thermal power s l;ati- ration. A washing circuit is assembled:
cuits is limited and does not normally which accumulate in particular zones ons, it is cleaned from impurities in for this purpose, which includes wa-
exceed 10-25%. Boiler water docs not of once-through boilers are partially ion-exchange resin water purifiers. shing pumps, tanks for preparation.
evaporate deeply, and therefore, the washed off at tbe boil er starting-up This treatment prevents the fonnation of the reagents , connecting pipelines,.
impurities dissolved in it do not reach and shutting-down. Slightly soluble of deposits on the working s urfaces and reservoirs for the collection and
their extreme concentrations (to sa- deposits are removed periodically by of the circuit. neutralization of wash water. The·
turation) and thus cannot precipitate chemical washing which is done after The onjectives of minimizing the length of periods between chemical
as a solid phase in the water bulk or shutting down the boiler. The wa- corrosion of structural materials and washing procedures depends on the-
on the tube walls. In order to retain shing process is labour-consuming and the formation of deposits and of pro- operating conditions of the boiler
the concentrations of impurities in requires much Lime and a large qu- ducing steam of a high purity (and, plant, mainly on how carefully the
water below the level at which they antity of reagents. The continuous re- at nuclear power stations, minimizing specified water conditions are obser-
would precipitate in the solid state, moval of impurities from the steam- the radioactivity of the heat-transfer ved. The time for a chemical washing
part of the water is continuously r e- water path of once-through boilers can agent) are achieved by properly or - procedure is determined by the amo-
moved from the boiler drum (blow- be effected in a demineralizing plant ganizing tbc physico-chemical pro- unt o£ deposits on heated tubes and
down water). Blowing-down as a means arranged in the circuit downs tream cesses in the steam-water path, i.e. by 'the intensity of their heating. A
of removing impurities from power of the turbine condensers . by providing appropriate chemical wa- rough estimation of the allowable con-
plants is especially efficient with those Feed water at the entt·y to the boi- ter conditions*. I t is virtually impo- tamination levels of the internal sur-
impurities which have a low coef- ler conluins a noticeable quaolity of • In further discussion, we will rclcr Lo
faces of tubes is g iven in Table.
ficient of d is lri lm lion between steam oxygen and carbon dioxide. Free oxy- Lbis as wn ler co nditions. 15.1.
Download From Boilersinfo.com
180 Ch. 15. Water Conditions 15.2. !Vater Conditions of Once-through Boilers 1St
ting rates and are therefore much mo- follows: 4-6 mont.hs in order to retain the tem-
15.2. Water Conditions re sensitive to deposits. Since dep o- pera t.ure of tube walls below the allo-
of Once-through Boilers sits are unwanted in both the turbine N2H , +O:-+ N1 +2llt0 (15.1) wable level.
and boiler, once-through boilers must Feed water always contains impu- Neutral water conditions. All mono-
An important factor in the organi- be fed wit.h water that is as free as po- rities: iron and copper oxides. In their bloc units of power stalions are provi-
zation of water conditions in once- ssible of impurities. In practice, this presence, oxygen is bound by hydra- ded with demineralizing plants to
through boilers is that water b lowing- means that all tho condensate from tho zinc more quickly [381. produce clean feed water. Upon clea-
down is inapplicable. For this rea- turbine must be cleaned in a dem inera- In order to ensure tho complete re- ning in a demineralizing plant, tur-
son, all impurities which are IJrought lizing plant. This treatment almost moval of oxygen, hyd razino is fed bine condensate approaches the theo-.
in with feed water and those which totally prevents l.be deposition of at the intake to feed pumps in an amo- retically pure neutral water with the
pass into the working £luid due to cor- salts and silicic acid in t.he boiler and unt exceeding the stoicbiom.fltric ra- electric conductivity 0.04-0.06 fLS/cm
rosion of the boiler proper and in the turbine, while the problem of preven- tio from formula (15.1), i.e. an excess and pH index around 7. This water is
feed water path behind the condensate ting tho deposition of corrosion pro- of hydraziDe is formed in an amount practically pure and almost free of
cleaners are partly deposited on the ducts, especially iron oxides, beco- of 0.02-0.03 mg/kg. ion ogenic impurities, so that all ele-
heating surfaces and partly carried mes more important. Carbon dioxide may be presen t in c.trocbemical processes in it are retar-
off into the turbine. H should be bor- A common met.hod for increasing t.he water in the form of either molecules ded.
ne in mind that only very slight de- corrosion resistance of equ ipment is C0 2 (dissolved gas) or H 2C0 3 (solu- Oxygen in neulrnl water may produ-
p osits are allowed in the turbine. The to select the appropriate materials. tion of carbonic acid): ce different ef£ects on metals depen-
amount of deposits allowed in the boi- The main structural material for ma- ding on its concentration. At low con-
ler is many times that allowed in the king t.he heating surfaces of boilers is C0 2 + H 2 0 = If:C0: 1 (15.2} centrations, iL can enhance metal cor-
turbine, i.e. a subcritical-prcssure boi- pearlitic steel. Pearl itic steels have Carbonic acid can be found by a rosion. At elevated concentrations of
l er should be regarded as a 'trap' many advantages (low cost, good wor- measured quantity of ammonia added oxygen, a conti nuous film of magne-
for impurities which prevents their kability, serviceability), but they po- Lo feed water. Ammonia is introduced tite Fe 3 0 4 or hematite Fe 2 0 3 forms on
passage to the turbine. Under such ssess a serious drawback: they arc in an amount sufficient for the comple- the metal surface. For this reason , it
condit.ions, the concentration of im- sub) ect to intensive corrosion in the te neutralization of co~ to form has been proposed to prevent further
purities in feed wat.er can b e some- steam-water path of boilers. ammonium carbonates and to allow a corrosion of met.al by int.roducing oxy-
what higher than in superheated steam, Corrosion damage is reduced by t.he slight excess of ammonium hydroxide gen into waLer in an amount (around
in accordance with the allowable application of protective coatings to to raise the pH index of water. Thus, 200 J.Lg/kg) sufficient to form a passi-
l evel of deposits in the boiler. The al- the internal surfaces or tubes in the hydrazine hydrate combines the re- vating continuous film of iron oxi-
lowable deposits depend on their di- low-temperature sections of power - sidual oxygen in deaerated water, des. Under such conditions, the cor-
stribution along the steam-water path, plants. These include: the internal while ammonia maintains the pH in- rosion rate of pearlitic steel is almost
"the heating load and conductivity in surfaces of atmospheric-type deaera- dex at the required level pH = 9.1 ± as l ow as that of austenitic steel.
places of deposit formation, and on ting tanks, exhaust hoods of turbines, ± 0.1. The ability of oxygen (in elevated
tl1o reliability reserve of heating sur- housings of condensers and low-pres- I-lydrazine-ammonia water treat- concentrations) to form firm protecti-
faces, i.e. how far the temperature of sure vacuum heaters , condensate tanks ment, i.e. the chemical treatment of ve oxide films has been utilized as the
the metal may rise above the working and their pipelines, and water-treat- feed water by hydrazine hydrate and basis for tho organization of oxygen-
temperature wi thout causing cree- ment equipment. In the high-tempe- ammonia, is a conventional method neutral water conditions in once-through
ping and scaling. Under identical con- r ature sections of power plants, cor- and until recently was employed at al- boilers . For this purpose, gaseous
ditions, the allowable amount of de- rosion is limited by appropriat.e or- most all supercrit.ical-pressure mono- oxygen 0 1 is added in a measured qua-
posits depends heavily on the heating ganization of water conditions. hi oc units. ntity to feed water. In some ca~es,
l oad, which should be taken into ac- Hydrazine-ammonia water treat- The temperature of the working flu- hydrogen peroxide H 2 0 2 is used instead
count when selecting the zone of de- ment. Thermal deaeration cannot re- id at the outlet of the lower radiation of 0 2 . To form neutral water con-
position in the gas path. The zone of move oxygen and carbon dioxide com- sections of boiler plants is usually ditions, feed water should be very pure
deposition is usually the final sect.ion pletely from the turbine condensate. 380-390°C. The temperature of the out.- and contain no CO~; its electric con-
of the evaporating path and it should The concentration of residual oxygen side surface of lubes in this section is ductivity shou ld not exceed 0.2 J.lS/cm.
not be arranged in tho region of inten- may be as high as 10 J.Lg/kg. Residu- roughly 100 deg rees higher, i.e. atta- Neutral water conditions are ad-
sive heating. The length of the zone of al carbon dioxide is also present in the ins /l90-500°C. As established by ex- vanLageous in the following respecls:
deposition also depends on pressure. condensate. For this reason, thermal perience, with the application of hy- it can bo dispensed with expensive
At higher pressures, the deposition deaeration is supplemented with the drazine-ammonia water treatment, correction treatment of feed water uy
zone is longer and begins · at a lower chemical treatment of feed water. the temperature of tubes in the lower hydrazine hydrale and ammonia; in
steam content of the fluid flow . Residual oxygen in feed water af- radiation section of fuel oil-fired boilers that connection, filters of the dem i ne-
In high-capacity boilers for super- ter thermal deaeration is bound by increases by 10-12 deg C every month. ralizing plant can operate for a longer
criLical pressures, furnace water walls hydrazine N tll 4 • If water contains no For this reason, chemical washing time between regenerations; the rate
operate at substant.ially higher hca- other impurities, t.he reaction is as should be carried out period ically in of form ation or iron-oxide deposils in
--- Download From Boilersinfo.com
182 Ch. 15. Water Conditions 15.3. Non-scaliflg Water Condilio11s of Drum-typ e Boilers 183
intensively heated surfaces of tho lower The ll'isubstituted ammonium salt of plant. The concent rat ions of additives Ln order to correct water conditions
radiation section is lower; and pcarli- ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid [ n feed water in chelate .;,·ator trea t- and transfer the hardness sa lts into
tic steels can be oruployed in heaLing which forms nn mixing can react with men!. are as follows: EOTA = non-sticking sludge, it is essential lo
surfaces. In operation with nou tral tho products or iron corrosion at tem- = 80 ~tg/k g, l\'H:1 = 700-800 11g/kg, introduce correction additives t.o water,
water conditions, care shou ld be ta- peratures of 100-200°C, with iron hy- l\ 2H 4 = 20 ~tglkg; pH= 9.1. for instance, phosphates (such as sodi-
ken to keep the electric co nductivity droxide F e (0li) 2 to form iron chela- Gaseous products formed on the um phosphate Na 3 P0 4 ) to fixed cal-
of feed water as low as possible. For tes. These ave readily soluble in water thermal dissocia l io11 of tho chol ates cium . Water conditions based on tho
this reason, the feed-water path should and dissociate at a high temperature, pass together with sleam through the addition of phosphates are called pho-
contain no elements made of cop- with a dense 1ayer of magnetite boi ng turbine and are removed from the sphate water conditions. For easier
per or copper alloys. Neutral water deposited on the inl.ernal su rfaces of -cycle as exhaust from the condenser. formation of non-slicking movable
conditions have been employed at a tubes, protecting the metal against Chelate water treatment offers cer- sludge, phosphates should be added to
number of supercritical-pressure mo- corrosion. tain advantages typical for 'neutral' an alkaline medium. For this reason,
nobloc units for several years. The most intensive dissociation of water con ditions (increased time bet- sod ium phosphate is introduced uot
Chelate treatment of water. When iron chelates occurs at temperatures ween washings), but also possesses the into the feed water· which has a low
iron-oxide deposits form on heating of 250-300°C which are typical for ·drawbacks of the hydrazinc-ammonia alkalinity, but into the boiler drum
surfaces, the tern perature of tho metal the last stages or the high-pressure wa- treatment (an increased load on the where the alkalinity of the water is
is determined by the heating intensity ter heater and economizer, so that demineralizing plant, since a large sufficiently high due to multiple eva-
and the properties of the deposits, complete thermal dissociation (ther- ~uanlity of ammonia should be remo- poration. Thus, plwsphate-alkaline wa-
mainly by their thermal conductivity, mol ysis) would be expected to take ved from th e circuil, and a high use ter conditions are formed. The reacti-
which is l ower in porous deposil.s. place exactly in these el ements of the <>f rcuge~ts for filter regeneration). on of sludge formation can be written
Temperature cond i lions on healing steam -water path. The working fluid, in the rollowi ng form:
-surfaces can be improved by two me-
thods: by increasing the thermal con-
however, moves in this section or the 10Caso. + GNa 3 P0 4 + 2Na01l
path (high-pressure water hea ter and 15.3. Non-scaling Water Conditions
ductivity of deposits or by causing economizer) at a noticeable velocity, of Drum-type Boilers = 3Cu 3 tP0 4 )2Ca(OHh + ·101\n~S0 4 (15.3)
the deposits to for·m primarily in the '---v--'
3-5 m/s and 1-2 m /s , respectively.
tess heated elements (say. in the eco- Moreover, in su percritical-pressure Drum-type boilers arc often fed non-sUcking movable easi ly soluble
sludge sodium sulphal o
nomizer) , rather than in the lower ra- boilers, the temperature of the working ·wi I h softened water, i.e. water that
.(liation section. fluid increases quite rapidly as it mo- -contains easily soluble substances, ma- The reaction products are removed
The properties of iron-oxide depo- ves along the path (at a rate of rough- inly sodium salts. by blowing-down. For the complete
sits and the regularities of their for- ly 100°C/min). For these two rea- Owing to inleakage of the cooling removal of calcium salts, a certai n
mation in the steam-water path can sons, the thermolysis of chelates can- >vater in condensers, calcium and mag- excess o[ phosphates is maintained in
b e changed by employing the chelate not como to its end in the economizer nesium salts can also get into the feed t.he boiler water. The excess of PO~
treatment of water. The method of and partially continues in the next water. These salts have a very low so- for boilers witbout s tepped evapora-
-chelate water treatment has been pro- element of the path, the lower radia- l ubility (milligrams and tens of milli- tion is 5-15 mg/kg; for those with
-posed and developed by T. Kh. Margu- tion section. Therefor·e, iron-oxide de- grams per kg water), which further de- stepped evaporation, the excess of
i ova et al. and consists essentially in posits in su percrilical-pressure boi- <.reases with increasing temperature. POt- is 2-6 rog/ kg [or t.hc clean se-
the following. Feed water is treated I ers are distributed in the following During · steam generation at a high ction and not more than 30-50 mg/kg
with ammonia and hydrazine hydrate manner: around 80% settle in the eco- press ure, the concentrations of those for the salt section.
added in the same quantities as in the nomizer and 20% in the lower radia- ~a ll s readily rise to a value at which Due to the hydrolysis o[ phosphate
<.onventional hydrazine-ammonia me- tion section. On addition of the chela- they can form scale. Not all calcium ions that takes place in phosphate
thod. In addition, chelates are intro- tes, the deposits in the lower radiati- and magnesium compounds form sca- treatment, hydroxy ions form which
duced into the doaerated feed water on section become denser and have a l e; some of them form sludge. Some furth er increase the water alkalinity:
in a quantity equh·alent to the con- higher thermal conductivity, which kinds of sludge !such as Mg 3 (P04) 2 1
centration o[ iron and copper in it. lowers the rate at which the tempera- can stick Lo heating surfaces, which is PQ~- + H~O = HPOi- + OH- } (15 .4)
I Chelates aro su bstances capable of for-
ming water-soluble compounds with
ture of the wall rises in timo and ma-
kes it possib le to prolong the period
also undesir·able. Calciu m and magne-
swm can form non-sticking sludge
HPOi- + H,O = H~PO;+OH-
7
Fig. 15.1. Effect o£ pressure on the steam
t roduced into the boiler drum by me- quality in a once-through boiler (Per > ·~ '
I
I
tering pumps. > P1 > P2 > P l) ......... f
In recent times, the quality of feed r-.....
p
Fig. 15.3. Internal cyclone steam separa tor
wat,er at powor stations has improved water. Thus, the q ua lity of s team pro- J- hous ing; 2-l rtl<~t J)irw connt!ction: J- covcr·
appreciably clue to lowe r· inleakage in- du ced in once-t.hroug h boilers is con- 0 4 8 12 MPa J- collur; j-stt>am-wn1N' mixturr in : 6- cross:
pi..ce; 7- llotlom
to c ondensers, t hus resuting in a hig- troll ed by specifying the q u11lity of Fig. 15.2. Effect of pressure on the steam
her quality turbine cond ensate. This feed water. velocity in the holes of a submerged distri-
makes it possib le to employ water con- In drum-type boi lers, the purity of bution plate moistening. Th is is performed iu s tea m
dit.ions with a lower degree of phos- saturated steam, and therefore, of J- mlnimal ,.c, Jnclt ~·: 2-rccomrnf·ndcd velocity separating devi ces .
phate treatment. o r eYen to dispense w il h superh e ated steam is d etermin ed by The principal s tMm-sepa rating de-
phosphate trc:1t ment a nd change to the qu a lity of the wa ter from which it achi e ved at a lower ris ing velocity of vice in high-capac it y s te om boil ers is
no-phos phat o non-se aling wa ter condi- is prod ucod. \\' i I h a I ower concen tra- steam in the dru m. a cyclone separator which is nrranged
1 ions . 1\'o-phos phate wa ter conditions tion of impuri t ies in boiling water Among t.hc s imples t and most effi - ins ide th e boiler drum . An internal
make t he boiler operat.ion l ess expen - (under id entical conditions). c leaner ci ent devices for steam separa tion are cyclone separator (Fig . 15. 3) is essen-
s iv e (since c.onectivc additives arc steam can be obl.nincd. mowing-down perforated plates made of s teel, with tially a cylindrical ver tical housing
no t used), d ecrease tho salt content of drum- type boilers can improve the the perforations 5-12 mm in diameter. 300-400 rnm in di a meter into which
in boiler water, improve the quality quality of circulating water, though A perforated plate is mounted 100- steam-water m ixture is introduced
of s team, and lower the cost of boiler e xcessive blowing-down can diminish 150 mm below the average water l e- tangentially at a s peed of 6-8 m /s .
equ ipment. the e fficiency of the steam- turbine vel in the drum; it is called a submer- Upon entering tho cyclone, the s t eam
plant owing to heat loss with b low- ged plate (as in steam generators of flow kinetic energy produces a centri-
15.4. Methods for Generating Clean down water. nuc lear power s tations). A nother pla- fugal effect, and the flow is whirled
Steam Separation of moisture drop lets from te is arranged in the steam s pace at at t.bo cyclone s urface. Water is pres-
steam. T o produce clean steam, it is th e top of the drum (perforated baffle). sed aga ins t the walls and flows down-
The purity of s team should satisfy essential, first of a ll , to dry it as com- Both plates serve to equalize the di- ward, whi le steam flows from tho cy-
extremel y high requiremen ts. For in- plete ly as possible, i.e. to separate wa- stribution of steam over the drum cross clone uniformly nt a velocity around
stance, the total concentration of i m- ter droplets from the steam flow. section ..For uniform bubbling of steam 1 m/s from beneath the cyclone cover
purities in s uperheated steam of su- Steam-separating s ys tems should sat isfy th rough the s ubmerged plate, a into the s tea·m space of the drum (Fig .
percrit.ical pressure must not exceed the following main requirements: low continuous steam layer (s team cushi- 15.4). A cross-piece in the cyclone bot-
40-50 !lg/kg. Methods for producing water content in the produced steam, on) should be fo rm ed beneath the pla- tom stratifies the water flow which
clean steam vary depending on tho high unit steam-generating load, a nd te. The condition of steam cushion sta- moves smoothly into the wa ter space
type of plant. low hydraulic res is tance. bility (see Sec. 13.1) is determined by of the drum. The number of cyclones
In once- through boilers, the wor- The s eparation of mois ture from s team velocity in the perforated plate in a drum is determined by the capa-
kin g fluid (water), is continuously va- steam is based on th e densit y diffe- ho les . This veloci ty depends on pres- city of the cyclone which in turn de-
porized, so that its impurities are par- rence between water and steam. A s ure , i.e. it is lower at higher pressu- pends on its dimens ions and pressu re;
i! tly deposited on heating s urfaces and wa ter droplet in the s team s puce of a res (Fig. 15.2). the capacity of a cyclone 300 rom in
I partly carried off with steam. With an
increase in pressure, the concentrat i on
boiler drum is ac ted upon by two op-
pos ito fo rces: t he li fting force a nd the
Tn high-capacity boilers , each eva- diameter at a pressure of 4 MPa,
pora ting tu be d elivers into the drum 10 MPa and 15.5 MPa is res pec tively
r of impurities in steam increases and force due to grav ity. The relntions hip up to 1 000 kg/ h of steam-water mix- 4 tfh, 6 t /h and 10 t /h.
' the quality of steam app roaches that between these forces and the tim e of ture o n the average, some tubes d eli- internal cyclone separation is ra-
.l o f feed water (Fig. 15.1). Blowing- their action d etermine wheth er o d ro- ver up to 1 500 kg/h . These powerful t her effective, but increases the hydrau-
i
I
down is inapplicable in once-throug h plet will be c arri ed oH by s team or set- fl o ws ejected in to the dru m possess a lic resis tance of t he circuit, which
bo ilers. The sole way t o make cl ean tle on t he water s urface. It is cl ear h ig h k ineti c e nergy which s hould be shoul d be considere d in circulation
steam is to impt·ove the quality of feed that a higher sepa rating effect can be d a m pened in order to minimiz e steam calcula tions.
186
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 15. Water Conditions 187
15.4. Method$ for Generating Clean Stearn
\,;.,_
•
I _1,
--
7
Fig. 15.7, E ffect of pressure on the s team
,·eloci ty at which wate r d rople ts ca n be
I] broken off from the li quid film surface
External cyclones have a lso found nal cyclone separato r (Fig. 15.5) is fig. 15 .6. Unifi ed built-in (s tart-up} s Lca m 1\ powerfu l reactor mn y have a ntun-
wide application for steam separation m ade in the form of a \'ertical cylin- separa tor ber of separating drums con nected in
in drum-type boilers ; they arc moun- der 350-450 mm in diameter. The steam- J- header; z - whlrl er insert; 3- whlrlcr: 4 - parallel. For instance, the reactor unit
t ed outsid e the boil er drum. An exter- <ll strlbullng cone: 5-steam-water mixture in;
water mixture is int1·oduced t au- o-stcam out; 7- drainage ot separated wnter type RBMK-'1000 (t 000 MW) has
genti a ll y and the separation process four separating drums. The drums are
5. is essentia lly the same as in an inter- ployed in su percritica l-pressure mo- mnde of carbon steel Grade 22K
nal cyclone separator. The height nobloc unils for 500,800 and 1 200MW. (0.22 C boi ler}, with the entire inter-
-;-? ~ of an external cyclone is determined by
the sum of the requ ired heigh ts of the
[[ wet steam moves in a tube at a
moderate velocity, it.s moisture pre-
na 1 surface being plated by stainless
s teel. The drum is 31 m long and has a
4/ steam space (1.5-2.5 m) and water dpi ta tes and fl ows along the walls as di ameter of 2.3 m. The connection di ·
' sp ace (2-2.5 m) to ensure efficient se- a n annula r film. This process is called agram for the separating drums of
paration and stabilize the operation film separation. For effective separa- an RBMK-1000 reactor is illustrated
3, of the downtake l.u bes in the circu la- tion of the fl ow into steam and water, in Fig. 24.13. Tho number a nd dimen-
zt:1=~='- tion circuit which are connected to
l he external cyclone.
the flow velocity should uot be exces- s ions of separating drums are not re-
lated to tho dimensions of the reactor
sively high , othenvi.se water droplets
In once-through boilers , the steam- will break off from the fi Im and be car- and are chosen so as to attain tho high-
' ~ water path is provided \l'ith a stat·-
ting-up unit mounted b etween the fur-
cied off ·by stenm. Th o highest allowa-
ble velocity depends on the pressure
est degree of steam drying. Separa-
ting dmms of the desig n described can
nace water walls and the s ubsequent and steam content of the flow (Fig. produce steam with a water co ntent of
425m.'111 tfitr. J5 heating surfaces. One of its principal 15. 7). not moro than 0.1 %.
elements is a built-in separator (for At present, turbines of nuclear po- In water-moder ated water-cooled
' more detail see Sec. 23.4). l t has a ver- ·wer stations operate mostl y on satura- tank-type reactors, st eam separation
t-
~ tical cylindrical housing with a s ingle
stage of s team-separating ,·anes inside;
ted steam. T herefore, to attain high-
er efficiency, the moisture content of
is carried out in the reactor housing
(see Fig. 24. 12} . Preci pi tating separa-
to- 1- the stea m-water mixture is introduced steam musl be as low as possi blo, tion in a small volume is insuf£icien-
_t~ '- a t th e top (Fig. '15.6). Wa ter droplets which is achieved by careful primary tl y effective. The steam-water mixture
L.
I are thrown to the wa lls by centri fu- separation with a slight superheat be- fonll ed in the fu el assemblies of
'ljf
gal forces, water flows through an au- fore tho low-pressure cylinder of the the reactor core is fed inlo a colle-
nulat· drainage chamber and is rem o- tu rbine. The process dingram of sepa- cting box and then through parallel
Fig. 15.5. Typical ex ternal cyclone sepa ra-
ved through a side drainage tube. D ri - raliO il is dete rmined by the type of vettica I tubes into axial cyclo nos.
tor ed steam passes from th e separato r t:eactor. Upon separation, water is retur ned
! - header: t-steam·wntcr mixture In; 3-wbirle r: through the bottom chamber. This I n channe l type graphi le-wator rea- int o the water space, while steam rises
4-pe rforatcd plat.e; s-stenm-outlct pipe· 6-alr design of separator has been unified, through tho central portion of the cy-
vent; 7-blow·down: 8 - dOII"ntake tubes · 9-water ctors, saturalod steam is separated in
from drum; W- cross·piccc ' h as standard d iJnensions and is om- hori1.onta l dl' l l lllS outsid e tho 1·eactor. c louos into n steam drier and thon is
188
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 15. Water Conditions 15.4. Methods for Generatin g Clean Steam 189
324 mm tiin main steam flow into a preliminary Fig. 15.9. Saturated Steam outLet
7
te: 4- dralnagc pipes; 7- cor- ..... r- v 7 A-A
less-steel plates (Fig. 15.9). Each r ugnted ,,tates; 8-moisturc-
lrtiJll'ing pocket :,...-
• .
bend of plates has a welded-on corner
l_ ~
-.
--
•
plate which forms n vertica l pocket for ~
A .
-
A
tra pping and removing moisture .
S team washi ng . Re-writing equa- 2 - . ·- (j
-• .
I
proving the quality of feed water J 7 8
, _,___ 2 (which involves extra expenditures on
,... water treatment), or decreas ing the- 4 --- Steam intet
water content of steam (achieved by
f 8 enLarged
separation of mois ture from steam
flow), or by decreasing the distribu- 7
tion coeffici ent. The distribution coe-
fficient is I. he constant of eq u ilibri-
um betweou boiling water a nd satu-
rated steam and depends on pressure
and on the physico-chemical properti-
t es of s ubstances dissolved in water.
For a particular dissolved s ubstance. an equilibrium will be established ac- As the new equilibrium is est ab-
Fig. t5.8. Primary centrifugal separator of given pressure and given conce ntra~ cording to the dissolving power of lished, the dissolved impurity in
ax ial type tion of the impurity, the distribution tho steam with respect to a given sub- steam will partly pass over into water,
J - wbirlcr; B- CJc:ione; 3- c hanncl tor primal)'
removal or separated mol.•turc· 4- ltow-straightc- coefficient. is constant. I n t urn, kd = stance, which depends only on the since C , 2 /C1w > lc 2 , and therefore, its
nlng vanes; 4-ch!'nnrl lot the' secondary removal
or separated motsture: 6-scparatiJlg vanes In
= C~"/C':,:•, and therefore, cleaner process parameters. The equilibri- concentration in the steam will de-
the path or secondary moisture; 7- prcdrier s team can be produced at kd = constant um state is characterized by tho di- crease and that in tho wash water, in-
by decreasing the concentration of im- stribution coefficient k 1 = C 01 /Cbw· crease. With a good, sufficiently long
purities in water, which again invol- As steam passes further through a la- contact between the two phases,
delivered through sloam pipelines to ves extra expenditures on water treat- yer of feed water w ith a low salt con- C s•iCfw > lc2.
Lho turbine. · ment. centration C1w. a now equ ilibrium s tate Si nce both processes (steam geucru-
A feasi b lo version of a primary cen- Noti ng, however, LhaL tho purity of is established and tho steam will tion and washi ng) occur at the same
trifugal separator for tank- type rea- delivered s team is determined not by have another salt concentration cor- pressure, k 1 = k 2 • Furthermore, sin-
ctors is shown in F ig. f 5.8. Under the the wat~r from which it is generated, responding to the distribution coeffi- ce Cbw is m uch greater than C Jw•
~ction ~f centrifugal forces developed hut mamly by the water with which cient k 2 ..:... C. 2 1Ctw· it t ur ns out that C, 2 is much lowe r
t n a wlurler, the steam-water mixture it contacts on eutry into the s team space than C 11 • A strong washing effect can
is separated i nto the p eripheral water of the drum, it is possib le, with feed be achieved by passing s team in [i ne
layer which moves along the inter- water of a given quality, to s ubstanti- jets through a water bed, for i nstance,
nal cylindrical wall of the cyclone, and ally reduce the concentration of im- Crw
through a perforated plate. Upou wa-
the steam flow which moves through purities in s team by washing, i.e. =----- -~- - -
--- ~---- ~- - 1- -
--
.
the cyclone core. The main mass by passing it at the las t stage o( the -- - - - - - -- - shing, saturated steam is subjectt:d to
secondary separation to reduce its
of water is removed from the cyclone process through a layer of pure water , moisture content roughly tu its pre-
via tho primary drainage channel which say, condensate or pure feed water. washing level. The sim plest steam-wa-
is provid ed with straightening va- This is accomplis hed in bubble-cap shing device is a perforated plate onto
nes to stop rotation o( tho water flow. steam washers. which wash water is poured '{Fig.
The remaining water is removed Steam was hing by bubbling consists
----- ""·
- - - - - ,-- --
- r-- - - - - · -- 15.11). For efficient operation, wa-
through a secondary drainage channel essentially in the following (Fig. ---- -- -- - ter sJ10uld not bo allowed to p as, tlno-
in which vanes are mounted to separate 15.10). Suppose that dry s team of a ugh the perforations, especially at
the steam which enters this channel salt concentration C is gen erated low loads. This is attained by main-
together with water. The separated fro~ boiler water wit.h31 a high concon- Fig. 15.10. Principnl.diagram of steam wash- taining u definite s t oum velocity (see
steam is directed together with tho tratlOn of salts C~w · In this process, Sec. 13.2).
'"tt
190
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 15. Water Conditions 15.4. .Me thods for Generating Clea n Steam i9i
'
--
--
....__
--
_- -
lii)-
- :- --
- --
- - - - --
- - ~------L-------~~~
Thus , the device shown in Fig.
15 .13 has two e vap ora tion 13t ages. As-
- - lJL!. -- -- -- - - ·_K -- --
- - s uming, for inst ance, t he relative 11r 111T
~
tiCi pa te 111 s tea m wash ing. conte nt. _exceedin g t ha t o f feed wa t er As ma y b e seen, i 11 two-stage ev a- c a n d ete rm ine the qu n lily of s atura-
S tepped evaporation. The ba lance b y ~ 0'1 Lt mes. T he q uality of steam can pora tion, c~to is much lower tha n ted s team pr odu ced at a sel ected va lue
of s nits for the simp lest ve rs ion of the be tmproved by more i nte ns ive blo- Cl~, and for this re aso n the firs t com- of p of extern a l blowing-down. It is
wa ter conditions of a drum-ty pe boi- ~ving:d.own, IJu l this is economi cally partment, where th o s alt content of cl our tha t at n 11 = 0 a nd nn = 100% )
l er with blow-down (Fig . 15 .1 2) is tnefftct ent. Fo r co n t inuous blowin"- water is not hig h , is called the pure there will be no s tepped eva po ratio n
I
as follows : down, the blow-down ratio is tak;n compartment and th e second, whore and the quality of stea m in t hose ex-
+
nc. n bdcbd = (D n bd>c,ID+ within 0.5-1.0% if the water Joss is
r e plenished by dis tillate from evapo-
water has a h igh salt conlont , is cal-
l ed the salt compartment. The ratio
treme cases will be the same a nd cor-
r espond to the highest contamination _
(15.5) ra tors or by d emineralized water, and C,J~Iq 10 is ca lled the concentrat ion ra- I n the w hol e r egio n of s l epped ev apo-
Div iding both parts of equation 0.5-3% of chemically purified water is tio. I n the above example, 8 0% of the ration 0 < nn < 100 % , the quality
(1 5.5) by D and deno t ing DbdlD = added. total quantity of s te am are generated of s team will be higher (it will have a,
= p , we obtain: A more effi cient method is that of from wa ter h a ving a low salt concen- lower content of impurities) than in a
stepped evaporation proposed by
C.+ pCbd = (1 + p) C1w (15.6)
E. f. Romm. The boiler drum is divi-
tration, and therefore, the mai n m ass
of steam _produced has a hig her qua li-
s imple s ingle-stag e sch eme (Fig.15.'14).
One can calcul ate the optima l steam-
wh erefrom ded b y a pa r t i t ion into t wo compar t- t y than i n th o scheme with one eva- genera ti ng capacity nu a t which
_ (1 + p) Cjw - Cs ments (Fig. 15:13). Each of them is poration stage, and o nly 20% of tho steam will have the lowes t concentra-
Cbd- (15. 7) Coilllecl od to a group of c ircul a tio n
p total quantity of steam are generated tion of impurities. Each particular
Neglecting the sail content of s loam circu its not interconnected b y t he wa- from water o f t he same quality as in val ue o f p in extern a l blowing-do w n
(C . :=:-:: 0) and assuming, for ins tan- ter path. Tho water s paces in th e two the s ing le-st age method. Therefore , h as a co rres pond ing optimal val ue nu.
compa rtments communicate only the qua lity or s team in two-stage eva- With internal stepped evaporatio n
D Cs t!u:ough a small hole provided i n the pa r- pora tion is su bstan t ially be tler than in boiler drums, the difference in the·
lttwn. F eed wa t er is fed into t he firs t in s ing le-st age ev a porat ion. water levels in the compa rtmen ts is
/ ...., (larger~ compa rtment and blowing- The overflow of wa ter from the pu- not large in vi ew of the limited height
• - - - - ---
D•Du }-_- - - ,_-
- -- OJ
down IS effected thro ug h t he second
(smaller) compartment. Boiler wa t er
re to th o saiL compa rtment is essentia l-
ly intern a l bl owing-down of the for-
of the wa ter a nd steam space · of the
dmm. T h is roa y cause a revers e ov er-
c,,., I
' can flow throu gh the partition l1o le
from the firs t int o t he s econd compar-
mer. J 11 contras t. to external blowing- fl ow of wn l er. If this d ifferonce is in-
CJ'onsed by ra is ing the water level in
down, interna l b lo wing-down invol-
FiR. 15.12. Simplilicd diag ram of orga niza- t ment, but the wal or l evel in t he lntter the p u re compa r t me nt, tho heig h t of t ho
ti on of water conditions in a boiler drum ves no l osses of heal, no r of t he wor-
c fw• cbw • cbrl' c.- couccn tra llons or substnnces
a.lways remains below that in the for- king f luid , so t h a t tho blow-down ratio s t ea m s pace will diminish, a nd there-
rcsprctlwly in reed waler . bofl r r walcr. blow- mer. Steam is removed from t he d ru m can b e chose n sol el y from considera- fo re, th o carry-off of wa ter droplets
down water, an d strnrn only t h rough the fi rs t compa r tment. will i ncrease. A d ecrease in t he water
ti ons on how lo obtai n t he best q uali ty
1.92
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch . 16. Pro cesses on Fireside of Heating Surfaces 16.1. JII ccha ntsm of Scaling 193
.... the water levels in the compartments ticles of ash are carried orr [rom the whi ch fall on it; these form an exter-
9 ~ will be high enough to avoid a rever- furn ace by combustion products. The nal loose layer of deposits. Thus, depo-
f 4 ~.. se overflow of water. For this reason, behaviour o[ . ash particles in th e fur- s il s on the tube surface in this regi-
10
......"'~
~
schemes with external cyclones are
preferred, especially at a low capacity
nace and flue duels of boi \er depends
on their composition and phys ica l
on of gas temperatures most often ha-
\'0 two layers: a dense internal layer
--
--- ~
of the salt compartme nt. properti es (mel ting point , viscosity, and a loose, or friable external layer .
3 The effectiveness of s t opped cvnporn- thermal cond uctivity, et c.). Ash rwrticlcs can quickly form grow-
8 .. ---- tion increases, though not in proporti- The composition of ash includes a ing doposi ts on furna ce tubes in the
Clean compartment --- on , with the number of stages. Two- s mall quantity of low-fusible compo- zones wh ere high- temperature gases
7
an d three-stage sche mes ha ve fou nd unds, mainly chlorides and sulphates co ntac t wat.or walls. Firs t, ash a nd
6 wider application. The scconrl evapo- of alkali metals INaCI , Na 2S0 4 , CaCI 2 , s lag particles in a semi-liquid or sof-
5 ratio n stage can be arra ngcd ei thor MgCI 2 , Al 2 (S0 4 ) 3 l with a ·melting tened s t a te are thrown onto tho sur-
Fig. 15.15. Two-sLnge evaporation circuit inside the boiler drum as in Fig. 15.13, point of about 700-850°C. They arc face of tho tubes; upon cooling, they
with an external cyclone or outside, i.e. in externa l cyclones vaporized in t.ho high-l,emperaturo zone adhere firm ly to the surface. The pro-
I-drllm; 2- c vaporatlng tubes or pure COmpart- {Fig. 15.15). In a three-stage schem e, of the flame core and then condcuse cess is ca lled sla.gging. Slag aggregati-
ment; J- feed wat er In; 4-snlt compartment
(external t.)•Cionc); .s- downlnke tube; 6- evuporaL- the first and second stages are usually on lhe s urface of the tubes, s ince ons may be qui t.e large in size and have
tng tu!Jcs of sn it compnrl.mcnt; 7- blow-ctown: arranged in tho boiler dl'Um and th o a mass of up t.o a few tons. The pre-
8- rcect line or snlt compartment; !1-cross-ovcr th o temperature of walls of clean l,ubes
s team tube; I O- stcam-drcu la Ling tube third in an external cyclone {Fig. is always less than 700°C. sence of relatively easily fus ible par-
15.1.6) - M'edium-fusible components of ash, ticles in the combustion zo ne is deter-
level in the salt compartment may di- I n external cyclones , the steam a nd wilh a melting point of 900-1 100°C mined by tho format ion of eutectics
sturb tho circu lalion. water space may be of any height. (PeS, Na~Si0 3 , K 2S0 4 , etc.) , ca n fot·m between moLa l ox.ides MeO (such as
With tho 11sc of extemal steam- This ensu res thoroug h drying of the the primary sticky layer on water- CnO, lVlgO, PeO or Fe 2 0 3 ) a nd s ilica
separn ti ng cyclo nos, th e d ifference in steam (due to a high st.cu rn s pace) wall and plate n tubes if the high-tem- S iO. or nl nmina minerals based on
and reliable operatiou of th o circ ulo- perature zone is too close to the tubes A l 2 0 3 • Tho ash o[ most solid fuels
tion circuits (due to a high water s pa- owing to im proper organization of contains 5 to ''lO% of metal oxides
f 2 J ce}, and prevents water curry-o vm· combustion (the flame touches the tu- MeO. A higher concentration of MeO
11 from the salt to the pure com purtmcnt. bes). lowers the soften ing temperature of
\
I
Stepped evaporation makes it pos- High-melting compounds of ash arc, ash and creates the risk of slagging.
sible to improve the purity of steam as a rule, pure oxides (Si0 2 , Al 2 0 3 , However , if ash contains more than
...____:::...._::...._
fst
___ ____, ..____,
2nd
at a given quality of feed water and
given blow-down ratio. Furthermore,
steam that is adequately pure can be
CaO, MgO, Fe 2 0 3 , etc.). Their molting
point (1 600-2 800°C} exceeds the high-
est temperature -in tho flame core, so
+
·ao% of Al 2 0 3 Si0 2 , its melting
point rises substantially; it becomes
high-molting.
evaporation evaporation obtained from water of a lower qua- that they pass through the combustion With an unfavourable mineral com-
stage singe 7 lity, which makes the water- treat- pos ition of fuel (if the content of cal-
8 6 zone without being cha nged, i.e. they
ment system simpler and less expen- remain solid . Si nco their particles cium oxide CaO is mor e t han 40%),
Fig. 15.16. Threc-sLnge eva poration circuit sive. Additionally, stepped evapora- are small. these components are main- s intoring (sulphation) may start in a
with an external" third stage tion can increase the efficiency of a ly carri e~\ off by the gas flow and con- dopos i tod friable layer formed on the
1- drum; :. J, and 5- Is t, 2nd and 3rd evaporation
stoges· 4- rced water In; 6- thlrd-stagc downtake steam-turbine plant, since the blow- stitute what is called fly ash. heating surfaces if S0 2 is present in
t\lbc; '7- tbl rd-stagc evaporating lubes; a-blow- down ratio can be reduced without a In the zone where the temperature the flu e gases. The process results in the
down; 9 and 10-cross-ovcr lube.~ ror water and
steam; II-stcam~lrculallng tube significant loss in steam quality. of gases is stiU high (above 700- growth of dense, firmly bonded slag
8000C}, low-fusible compounds are deposits on the tube surface (Fig.
first condensed from the gus flow on 16.1). Slaggiog may occur on the tu-
the surface of clean tubes and form the bes of water walls, platens, and secti-
primary sticky layer on them. At tho ons of the convective superheater in
same time, solid (high-melting) ash the region 'of gas temperature up to
particles adhere to this layer. They 600-700°C. Caked deposits may over-
solidify and form the primary de nse lap intertubular spacings of a width
PROCESSES ON THE FIRESIDE OF HEATING SURFACES layer of slag which is firmly bonded to of up to 400 mm. Horizontal and slight-
tho tube surface. Tho temperature on ly inclined tnbes are slagged more
16.1. Mechanis m or Scaling are transformed in the hig lt-t ern pera- t he outside surface of the layer i nero- intf:)ns ivoly than a re vertical tubes.
ture zone: part of them are mol t.od uses and further condensation from In zones of relatively low gas flow
Va1·ious m ineral impurities which and combined into larger parti cles gases is thus stopped. Tho rough out- temperatures (less than 600-700°C)
p ass into boiler furna ces together which fall onto the furnace bottom as side surface of that layer retains [i uo which aro typical of heating surfaces
with the organic mass o[ solid fuels slag, while the main mass of fin e par- so lid particles of high-molting ash in the convective shaft, friable depo-
I :1- 0 I ~24
194
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 16. Process es on Fireside of Heating Sur/a ces 16.1. Mechanism of S caling
•
19;)
iJ.O
2.0
I 7'
/- 7
-2
10.5
ZU
J.[j
"'
~ J(
" '::::- "' ~
.......... 4
f.O ·.;;: ~
....... w
f/ f'
u
0 2468h 4 6 8 10 tZ 14 16 mjs
t t (a)
Fig. 16.3. Fouling coefficient for tubes depending on Lhe concentration and particle size of
(h)
(Fig . 16.3a). On the other hand, t he th e load of a boiler can drop in opera-
Fig. 1G.i. Ca ked deposits on the surface o[ size composition of ash has a strong tion by as much as 50% of the t·ated
a tube
effect on the formation of deposits. capacity, the nomina l gas velocity at
II. s urfaces and form a layer of depos its . dynam ic equili bri um is eslnblis hec:L low velocities is unadvisable. Since
I J*
cients for various tube bundles
l.
1 !J(J Cit. 16. Processes
Download From Boilersinfo.com
011 Ftrestde of Heating Surfaces 16.2. !I brasio11 Wear of Convective H eating Su rfu as 197
Since fu e l-oil ash deposits contaiu a are still re lalivcly clean. Heco utly,
noticeable quantity of vanadium a nd the heat-wave cleaning method has fo- 1-----=:::;!_2
sulphur, they arc esse ntially acid. The und use. Jt is based on th e applicn-
addition of certa in substances wit.h al- t i on of acoustic lo\1·- frequency \1'1\\'es J
kaline properties to fu e l oil makes ash generated in a s pecial explosive-com-
depos its more friable. The same e£fecl
is obtained by a particular co mbusti-
bustion i mpulse chnmber.
R egenerath·e air heaters arranged
I
4
f
..
~
~ ~
on process, for instance, al an excess
air ratio c lose to unity 117].
outside th e boiler are cleaned by blo\\·-
ing their packing with superheated
..~
... 1\.""-.:: .
\
Some methods of cleaning heating steam (at a temperature '170-200 dcgC (a) (6) 2
surfaces from deposits are based on above the satmation point). Loss fre- fig. 16 .5. Distribution of coarse fractions
of fly ash behind a turning chamber and ""~-~""' ~
•
the dynamic effect of jots of steam,
water or air. The effectiveness of such
quently, water washing (water r emo-
ves sticky deposits, but increases co t·-
zones o[ dangerous abras ion wear of metal "".....~ I\1
of the heating surfaces .~
jets is determined by their runge, i.e. rosion) or shock- wave cleaning and (o) coils pa1all~l to theboiler lronl; (b) coils per· ~
by the distance at which a jet still p~ndicu l ar to the boilerlront; 1- coils; t - turnlng
thermal cleaning arc employed. Ther- chamber· s- distribution of coarse nsh rrncllons~
has a s ufficient dynamic head to d e- mal cleaning is based on pol'ioclically ·<~ -zone o r abrasion wear of tul:P~
struct deposits . Water jots have the raising tho t.ernporaturo of tho regene- Fig. IG.i. Abrasion wear of a tu be . in
greatest •·ange and the highest ther-
mal effect on dense deposits. Devices
rator packing up to 250-300°C by p ends on the total ash co ntent of cl, ru lon g i lud inal fl ow in an air heater
interrupting the air s upply to the ap- A w. J - tub••; 2 - up~rr lube plate
based on this effect are used for clea- paratus. In this way, s ti cky depos its The intensity of nbrasion \\'Oar o f
ning furnace walOL' walls. Water blow- are dri ed up and s ulphul'i c ncid is va- h eatina su rfaces may he uno,·cn over
t:> •
ing should , h owever, be calculated porized. the cross section of n g11s duct in which of wear is s nl>s tantially lower, si nce
carefully so 11 S to avoid s harp cooli ng the heating surface is loc.atod or Mo- s omo tubes are in an ae rodynam ic s ha-
of the tub e m etn l upon remova l of und the tuho perimeter. lt i ncrcases do\\' lwhind lhose in front of them.
tho depos its.
16.2. Abras ion Wear
significantly in places where th e gas With Lhe longitudinal flow of gases in
of Convect ive Heating Surfaces
!11 ulti-jet retractable blowers have flow turns through 90°, sny, on enlry tub es (as in air heaters), abrasion wear
found wide app lication for cleaning The steam boiler designer shou ld into the conveclive shaft (Fig. 1.6.5). occu rs in the inlet portion of a I nbc nL
radiation heating surfaces and convec- pay serious attention to measu res pro· Coarser ash particles aro thrown against a le ngt h of 150-200 mm due to impin-
tive superheaters. They operate on venting abrasion wear of the tubes of the rear wall of lhe s haft, which gement of coarse particle on th e wall
saturated or superheated steam sup- heating surfaces by particles of as h l eads to greater wear of the tubes ar- just after constrictio n of the gas jet
plied at a pressure of around 4 MPa. and unburned fu el. An improper selec- ranged on that wall. l n the cross flow (Fig. 16.7). Farther in the tube, the
Platens and in-line tube banks are tion of gas velocities in tho flue d ucL or staggered tube huntlles, the grea- flow is stabilized and coar se particles
cleaned by vibration cleaning: high- of the convective shaft can lead to test abrasion wear occurs on tho front move p arallel to the tube walls.
frequency vibrations transferred to intensive wear of Lubo metal in cer- portions of tubes alan anglo of inci- Convective tube hanks should have
heating tubes disturb t he bond between tain places, thinning of tho walls, and dence of gas flow of 30-50° (Fig. 16.6). no longitudinal gas channels in which
the tube molal and deposits. Vibration even break-through of tho tubes. gas velocity might increase substanti-
jl ' cleaning is carried out by means of vi- The mechanism of abrasion wear is
I n in-line tube bundles, the iu lcnsily
ally. Wear on the outer bends of a
r'
' brators aLLached to water-cooled rods . essentially as fo ll ows. Coarse parti- Comoustion tube is especially dangerous, since the
! Tho mos t efficient method for clea- cles of ash, which may be quile hard protfucfs tub e wall in such places is thinner.
ning convective heating surfaces in and have sharp edges, impinge on the The intensity of wear is determined
the down take sbuft of boiler furnaces is
shot-blasting, which utilizes the kine-
walls of a tube and continuously cut 'T 150" Jl by tho following factors:
off microscopic layers of m etal. Thus, (1) the kinetic. energy of ash or fuel
tic energy of flying 3-5 rnm cast-iron in critical places the wall is gradually ·~ 90m210· particles, which is proportional to
s hots. Shot is carded upwards in the thinned. Particles of unburned fu el the square of gas velocity wJ;
air flow and dis tributed over the whole (in particula r , of hard er grades, such 180" (2) lhe number of particles (concc u-
I: I
cross section of the shaft. The use
of shot is detonnined from th e opti-
as anthracite or sernianthrucite) can
also cause ab ras ion wear of the surfa-
tration f.t 081 ,) passing along the su r-
face per unit time, which depends on
mal intensity of sh ot-blasting, usual- ces. t h e ash content oi fuel and is an in-
ly 150-200 kg/m 2 of a convective shaft Thus, wear of tho boi lor tubes is crensi ng function of w11 ;
cross section. The shot-bl asting pro- determined first of a ll by tho abrasi- ·(3) non- uniformity of ash cont.:enlra-
I
cedure usually takes up 20-60 s. veness of ash particles, which, in turn, t ions ill tho gas flow' "'""' and or gas
I Shnt-blnsti ng is effective if it is 0 go 180 210 J5o• ve lociti es in the cross scctiou. /,·w;
depends on the content of SiO. in
~I
' regulal'ly carri ed out soon after boiler ash and increases noticeably \\;hen (It) l he density of tubes in n bn nd le,
! F .g. 16.6. Abrasion wear of a tuhc in cross
start-up when the heating surfaces Si0 2 >60% . Wear intens ity a lso de- flow i .e. th e rc lath·o tnhc pitch s 1 "rl.
I
I
19:>
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 16. Proceucs on Fireside of Heating Surfaces 16.3. Corrosion of Healing Surfaces 199
In the [inal resu lt, the intens ity of T o avoid corros ion damage Lo water rate a L relatively low temperatures of
wear, mm/year , d e pe nds on the t.hird 16.3. Corrosion of H eating S urfaces wa lls fu el and a ir s hould b e d istribu- the gases a nd working fluid (a ir).
power of gas vel ocity: ' .
· t ed evenly between the burners so The d ecisive facto r in intensive low-
Hig h -temperature corrosion. Tho thaL the excess ai r ratio in eac h bur- temperature corros ion is the presence
I we = am.k ~tf.l.ash ( I•ww,) 3 ( sl$1
-d ) t.s 't term 'high-temperature corros ion' im- of sulphuric acid vapours in the flue
ncr· is g reater than unity. It is advi-
plies corrosion damage of the metal of sa bl e to keep the flame from s triking gas flow . As the su lphur of the fuel
(16.2) tubes which are in contact with hig h- burns in the fla m e core, it forms s ul-
tile water walls ; th is is achi eved by
where Ct is the coeffic ie nt of ash a bra- tempo•·ature combus tion products a rranging the extreme (corner) bur- plmrous anhydrid e S0 2 • With a cer-
s ivencss, mm s3 /(g h) , m is the index (f1·g > 700°C). It includes two kinds ners farther from the side walls or by tain surplus of aiL·, S0 2 is furth er oxi-
of wear resistance of tubes, which d e- of corrosion which occur in various t mning them towa rds t he furn ace cen- dized to S0 3 by atomic oxygcu 0"
pends on the steel composition, and 't zones of the boiler and ar e of different t re. that forms in the high-temperature
is th o time of operation of a surface, h. chemical nature. One of them is tho Corrosion of the tubes of .convective zone of the flam e due to chain reacti-
• For Llto normal operation of u tube corrosion of wat~=:r walls in the hoi lor s uperheaters h as been detected on the ons of combustion a nd therm al disso-
for a t least tO years (-r = fiO 000- furna ce in tho zone of the flam e Col'O, combustio n of fuel oils whe n tho tem- ciation. Sulphuri c anhydride can djs-
100 000 h), the a llowabl e wear of its which is fos tered by Lite contact of tu- pera Lure of the tube walls excQeded sociate only at rather high temperatu-
>val l is I we = 0 .2 mm /year. be meta l with s ulphuro us gases. Ano- 610-620°C. This kind of corros ion, cal- res . The res ulting reaction of forma ti-
For staggered carbon-steel tube bun- ther kind is the corros ion of superhea- led vanadium corrosion, is caused by on and dissociat ion of S0 3 in the fl a-
-dles wi t h s1 /d = 2.5.~ the a llowable gas ter tubes and their f astening el emen ts the vapours of vanadium pentoxide me zone can be written as follows:
velo citi es determined by the normal in the presence of va na dium oxi des V .0, formed in furnace gases. If fu-
wea r by the ash of va l'ious fu els tHe in the gas flow. et"oil contains sodium oxid e, tho com-
Itt h2
80 2 +0' ~ SOa --+ S02+ 1 /202 (16.3)
as fo llows: Corrosion on the fireside of water u•alls bus tio n products will contain sod-
occurs in boilers fired by pulverized i u rn vanadates (5V 2 0 5 · Na 2 0·V 2 0<t) where /c 1 a nd k 2 a re the r eactio u ra te
Fue!l • . . . . . . . . . . . .w g' coals with a l ow y ie ld of volatil es
lll /S which have a low melting point constants of the direct and reverse reac-
Eki bastuz coal . 7.0 (anthracites , semianthracites, l ean co- (tm,. :::::; 600°C) . If the _temperature of tion, with k 1 being greater than k 2 •
Moscow distri ct coal 9.0 als) a nd h ig h-sulphur fue l oil. T his the s uperhea t er Lubes IS above 6 ~0 ~· As a result, SO 3 ap pears in a noticea ble
0
Chelyabinsk coal 10.0 kind of corrosion d evelops intens ive-
Ki zc l coal . . . . sodium vanadates can forrn a lLqutd concentration aL the boundary o[ the
10.5 ly on Lubes at the level of furnace bur-
I
Anth racite grade ASh
Donetsk coal grade T
..' 11.5
ners or s lig h t ly above it in the zones
film which is corrosive Ior various flam o core , but dissociates on compl e-
• 12.0 steels (carbon, low-alloyed a nd ~u tion of combus tion. Its concentra tion
i direct,l y s wept by flame. Under unfa- steai tic s teels). U ncooled fastenmg then gradually decreases .
I To sel ec t the proper gas velocity vourable conditions, the rate of cor-
l and spacing olements of tubes whose As the temperature of gases in t he
in the gas duct of a s team bo iler, the rosion wear on the front portions of
most economi cally favourable gas ve- t emperature is close to that of the_ga- gas path gradually decreases, t he pro-
tubes may be ~:~s high as 3-4 mm /year, ses are a lso subject to heavy vanadmm cess of S0 3 dissoci a tion is retarded and
loi cty Wee (see Sec. 20.6) s hould be i. e . water wall tubes in this zone get corrosion. is prac tically s topped at -Qo g = 1 200-
compared with the a llowable velocity out of o L·d er in less than one y ea r Corrosion is enhanced i n tho presen- 1 250°C. Thus , w i th q11icker cooling
W wc determined by lhe conditions of (with the wall thic kness 5-6 mm). ce of sulphur oxides in the gas flow. of the gases in the gas path, t he resi-
wear. lf i t turns out that lOwe > As established experimentally, the Sodium pyrosulphates Na 2S 2 0 7 are dual concentration of S0 3 will he
> w 00 , the la tter can be used in cal - main corrosi on-active component in m ost dangerous for t he metal; in com- higher.
cu lations. Otherwise , t he velocity of furnace gases is hydrogen sulphide
gases s hould be limited by the condi- bination with V 2 0 5 , they make the As the gases pass furth er through
H 2 S . Even with a s light volu me con- me dium h ighl y corrosive even at tem- convective heating surfaces, the con-
tions o[ wear, which necessitates a u centrati on of H 2 S at a ·s ud ace (0.04-
increase in t.h e dime nsions of heali ug peratures near 600°C. The highest centration of S0 3 may even rise. De-
0.07%), the r ate of metal corrosion ra te of corrosion is observe d at 700- pos itions on h eating surfaces, s uch as
surfaces and fl uo duc ts. increases roughly tenfold. At tempera- 750oC and is typical for tube-fasten - soot particles, may serve as catalysts
In a ny case, th e ris k of abrasion
wea r s hou ld be minimized by Laking
tures of 1 400-1 600°C, hydrogen su 1- ing elements. for t he aftero xidatio n of so! to so3.
phide burns in the presence of oxygen The rate of vanadium corrosion can As a result, the concent ration of S0 3
proper measures to prevent wear of Lu- a lmost instantly. Therefore, it can be be d iminished by giving various a lka- in the gases constitutes 1-5% of the
b es. These include placing steel cu[[s present in the zone near the water wa 11 li additives to fuel oil, such as an aqu- initial content of S0 2 , or 0.002-
o n the tube in th e p laces where inc rea- onl y iu a r educing medium where oxy- eous solution of MgCl 2 in a coucentra- 0.010% of the total gas volume.
sed wenr is most probable, such as tu- gen is locall y deficie nt. I n the zones where the gas tempera-
be bends a nd mounting cut-in inserts lion of 0.6-0.8 kg per t fuel o il. The
The primary product of t he reaction most e ffi ci ent method, h owever, is to Lure drops down below 500°C, S0 3
in the in let portions of air heater lu - of H 2 S with tube metal is ferrous su l- keep the temperatu re of su perheater begins to react with water va pours a nd
bes, etc. These devices are detachable phide FeS which is th en changed to tubes below 600oC. forms sulphuric acid vapours which
and Cfl n be easily replaced when the ferrous su lphate and fl a kes off fro m Low-temperature corros ion . This are carried by the gas flow. Tho pro-
bo i ler is shut. do1m for repairs nncl in- the tubes urface, thus exposing the tu-
·s pccLio n of hea ling s ul'faces. kind of corros ion occurs on the h ea- cess is complet ed a t a tempoL·a ture
be m ot nl l o furth er conosio n. tinrr s urfaces of a ir heaters which ope- ncar 250°C.
"'
200 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 16. Processes on Fireside of Beating Surfaces
11:..1. Corrosion of II ~ating Surfaces 201:
Corrosion on heating surfaces may
start if the tem pera tur e of the wall J K of Il 2SO 4 are supplied from the gas on, it is ess ential that lw = t/ p. +
and the boundary layer at tho wall 1.4 ..:_ flow. Thus, the rate of co,rrosion is +(10-15tC, i.e. the wall temperature·
turns out to be bel ow the condensati-
on_ point of water vapours or su lphuric 1.2 b
' propor tional to the condensation rate
of H 2 S0 4 vapours.
should be 10-15 deg C higher than the·
sulphuric dew point. This is economi-
?Cld vapours at their pa rtial pi"essures : The inte nsification o[ corrosion at cally feasibl e on ly in the combust io n
tn . the g?ses. TI1e t emperature at 1.0 I _I temperatures below 85-90°C is deter- of low-sulphur fu el oils and sulphurous.
' mined by the effect. of the so lution of solid fuels , fo r which the s ulphuric clew
wluch motstul"e is condensed on a so-
lid surface is ca1led tl1 e thermodynamic 0.8 s ulphurous a cid H 2S0:1 on the metal, point t/,. docs not exceed 100-1'10°C.
~I
t
dew temperature (dew point) td. 1,. For which forms at low temperatures by In other cases , th e te mperature of flue
pure wate~ vapours at their partial 0.5 - l t.he combination o[ H 2 0 a nd S0 2 on gases, which is determined by t w, will
pressw·e 1n combus tion products 0.4 l the liquid film su rf ace.
The rate of corrosion in the tempe-
be too llig h.
T he lowes t a llowab le temperature
PH,o = 0.01-0.015 MPa, td.JJ -
= 45-54°C. If sulphuric acid vapours \ ~2 \ rature range of 80-120°C decreases sub- on the surfaces of a tubu lar air healer
0.2
are present in the gas flow, tho tem- I\..__, I' t •. s tantially at a decrease in t he excess can be found from the formula:
pe~ature of condensation (sulphuric I a ir ratio (curve 2 in F ig. 1G.9), which
actd dew point til.p) is Sllbs tantially 60 80 100 120 1~ 0 •c is associated "'ith a less intens ive for- (16.5)
higher (up to '140-160°C). mation of S0 3 and H 2S0 4 vapou rs in
Fig. 16.9. Effect of temperature ou tbe where cx.g and a. 0 are the coefficients
For fuel oil combustion, the dew corrosion rate i~ pncl~ i og sheets of regenera- t he flue gases in that temperature
point can be roug hly determined from tive a 1r heu ter range. The same effect o u th e corrosion of heat tra ns fet· at the gas and air
the formula: 1- higll excess ai r rntlo In rurnuce (a ~ I . I J: rate is obtained wi1.11 a decrease i n the sides of: the heating s urface, W /(m 2 K),
:!-lowest nllowub lc excess nlr
1.03)
ratio (a 1 = 1.0 2-
I
su lphur content S'" in fu el. In this -o c and t,; a re tho temperatu res of the
t.~.p. = td.p. + 250 lf sro2 (16.4) cnse, the maximum of corros io n rate as gases at the ox it a nd the ai r at the in-
n function of wall temperature lw 1ol, °C.
wh e1·e sr = sw/Qi is lh e resol vcd temperature of a n 11q11cous solutio n of retains i ts original pos ition. The in- The coeffi cie nts 0.8 and 0 .95 con-
sulphur content of fuel, % kg/1\U sulphuric acid as n Junc tion of acid creas ed rate of corros ion nt f w below sider respccti vely the effect of tube
21 (a - 1) . ' co!lcentration, and the upper ones des-
and 0 2 = a 1s the concentrati- 80°C docs not significantly depend on fouling on the gas side a nd non-uni-
cn_be condensation te mperatu re (dew air conditions, since it is determined formity of the temperat ure fi eld of ga-
on of s urplus oxygen in the gas flow I powt) of vapours. As may be seen, ses over the cross s ection of the gas·
%0 • by the e£Iect of sul phurous , rather
even a slight concentration of H 2 S0 4 than sulphuric, acid on the metal. due b.
With a higher sulphur content of vapours in flu e gases (the do tted line The flow of gases produced by the Under comparable conditions, the
fuel and higher excess air ratio a. on the left) s ha rply i ncrcases the con- combustion of solid fu e l carries a large minimal wall t emperature of regenera-
mor? S0 3 form s in gases, resulLing i~ d_ensation t.empcralure, and th e liquid amo unt of fly ash, tho basic proper- tive air h eaters is 10-15 deg C higl1er·
a l11gher dew point. hlm formed on the wall has a high ties of which are due to th e presence of than that for tubular air beaters, sin-
Figure 16.8 presents the diagram of concentra tion of s ulphuric acid. co mpounds of calc ium and other alka- ce for the fo 1·m er cx.g is roughly equal
ph ase equilibrium betwee n li.qui d and Figure 16.9 s hows two typical cur- li metals. As fly ash reacts with to CX. 0 , while for the latter, CX.a ~
vapour in the two-componen t system ves of corros ion rate at different tem- su lphuric acid vapours, the concentra- ~ 1.8 ex./[.
H20-H 2S04 at various partial pressu- peratures on low- temperature heating tion of sulph uric acid in the gases Methods fo r increasing the wall tem-
res of water vapours. The lower curves surf~ces in contact with the flue gases decreases, ·r esulting in a lower corro- perature l w of air heaters and reducing:
at p = constant describe t he boi ling obtamed on com bns tio n of high-sul- sion rate. the rate of met al corros ion will be dis-·
phur fu el oil. As may be seen, the rate To avoid low-temperature corrosi- cussed in Ch . 19.
of corros ion varies non-m onotonical-
ly wi th the wall temperat ure (Fig .
16.9, curve 1). As l w decreases h·om
t h e dew point (a round 145"C), corro-
sion first increases s harply to a maxi-
mum at tw = 105-110°C, then falls
off steeply, and fin a lly, at temperatu-
res
•
of the wall be low 85- 90°C I there
I S a second rise in tho rate of metal
corrosion.
20 40 50 80 tOO% Corrosion of m e tal occurs in the pre-
sence of a condensed liquid film con-
Fig. 16.8. Pbase equilibrium o£ H 0 -H SO taining H~S0 4 on tho metal s urface.
sys ·...:m
- .
at var•ous t
pressures 2 •
Tt can cont,in uc fur t her if new portions
:202
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surface~ 17.2. R eliable Designs of Water Walls 203
.. are formed by a boiling economizer 6 mm) left between pa rallel tubes thro ugh boilers w i II be discussed se-
-""'"'_.... "... ..... .,.... -·-..... -"'"' -"'"'
-g ~ -o <-
...
C: (;
~
.=
...
u c
·- c
c
and, sometimes, by convective eva- (Fig. 17 .1a) , or gas-tight, made from
prossed or rolled finned tubes , smooth
parately.
Methods for increas ing circulation
., .,
0:: "
0. ~
tc.
c.e .."' -
-,!::
0
c. .....
.c ~
0
tubes with recta ngLllar fins welded to reliability. In pro per! y des igned and
= ...
<llC. " '-
Vl- ~
~
...
<'!
>
C) .."
c:. c:
~ the m o r from smooth tubes with i nter-
tubula r spacings filled wi th building-
manufac tured circulation circ uits ope-
rating under no rm al conditions, t here
up me tal (Fig . 17.1b-d). Water walls are us ually no difficulties as regards
440 62
"
1.0
14
540
570
145
215
230
49
39
19
30
36
19
21
25
(a) in which tubes are welded together
a nd fo1'm an all-welded gas-tight s truc-
the reliability of circ ulation. L et us
recall, however , th a t the drivi.ng cir-
14 570/570 230 32 46 22 t ure are al terna tely called mem- culati ng head decreases wi th i ncrea-
25 .5 565/570 260 - 58 '·2 brane walls. or membranes. sing press ure (s ee Soc. 12.1). An i ncrease
In boiler [urnaces which burn low- in tl1e unit stea m-generating capa-
volat.ile fuel s, th e zone of s table igni- city of a boiler is associated with in-
I :stance, at a n average pressur e o[ t ion and inte ns ive combus tion of the creas ing the width of tbe w a ter walls
i
4 MPa, t he hea t absor bed by radiant fue l is formed at the burner belt level of circulation circ uits, w.hich m ay i n-
h eating sm faces is ins ufficient to co- by ma king water walls from studded volve lar ge non-u niformities in the
v er the total heat demand for stea m tubes and coa ting them with a refra- beating of parallel tubes and adversely
·generation (62%), so that part of the ct.ory material (refractory-faced water affec t t he circul ation. With an increas-
heat spent o n water evapora tion is umlls, Fig . 17 .2). ing s team~genera ting capacity, the
·transferred to the economizer. Fo r hea t ing intens i ty of evapora ti ng t u bes
th is reason, t he economize r of m edium-
17.2. Reliable Des ig ns o£ Water Walls ..
i. ncrenses s ubs t anlin llv
pressure drum-type boilers is us ually As power engineering de velo ps and
·of the boiling type, i. e. water is not Fig. 17.1. Types of water walls /Jm ·e-tube water walls are employed employs increas ingly mot·e powerf ul
(<,>) with smooth (bare) tubes; (b) g ns·tlg lll with
·only heated i11: it to the satura tio n tmncd t ubes; (c) gas-ti g ht with wclilcd· on rectan- in all bo il er s ys te ms with vacuum (ba- boiler units for hi g h s team p a ra meters ,
.li ne, b ut a Iso par tially vapori zed . gu lar ti ns ; (d) gas-Ug ht wi th me tal buil ding-up th e roli a bilit.y req uireme nts of hoi-
belween tubes lanced dr a £t) furnaces. In n atu rnl-
204
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surfaces 17.2. Reliable Deslg~ of Water W alls 2(15
lers, especially of their circulation cit·-
cuits , become more a nd more rigo- -of h yd raul ic resista nce o[ these Lu- n ish th o hydraulic resistance of the
rous. hcs, 6.Pdcs 1 , passes quite steep ly a nd steam-circulating tubes, which can
Disturbances in circulation condi- .illtcrsecls the cu rve of usefu l heads in be achieved by increasi ng their cross
tions mainly occur due to u neven hea- t.hc circuit S ua at point A 1 (tho wor- section or decreasing their length.
Ling across the width of a circuit. \fo u- .king point of the ci rculation diagram). The total cross-sectioual area of sleam-
uui [orm heating alo ng t.h o heig h L At that po in t, Lh c hydraulic l'Csist- circu laling tubes is usually 30-
o[ the tubes in a circuit is of a nco is too high , 1111d th erefore, the cir- 60% that of tho steam-generating Lu-
m inor irn portance, s i nee in t ha L case /
cu ln t ion velocity a nd flow rate of bes.
a II parallel or vertical tubes recei-
f 2 water a re li m ited. Under such condi- Water wall scctionalizing. Since une-
ve roughly the same quantity of hea t tions . the stagnation margin of cir- ven healing of evaporating tu bcs is
· and are cooled similarly by the pas- -cltlation diminishes s harply, whi le the the principal cause or dangerous situ-
sing water. Uneven heating across t.he (a) (!J) limited flow rate of water mny fail ations, water walls arc :;ectionnli zcd,
width of a circuit may be caused by Fig. 17.3. Diagrams or natural -circul aLion. to ens ure r eliable heat remov11l from i. e. n group of tubes which are healed
an improperly desig ned circu Ia lion circuiLs the evaporating tubes. s imilarl y are combined into a section
circuit (see Fig.12.11) ot· by i nadequaLe (a) wi.th dirccl. delivery of a s t••run· w••l cr mixture- By increasing tho cross section or which is .fed separately with wn ter.
to bot ler drum; (b) with n s trnm· wnl cr lll ixturc
operating conditions (see Fig. 12.1 2). pn;smg th rough a header; 1- wnter-h-edin l! (down· t he downtake tubes , their hydrnu li c Pigurc 17.5 shows the disl.ri bulio n
T he former problem can us ulllly be ta ke) tubf"s : 2-rvapora lin~ (UJJLHk t·) tui>rs· J - res istance is decreased (t:.Pde•~), thus of \'Ciocities in a wa ter wall heat ed
s lcnm-ctrcu laling tu hPs ; 4- lwa der ' unevenly across ils width. The cor-
rem edied to some extent at the desig n decreas ing the circulat ion head (wor-
st.ag-e. Distu rbances duo to inadequate king point A 2 ) and iucreasi ng the rna r- ner Lubes receive s ubsta ntially less
Increasing the circul ation ratio. In -gin to stagnation. Ln this way, th o total heat t.han those in th e middl e or the
opera ting cond itions arc less detenni- circula l ion circuits, eva porating tu-
nate. Th e mai n cause or non- uniform bes can be connected either directly fl ow rate of w ater inc reases through wall and therefore cannot develop the
hea ting is_slagging of lubes. Sl agging is lo the boi ler drum or through headet·s both the uptake tubes a nd , more same useful head Su• = t:.Pde s as in
ne,·cr uulform all O\'er the stu·facc a nd s lcam-Cil'Culating tubes . important, through the poorl y heated the properly healed lubes in the mid-
of a wa ter \\'all and depends on many tubes, i m proving their operating con- dle of the wall, so that circul ation
For a g iven stc:~ru -ge n craling c.apa- ditions . stagnation, free wat er level or cil'-
fac tors, in particular, on the a ir co n- city of a circuit, th e requi red circLIIa-
diti ons in the [urrw ce , th e d istribu- tion ratio is ensured if tho flow rate The cross secti on req uired for down- culation revers11 l are likely to ap-
Liou or fu el by burnet'S in the fnru nce, of water is suffici ent for the reliable ta ke tubes is determ ined by calcula- pear in them. By providing partiti-
etc. Heavi ly slaggcd , and therefore, cooling of the healed tubes. This is ting the circulation; at high pressures, ons in the upper and lower hoarier,
poorly hcntrd tubes acquire on the achieved by properly selecting the i t may be taken equal to 0.4-0 .5 of corner tubes can be separated into an
"·hole substantially• lc.ss heat than do cross sect ion of water-supply and steam - t he c1·oss section of up take tubes for individual circulation circuit (sec-
clean lu bl's a nd for that reason develop circ ula ting lubes in t he circula- water walls on furnace sides and 0.7- tion), so that the circulaLion veloci-
a lower dri ving circulating heAd , tion c ircui t (Fig. 17.3). 0.9 of their cross section for platen ties in the two circuits can be roughly
meaning thnt less cooli ng (circulating) walls. equalized. The useful head in the se-
As shown in Fig. 17A , for a c ir- In the circulation circuit with steam- parated section will then decrease
water pMses through Lhcm. Such t u- cui t w ith s team-generating tubes co n-
bes are cooled poorly; in exposed por- nected d irectly to lito boiler drum circulating tubes shown in Fig. somewhat, but the margin to stag na-
tio ns free from slag they may become (Fig . 17.3a) and with 11 small cross 17.3b, it is essential , for more reliab- tion and circulation reversal wi ll in-
overh ea led. le circnl_ation , to additionally di mi- crease for the same non-uniformity
section of t he down tal e tubes, the curve-
With an increase in pressure, espe- .
ciall y at p > Hi MPa, the usefu l cir- -+.......--:::
·-f- .
cu lating head noticeably decreases (sec
Fig . 12.3). This involves a decrease in r fflf
·x ._
2
I "
the circulation ratio which has a rath- oJus
Sus•
er st rong effect on the temperature 11pdtJr---- . .
conditions in the metal of the heated I-
Fig. f7. 5. Circulation characteristi cs of
tubes. For this reason , it is essential
a furnace wn tcr wall wo ~ ---
to ensure t he required circulation rn-
tio at the desig n stage of circulatio n
(a) dis tribution o r userul head and c lt·culatlon
ve loc ity ac ross the width or a sectiona l! zed wn- J,
f\
t.cr wall : J-dtum; 2- u t>per header; J - mtd-
circuits . - - (b) - -
The reliability of circulation can G
dlc wa ter wall Lubes; 4- corner wate.r wall
tubes; ~-lowr r header : 6-tubes connl-ete d
into a sepa rate circuit; - - - unsecllonnltzed
'---..........
. ,...,t
i'-
1
be increased by increasing the ci rcu- o G,"' wnlcr wall: - sec lionalized wotrc woll; 1'-
(b) c irculation diac rnrn : 1- S«s or a w!•ak ly
lation ratio or by dividing wide water hcntcd circu it; 2-S «~ or an intcns lv!•l)'
wa lls iuto narrower sections (water fig . 17 .1,_ Ertect of the res is Lnn cc of water-- 5
feed ing t,11 bcs 0 11 th e flow rate throug h e vn- hen tell ci rcuit: ll.prlcs - pressure gra dient holore .
wa ll ~ccl. i ona lizin g) . pora Ling tu bcs scctlonallzlng; IJ.i'<l c•• n11d IJ.p dc s - po·cssu r<•
~
6
aradte nls in the circuits alter scctionn lh lnj( (0)
2{)6
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surfaces 17.2. Re!table Design of Water Walls 207"
of heating across tile wall width, and ployed in the downtake system of unit of the ascending or descending tu-·
the circulation velocity will be in- high-capacity boilers. bes to the movable rigidity belts is-
creased (working point A' in Fig. Figure 17.6 shows a typical lay-out shown separaLely in Fig. 17.6 (unit
17.5b). In the section with intensive- of furnace water walls and their ele- /). The entire water wall tube system-
ly heated tubes, the useful head will ments in a high-pressure boiler. Wa- and boiler setting attached Lo it can
increase and the circulation velocity ter walls 1, 6, and 7 represent a system expand freely downwards.
will decrease somewhat, but the mar- o~ parallel vertical tubes. Some por- In high-capacity boilers , curtain
gin to stagnation a nd circulation re- tLOns of the t.ubes may be steeply in- walls, or platens, are often used which
versal in that section still remains cl ined to match the shape of the fur- separate the furnace into a number of
sufficiently largo (working point A" nace (tubes forming the dry-bottom vertical shafts (see Sec. 7.1). Platens-
i.n Fig. 17.5b). hopper 9, tubes around burner ports are suspended in the same manner as
In gravity-circulation hoi lors , fur- 8, etc.). In high-pressure boiler plants side water walls. Some LulJes in a pla-
nace water walls are usually made where the available radiant heat re- ten are bent to form windows in the ·
from bare tubes covering all the sides leased in l,he furn;~r,e is greater than top portion or along the whole height
of the furnace. In high- and superhigh- that required for stearu generation, of it; these are provided to equalize
pressure boilers, tubes with an inside evaporating heating surfaces do not the pressure on both sides of a platen
diameter of 40-50 mm are used . Down- cover the entire surface of the fur- and prevent bending of tubes should
take tubes have a diameter of 60- nace. Therefore, other types of l1 ea- a 'puff' occur in the furnace (Fig.
160 mm or more. Large-diameter tu- ting surfaces can be arranged in it. 17 .7).
bes (600-800 mm) are sometimes em- Should this be the case, evaporating Methods for enhancing the reliability:
of water walls in once-through boilers•.
llnit I \Vater walls in once-through boilers
6 are arranged either vertically or ho-
rizontally (see Fig. 11.1). Depending
ff on the orionl.aLion of the tubes, t hey
may receive different quantities of
heat along the furnace height and
5
11111Il llllllllllllr='
1
depth and across the width.
t Fig. 17.7. Section of a curtain wall (platen)
J- Iower header; 2- tubes; 3-upper header; 4-
In ]Joilers with horizontal or slight-
ly inclined tubes, evaporating tubes-
are mult iply wound around the peri-
windows; 5- points or tube welding
phery of the furnace (Fig. 17.8). If
surfaces are arranged on the vertical one of the furnace sides is heated more·
----1+·- +1 walls of the furnace and superheater intensively than others, this non-
surface 3, on the furnace roof. Radia- uniformity across the w i.dth or depth .
tion superheaters can also be arranged of the furnace (or, what is the same,
1 at the top of the front wall or along along the path of the working fluid) ·
the entire height of the furnace front; will have no effect, since all tubes pass-
in some cases, superheater and evapo- around all the sides of furnace and
rating sections are arranged alterna- non-uniform heating will be of the·
tely. same degree in all parallel tubes.
All upper headers are mounted rough- In order to minimize the mass of the
ly on the same height and suspen- tube system, Lhc furnace water walls
ded from the boiler structure. Furnace of high-capacity high-pressure boi-
water walls are provided with ri- lers are made from tubes of a small
10 gidity belts 12 of steel sections, which, inside diameter (25-40 mm) . In this
on heating, can move freely together case, Lhe number o[ par::tllel tubes.
with tubes. Furnace waLer walls of- must be increased to maintain the
to n carry a boiler setting which is co- same mass flow rate. These two cir-
vered on Lhe outside by a casing, or cumstances, i.e. an increased boiler·
shell (see Sec. 21. 1). Thus, the boi- capacity and smaller tube diameter,
Fig. 17 .6. Arrangeruent of water walls in the furnace of a high-pressure boiler ler structure carries the suspended wa- require that the width of the tube-
1-tront water wall; 2-downtake tubes; 3-roor wa ter wall; 4- stcam-clrculatlng tubes• 5-slaJ screen· ter wall system together with the boi- band in the furnace be increased ..
r.-rear watcri_wall; 7- sld.e water wall; 8-tube arrangement around burner ports; 9- dry hot tomWbopper: With a wider tube hand, non- unifor--
JO-b01Icr structure; JJ-slag •creon hnader; 12- re intorc•men l bPlt ler setting and casing. A connection
:208
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 17. Euaporallng Heating Surfaces 17.2. Reliable Design. of Water Walls 209
.Left side
wall
Rear
wall
Ri'IM side
'waLt
Front Fig. 17.8. Development of furnace water
walls of a Ramzin once-through !Joilcr -- --
wall
1- supply head••rs: t-dischnrgc hMdcl"!' II-..... I . II
'J
I I
•
2 2
.
II
-+-
2 ' II
'
I
t
• . -- .......
--
.....
'
' ' '
•
' ' Fig. 17 .10. Diagram o[ fastening of water
I
walls with horizon tally coiled tubes
1-rWJ\'Hl>l<' fnsten in~s; 2- n xNI (aslt:ntng-6
Fig. 17.12. Series connection o£ sections of
a furnace wa ler wall
'\ ly in the middle and in ILlOvable ~u p / - i nlet or the working fluid Into the Waler _wnll:
1\. u- wHte r wn ll sections: J- downtakc tulles . 4-
/ ports to all ow [or therm al oxp ~ns 10n, to next section
/ /
I
at the ends (Fig . 17.10). Honzontal
~· winding of the Lubes sim plifi~s the
I I with essential! y long horizol\lal par-
"""
:mily of heatiug aloug lhe height of ry horizontal tubes (Fig. 17.8) . I n
connection of water wa lls 011 ad Jacent
furna ce sides, remedies the problem Lions and short verl.ical bends (Fig .
·lJlC furn ace in Lhc parallel lubes of a other versions , a band rises on the rear of shadowing the CO I'll Or tu be portio us, 17.11). This system is less sensitive
band becomes rnore su bslantinl. Be- s id e only or else on all four walls . The and improves the ~0 ~1cli t i o ns of u~i Lo uneven heating, especially when the
cause of this, lhe working fl uid fl ow angle of incline of a band depends on form heati 11g of i ncl l\'ldual tubes, s tn- cross-sectional dimensions oE t.he fur-
·in high-capacity boilers is divided ils width (the number and diameter of ce tube bands extend around the whole naces a rc large, and is employed '~hore
into a number o[ parall el f lows, i.e. tubes) and on the width of the furnace perimeter o[ the fu ruace. With l~ or ~ the water walls are nol made gas-ttght.
a number o[ parallel t.ubc bands are walls and is usua ll y equal to 12-15°. wntal t ube winding, however, 1t LS Tube fa stening iu lite mea nder sys-
arranged in lhc furna ce. Thus, the The number of tubes in a band is de- more difficult to make water walls in tem is, however , more intricate.
width of a band and non-uniformity termined by the boiler capacity and the form of blocks and the tube system Vertical water walls in once-through
·of heating in it can be decreased in the mass velocity of fluid in the tubes, has more welded joints. A version of boilers resemble t.hose in gravity cir-
proportion to the number of flows which for tho zone of intensive hea- horizo ntal wi nding is the meander sys- culation boilers and occupy t he whole
·(Fig . 17.9). Bands are wound conti- ting is take n equal lo roughly tem, i.e. a system co nsisting of a nu~ surface of furnace walls . For more uni-
nuously i 11 a helical palJ.crn onto all 1000 kg/(m 2 s) at p ~ 10 MPa and ber o£ vet·ti cally arranged lube cotls form hoatinrr water walls are sectio-
'four sides of the furna ce, thus provi- 1 500-2 000 kgf(m 2 s) at higher pres- nalized aero~~ the furnace width , the
ding for nn ascending motion of th o sures. An excessively high mass velo- sections being connected in seri ~s ,
·flow. Vario us systems of tubo win- city rnay involve a high hydrauli c re- thus forming a m ulti-pass system (F1g.
·ding in the furn ace are in use. Usual- sistance. 17.12). Indiv idual sections arc con-
ly, the inclined tubes of a band arc Th e bend ing of s traight portions nected by downtake tubes, which eli-
arranged on two side walls, while the of horizontal tubes is prevented by minate the maldistribution of heat
:front and rear walls of the furn ace car- fastening them in three points: fixed- due to flow intermixing, but make the
design and operation o f water walls
more cornpli cn ted.
t J t J
3
,n h 2~-
~t ' t '
I
I
L -
I
2ntl
turn or
a pass I
nil pass,
Zndt11rn
2 urn
;::ss,
2. pass,
,)
1 !'-....
;/
,/
<., J~ I'--
'
t "t -<
I
I I• q
1st
/urn or
a pass
f
IS
l vrn
pass,
Is/ turn
l l n
IFig. 17.9. EHect of the horizontal Fig. 17 .1 3. Series connection of para lie I·
-coOing band width on heating non- connected sec tions
uniformity (a) (h) Fig. 17.11. Section o£ a wale•· Willi with 1 - inl ~l. Of t h1• WOrking llu l rl : 2- Ht:Ctlons: ,l -
· (al s rncle·pa •s coiling! (b) two-pass coiling horizon tal ascending coils mlxcr: 4 - downtn~u· tullcA: 5-to next section
210
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 17. Evaporating Beating Surfaces 17.9. Ga.-tlght Water Walls 211
1 f
~- ,- -.., Fig. 17.16. Diagram of an all-
welded two-pass water wnll (a) and l,
If •
4
t;
I
r
curve of t..emperature gradienLs in t"t
connect..ed sections at the inlet . I
2 61ln and exit 6tout (b) • I
2 1 and 2- water wall sections; and J ' I
f
' 4- inlet and oullel o r the working tluld
1I "'-
2
5 l l _j
I
•
I
I
dry- boLlom bend to the structure. are needed. In a two-pass scheme, ver- (Fig."l7.17a), a portion of the working
5 Both sections can expand towards the tical water wall sections are arranged fluid is bypassed around the first sec-
parting joint, which has a width of side by side, with the working fluid tion of the heated water walls, which
flowing successively from one section increases the heat absorption per unit
2 --
t 200-300 mm in the cold s t ate so that,
bei ng heated, they come close together to another (Fig. 17.16a). A large tem- flow rate and increases the fluid tem-
J to the minimum gap oh. As h deposits perature differ ence between adjacent perature at the outlet from that sec-
in the joint are periodically removed sections (M > 50-100 deg C) may lead t ion. The temperature difference lltout
by air blowing. to excessive temperature stresses and between the welded sections is thus
I n order to d iminish non- uniform even break-through of tubes. reduced and can be retained at the
heating across t.ho width of vertical F urnace wa tor walls, ospeci ally in allowable value even in the most cri-
water walls, the corners of the furnace supercri tical-pressure boilers, opera- tical zone at the outlet from the sec-
(a) (6} are sometimes 'cut o[[' to g ive an te under heavy condi t ions: high tem- tions (Fig. 17.17b). The redist.ributi-
octahedral shape in plan (Fig. 17.1 5). perature and pressure of l.ho world ng on of t he flow rate between a section
This furnace shape is not very co nve- fluid, high temperature of tho flam e , and a bypass line has almost no effect
Fig. 17.1.4. Diagrams of vertical water walls nient in design, but is advantageous in i ntensive heating, and corrosive flue on !ltln·
(a) without pnrllng Jolnl; (b) with pnrtlng Joint; J -
suspenslon; z - wnl cr wall; J-movnblc rasLenlng; the respect that a vertical whirl of gases. In this respect, it is extremely rn tho a bovc scheme, the mass velo-
4-support tnstrnln~; 5- pnrtlng Joint seal; 6 - flame can be easily formed in it if cor- important to increase the reliability city along the path increases: it is the
nlr blowlnc
ner burners are arranged tangentia lly. of the water walls. With proper or- lowest in tho first pass of the lower
The hydraulic system of boilers is ganization of the processes at both radiation section and the highest i 11
Water walls of a narrow width are oflen made in the form of U-, n-, sides of the heat-transfer surface of the second pass, which makes it pos-
heated essentially uniformly. I n high- or l'i-shaped multi-pass sections with water walls in gas-tight boilers, this sible to raise the temperature of tho
capacity boilers, na rrow vertical wa- vertical up take and down take Lu bos is achieved by decreasing the tempe- fluid at the inlet to and exit from the
ter walls are combined into parallel (see Sec. 11.3). Since all pnrallel tubes rature difference /:it as much as pos- fi rs t pass so that it approaches the re-
blocks which are connected with one in the system pass through the same sible. The mai n methods for decrea- spective values in the second pass
another in series (Fig. 1.7.1 3) . unevenly heated 1:0nes along tho fur- sing the t emperature difference bot- (Fig. 17.17b). The quantity of by-pas-
Vertical water walls can be conve- nace height, they receh·e essenti ally ween welded sections are as follows: sed fluid is det ermined by the ratio
niently made in the form of blocks, the same quantity of hea l. recirculating the combustion products of mass velocities of the fluid and the
i.e. systems of vertical tubes connected and the working fluid, intermixing heat release rate in the furnace. It
to headers at the ends. Fastenings of 17.3. Gas- tight W ater Walls the working fluid along its path (along is roughly equal to 20% of D" which
wal ls and means for their thermal ex- the length of water walls), and bypas- ensures satisfactory temperature con-
and :Meth ods fo r Enhancing Their si og a portion of tho cold flow.
pansion may be various (Fig. 17.14). Reliability ditions and reliabl e operation of the
Tl1e tube system of a \\·ater wa ll is Cold flow bypassing. I n this scheme water walls .
usua lly s uspended by il1' upper header W ater walls in gas-tight hoi Iors are
and can expand downwards freel y made i n the form o[ verti cal sections. 4
(Fig. 17.14tt). In high-capacity boilers, To ensure proper strength . tho tempe- t;' t; t
I
water walls are us ually sectionalized rature difference between 1he joined I
vertically, i.e. th ey have a parting Lubes s hould not exceed 50-100 deg C.
joint. amid their height (see Figs. Th is requ irement can be easily satis-
22.4 and 22. 5). In such a system (Fig. fied in single-pass verl'.ical motion t;/
f
/"'- I ,,
I
2
l
:212
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 17. E uaporating Beating Surfaces
17.3. Gas-tight W ater Walls
4 Fig. i7 .18. Diagram of an all-wel-
ded two-pass WilLer wall with re- Fig. i7 .21. Diagram of water wall s = ~E =r--'
t: t; t circulating pump
D<•s lgnutions as In Pig. t i. t G: addltlo-
of a gas-tigbt boiler with t~vo ho-
rizontal partin~ joints (see unit I
rHI Il y: S-mixer: 6- reclrculaling pump in Ftg. 17 .22)
I 2
t;
/
/
t 2" t /
~
l- I
5 t'I t'-l" •
6 2 I
f\ ~
~
~
'
(u) •• I
~ I
~ I
R ecirculation of the working fluid. The temperature conditions of adja-
1n this method, tho fl ow rate thro ugh cent water walls depend on the circu-
' I
henvily heaLed water walls is inCJ·oa- lation rati o r which is und erstood AS
"' '
sed by supplying a portion of tho fl ow the r atio of the working fluid flow
which has passed through the lower rate, with recirculation G, to the ! ·-
r ad iation section (Fig. '17.18a) . f or
the snme heating intensity, this meth-
straight fl ow rate G (without recircula-
tion):
~ ~
_ _ }5!/Z 10528
od decreases l.ho gain in enthalpy
•
of Lite working flu id. T he temperatu re
As tho recircu lation ratio r increa- I
of tho rluid a t the inle t to the heating I
ses, the Lcm peralme d ifference bet-
surface increases, while the temperatu-
ween adjacent welded sections decrea-
re at its outlet remains the same as ses (Fig. 17.19}. Partial ejection of the
without recirculation (Fig. 17 .'L8b).
hot flow (Fig. 17.20) is a version of t.l1 e 1
~
Accordingly, the temperature d iffe- _'fl.£
~r
recirculation method. Partial ejecti-
ut
r ence between welded water walls
d ecreases to a safe value.
Provision of an add iiional flow of
on decreases the heat absorption in
adjacent water wa ll sectio ns and ac-
comes less proba b lo. The method has,
-
Separation i nto s tages decreases t he-
cordingly decreases the temperature
the working fluid ai low loads, say at difference 6t along their whole h eight. however, certain disadvantages : the heat absorption t.i of the fluid in each
start-up , ensures reli ab le cooli ng of Since the £low rate of the working fln - elevated hydrau Li e resistance of the stage. and therefore, decreases the-
the water walls, which is especially im- working fluid path and the limited highest temperature of the tube walls.
id increases and tho heat absorption
portant in the combusl.io n of fu el oil, per unit flow rate decreases, maldist.ri- capacity of tho ejector. The recirculation of combustion pro-
i.e. at a bigh heaL release rate in the Intermixing of the working fluid. ducts is an effective method for increas-
btttion of hea t in water wall tubes be-
furnace. Th is method roakes it pos- In intensively heated tubes of furnace iug the reliability of water walls.
I sible to reduce the start- up load down
to 15% of D,. 4 t"
2
water walls, a ny substantial maldi-
stribution of heat may be dangerous .
(see also Sec. 18.4.). Combus t ion pro-
ducts are taken off at a temperature
t;' Tho risk increases with increasing heat near 350"C behind the economizer
L1t absorption of tubes, i.e. with an increa-
I and r ecycled into the zone of the high-
I se in th e tu be length. Ma ldisl.ri- est heat release in the furn ace. T hus.
1 "'- I 2 bution of heat should be minimized recirculated gases dilute the ox id ant
where possible, especially in gas-t ight in the zone and prolong the process of
t 2" If', boilers. For this reason, water walls combustion, which leads to a lower
I I
I
of high-capacity boilers (both gas-tight temperature in the furnace nnd a lo-
and untight) are divided vertically wer h eat release rate. This is of s pe-
j 5
~
t! t£ . t;' into s tages by parting joints and con- cial importance in (uol oil-fired boilers
t nected with one another by mixing where the water wa lls are hea ted quite
3 6 headers (Fig. 17 .21). For better relia- intensively.
bility and gas-tightness, the number of . Cas-tight all-welded water \'"-1IIS
Fig. i 7 .20. Diagram of an all-welded two-
pass water wall with ejector (see tbe curve oi parting joints should be as Low as pos- nrc a kind of beating surface for in-
Fig. i 7. Hl. Effect or the workiog fluid recir- tern pera Lu re gra dients in conn ected sec tions sib.le; for instance, a single joint may tens ified heating. Their mass per unit
cula ti on on tem perature gradient in eonncct- in Fig. i7.1 8b) be provided between the lowor and me- area of radiant h ea t-absorbing sur£oce
ed sections of an all -welded l.wo-pass wn ter De.slgnal.lonA ns tn Fig . 17.1 6; nddttlonally : s-
wall cJ~..:tor: 6 - throt ti c clium radiation section or bot.ween the is 10-15% lowet· lhau that of bare-
med ium a nd upper radi ation section. tube water walls. Th e tube pil clt ca n
214
Download From Boilersinfo.com 17.9. Gas-ttght Water Wall$ 215
Ch. 17. Evaporating Heating Surfaces
be i ncrensed by decreasing the number s teel box passing around the whole
of tubes and selecting their total cross- perimeter of the furnace s haft. 1- I
1
se.c tional area so as to ensure the requi- The roof wall is assembled of gas-
red mass flow r ate of the working flu- 2 J
tight section units. I ts tubes a_re bent
id . All-welded water walls operate i n certain places to form holes for the
under more favourable conditions th an passage of tho tubes of platens and
bare- tube walls, since part of the heat. convective tube banks through the
a bsorbed by tube fins is spread through I roof. These passages are sea l e~, s ~y,
the metal to the rear sides of tu- by means of bellows as shown 1n Ftg.
bes and these portions become acti- 17 .23.
ve heating s urfaces. Further, tubes of 0£' special importance is the tight-
gas-tight all-welded water walls are ness ~f s upercharged boilers \~here the
held perfectly in-1i no and thus can- surplus pressure of co~bu s ~10n pro-
not shadow one a nother. Gas- tight ducts in the furnace IS qtuLe h_•gh.
all-welded water walls may have only Ens urina that the roof in s uch boilers
a thin layer of heat ins ulation instead is tight ., presents certain difficulties,
of heavy boiler setti ng and can be wa-
shed by water without the risk of moi-
stening the heat-ins ulating layer and
causing corrosion in inaccessible ph-
. -<
)
•
( [l
cos. Fig. 17.25. Tube arrangement in nu_ta ll-
) {
Fora g ive n tube pitclt , thereliability weldcd water wall
~
of gas-tig ht all-weld ed water walls de- 4 )
1- watcr wall tu bes; 2-wcldr d-to st.,cl !tame
{
pends on the heating intensity. The { } since a large num ber of heating sur-
allo\\'ablo intensity of h eating is de- J
) (
face tubes pass through t~ e roo£._ To
termined by t.hermnl calculation of a correc t this, a second roof tS prov~ded
) (
wate r wall which determines the bes t I
above the main one, so th a t a _hot
relati onship between the geometrical ~ box' is formed between t hem. Su;tce
characteristics (rel ative pitch, thick- the hot box and the adjacent ~tde
ness of fins) of a water w all at a gi-
Fig. i7.22. ParLing unit of l.he 'glove' type
J- Cumace water walls; .e- beader; J - box { walls expand differently _on heatmg,
ven tube diameter and given heating it is sealed alo ng its penpher~. T_he
intensi ty to ensure reliable heat trans- ference between joined Lubes and de- ·design of the sealing is shown m Ftg.
fer from the fins through the tube to
'
creases their reliability, and further, 17. 24.. f b 'l
the working fluid (see Sec. 10.4). increases the number and mass of un- The outsid e enclosure o · a _o~ er
For gas- tight all-welded water walls,
the uniform heating of their tubes is
heated tubes and thus the hydraulic re- 1-
- h as 450 mm manholes for servtcmg
sistance of the circuit . the g as path. The tubes arou nd a man-
more essential. This requ irement is In order to decrease the furnace pe- Fig. 17 ..23 . Sealing unit for the passage of hole are bent aside and welded to a
satisfi ed better in gas-Light boilers ri meter, gas-tight boilers are designed tubes through furnace roof steel fr ame (Fig. 17. 25). In water walls
with all- welded vertical water walls for an elevated steam-generating ca- z- tube; z - tixed support; 8-movnblc support;
d- bell ows
and ascending motion of the working pacity of the fur nace front (80-120 8
fluid. The number of p arallel tubes t/(h m). T l1e de pth of the furnace is 7 2
in a wall must be li mited to ensure the incr eased so mewhat to make th e fur-
required mass flow ra te of th e wor- nace al most squar e in plan, i.e. to
ki ng fluid. [n high-capacity bo!lers obtain the minimal length of its pe-
whe re th e furnace shaft h as a subs tnn- rim eter at a given heat release rate
tial perimeter, this necessitates an per unit area , qp.
increase in the number of separate Figu1·e 17.21 schematically shows
flows or of the number of p asses con- J
the gas-tight all-welded ve rtical water
n ected in series. The former measu re wall sections of a gas-fuel oil-fired 10
is inefficient s ince it s harply increa-
ses th e number of tube fittings, com-
boiler type TGMP-204. They have t
two parti ng joints along the h eight. Fig. 17.26. Viewhole of a gas-tight boiler
plicates automatic co ntrol, and i rn- The 'glove'-type parting joint is Fig . 17 .24. Peripheral sealing o[ a •bot b~x· rcssure nut· 2- glass holder; 3-port glass;
pairs reliability of operation. This, in J- vertlcaJ wall or 'bot box'1 f, a, 4-expn~!Yr ~=r.ln cd flap; s-chec k nut ;, 6- nut to control th~
shown in Fig . 1 7.22. J t is tightened by compensators; s - tubcs or gas-light water tori '!Ill o·"7- annulnr sill lot a tr; 8- cona en d-p iece,
t urn, increases the temperature d if- a shaped p late a nd arranged inside a 4- trc th; 7-hender; 1- water wnl 1 suspens g • 9- Cramc; 10- pressurized air In
I'
II
II
Download From Boilersinfo.com 217'
I =-21:..:6:....__ _ __ _ _ _ _C:::.:.:.h:· ...1:.:7...:.. ..::E:.:v:.::a po rating He attng Surfaces 18.1. Classification of Supe rheaters
made from finned tubes, the bent por- tions in the boiler. If the heat trans- facing improves the temperature con-
tions around the manholes are repla- fer through the water :wall tubes is ditions of studs. Refractory-faced stud- ·
ced by smooth tubes of the same dia- too low, the surface faci ng the furna- ded tubes cause more trouble in main-
meter. ce is fused together with exposed tenance tha n do smooth tubes when
The boiler enclosure also has studs, dissolves in molten slag, and is burned-through portions of water
100 mm v iewholes for observing the filled by the slag. As a resu l.t, the walls must be replaced.
combustion process and inspecting the 1000 f- th ickness of the facing and the height In some cases, tubes are used in wa-
state of the heating surfaces. The view- of the studs di minish to the best value ter walls, on which outer ribs are fot-
holes are protected by refractory glass. corresponding to the heat balance of med by knurling. Knurled tubes are·
In gas-tight boilers, compressed air the wall . The carbide-silica [acing is extremely durable, firmly retai u the·
is supplied into the viewholes to pro- sometimes covered on the £ireside by refractory facing, and are more con-
tect the operator when replacing the a layer of corundum pas te·,vhich has venient in repairs .
glass or introducing measuring instru- a higher slag resistance. Double-layer
ments into the gas path (Fig. 17.26) .
-t-
(a)
by arranging t.e reheater in a zone of
- mod orate li e;:~ ti ng; this, however, will of burn-through of the last coils in the
Depending on the direction ~f flows
1---..:$'~---~----.:..:..._--~
$1 require a s ignificant increase in its
of steam and combustion pro-ducts, steam path, since both the steam and
(a) surface and r~~ny be econom ically un- the combustion products have the
superh eaters may be of parallel-flow,
favourable. Tho internal heat trans- highest temperature here and , the Lube
counter-flow or mixed type (Fig.
fer in the outlet ('hot') section of are- metal is under heavy temperature con-
heator can IH:: intensified by using in- 18 .3).
A counter-flow superheater (Fig. ditions . In a parallel-flow superheater
tern a lly fi nned , or rifled , tubes (Fig. (Fig. 18 .3b}, the tem l)erature gradient
18 .3a) develops the highest t emperatu-
1.8.1c). This measure develops the in- re rrradient between combustion pro- is much lower and the tube m etal ope-
ternal surface! a nd substantially de- du;ts and steam, which makes it pos- rates under more favourable tempera-
creases Llw wall temperature. ture conditions, since the tube coils
sible to diminish the heating s urface
SuperltcnLe r tubes are bent into area and the use of metal. A drawback in which tho steam has the high est
coils witlt a bendi ng radius of not
less tha n 1. 9d 0 ,. . Th iJ coil ends arc
or this scheme is the elevated hazard tempera ture are in contact with Lhe
we] dcd to rou nd-:>ecLio 11 hend ers . Tu- A-A
be co ils may have one or more passes s,
(F'ig . 18.2a-d) . .MulLi··pass coils are 8
employed in high-capacity boilers.
With multi-pass coils, there may be
not enough place on a header for wel-
ding the tube ends. Furthermore, the
header walls may he weakened. This is
avoid ed in a 'glove'-type connection
of tubes to headers (Fig. 18.2e).
(C)
V\
f
T ube coils cnn be fastened by va ri-
I ous methods depending on their ar- v~
600·
ra ngcrnent. In vertical su perlteate1·s,
\ the t op loops arc held by clamps. The· f-.- ·
1000
·-
. headers and clamps are suspended from
t he boiler structure (Fig. 18.4a). Hori-
.::JI
zontal su perheaters opernting at the·
I 4_ teropemture oi combusLio n products
- 5 up to 700°C arc fastened to s tands ma.
~
"
I I-
I (~ de from heat-res isting steel sheets (Fig .
ned by the upper header (Fig. 18 .7). of platens and solidify on their tubes.
• lr
18 .46). At higher temperatures, the·
The principal advantage of plate11s is
stands may bo subject to intensiv e· Those, however , are self-cleaned due
Fig. 18.5. ALtachment of a horizontal con- high- te mperature gas corrosion , espe- that. they absorb both rad iant and con- to vibration, so that ash deposits can-
vecth•e superheater to water wall tubes vecti ve heat, which ens ures their h igh not grow to a n appreciable thi~knes~ .
and 4-headers of suspended tubes; B-suspended
cially in gas and fuel oil fired boilers.
1
tubes; 3-superbeater bank; s-supply header In this case, horizontal battks arc su- thermal efficiency with a low resistance Dense deposits can only form 111 boi-
or superhea ter
spend ed from tho tubes of the ston m- in the gas path. Platen su perh eaters lers fired on highly-slagging fu el gra-
wator path of the boil er (Fig. 18 .5). can abso rb up to 50% of tho tota I heat des. A drawback of vertical pl atens
combustion prod uc ls which have a1- The s upporting Lubes a re of the same- of superhea ting. SofLe11 ed as h parti- with a top header posiLion is that they
ready been p artially cooled in the inlet diameter as other tubes in the hea ting cles continuously s tick lo lhe su rface cannot be drained off. Horizontal
section of the superheater. T he mixed- surface, but have supporting strips platens are fastened by cer~a in ,tubes
flow scheme (Fig. 18 .3c and d) offers A -A f rom th o platen bank (Ftg. 18.8).
t he bes L solution as regards the cosl
welded to them (Fig. 18 .6). I I Tubes in n p l <~ L en may wid el y dif-
Radianl superheaters. I£ the heat ing
and r eliabi lity of convective superhea- surface of a rad iant superheater in fer in l cn~rlh and shape. Parallel tubes
ters .
drum-type boilers is no t large, it can may nbs~rb different quantities of
T he tube coils of superhea ters are be locat ed on the furnace roof (Fig. heat. Front tubes are heated much
ananged eiLher vertically or horizon- 17.6, item 3). Otherwise, it can occu- more strong ly than other tubes in a
tally. Vertical superheaters have a PY part of the vertical walls of t he fur- pl aten. As a resu lt, the external tubes
simpler design, can be fastened more nace. l n once-through boilers, t.he ra- of a platen may turn out to o per~ te
r eliably, and are less subject to slug- cliant superheater usuall y occupie;; the- un der critica l conditions. The relta-
ging, but are undrainablc, i.e. the furnace t•oof, thc upper a nd med ium bility of platens is enhanced by ma-
condensate cannot be drained off from radiation sections, and the walls of king one or more tubes that operate
them completely . This can cause inter- tl1e horizont al flue duct. under the heaviest condi tions from a
nal corrosiou and in volve certain dif- Th e tubes of vertica l and horizon- more heat-resisting grade of st eel or
fi culties in boiler firing. Horizontal tal radiant sJperheat ers are fastened I by using tubes of a larger diamete r
in the sa me way as in evaporating hea- (Fig. 18.9a.); by making the external
ting su rfaces. They should be allowed tubes of a shorter length (Fig. 18 .9b);
to expand freel y on heating . or by shadowing the external tuhes.by
Rad iant superheaters have cert.ain a frame of Lubes of :111other hea twg
advantages, in pa •·ticular , a low hydra-
l
ulic resistance (fra ctions of a mega-
pascal) and a low resistance on t.l1e gas
side, s i uce they do not block up the
gas duct.
Platen superheaters . A p laten super-
heater is usually a system of tubes as-
sembled into a fl at gas-tig h t band w ith
Fig. 18.6. Attachment of tubes of a hori-
inlet and ou tl et headers . Platens are Fig. 18.8. H or-i zontal platen superhea ter
{a) (b)
mounted on cooled s uspended tuhcs (c)
zontal superheater bank to susp ended tubes arranged vertica lly or horizontally
l -borlzon t al platens; B-su•pended cooled ~ub<•s;
1-suspended tubes; 2-spncing tubes; J-super- with spacings of 600-1 000 mm bot- 3-beaders: 4-coll eetlng boxes; 4-spacer>, 6 - Fig. 18.9. Methods of pro LecLion of extreme
heatc•· tubes; 4-supporting strips ween th em . Vert.ica l platens are fa ste- £Upport strip of platen bank tubes in platen superheaLe rs
222
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 18. Steam Superheater• and Super/teat Control 18.3. Pos itioning of Superhea ters
""· ) "0'
ro metlium- pical scheme for connection of super- almost in proportion to the boiler
~
J 11ressure heater elements in supercritical-pros- load, with the r esult that the heat
I@
_, '
cylintler sure boilers is shown in Fig . 18 .12d.
Upon passing the medium and upper
transfer by conduction increases in
proportion to the power of 0.6-0.65
2"'"
. radia Lion sections of the boiler, steam of gas velocity. Thus, as the direct
~ ~
b
rom II
:;;..- i'ressv is directed into a roof water wall heat absorption in the furnace decrea-
' ?(7 and then into the platens and the con- sos and the temperatu_re-of the combu-
I ;;;--
\· ~
cylimier
vective bank of the superhc.a ter. The stion products at the furnace exit in-
. ~ . rebeater is made in the fo'fm of two
convective banks. Both the superhea~
creases, the temperature gradient in
the zone of convective superheater
(a) (C)
ter and the r eheater are drainable. becomes higher. Those two circum-
2 stances are responsible for the fact
Q / that the temperature of superheated
J;J 18.4. Superheat Temperature Control
J steam increases more quickly than do-
The control characteristic, i.e. the es the boiler load (curve 2 in Fig.
J
l relationship between the boiler load 18.13).
2--..
l " J To high· and the temperature of superheated With properly selected dimensions
. . / ~~ steam, is different for various super- of t.ho radiant and convective super-
cy tntt're
•f'rt,~SI
I cr h eaters. A typical feature of r adiant heater sections, it would be possible
Tb 11Jetlium-
7 1 E-= J / ·pressure superheaters is that the temperature to obtain a constant temperature of
.'i--- . ·= J ..; (.':
cy/intler of superheated steam decreases with superheated steam (curve 3 in Fig.
. '"'-
From h
i;h· an increase in the boiler load (curve 18.13). Under practical conditions,
. -- .pressure 1 in Fig. 18.13). The quantity of beat however, the temperature of superhea-
(I>) {d) c,vlimler absorbed by radiant heating surfaces ted steam will vary due to certain ope-
depends mainly on the ' theoretical rating factors, which include the tem-
Fig . 18.12. Schemes of superheater arrangement
• (a) P = 4 JII Pa, ' • • - 44 o•c: (b) p = 10 MPa , '•• = 54 0"C; (c) p = 14 Ml'a , 1,. - 54~"/54r••c: (d) p -
temperature of fuel combustion, the perature of feed water, the excoss air
_ 25. 5 JI!Pa, 1,. _ 545"/545"C; 1-<:onvedlve superheater; 2-p laten Sllperhentcr; J - roor superheat.er: flame emissivity, and the thermal ef- ratio in the furnace, slagging of the
4- eonvretl\·e n:heater; S-htmace water walls: 6-slag screen: 7-suspcnd~d lubes ficiency of the water walls (see Sec. furnace water walls, especially of the
20.3). These parameters, however, de- superheater, and the moisture content
The platen sectiott is located in the essentially tho same as in boi lors for pend only very slightly on the quanti- of the fuel.
upper portion o[ the furnace in front p = 10 MPa and l 31 = 540°C. The ty of burned fuel, i.e. on the boiler In drum-type boilers where the su-
. of the suspended lubes of the rear wa- reheater is positioned in the convec- load. For this reason , the heat absorp- perheater area is fixed, the steam-ge-
ter wa ll and the convective section is tive furnace shaft in the zone o[ mode- t ion in a radiant superheater i ncreasos nerating capacity decreases as the
in the horizontal portion of the con- rate temperatures of combustion pro- less quickly than the flow rate of steam temperature of feed water decreases.
vective gas du ct. The platens are the ducts (below 850°C}. through it, and therefore, the unit With a constant fuel consumption,
first to meet the combustion products With a further increase in st.eam pa- heat absorption (per unit of steam flow this means that the quantity of heat
. and thus protect the convective secti- rameters, the fraction of heat to be s pent of the gases absorbed in the superhea-
on from slagging by ash. Tho two se- on superheating considerably i nc•·ea- ter zone per unit flow rate of steam
ctions of the su r)erheator are connected ses, so that the superheater must be increases, resulting in a higher tem-
i n series and tho hot bank is arranged partially positioned in the boile•· fur- perature of superheated steam. In
in the co nvective gas duct. Steam is nace. 1n this case, it may consist of once-through boilers, on the other
fed from the boiler drum first into radiant., platen and co nvective sec- hand, a lower feed water temperature
·tho smaJl rndi ant section and further tions. leads to a respective drop in the tem-
i nto the roof water wall , the pia ten The scheme for connectiou of the ole · perature of superheated steam, since
section a nd the convective section. ments of a superheater should take in- the unit heat absorption remains con-
In boilers for pt·essuros of 14 MPa to consideration tha t tb c radiant se- stant. An increase in the excoss air
. and t,. = 545/545°C, there arc usual- ction operates under l•eavier co ndi- o· ratio in the furnace is associated with
ly a main su perheater and an inter- tions than the convective secLion. For an increased quantity of combustion
media te (rehcal) superheater (rehca- this reason, tho radiant sectio n is com- products passing through the convecti-
monly connected to be I,be fi rsl i u the Fig. 18.13. Control characteristi cs of super-
t er), as shown iu Pig . 18.12c. The a:- heaters ve superheater, resulting in more in-
' rangemcnt Of the main superheater LS steam path. Plateu-type su pcrhea lcrs l-radlant; 2-eonveclive; J- COmblncd tensive heat exchange in this section
15-01524
Download From Boilersinfo.com
226 Ch. 18. Steam. Superheaters and Superheat Control 18.4. Superheat Te mperature Control 227
j
I and a higher temperature of superhea- 100% of t he r ated value and th at of This method of steam temperature
t ed steam. An increased moisture con- reheated steam, from 60% lo 100%.
Lent of fu el leads to a higher tempera- Methods of superheated steam tem- ~ (a) ~ •.
t control shortens the steam path be-
hind th e controller and the time fo r
Lure of superheated steam, since the perature control. There are two main ~
f
J. I - varying the quantity of heat accumu-
quantity of combustion products pas- methods for contro ll ing tho tempera- v T
v lated in the metal o[ the sup erheater
sing through the superheater increa- ture of superheated s team: s team con- (b) section behind the con troller. The de-
ses and the combu stion producLs con- t rol and gas control. 1 layed effect o f the attemperator on
tain more triatomic gases; therefore, Stearn control is based on reducing
th ey have a higher emissivity and in- the enthalpy of steam by transferring
~ ~ (C)
~ • the temperature or superheated steam
is determined by the heat abs01·ption
crease the heat-transfer coefficient on part of il,s heat to feed water or b y t 2 of the path behind the attemperato r.
the firesid e. Slagging of the evapo- injecting demineralized water into ste- With a lower heat absorption of that
r ating water walls resu 1ts in a higher am. These methods are usually emp lo- lss path, th e desi red temperature is a t-
temperature of combustion produ cts yed for controlling the t emperature tained more quickly arid control is
at the outlet from the furnace and in of live sten m. St on m control is also more flexible. The drawback of this
a respective increase in steam tempe- used for controlling the t emperature arrangement (Fig. 18. 14c) is that it
rature. By contrast, slagging of tho of reheated steam, but in this caso it t" lengthens the Lime of responso.
superheater proper impairs heat ex- is based on the r edistri bution of heat c
A surface-type atlemperator is es-
L
change in it and decreases the tempe- between the fresh and t·eheated sentially a tubuJ ar heat exchanger
ra ture of th e su perheated s team. steam. with cooling water (usually feed wa-
In once-through boilers where t he Gas control is based on vary ing the Fig. 18.14. Effect of the position of attern- ter) flowing in the tubes and the flow
perator on superheated steam temperatu re
zone of phase transition is indefinite, heat absorption on the firesid e of h e- in the superheater path of steam to be cooled (or condensed,
tho actual surface area of the superhea- ating surfaces to a value ensuring the (o) positioned downstream or the superhe ater ; if the attem per a Lor is moun ted at tho
t er section varies with variations in desired Level of superheated steam (b) Inserted betwe~n superheater 6<:Ctions ; ( c) superheater inlet), around the tubes
ups tream or tbc s upo.rbcatcr; 1-n ttemperator;
operating factors owing to displace- t emp erature. These methods iuclude 2- allowablc s team lcmpcrnlu rc (Fig. 18. 15). The tube system con·
ment of the end of evaporation zo.no. recirculation of combustion products, sists o[ U-shaped coils mounted in a
In this case, the temperature of super- bypassing part of the combustion pro- tor, between th e superhea tor sect ions, cylindrical housing.
heated steam can be maintained con- ducts around the superh eater, a nd va- or in the sa turated-steam line. With A surface-type attemperator is con-
st ant by controlling the ratio between riation of the position of t he fl ame in the a t temperator arranged at the out- n ected in series with the boiler eco-
the water flow rate and fuel consump- the furnace. Gas control is employed let of the superheater (Fig. 18.14a), nomizer (Fig. 18.16). At any load of
tion. On the other band, once-through mainly for con trolling the temperatu- th e latter remains unprotected against the boiler, all feed water passes thro-
boilers have a low accumulating ca- re of rehea ted steam or, if there is no excessive rises in the steam t empera- ugh the economizer, thus ensuring its
I pacity (i.e. a low bul k of water and rehea ting of the temperature of live
met al), and are thus rather sensitive steam.
t ure; for this reason, the method is
not used fo r con trolling the tempe-
reliable cooling. Surface-type attem-
perators are employed in low-Gapaci-
to variations in the water flow r ate Steam control. Steam control has rature of main superheated steam. ty boilers.
and fuel consumption , which result found wide application and is effe- In other v ersions of the attempera- Water injection is the simplest melh·
in variations in the temperature of cted in h eat exchangers: surface-type tor arrangements, the turbine and su- od of steam control. A spray-typo a t.
su perheated steam. and spray-type attemperators, or de- perheater are properly protected. Tho temperator (Fig.18.17) is essentially a
I n operation, the temperature of superheaters. In this case, the surface scheme with the attempera tor inser- portion of a header in which conden·
superheated steam is allowed to vary area of the superheater has a cer- t ed between the su perhea tor sections sate is injected into the flow of super-
from + 5 t o- 10 deg C of the r ated tain reserve, and the excessive super- has however a lower i nertia , especial- heated steam . It is introduced through
value. Even combined radiant-co n- heat is removed in the attemrJcrator. ly at h igh pressur es (Fig. 18.14b). an atomizing nozzle with a number of
vective superheaters cannot ensure a Surface- and spray-typ e attempcrators
constant steam temp erature in opera- are used to control th e temperature
tion within these limits, becat1sc of of main, or live, steam. The temperatu-
which st eam boilers arc provided with re of r eheated steam is controlled in
means for superheated steam tempera- live-steam reheaters. Injection of con-
ture control. Si nee the load of a power densate into the ilow ofrebeatedsteam
st ation may vary considerably, the is economically unfavourable, s ince tl:o
I control means should maintain the additional quant ity of superheated
rated superheat temperature within steam thus formed enters together with
wide limits of steam-generating capa- the main steam into t h e t urbin e bypas-
•
J Boiler axis
cities. The temperature of superheated s ing the high-pressure cylinder.
steam should be kept at the rated Y a- The attcmperator (desupcrhcater) Fig. 18.1 5. Surface-type att.empcrator
Jue in the load range from 30 % to can be mounted behind th e supcrhea- 1 11nd r - supply nnd disch nrgr hcnd~rs; J-covcr; 4-coils; 5- bo:r:
228
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 18. Steam Superheater& and Superheat Control
18.4. Superheat Tcmp~rature Control 229
•
f J, }if / 4 /f ti
7
Super-
healer!
' r. Fig. 1.8.18. Superheat co ntrol by
Feed walur "'-=::> Tsieam
l condensate spraying Fig. 18.20. Typicul section of a live-steam reheater
1 -L'COnomlzcr; 2- cond cnsm·: 3- drum; r- tlvt•· steam rchcater section; 2-control valve; 3- by·pass lin e; 4-spa cer striP;. ~-bottom; 6-Gectlon
IL _ _ _ _ _ _ .Jl 4-condensntc tonk: ~ and 7-supP.r- · head; 7-senllng disc; 8- hent-i!xc honce lubes; 9- secllon housmg
beate_r; ..6-spruy-typc ntlcmperalor
l
230
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 18. Steam Superheaters and Superheat Control 18.4. Superheat Temperature Control 231
Supercrilico?· aLer; these flows are usually control- (.,.r F lame control in the furnace. Heat
--P.e3sure f 2 led by means of b ypass valves. ..-7 t.,(wi/11 utircufofion) absorption- by furnace water walls is
n eam polh oliOO
--...lr,-- Gas control. Gas control is effected . ·reO determined by the temperature level
reel
by recirculating combustion products,
tilting burners, turning on and off
-- 't--5 C8J 2 6 ~~~
o\
•\\10
and the pattern of temperature di-
stribution. H eat absorption in the fur-
:J 0 nace, and therefore, {)-;, can be varied
the burner tiers, or bypassing combu-
stion products. - \9
by varying the position of the flame.
Supercrilicol·
·pressure
~team path 1
(aJ
2
Gas control is employed to maintain
the desired temperature oftbe reheated
4
t
/ 0
This, in turn, changes the heat absor-
ption by the roheater which is arran-
ged in the convective gas duct. For
--1\r-Ti'i<IT--4--- steam, but it is associated with chan- {a) (h)
.I ·51,--..:: 4 8 ges in combustion conditions in the
Fig. 18.22. Steam temperature control by
instance, if the burners are tilted down-
wards, tho total radiant heat a b-
r:----~ea'lum·
·P.ressure
furnace, and therefore, can influen-
ce the temr>erature of the superh eated recirculation of combustion products
(a) recirculation scheme: (b) crrect ol bolle•· steom-
sorption by the water walls, Qr1Q1,
Supucrifical· increases, while the temperature al
·pressure •leom puf!t steam, too. Gas control involves addi- ~:~encrnting capacity on the superheat ternpe•·aturc
<fl'om po...;.l_h_...J ,.~~ and the traction of recirculated combustion pro- the furnace outlet, {)-(, decreases (Fig.
1 tional power consumption for draft ducts: J - lumace; 2-economtzer; J- reclrculatlng
18.23), resulting in a lower heat ab-
and heat Joss with waste gases and al- ran: 4- admisslon or col d combustion products
Into the lower portion ol lurnace; S-combustlon
5 so has an effect on the temperature of produc ts recirculated Into the upper portion or fur- sorption by the reheater. On the other
the superheated steam, which compli- nace: 6-to regenerative air heater: 7-supe rbea lc r band, if the burners arc tilted up-
Medium- wards, the heat absorption by the wa-
· pressure cates boiler operation .
sieom pal/I Gas control cannot ensure the spe- at the furnace outlet. Recirculation ter walls decreases, while the tempe-
Fig. 18.21. Connection of live-steam rchea t- cified temperature of th e superheated increases Lhe flow ra to of gases thro- rature of combustion products at t.he
crs into the circuit steam and for this reason is employed ugh the superheater. These two cit:- furnace outlot i ncroases. Thus, as the
1-radiant and semi-radiant supcrbcal<:r sec tions; in modern boiler::; only in combina- cu ms lances increase the convective boiler load drops down, the tempera-
t-convcctlvc SUJlCrhea ter sections· J- stcnm bv-
pass vnh•c; 4- llvc-steam reheater; s'-rntxing charn- tion with steam control. In circuits heat exchange, and therefore, the tem- ture of the reheated steam diminishes
ber; 6 nnd 8-convccllve reheatcr sections; 7- (Fig. 18.13, curve 2) and the burnet·s
bypnss line; 9-orilice plate with steam reheating, the application perature of the superheated steam.
of the two independent control meth- Since recirculation decreases the direct are tilted upwards so as to raise the
ods is inevitable. heat exchange in the furnace, it has a steam temperature. Gas control by
tually not used at . the rated load of Recirculation of combustion products. positive role in protecting the water burner tilting can maintain a constant
the boiler. AI most all the superheated Combustion products at a temperature walls of the lower radiation sectio n temperature of reheated steam at bo-
steam passes through the bypass val- of 250-350°C are taken off the conve- ~gainst overheating (see Sec. 17 .3). iler loads ranging from 100 % to 70%.
ve and only 5% of it enters the I i ve- ctive shaft by the recirculation blower Recirculation of combustion products The position of the flame can also
steam heater. At a reduced Load, the and subsequently returned to the fur- is increased at low loads, when the be changed by tur ning some of the
flow rate of the reheated steam thro- nace. This makes it possible to redi- temperature of the superheated steam burner tiers on and off. If the furna-
ugh the live-steam reheater decreases, stribute the beat between t he beating drops, and is turned off at high loads, ce has three tiers of burners and the
and the fraction of superheated steam surfaces, depending on the circulation when steam superheating increases; total fuel consumption by them cor-
passing through it is increased by clo- ratio. At a higher recirculation ratio, as a result, the volume of combustion responds to 150% of the steam-g~ne
sing the bypass valve. This ensures a a greater thermal effect is obtained. products at the outlet from the plant rating capacity, operation with any
constant reheated steam tempornt.ure The lowest recirculation ratio to avoid varies only s lightly. S ince, however,
at reduced loads of the unit. The draw- a reverse How in the recirculation the volume of combustion products
back of this scheme is that the cont- circuit and prevent the blower from at low loads becomes higher, this
ro~ valves must have a large cross se- cooling is roughly 5%. leads to an increase in {)-wg and q 1
ctlOn and operate at high or supercri- Recirculated combustion products a nd an elevated fuel consumption.
tical steam parameters. can he introduced into the upper or It is advisable to introduce recircula-
The scheme shown in Fig. 18.21c lower portion of the furnace (Fig. ted gases into the hot air box of the
is a compromise between the former 18.22). The temperature and aerody- burners.
two. In this case, an uncontrollable namic conditions in the zo ne of mo- Recycling combustion products in-
fraction of Jive s team flows through tion of .recirculated gases may diEfer, to the top portion of the furnace has
the live-steam reheater; this is esta- depcndtng on the recirculation circu- no essentia l effect on furnace opera-
blished at tho rated boiler load and it and recirculation ratio. The intro- tion, but substantially lowers the
remains constant at other loads. duction of recirculated gases into the temperature of combustion products
The flow of reheated steam is usua- lower portion of the furnace decreases in the superheater, thus preventing Fig. i8.23. Effect of the angle of burner
lly divided into the main flow, which the direct heat absorption in tho furna- s lagging of the superheater tubes, but tilting on th e beat absorption of furnace
passes through a Live-steam robe a tor, ce and accordingly increases the tem- somewhat decreasing the heat absorp- water walls and the temperature of com-
and the bypass flow around tha 1. r el10- perature of the combusLion products tion. bustion products at furnace exit
'
Il
232
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfaces 191. Arrangement of Low-te mperature lleatlng Surfaces 233
Combust ion products Combust ion orn.dll" ·'·• gradient, which determines the inten-
- - t sity of h eat exchange, decreases to a
th minimum at the 'hot' end of the air
I heater (Fig. 19.1). Because of this,
1 the temperature level of waste gases
I
I is determined not by the temperature
J I gradient between the fluids at the cold
I end of th e air heater, but by the eco-
(a) ' I nomically effi cien t temperature gra-
I dient D. t at the hot end, which is lo-
wer than the former. This tempera tu-
Fig. 19.1. Variation of temperature gra- re difference is usually not less than
dient during air heatmg 30-40 dog C. Any further increase in
the temperature of hot air is ineffici-
The air heater operates tinder condi- ent in view of the very weak beat ex-
(6) (c) tions which differ from those of the change in the hot portion of the air
economizer or other heating surfaces. heater (llt is too low). Thus, an incre-
Fig. 18.24. Schemes of temperature control of superheated steam by bypassing of combustion I t bas the lowest temperature gra- ase in the temperature of hot air is
products dient between combustion products associated with an increase in the
(a) passin g combustion produc ts through a tree g11s duct; (b) distribution or combustion productR be tween
parallel gna duels by mcnna or control gill<: '·nlves; (c) distribution ol combustion )lroducts by mcuns ol n and air and the lowest heat-transfer temperature of waste gases or an in-
control Inn; J - rcbcntc r; ll- cconomlz<:r; a- control gate valve; 4- mnln tan; 5-control Inn coefficient. For this reason, the surfa- crease in tho heating area of the air
ce area of the air heater is usually gre- heater. Figure 19.2 shows the tempe-
two tiers turned on can ensure 100-% controlled by a gate valve. The latter ater than the total area of all elements ratures of waste gases which depend on
load .. Thus , at high loads, i.e. when operates under heavy cond ilions, of the steam-water path, and in high- the temperature of air preheating at
steam superheating incr eases , the lo- which explains why this scheme is capacity boilers may range from a few various ratios of water equivalents
wer tiers are turned on, and at lower not popular. I n Fig. 18.24b a nd c, tens to a few hundreds of thousands of ('I' < 1), t eo = 30 deg C and the tem-
loads, the upper tiers are turned on. the reheater sections and the economi- square metres. perature gradient at the hot end 6.t =
Bypassing combustion products. The zer are mounted in parallel gas duels The air in the air heater is a medium = 40 deg C. As may be seen, to pre-
temperature of reheated s team can be ('split duct') and the gases are distri- that has a low water vapour content. heat the air to 400-420°C (fuel anth-
controlled by passing the combustion buted between them either by gate On the other hand, combustion pro- racite) at 'I' = 0.8 , the temperature
products around the reheater. Vari- valves arranged behind the heating ducts which pass through it usually of the waste gases at the air heater
ous schemes for effecting the method surfaces (as in 'b'), or by exhaust fans have a high water vapour concentra- outlet should b e not less than 1.40-
are illustrated in Fig. 18.24. In (as in 'c'). The latter two methods are tion (depending on the content of mo- 1500C. For fuels with a higher mois-
Fig. 18 .24a, a 'free ' gas duct is pro- more reliable than the first, but com- isture and hydrogen in the fuel), as tu re content (brown coal), 'I' = 0.65,
vided between the reheater sections, plicate the design and increase the well as of triatomic gases (C0 2 and and the temperature of waste gases
and the gas flow rate through ·it 1s cost of the plant. 80 2), and their volume and heat capa- for the same level of air preheating
city are higher than the respective must be {}118 = 200-220°C, which is
values for air. The volume of combu- economically inefficient. l n contrast
stion products also increases due to to this , in a counter-current economi-
the presence of excess air. As a result, zer the temperature gradient at the
the ratio of the water equivalents of
air and combustion products, 'I'. =;::
= caV 0 /c 8 Vg, in the air heater is .al-
ways less than unity. This means that
air is heated in the air b eater more
LOW-TEMPERATURE HEATING SURFACES quickly than the combustion products •
are cooled. For instance, with a low
moisture content of the fuel, air is
19.1. Arrangement o£ Low-temperature se elements should pursue the follo- heated in the air heater on the avera- tha
Heating Surfaces wing objects: to intensify h eat ex- ge by 1.2 deg C per each degree the 50~--~--~--~~--~
change, minimize th e dimensions of the combustion products are cooled, or tOO 200 300 400 500
The low-temperature heating sur- elements with a moderate use of metal, with fuels of a high moisture content Fig. 1!1.2. Effect of air heating on the tem-
fa ces of a boiler include the air h eater and minimize the effects of abrasion by 1.4 d eg C per each degree. T hus, as pera ture of waste gases at various ratios of
and the economizer. The design of the- wear by ash , fouli ng a nd corrosion. air is b eing heated, the tempera ture water equivalents
234
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfaces 19.2. Econom:: us 235
It
236
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 19. Low-temperature 0 eating Surfaces
19.3. A lr Heaters 237
s, operation. Economizer membranes
may b e made with a more extended su r- Air heating
~ face ('lobe-type' membranes). b!f com/Jus/tan products by intermediate
com!Jmed
heat rorrter
z 2 -......,
Z:_:t -- l~
19.3. Air Heaters I J
t
Operating conditions and classifica-
\ \
- =t - - -fL~
I
l
-__
...
).,
J:-r----1 /
tion of air heaters. Modern high-ca- (0) 1- J
(a) (b)
pacity boilers are always provided
with a n air heater. The role of the air
4
(o)
I 2-.......
-:...r
5-...
__
(C) ,A
...). _
I-I
Fig. i9.7. Finned tubes of economizers heater increases with the unit power I
(a) welded-on tins; (b) Integral tins of a plant. This is associated with the .- 7- '-" I I
fact that the temperature of combusti- ~----+-_)
on products behind the economizer is. J~ (d)
and same draft, the volum e occupied / Q/
still rather high (350-450°C). By uti- 9 ff
~~--tr--A--
by a finned heating surface with re-
L_~-:- ~ ~--·-;-
cta ngular I ins is 25-30% smaller than lizing t his heat in the air heater, th~
that of a surface with plain tubes. Be- temperature of combustion products
sides, p late steel is cheaper than tubes. can be lowered to 120-160°C. Air
preheati ng increases boiler officien- \ I (e) J
I n recent times, profil ed finned tu- 8 5
cy.
bes (with trapezoidal fins) have b een
adopted for use in economizers (Fig. On the other hand, the a ir heater Fig. 19.9. Mclhods of air heating
19.7b). Finned tubes decrease tho di- proper operates in the zone of lite lo- (a) tubular air heater; (b) regencrntlvc air heater; (c) alr preheating: (d) combina~lon or ~ow~.rc~~T ~co~~
west t emperature of combustio n pro- ml •cr and air hentcr: ( <) cascade ai r heater; 1- Lubular air beater, .e--co~ust O~lr? UC • scadc ~tlon
mensions of an economizer by 40- regenerative air heater· s - low-pressure economlu:r; 6- nlr beater; 7- water, 8-s m. 9 -ea
50% . ducts, so that part of its surface (in ortubular air beater; 10- maln tubular air heater; 11-mlxe.r
l.
238
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfaces 19.3. Air Heaters 239
Combustion products Fig. 19.10. Tubular air heater Fig. 19.12. Air paths in tubular air Combustion Combustion
7.-l.ubes; II and 6- tube plates; J-cxpnu - heaters products products
~ ~
soon compensator; 4- box, 5-part.ltlons :
2 ?- framework; 8- lramc J- cold air entry; 11- hot nl r exll . t t
--'---,.- ~ I + i
J
Hot air
f ..
t t I I
I
rature conditions. Its hotter portion is appreciable quantity of h eat. Thin she-
made so as to intensify heat transfer ets are also favourable in that t hey
(as in Fig . 19 .14a) and consists of two vibrate in the gas or air flow and t hus
~"l\:'\~(~af)rr~~~t~~~~-\:1 types of sh eets: corrugated sheets and
are cleaned from ash. In some types
of regenerative air heaters, the pa-
" ·· spacer sheets which h ave wavy ridges
oriented at an angle of 30° to the flow cking is made from metallic, ceramic ·~-tt---r-8
or glass spheres. 2
direction. T he colder portion of pa-
cking )las a simpler design (Fig. Corrugated-sheet packing has a se-
19.14b) and consists of corrugated rious drawback: thin sheets are destroy- ~---r- 4
~.-- 5
sheets and plane sheets between them. ed quickly by corrosion and abrasion.
Corrugations turbulize the flow and Another drawback is that the heat-
enhance heat transfer. transfer coefficient in longitudinal
Since rotary air heaters have ch an- fl ow is rather low.
nels of non-uniform cross section in Regenerative air heaters are usual-
the packing, convective heat transfer ly made with a rotor of a diameter up
""I in them can be intensified more easi- to 10m, or even 15-17 m in high-ca-
(b) t ly than in tubular air hea tors. Further, pacity plants, which rotates on a ver-
they are simpler in manufacture, since tical axis. vVhen the roto r is of a lar-
Fig . 19-14. Packing profiles of regenerative ge mass, it requires a heavy-duty ra- Fig . 19.16. Sealing ofregenerative air heater
corrugated sheets for the packing l-wall or gas-supply pipe; 2-cover flange ; 3-
air heaters can be made from large sheets by rol- dial thrust bearing. \iVith l10rizontal block; 4-sprlng; 5- guode p late screwe d to flange ;
((I) packing or th e bot section with corrugated arrangeme nt of the rotor, the rotor 6 - cap screwed to rJange; 7-rotor flange; a - cy-
!' spacing sbeel; (b) packing or the cold section ling or stamping . lindrical cas ing; 0- gap
The quality of rotor packing may load can be distributed between two
have an essential effect on the coeffi- ball bearings of a smaller size; fur- gap 6 with the rotating flange of the
ugh t.he rotor separately and continu- cient of utilization of the heating sur- thermore, horizontal-rotor air heaters rotor. The width of the gap is controlled
ously, while the rotating p acking in- face area. With poor filling of the ro- can be arranged more easily in the gas by springs protected by gas-tight caps.
tersects them allernately. The two tor, combustio n products and air may path of the boiler. T he internal annul ar and the radial sea-
flows are in counter-curr ent relations. partly encircle t he packing, thus de- The gas and air flows in elements of lings are designed in a similar manner.
Thus, when some of the sectors ·are creasing the air heater efficiency. a regenerative air heater produce an The quantity of air transferred be-
h eated by combustion products, others The heating surface area of 1 m 8 appreciable pressure gradient, which tween the rotating plates into the gas
give up t he accumulated heat to air. of tho rotor packing is usually 300- is roughly the same in balanced-draft path (and vice versa) in rotary air hea-
The packing of a rotary air heater 340 m 2 • Contact of t he packing with and supercharged gas paths and con- ters may be substantiaL In some ro-
should ensure an intensive heat ex- the gas and air flow is limited in ti- stitutes 7-8 kPa. With a substantial tary air heater designs, the air that
change and have an aerodynamic re- me (usually less than 30 s). Th e ro tor gap between the rotor and stationary passes through the sealings is sucked
sistance as low as possible. Its designs packing should be heated quickly in structures, this pressure gradient can off and returned into the air path to
are diverse, the most popular being the gas flow and quickly give up its lead t o an overflow of a part of the the intake of the blow fan_ .
shown in Fig. 19.14_ The packing pro- heat to air. Packing sheets of a thick- air t o tl1e gas side. Moreover, cold air Regenerative air heaters have found
file is chosen according to the tempe- ness of only 0.6-1.2 mm can transfer an can be sucked in at the periphery of wide application in high-capacity mo-
the air ·heater gas side and some air nobloc units. They are more intricate
tea Combustion can be lost in the air portion (see in design than the recuperative type,
products r+-. Fig. 19.15c). The total rated inlea- but occupy substantially less space,
l<age in regenerative air heaters is have a low aerodynamic resistance
4
2
rr- --
I
-- - ~
I
around 20%, but may be substantial-
ly h igher in operation . Gas and air
overflow in a rotary air l1ea ter is pre-
and, further, corrosion of the heating
surfaces does not increase air. inlea-
kage. Regenerative a~r heaters also
.I
~
1
....
·~
vented by sealings in the inlet and out- have certain drawbacks- for instan-
""= let of the rotor housing: annular sea- ce, they have rotating elements (the
J
f
- - lings at the external and internal cir-
cumference of the rotor and a number of
rotor), intricate sealings which sepa-
rate the gas and ai.r flows, and a high
radial sealings which separate gas and overflow of air into the gas path. T he
'
r}ah
tha (a) y Air air sections . The peripheral sealing of essential drawback of regenerative
(h) (c) a standard rotary air h eater is illustra- air heaters with corrugated-sheet .Pa-
Fig. 19. t 5. Rotary regenerative air heater t ed in Fig. 19.16. It is made in the cking is that the sheets buckle, thus
(a) longitudinal section ; (b) rotor; (c) points or air pass-over; 1-rotor; 2- s tat!onary bousing; J-packing; form of a cut-t hrough sealing ring preventing atr h eating above :~oo-
4- dnvcn gear wheel; 5- drivlng gear wbeel; G-reducer gear; 7-elcc trlc drive mo tor; bt and sb-top and whose elements form a very narrow 3500C.
bottom sector plate to separate gas and air flow; - - air pass-over
I G-0 1524
Download From Boilersinfo.com I
242 Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heating Surfacer 19.4. Corrosion Control of Air Heaters 243 I
utilizes tho latent heat of condensa- ducts and a low flow rate of air (Fig.
Combustion
tion of worked-off steam from the tur-
..----- 7. 19.20a). Cold air is divided into two
products /lot air •
bine and thus decreases the beat loss ~
flows. The smaller flow (30-40% of
2
in the circuit. Air can also be prehe- the total air flow rate} passes through
,_5 the air heater and then through the cas-
ated by hot water produced in an eco- ~
J
nomizer by ut.ilizi ng th e low-tempera-. ' cade stage; the greater portion of air
lure heat of waslo gases. Steam air he-
aters and lo,v-preSSltre economizers are
I 6
(70-60% of the total flow rate) . is
bypassed and mixed with tho first
usually employed for preheating air
which is then further heated in con-
z.---
- portion behind the cascade stage, after
which the mixed air moves in a coun-
ter-current flow through the hot
ventional air h ea ters.
In modern high-capacity boilers, r- 0- .. stages of the cascade air heater.
the steam air heater is essentially a
"-->< A simplified temperature curve of a
~
tubular heat exchanger arranged bet- cascade air heater is shown in Fig.
ween the discharge of the blow fan Fig. 19.19. Combined scheme or air preheat- 19.20b. As may be seen, air temperatu-
and the inlet stage to the main air he- ing with economizer and air heater re in the preliminary air heater and
Fig. 19.17. Regenerative air heater with J-low-pressure economizer; 2-IIIgb-pressure eco-
separated air flows ater (Fig. 19.18). Bleeder steam from nomizer; J - alr beater· 4- clrculntlon pump; 5- cascade stage increases more rapidly,
/ - hot packing; J!- cold packing; 3- prlmnry air; the turbine, at u temperature of aro- alr prchcater; 6-fced-wntcr pump,; 7- combu- since the flow rate of air through them
4- sccondary air; S- gate valve; I nnd 11- prlmnry slion products; 8-n r
and secondary atr sections und 120°C, flows in the tubes while is small. For this reason, these heating
air flows around thoro (cross-current creases air inleakage. The system is surfaces can be made rather compact.
In some power plants, for instance, flow). made closed in order to prevent. conta- Combustion products are cooled less
when burning low-volatile (anthra- In winter at substanti al sub-zero mination of the condensate by corro- appreciably in the cascade stage, and
cite) or high-moisture fuels, primary temperatures of the atmospheric air sion products; the ci rculation of de- therefore, Lbeir temperature is high-
air should be heated to a higher tem- (below - 15°C) , the inlet tubes of aer ated water in it is effected by a er.
perature than secondary air. In other a steam air hea ter and the condensate pump. The temperature of the water
plants, such as in coal-pu lvorizing sys- drainage lines may frost up. Sche- is slightly above the dew point, which
mes have been developed for prehe- 19.4. Corrosion Control of Air Heaters
tems with an intermediate bunker, helps prevent corrosion in the low-
the aerodynamic resistance of the ating air in power units at various cli- pressure economizer. Among all the methods for corrosion
paths of primary and secondary air matic conditions. In a cascade air heater, all cube sec- control in low-temperature heating
may be substantially different. I n In the low-pressure: economizer-air tions, except for tho last one in the surfaces, the most efficient are raising
such cases it is advisable to employ heater system, air is preheated iu the gas path, are heated by the total flow the working temperature of the metal
rotary air heaters with separation of air heater by bot water from the low- rate of the combustion products and above the dew point, organizing the
the air and gas flow into sections (Fig. pressure economizer. Such systems cooled by the total flow rate of air. operation of an air heater on the }ow-
19.17). The apparatus has a separating operate by the closed cycle and pre- Corrosion in the low-temperature por- corrosion part of the curve K = 'f (tw},
ring and an additional sealing. The heat air before it is finally heated by tion of the apparatus is prevented or as seen in Fig. 16.9, andfuelcombus-
place for mounting tho separating combustion products in a tubular air minimized by maintaining the tem- tion at the lowest excess air ratio.
ring is determined by the r atio of the heater (Fig. 19.19). An advantage of perature of the metal above the dew Increasing the metal temperature
required cross-sectiona I areas for the the circuit is that it substantially de- point of the combustion products. To above tho dew point! td.p. is the most
passage of primary and secondary air. form such conditions, the cube sec- common method for preventing low-
The separating ring separates both tion which is the last in the gas p ath and temperature gas corrosion. Watervapo-
the a ir flow and the gas flow. Air the first in the air path is fed with the urs are most likely to condense at
temperature is controlled by gate val- total flow rate of the combustion pro- start-up and low loads of the boiler
ves in the gas path, and the air flow
rate by gate valves in the air path.
Combined air heating. In addition
to conventional heating by low-tem-
perature heat of combustion products, 7
air can be preheated in steam air hea- Wasle
ters by low-temperature steam from gases
the regenerative system of the turbi- 1 2
Fig. 19.20. Cascade air heater
ne. This method is advantageous for 2 (a) connection cbcuit; (b) temperature
{j curve· J - blower; z-a.Ir heater; J -
combatting low-temperature corrosion Fig. 19.18. Diagram o[ air preheating in Vwg cnscade section or air prebenter; 4 -
and fouling in the combustion of high- mnln section or air prebeater; :s-mlx-
a steam air heater (a) {h) cr; 41- bypass line; 7-a.Ir; B-com-
sulphur fuels. The steam air heater J- s tenm ntr heater; t - blower bustlon products
244
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 19. Low-temperature Heattng Surfaces . 19.4. Corrosion Control of Air Ilcatc rs 245
I
246
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 20. H ea.t Exchange Cn H eaUng Surfaces
20.1. Thermal Characterlrctcs of Water Walls 247
qr == qinc -- Qcf
tubes and is thus utilized. Only a
(20.3) small fraction o£ the heat flux from
248
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 20. Heat Exchange tn Heating Surfaces 20.2. Flame Emissivity 249
tically, with densely arranged tubes In most cases, all the walls of a boi- Ash particles are mostly of the same
(at = 1) or with a refractory-faced ler furnace are covered by heating tu- size as coke particles, but are distribu-
water wall, x = 1, i.e. the heat flux bes, except for small portions around ted all over the furnace volume. Thei1
falls entirely onto a water wall. the burner ports, manholes and view- concentration in the gaseous med ium
The ratio hol es, and the coefficient of furnace depends on the ash content of the fuel
T4 r• r• screening is usually equal to 0 .95-0.96 being used. The intensity of their ra-
s
= n- dep = 1 - ( dep ) (20 5
1'~
1I
T4 . ) · II
and approaches the magnitude of the diation constitutes 40-60% of the to-
tfinc angular coefficient x . In low-capacity tal radiation in the furnace . The in-
.
lS
'
called the coefficient of relative fou- boilers, some portions of the fu rnace tensity oE radiation is lower at a high or
ling of water wall tubes. S ince Tdep > walls are left uncovered by tubes and temperature oE the gaseous medium
> 0, th~ coefficient is always less s .
the coefficient 'X. is substantially lo- and increases as the gases are cooled .
than u~uty and is lower at a higher wer. Soot particles can form in large
T der• 1.e. at a higher thickness or quantities on combustion of fuel oils
Fig. 20.2. Variations or the incident and thermal resistance of deposits. The and natural gas. They have a high
erfective heat flux along the furnace height difference T1t - T~ep determines the 20.2. l~ lame E missivity concentration in the flame core and
absorbed heat flux, and therefore, the possess a high emissiv ity [10] .
Relractory-taced portion or water walls is shown
hatched s
coefficient characterizes the fraction As regards their intensity of radia-
tion in the visible spectrum, flames
Radiation of triatomic gases in the
furnace is determined by their con-
of the incident radiant heat which is
the lining within the angle of vision may be luminous, semi-luminous or non- centration and the thickness of the
absorbed by working fluid in the tu-
of the flame (<a) is reflected back luminous. This division is rather con- radiating volume. The emissivity of a
into the furnace volume. With a denser bes. Thus, the coefficient of thermal
efficiency ~)ef of a water wall and the ditional, since radiation is a flow of gaseous medium is determined by the
spacing of the tubes (smaller tube relationship following from Bougu-
pitch (} t = s/d), the angle a is na1·- coefficient of fouling £ are correlated radiant energy not only in the vi-
as follows: sible region. The radiation o.E a lu- er's law:
rower, and therefore, a hi<rher fra- minous or semi-luminous flame is de- -h p s
• b
ctwn of the total heat flux fa lls onto 'l(l. 1 = x£ (20.6)
termined by the presence of solid par-
an= 1 - e g "
0
(20.9)
th~ tubes of a water wall (Fig. 20.3) . The cocHicient £ is somewhat higher ticles (coke, soot and ash) in the flow where kg is the coefficient of absorpt i-
v~7 tth a common density of tube spa- than 'l(l. 1, since it disregards the small of combustion products. Radiation of
cmg at = 1.05-1.1, the angular coef- on in the gaseous medium, Pr is the
fraction of heat radiated onto the li- a non-luminous flame is mainly due to total partial pressure of triatomic ga-
ficient is equal to 0.97-0.99. Theore- ning of furnace walls. triatomic gases (C0 2 and H 2 0) present ses, MPa, and sis the effective thick-
:I In boiler furnace calculations, the in the furnace. Their radiation is se- ness of the radiating layer, m, which
i 1.0 X concept of a radiant heat absorbing lective and falls mainly on the region may be found from formulae given in
I I surface is often used:
I of thermal (infra-red) wavelengths. At [201.
I , 0.9 the same temperature, gaseous substan-
I : (20.7) The emissivity of the gaseous medi-
ces have a much lower radiation in- um in boiler furnaces ag = 0.4-0.5-
0.8 where F':,w is the surface area of the t ensity than solids. The radiation in
·\ and their radiation is roughly 20-
furnace that is occupied by water the volume of a boiler furnace is es- 30% of the total radiation in the fur-
0. 7 walls, m 2 •
i : \ sentially the sum of the radiations of nace. For all solid fuels, the flame
The radiant heat absorbing surface solid particles and gases and depends emissivity in the.- boiler furnace is
0.6
is thought of as a continuous plane on the kind of fuel being burned . found by the formula:
0.5 surface which has the same tempera- The intensity of radiation. of solid
ture values, degree of fouling and . partides in a flame depends on par- an = 1 -e - ktP•
. (20.10)
0.4 emissivity as the tubes of the water ticle size, particle concentration in the
wall. As follows from (20.7), Hr is furnace volume, and the properties of where k 1 is the effective coefficient of
O.J somewhat smaller than the surface the solid. absorption in the furnace and p is the·
area of the walls on which heating Coke particles are usually of a size pressure of gases in the furnace, MPa.
0.2 tubes are arranged, hut greater than Oc = 10-250 J.l.ID. T heir radiation in- In pulverized-coal combustion, the·
1 2 J 4 5 fj 7 the sum of projections of these tubes tensity is close to that of black body luminous flame fills almost the whole
onto the wall. radiation, but their concentration in volume of the furnace (Fig. 20.4). The
Fig. 20.3. Angular coefficient of a single- The ratio of H r to the total surface process of burning extends along al-
row smooth-tube water wall the flame is not high (less than 0.1
J-!or a water wall on !umacc side . inc luding the area of furnace walls kg/m 3 ). They are concentrated mainly most the whole height of the furnace,
radtatton !rom refractory facing. at e/d ;;;. 1.4; near burners, so that their radiation while the presence of incandescent ash
ll-dttto, at e/d = 0.8; 8- ditto , at e/d = 0.5; 'X. = H rfFw (20.8)
4-dttto, at e/tl . 0 (the wall is partiall)· covered onto furnace water walls is on! y 25- particles makes the flam e brightness
by refractory lacmg); 5- !or a tulle row in a mem- is called the coefficient of furnace scre- almost the same along the whole
brane or platen (radiation or refruc tory racing 30% of the total radiation in th e fur-
neglected) ening. nace. height. The coefficient of absorption
250
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 20. Heat Ezchange in H eating Surfaces 20.3. Ca/culat/.on of Radiant Heat Tran1jer In Furnace 251.
1.0 Urt
. for fu el oil, m = 0. 55. Wit h soli d In that case the mean heat fl ux absor- the theory of s imilarity which fairly
\
0.8
~ vz fuels, s ince the f lame is extended along
the whole furnace a nd is eq ually bright
b ed by a water wall well describes the principal thermal
characteristics of boiler furnace opera-
_'\ TJI ) '
0.6
II
/ f
~ ............
in all its portions, it is taken that
m = 1.
The radiation of t he luminous por-
qr = coaJ'Pet ( 100 ·10-3 kVI/m2
(20.15)
tion and their connection to furnace
des ign .
The calculation is based on the semi-
0.1 11/11~ tion of the flame is mainly due to
burning soot particles and additional-
i ncreases somewhat due to a relative-
ly greater change in the coefficient
empi rical formula (A. M. Gurvich)
whi ch can be written in t he fo llowing
g 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 f.O ' temperature triatomic ga-
• ly to high- 1Pct· In formu la (20.15), 1'/lis themean dime nsionless form:
Fig. 20.4. Variation of flame emissivity
ses. The effective a bsorption of radia- effective temperature of the gase- Bo 0 ·•
along the height of furnace tion in the luminous portion of the ous medium in tho furn ace,,I K. 6j = (20.16)
J-tor pulverhced coal; z- tor f uel oil flame is: Bo0 • 6 +MaY. 6
(20.13) 20.3. Calculation of Radiant H ea t It relates tho dimensionless tempe-
<>f radiation by the furnace volume is r ature of gases at the furnace outlet,
l calculated by the formul a: where k, is the absorp tion by soot par-
T ransfe r in a F urnace
Gj, with tho Boltzmann number Bo
ticles. Heat transfer from t he flame to the which characterizes the ratio o[ the
k1 = k8 r+ ka!.la + k cx (20.11) The intensity of radiation from the h eating surf aces arranged on the walls b eat released o n fuel combustion to
where r = rRo, + rH,O is th o total flame cor e on combustion of fuel oil <>f a furnace is highly complex. The the maximum intensity of heat remo -
volume concentration of triatomic ga- is 2-3 times that for solid fuel s and, heat transfer process occurs bore in val to the s urface of the water walls.
ses, lea is the effecti vo coeffi cient of even assuming that the averaging coef- parallel with fuel com bustion which The coeffi cient M in the formula is
absorption by ash particles, fJ.a is the fi.ci ent m = 0. 55, the heat absorption forms internal heat s ources in the ra- i ntroduced to consider the pattern of
dimensionless concentration of ash in by water walls ill a fuel-oil fired fur- diating medium. The gas temperature the temperature field in the furn ace
furnace gases, kc is the effective coef- nace is high er, as noted earlier (see distribution a long the furnace height volume. Tho dimens ionless tempera-
f icient of abso rp tion of r adiation by Sec. 8.1). Thus, as a bo iler furnace is is determined by ~he ratio between ture of gases is found from the formula:
coke particles, and x is a constant for changed from pulverized coal to fuel the i ntensities of heat release and Gj = T j! Ta (20.17)
a particular kind of fu el (low-reactive oil, the temperature of gases at the heat abso rption . Additionally, the
<>r b igh-reactiv e). furnace outlet decreases not icea bly. therm al characteris tics of water wall i.e. , it is essentially the ratio of the
Solid fuels produce a semi-luminous I n natural gas combustion, heat ab- t ubes may vary owing to surface fou- gas temperatu re at the furnace outlet,
flame on combustion. sorption by tho water walls is mainly ling . Tj , K, t o the adiabatic temperature
In fuel-oil fired boilers , the radiati- determined by the radiation of non- At the initial s tage just after igni- T 0 , K. It is always less than unity
<>n of th e flame varies g reatly along luminous triatomic gases, which is tion, intensive burning of fuel ensures and shows how the temperature of
the furnace height (Fig. 20.4.). Inten- less intens ive, so that the heat absorp- a rise in temperature of the gases. At gases in the furnace volume decreases
sive radiation by soot particles is con- tion by less fouled water walls is clo- the same time, the flow of heat energy due to hea t exchange.
I. centrated in the zone of the flame core se to that in tho combustion of solid to the water walls increases. At a The Boltzmann number in formula
(20.16) can be found by the following
fuel. certain distance from the burners, the
II and quickly decreases beyond that
zo ne. For this reason , in calculating The coefficient of thermal radiatiun temperature attains a maximum cor- formulae depending on the original
the emissivity of a flame a11 , the i n a furna ce, a 1, is determined by t he r esponding to the equal ity between data available for the calculation:
•
; ! fl am e is conditionally di vided into emissivity of the flame aiL and the the heat release and heat absorption. cpBtDVgcg
I Bo = F (20.18a)
I t wo. portions: luminous and non-lu- thermal efficiency 1J>eJ of t he wa ter F urther, heat release decreases rapidly Co'llef wTa3
I
I
•
mmous: walls : and becomes less than the level of heat 1
'
!I
a, 1 = malum +
(1 - m) a 8 (20.12)
a! =
i
(20.14)
abso rp tion, so that tho temperature of
the gases diminishes monotonically.
Bo = BwQr
c0 'i>eJF w T~ 1- 6i
(20.18b)
1
whore a 1um is the emissiv ity of tho lu-
minous portion which can be found
1+ (aft -1 ) 'Vet The rate of its decrease depends on (Bw is the rated fuel cons umption).
the temperatl•re maximum in the Let us cons ider in more detail the
:I
• from formula (20.10) upon s ubstitu- An increase in a/1 leads to a hig her fl ame core, the presence or absence heat calc ula t ion and the ro le of v a-
ting ktum for lcf, ag is the emissivity absorption of radiant heat in the fur- of fuel afterburning in the top portion rious terms in formulae (20.16) t h rou g h
<>f the non-luminous gaseous medium nace. An increase in the thermal effi- of the furnace, and the deg1·ee of fou- (20. 18).
whi ch is found by formul a (20.9) and ciency of the water walls, 1jJ"" implies ling of the water walls. The principal thermal characteri-
m is an averaging coefficient which is a n increase in their h eat absorption, Tho method for analysis of hea t s tics of a f urnace are the usefnl heat
determined as the frac tion of the fur- and therefore, a decrease in the effe- exchange in boiler furnaces developed release Q, and the enthalpy of gases
naco volume that is occupied by the ctive radi ation into the furnace vo lu- i n the USSR is based on the combined at the f urnace outlet, J j . The useful
l fl ame core.
The averaging coefficient for natu-
me, the result being a lower thermal us e of the r esul ts of analytical and heat release is the sum of the available
radiatio n in the f urnace and lower experimental studies [20]. It proceeds heat of burned fuel Q': (minus the heat
r al gas combustion is m = 0.1 and heat flux falling o nto the water walls. from the possibility of application of losses q 3 , q4 and q6 within t he furn ace) ,
' '
252
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 20. Heat Exchange in Heating Surfaces 20.3. Calculation of Radiant Heat Transfer ln Furnace 253
~
Heat temperature fields in furnaces, attempts
the furnace, Qrec:
Q _ Qw 100 - q3 -q,1 - q6
f - a
100-q4 Or
I hnlance
equation
Bumer
have been made to find semi-
empirical solutions for Tn by using
2 the two characteristic temperatures Tj
+ (Qa-Qa. ex) + Qrec (20.19)
I
} Burner
The quantity of heat Qha is calcula-
ted hy the temperature of hot air at
BwOr
~
Radiation
heal
transfer
J 1
I
I
X,
and T a. The most successful is the
solution found by G . L. Polyak and
S. N. Shorin, which is given as are-
the outlet from the air heater. If air Fw equation lationship of the dimensionless rela-
is preheated before the air heater by tive temperatures of gases:
an external heat source (say, by bleeder ~ Fig. 20.6. Temperature field in gases along
steam from the turbine), Qa should
Famace
dimensions nurr~er
the height of furnace
1, Burner 2-bllrner lines in the Curnacc~
e/l = y m (8!z)'' (20. 27)
be diminished by the quantity of that x, x,-bcights or burner lines
where ell = Tfi!T" is the dimension-
heat Qa.ex (see Sec. 7 .2). Fig. 20.5. Sequence of beat calculation of can be transformed as follows: less average effective temperature of
The enthalpy of gases at the outlet boiler furnace gases, and m and n are empirical
from the furnace, lj, can be found on
the /, 11·-diagram or from tables for a la Lion of a boiler furnace is done in
BwQr = coa,xF wT1z ( 1 ·- ~~:P ) .1Q-II coefficients which depend on the con-
ditions of combustion and gas cooling
given gas temperature \tj (soc Sec. 8.1). the following sequence (Fig. 20.5). (20.23) in a furnace.
If the useful heat release of the Upon determining Q and ! [ , the heat The expression in the brackets is Upon substituting the dimensionless
furnace, Q1 , could be transferred comp- transferred by radiation 1
in the fur- th e coefficient of fouling £; noting ges temperatures, equation (20.27) can
letely to the products of combustion, nace, Q, kJ /kg, is found . After that further that x~ = 'ljl 01 , we fin ally get: be wri Lten in the following form:
i.e. without heat exchange with the we can calculate the surface area of
heating surfaces (adiabatic conditions), the furnace covered by water walls, BwQr = Coaf~)e/FwT1z-10 -ll (20.24) T] 1 = mT~O-n>(Tiz)4n (20.28)
we would obtain the highest (theore- Fw, to absorb the total quantity of from which the surface area of tho
tical) temperature of combustion that heat BwQr at the given temperature water walls is found as Numerous experimental studies of
heat transfer in boiler furnaces have
could be developed in the furnace; it conditions (fta and ft/) and determine
is more often termed the adiabatic the thermal efficiency of the water
temperature of combustion:
Fw
1011
! 0;
coat ef 11
10
(20.25) demonstrated that the coefficient m,
which characterizes the similarity of
walls. Finally, we determine the di- The accuracy of the calculation oi a temperature fields in boiler furnaces
01 mensions of the furnace to arrange the boiler furnace depends heavily on how under different conditions of combu-
\ta = (V c)ao (20.20) water walls. . accurately the effective temperature of stion, is only slightly dependent on the
Thus, the calculation of heat ex- gases in the furnace, T t~> has been operating conditions of a furnace, but
where (Vc)av = Q"f}o is the average change in a boiler furnace is based on
specific heat of combustion products solving two principal equations: averaged. The actual temperature field is closely associated with the coeffi-
formed by 1 kg of fuel within the tem- of gases has a rather intricate pattern cient n . Coefficient m is close to unity
the heat balance equation along the furnace height (Fig. 20.6). and constant for a g'iven value of n.
perature interv~l 0-fta, kJ /(kg K). As
may be seen, to find the adiabatic tem- Qr = q> (Q/ - li) = q> (Vc)g X Th is variation in the flame temperatu- The exponent n is a function of the
perature, we have first to pre-estimate re is described satisfactorily by the relative position of the temperature
X (fta - {)·i) (20.21) formula of three parameters: maximum of gases in a furnace (Fig.
it. The adiabatic temperature of ga-
ses depends on the kind of fuel (in par- and the equation of radiant heat ex- 20.7) . The most typical values of X
T = T,.{Ax 1e-px (20.26)
ticular on its calorific value) and excess change
air ratio and is equal to 1 700- BwQr = CoatXFw (T1z- T~ep)·10 -IL which covers the entire diversity of 1.0 n
temperature fields possible in boiler /
1 850°C for bro·wn coals and peat and 0.8
1 850-2 100°C for coals, anthracite, fu- (20.22) furnaces. In this formula, A, t and p /
0.8 v
el oils and natural gas. where T dep is the temperature on the are the parameters of the temperature OA
The characteristic temperatures of a surface of the deposits on the water- field in the furnace, T and T" are the 0.2
I
boiler furnace are the adiabatic tem- wall tubes, K, q> is the coefficient of current and adiabatic temperatures of 0
0.2 0.4 0.5 0.8 1.0
perature and the temperature of gases heat retention (see Sec. 6.2), and gases, K, X is the r elative height of
at the furnace outlet. They serve as (Vc) g is the averaged h eat capacity of the position of the flame zone with the Fig. 20.7. Variations of the exponent n as
reference points in the calculation of gases in the temperature interval highest temperature of burning in the a function of the position of the maximum
h eat exchange in furnaces. The calcu- ({)·a- \t/), kJ/(kg K). Equation (20.22} design h eight of the furnace. The of gas temperature X in the furnace
254
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 20. Beat Exchange tn Beating Surfaces 20.4. Radiant B eat Transfer In Boiler Flue Ducts 255
for boiler furnaces (X = 0 .15-0.30) a s follows: zones (four-six), each 3-6m in height. construct the curve of gas temperature
fall on the region where n depends T ho first zone is that of tho h ighest variation along tho furnace height
substantially on X. In this connection, heat release (the zone of 1wrncrs). (Fig. 20.8a). For the given tempera-
the methodics of heat transfer cal- · 1 n zonal calculation, the tempera- ture conditions in the zones, one finds
culation for boiler furnaces is revised
periodically (every few years) whon X }
3/ 7JZ
1 (Tj
Ta
- 1)2 (20.30)
tures of the gases at the outlet from
each zone arc determined, after which
the absorbed radiant heat fluxes in
the furn ace zones, q,. [by formula
new types of boilers appear. th e ltoat flu xes in th e zones ca n be (20.15)}. The ratio of q,. for a parti-
For boiler furnaces of small dimen- Check calculations of heat transfer calculated. First, the heat balance is cular zone to the absorbed heat flux
sions and for combustion chambers in in boiler furna ces of given dimensions written for l.he zone o£ the highest of tbe whole furnace, gr. (Fig. 20.8b)
two-chamber and open-type furnaces can also be m ade by using the dimen- h eat release so as to find the tempera- is called the coefficient of distribution
of high-capacity boilers, it may be sionless formul a (20.16) which can be ture of gases at the outlet fro m that of h eat absorption along the furnace
taken that n = 0.5. Then the average transformed as follows: zono: •• height:
temperature of gases can be determi- (20.35)
ned by the formu la: [t'tj = Ta -273 {20.31) Q'i: = Bw (V c) "-61 = Bw (l}buOI
a1 ) u. 61
Tn=0.925VTaTi (20.29) l+M ( Bo + Qp/o + Oa + Orec - Q6) - B u;Qrl
20.4. Radiant H eat T ransfer in Boiler
(20.34) F lue Ducts
For open-type single-chamber fur- The fraction of heat absorbed by the
naces of s team boilers of power sta- beating surfaces in the furnace due to wh ere ~uu = 0.92-0.98 is the degree of
fu el burn-up in the zone and Q, 1 is The heating surfaces of a boiler just
tions, it is taken that n = 2/3 and radiat ion, r elative to the useful heat downstream of the furnace are swept
m = 1 which corresp onds to X = release in the furnace, is called the the radiant heat of the gases th at is ab-
sorbed by the water walls and by the by high-temperature gases and receive
= 0.33. With a lower position of tho coejjicient of direct heat release: an appreciable portion of heat by ra-
burners in the furnace, and consequen- upper and lower horizontal planes
(20.32) which confine that zone. diant heat transfer. I n particular, se-
tly, of the zone of the highest tempe- mi-radiant heating surfaces of a boiler,
rature of gases (Fig. 20.6), the tempe- T he term BwQr1 is calcu Ia ted from
Disclosing Or from formula (20.21), formula (20. 22) by assuming an appro- such as the plate n superheater or slag
rature of gases at the outlet of a fur- we obtain: screen, which are arranged at the out-
nace of a given design will be lower, ximate value of T 1n which will the n
bo d etermined more accurately . U pon lot from tho furnace, receive th e major
so that in the calculation by the assu - ~~, = q>,' ( 1 - ' Q,
lj ) (20.33) portion of their heat by absorbing
m ed value of Ti , the height of the solving equation (20.34), one can de-
t ermine th o temperature of gases a t the direct radiation of the fl ame core.
furnace should be diminished. Th e direct boat release to the bea- The r adiant heat absorbed by pla-
Since the actual position of the t ing surfaces in tho furnace is usually outlet from the first zone, -frj'.
After that, gas temperatures at the tens from the furnace, Qr.pt. is found
highest temperature of flame may de- roughly half of Q1 . It is higher in the as the difference between the radiant
viate from the design value, an addi- combustion of dry solid fuels, natural outlet of the second and subsequent
zones are found by consid ering the ad- heat flux at the inlet to a platen and
tional temperature field parameter is gas and fuel oils which have a high the heat Hux re-radiated fr om the pla-
introduced into formula (20.25): temperature of burning (!Lt = 0.45- ditional heat of fuel burn-up in a zone,
~~ buQi' and the radiant heat given up
ten onto subsequent heating surfaces:
M=A -BX -0.55) and lower for moist brown coals
(!Lt = 0.38-0.4 5); for fuels with a very to the water walls. Having made the
calculation for all th e zones, one can
Or.pl = Q,.ln - Or.ou 1 (20.36)
where A and B are empirical coeffi- high moisture content (W > 7), the
cients depending on th e kind of fuel dir ect heat r elease may be less than The radia nt beat of the furnace that
used. ;,, 4- is absorbed in t he inlet plane of pla-
0.35. In all cases, 1-LJ decreases with an
In most cases, the r elative position increase of t'ti, as follows from formu- . - tens is found by the results of heat
~~~~
of the highest temperature zone in the la (20.33) . calculation of the furnace:
furnace, X, coincides with the l evel Zonal calculation of furnace. T he r-- - 1\ 1\
of burners xb, since with horizontally - -. n; .., 1 20 3
general l1eat-transfer calcula Lion enab- JJ[ I\ Or.tn = ~T]IIqr Br ( · 7)
directed burners the maximum of tem- les u s to find only the average heat -
perature in the flame core lies in the 1/[
absorption by furnace walls. In many . ·- . where ~ is the coefficient taking acco-
horizontal portion of the flame. In a)] \liJ 1\
cases of delayed ignition or combu-
cases, however, esp ecially for once- - unt of the mutual heat exchange bet-
through boilers, it is essential to know 'I"\ ween th e furnace medium and the ga-
stion (straight-flow burners, multi- the h eat absorption in individual zones I ses in the volumes between platens; it
tier burners), a correction /':!.X is of the furnace so as to determine the
v~ .1/r
12QQ HIJO llilKII8flD •"C 0.5 0.6 lO 1.2 1.4 l5 1.6
is taken equal to 0.6-1.0 depending on
added to X b to account for a higher temperature conditions in tubes (say, ( a) (b) the kind of fuel and the gas tempera-
actual position of the flame core; then in the lower, medium and upper ra- ture at the furnace outl et ; and H;.p 1
X = X b + I':!. X. diant sections). This can be done by Fig. 20.8. Curves of zonal calculation of is the surface area of the inlet section
The final formula for determining zonal calculation of a furnace: the furnace of platens that absorbs radiant heat
the surface area of a boiler furnace is furnace is divided into a number of (a) v aria tion or ens tem perature nl ong: Uoc lurna- hom the furnace, m 2 ; ·
LCe height: (b) variations or re lative h cnt fluxes
256
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch.. 20. Heat Exchange In Heating Surfaces 20.5. Convective Heat Transfer in Boiler Flue Ducts 257
The heat flux at the outlet from where Qp 1 is the total heat absorption tity, the intertubu Jar radiation, so be found from the formula:
platens, Qr.out. kJ /kg, is the sum of by the platens due to convective heat that the solution should be found by
th e radiant heat that has passed from transfer and to radiation of gases in · the successive approximation method. Tg )0.25 (.!E...)o.o7]
the furnace through the platens (re-ra- the platen zone. 1 000 l/)
For o ther heating surfaces arranged in
diated heat) and the heat that is ra- For other heating surfaces of a boi- the zones of lower gas temperatures (20.47)
diated from the gas volume in the ler, radiant heat transfer is determi- and lower l1eat fh1xes, ·the difference where Ctr is the heat transfer coeffi-
platens onto the subsequent heating ned only by radiation from the space between T dcp aod T wf decreases and cient determined by the relationships
surfaces: between the tubes, i .e. they receive no Tdcp can be fotl[ld from the formula: of intertubular radiation, A is a coef-
direct radiation from the furnace . The ficient dependin.g on the kind of fue l,
Qr.out = Qr.jn (1- a) + Q;.pl emissivity of gases depends on their (20.44) l v and lb are the depth of the gas vo-
temperature, the intensity of thermal lume (along the gas motion) and of
(20.38) radiation in the gas volume, the size where !lt is the recommended calcu-
lation norm for various tyiles of hea- the tube bank, m, and T g is the gas
of that volume, and the temperature temperature in the volume upstream of
where a. is the emissivity of gases in and emissivity of external deposits on ting surfaces and temperature zones.
The emissivity of a gaseous medium the bank, K.
the zone of platens, cpp 1 is the angular the heating surfaces. The emissivity
in the general case is expressed by The beat transferred by radiation
coefficient of radiation from the inlet in a convective heating surface can be
Bouguer's relationship: from a gas volume onto a tube bank
onto the outlet section of the platens, found from the formula: upstream. of that volume is negligible,
which is determined by their geometri-
(20.45) since the temperature of gases in the
,.I cal characteristics (the spacing bet- Ctr = qr - (20.41)
ween the platens and the depth of pla- Tg - Tdep volume is lower than the average tem-
where t.he product kps is called the to- perature in the bank. This radiation
I tens), and Q;.pl is the radiation of where T c is the average temperature tal optical thickness of combustion
I
gases from the platen zone onto a hea- is not considered in our calculations.
of gases, K, and T dep is the tempera- products (see also Sec. 20.2).
ting surface behind the platens , which ture of the deposits on heating tube The coefficient of absorption of ra-
can be found from. the laws of radiant surfaces, K. diant heat by a gaseotJS medium on 20.5. Conyective Heat Transfer
h eal excha nge. The radiant heat flux absorbed by combustion of solid fuels is determi- in Boiler F lue D ucts
The heat absorption by the platens the unit surface area of a heating sur- ned (with the concentration of fly
from the gas flow is determined by Convective heating surfaces of a
face in a convective gas duct can be ash taken into account) by the for- boiler include the elements arranged in
the coefficient of heat transfer a. 1 , found from the equation: mula : the horizontal gas duct behind the
kW/ (m 2 K), which considers both the
radiant and convective heat transfer (20.46) semi-radiant surfaces of platens or
(T;- T~ep) .1o- u slag screen and those mounted in the
in a platen:
(20.42) For ash-free gas flows, the second convective shaft. This is a zone of
term is equal to zero . In convective relatively low gas temperatures where
(20.39) where a 8 and adep is the emissivity of the effectiveness of radiant heat trans-
tube banks, the thickness of the in-
where the coefficient~ is introduced to the gaseous medium and external de- tertubular radiating layer s depends fer decreases r apidly. In. order to
account for the non-uniform sweeping posits on the tube surface (it is usual- on the relative tube pitches s1 /d and increase heat absorption by convec-
of the platens by gases. ly taken that adep = 0 .8). The expo- s 2 /d [20] and is usually equal to tion, gas velocities in this zone are inc-
Direct radiation from the furnace nent n is equal to four in a dust-laden 0.1-0.2 m, i.e. it is only 1/20-1/50 reased and the heating surfaces are
into the zone of platens increases the gas flow (to consider the radiation of of the thickness of gas layer in the extended by using tube-coil banks with
temperature on the surface of the de- ash particles) and n = 3.6 for clean furnace. For this reason, radiant heat densely spaced tubes arranged for
posits on the front row of the platen gas flows (on combustion of natural transfer in convective banks (conside- cross-current sweeping by the gas
I ubes and decreases the heat absorp- gas or fuel oil). The temperature of ring also that the temperature of gases flow. The intensity of heat absorption
I
tion from the gas flow sweeping these the surface of the deposits on superhe- decreases in flue ducts) is two or three by convective beating surfaces dimi-
!I
lubes. This circumstance is conside- ater tubes is determined by the for- orders of magnitude lower than that in nishes along the gas path from
I red in the calculation of the coeffi- mula: · the furnace. At gas temperatures be- 40 kW/m. 2 for the convective super-
cient of heat transfer in platens, kp, 8 low 400°C, 1·adiation in dense tube heater to 1-2 kW/m 2 for the air heater.
by introducing a multip1ier (1 + T dep = T wf (e 1/a.2 ) ';0 (20.43)
+ + banks can be neglected. In regenerative air heaters, gases and
+ Qr.p/Qp 1) into the denominator,
where T wt is the temperature of the
Gas volumes in front of convective air move along heat-transfer plates,
I which gives the following formula banh have a more noticeable radia- so that the intensity of heat transfer
for kp 1: working fluid (steam), K, and Q is tion intensity owing to a higher effe- P.er unit area of smooth surface of pla-
the total heat absorption by the hea- ctive thickness of tl1e radi ating layer. tes is only 1/3 or 1/4 that in tube-coil
rI. 1
lcpl = -.,-------~---.,..--:---- ting surface, including the radiation In this case, the emissivity for a con- banl(s. Heat transfer can be intensi-
(].11 + (f+Qr.ptiOpt) ( e + :. ) from intertubular space, kJ /kg. · vective bank arranged behind such a fied by various methods (see Ch. 19).
As may be seen, the equation for voh1me is higher than in the calcula- The principal equations of heat trans-
(20.40) T der> includes another unknown quan- tion of intertubular radiation and can fer are as follows:
17 - 0 152!,
258
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 20. Beat Ezchange ln Beating Surfaces 20.5. Conuectlue Heat Trrwsfer in Bolle r Plue Ducts 259
..." ....:.
~
- ...... .,;:::
~
and equation of heat absorption the sp ecified val ue and th at obtained ...
•
....:g.. ~
';'-
';>.. ....
~
~ ...
::::.,.
by the working fluid: fro m equation (20.48) should differ .... ~
t.;.;
"'
....
~
~
~
§~
~\:!
"~
~ . ,i<'i"'"'....l: l::"'
t::J "~
~I:
by not more than 2%. ~
Q'b1 = %. w- i') (20.50) In the heating surfaces o( boilers,
..
heat transfer occurs through a multi- I
An additional condition is that Q1 = layer cylindrical wall-a metallic tube
= Qf = Q'/:1, k J /kg. with deposiLs on its outside and inside
In equations (20.48) through (20. 50), surfaces. The heat-transfer coefficient
1I is th e h eating surface area of an is usually determined by using the '-------~~~--------~ , E~
conomtzer 1
element, m 2 , k is the heat-transfer formula for a plane multi-layer wall. Air heater ,Transi/Ton zone
With a sufficiently large tube diame- ~~~~~~------~v~--------------~'
coefficient, kW/(m Z K), ~t is the r a- Svperlmtfer
ted temperature gradient, K, B, is ter, this involves no substantial. error
the rated fu el consumption, kg/s , D and s implifies the calcu lation consi- Fig. 20.9. Dingrnms of motion of the hcnting nnd hentcd mcdin in the convective elements
is the flow rate of the working fluid , derably. of boilers
kg/s, I~ and l'i: are lho onthalpics of The formula for the heat-transfer
combustion products at the inlet to coefficient of a plane multi-layer wall For the normal operation of a boiler, for tube-coil surfaces
and outlet from an element, kJ/kg, is ns follows: the scale on the internal surface of k= 1 (20.53a}
n, is the enthalpy of sucked-in air,
k = ~~~~~~--~~----
i the tubes should cause uo noticeable 1./a.t +e-t- 1/a.:
I<J /kg, ~a is the relative air inlea ka- 1/a.l +6sd A. t +6m/Arn +6sc/Asc +1/az increase in thermal resistance, so that and for r egenerative air h eaters
ge in a gas duct , i' and i • are the en- the thermal resistance of scale is not
(20.52)
thalpies of the working fluid at the considered in calculations (o,.fl.,,. =-= k= i/a., ~f/a~ (20.53b)
inlet t o and outlet from the element, where a 1 and a 2 are the coefficients = 0).
kJ /kg. of heat transfer from the heating fluid The thermal resistance of deposits Diagrams of the relative motion of
For the air l1eater, the heat absorpti- to the wall and from the wall to the on the outside surface of the tubes heating and heated fluids in most ty-
on by working fluid (air) is determined healed fluid, Om, 6,, and o,. are the e = o.z/'>.,, 1 (ash, slag, soot, corrosion pical heating surfaces of boiler plants
by the following form ula instead of thicknesses of the metallic wall, the products) cannot be disregarded, are shown in Fig . 20.9. The tempera-
(20.50): external layer of deposits (slag) and though measures are taken in boiler ture gradient, i.e. the average tempe-
the internal layer (scale) and /,rn, A.., operation to remove deposits periodi- rature diiierence between the heating
Q& = (~a - 0.5~aal•) (l~a - I~a) and A.,. are the respective conductivi- cnlly (see Sec. 16.1). and heated fluid for the whole heating
(20. 51) ties. I n certain cases when som e of the surface in parallel flow, counter-cur-
T he ratios ila 1 and 1/a 2 are essen- quantities in the r elationships indi- rent flow and multiple cross-flow
where ~a is the relative excess of air tially the therma l resistances to heat cated are unknown or the flow condi- (with the number of passes more than
at the inlet to the air heater, and transfer at tl1e external and internal tions are too complicated, the coeffi- four) can be found by the formula :
ll:a and I~a are the enthalpies of the side of the surface. For heating sur- cient of effectiveness 'l' of a heating b.tg - b.tl
theoretical volume of air taken res- faces in which the working fluid is surface is used, which can be fou nd ~t = 2.3 log Atg/At1 (
20 ·54a)
pectively at the temperature of h ot water, a steam-water mixture or su- fro m the heat balance of that surface.
a nd cold air, kJ/kg. p erheated steam of supercritical pres- The heat-transfer coefficient is de- where ~tg is the greatest and ~t 1 is
In design calculations, the heating sure, the coefficient a 2 substantially termined as an average value for the the lowest temperature difference bet-
surface area H is found from equation exceeds (by two or three ord ers of mag- whole surface considered at an avera- ween the fluids at the ends of a bea-
(20.48). In this case, tho heat absorp- nitude) the coefficient a 1 , so that the ge velocity of gases. The coefficient ting surface, deg C.
tion by working fluid through surface thermal resistance on the internal side of utilization £ is also introduced to If the ratio ~tgl~t 1 does not exceed
area H is known, so that one can de- 1/a 2 can be neglected , since 11a1 is take account of the incomplete or non- f. 7, the temperature gradient can be
termine from equation (20.49) the en- much greater than 1/a 2 • The same is uniform swooping of a heating sur- determined sufficiently accurately as
thalpy and temperature of gases be- tru e of the therm al resistance of the face by tho gas flow. In view of the the mean arithmet ic value.
hind that surface and then the tem- metallic wall: 6m1A.m is much lower above, formula (20.52) can be re-writ- As shown in Fig. 20.9, a multiple
perature gradient M and the heat- than 1/a1 • ten in the following form: cross-current flow of fluids is used pre-
260
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 20. Heat Exchange in Heating Surfaces 261
20.6. Velocities of Gases /11 Convective llcating Surfaces
dominanlly in the heating su rfaces of and its cost is lower. A smaller three main types which require diffe-
'fop!
boilers. Willrtho number of passes for beating surface offers a lower hyd- rent approaches to the selection of ve-
1.0
~
one of tho fluids less than four or with raulic resistance to the motion locities [6).
a mixed mode of flow , heat transfer in of working fluid (steam, water, steam- 0.96 1. The last (outlet) banks of the
a heating surface will be somewhat lo-
wer than in a purely counter-current
water mixture) in tubes, which makes
it possible to reduce tho power of the
'\.·,
~ superheater and reheater are arranged
in the high temperature zone of gases
motion of fluids; this can be conside- feed p umps (in the design of super-
0.92
',·, ~ /1 and have the highest temperature of
red by introducing a correction coef- heaters and economizers) and increase 0.88 steam. The high velocity of steam
ficient 'I' for tho tom perature gradient
determined for tho counter-current
the power of the turbine (duo to a lo-
wer resistance of the reheater). On the 0.84
>- ,""" ........
2
ensures tho reliable cooling of tubo
walls; at any load of the boiler, the
',
mode: other hand, this increases the con- llg/Ua ',... metal temperature is not allowed tori-
sumption of energy needed to over- 0.80 se above the limit for a particular
(20.54b) 1.0 f.2 (.4 1.6 (.8 2.0
come the greater resistan ce of the gas steel. Pressu re loss is of minor impor-
Tho coefficient 'I' is determined path. tance in this case. This group also
graphically for a particular scheme of The optimal velocity of gases can be Fig. 20.10. Curves of optimal ratio or air includes radiant and semi-1·adiant (pla-
motion of the two fluids (20]. and gas velocities in air heaters
found by technico-econom ical calcula- 1- at specific heat ratio c 0 /cc = I; z-ut c0 /CC - ten) superheaters whictt receive high
I"n circuits with parallel or succes- tion. The best version is that in which = 0.9 heat fluxes by direct radiation from
sive-mixed fluid flow, the calculation the expected expenditures Z are at a the furnace with a high degree of non-
can· he carried out separately for each mmunum: In solid fuel combustion, these ve- uniformity across tho furnace width.
of the passes a nd dotorrnines ··the ave- locities in most cases arc not ronched 2. Co nvective superheaters are ar-
rage temperature gradient for the Z = C -1- Prf( (20.56) rauged in zones with gas temperatures
in view of excessive abrasion wcn r of
whole hea ting surface: tubes by ash (see Ch. 16). below 1 000°C and cooled by modera-
where C is the annual expenditures
The intensity of heat transfer and tely superheated s team. These have a
t:.tav = At ,fl d - 6t2Tf2
11,-1- [{2
{20.5 5} associated with operalion of t.he equip-
the heating surface area in air heaters certai 11 reliability margin of the me-
ment, Pr is the coefficient of dep•·ecia-
tion for the capital expenditures (in depend on the Yelocity of gases and t al. J n this case, the optimal steam
where H 1 , lf 2 are tho areas of indivi- power engineering, it is usual ly taken air, since the beat-transfer coefficients velocity is determined mainly by the
dual portions, m\ and t:.t 1 , t:.t 2 are equal to 0 .15 per year), and K is tho at both sides (gas and air) aro rather superheater design and by the mini-
tho temperature gradients in them, initial capital expenditure: close to each other, especiall)' in re- mal cost of a tube bank (for a lower
deg C. generative-type air heaters. For this steam veloci ty, one bas to increase
!I
Tho same approach is used when the
heat capacity of one of the fluids chan-
K = Ke, + Kdr + K,ub (20.57) reason, one first bas to determine the the number of tubes in a bank or the
diameter of the tubes, which will
optimal velocity ratio q> 0 p1 = walwc·
' ges significantly within the hea ting
surface calculated, for instance, il the
where Ke 1 is the cost of the considered Figure 20.10 shows variations of <Popt
which depend on the ratio of volumes
increase the dimensions, and there-
fore, the cost of a superheater section).
element in the gas path, Kdr is the
fluid changes the state of aggregation cost of the dralt fan, and K •ub is the and specific heats of gas and air in re- 3. Reheater banks are arranged in
(as in a boiling economizer). In this cost of a substituting auxiliary plant generative air heaters . zones of moderate gas temperatures
case, the heat absorptions Q, and Q2 to provide continuous power genera- As has been demonstrated by ca lcu- (450-600°C). Their optimization is car-
in the portions with the single-phase tion in the system. lations, q> 0 p 1 depends on the type of ried out by considering the effect of
and two-phase fluid are found separa- Gas velocities calculated by this air heater. For tubular air heaters, steam velocity on the dimensions of a
tely, alter which the tom perature gra- method are called econom ical (w 00). <p 0 p 1 = 0 .4-0 .55 at the optimal gas ve- heating surface and on the hydraulic
dients t:.L 1 and t:.l 2 are determined for For instance, for balanced-draft steam locity Wee= 11 ± 2 m/s; for regene- resistance of the reheater (a higher
these portions nnd averaged for the boilers with tho cost of referen ce fue l rative air heaters, <p 0 p 1 = 0.86-0.92 hydraulic resistance decreases the po-
whole healing surface. of 10-12 (roubles/t), tho economical gas at Wee = 10 + 1 m/s [53]. wer oi the turbine).
velocities, m/s , in superheaters and Th e velocity of working fluid (ste- Practical recommendations can be
am, water) has no essential effect on reduced to specifying the mass veloci-
~0.6. Velocil:ies of Gases economizers with staggered tubes are
as follows (at tho rat.ed boil er load): tho intensity of heat transfer and on ties of steam wp, kg/(m 2 s), for various
ancl Working Fluid in Convective types of heating surfaces. For instan-
Heating Surfaces the dimensions of the heati ng surfaces,
For tubes of steel 20 (economizer) 13±2 since the highest thermal r esistanco ce, tho recommended values are wp =
The optimal velocity o~ gases is For pearliLic-steel tubes (su per- appears on the side of heating gases. = 800-1 100 kg/{m 2 s) for the outlet
that at which the cost of construction heater) . . . . . . . . . . 12 ± 2 convective banks and450-600kg/{m 2 s)
For pearlilic-steel lubes (rchcater) 19 ± 2 The velocity of steam in superlt oa-
and operation of a heating surface is For austenitic-steel tubes (super- ters should be such as to ensure relia- foi· other banks. For reheator hanks,
at a minimum. With an increase in heater) . . . . . . . . . . 19 ± 2 ble conditions for the operation of the wp = 250-400 kg/{m 2 s) is sufficient.
gas velocity, the coefficient of heat metal, which in the fin a 1 resu 1t deter- The velocity of water in convective
transfer i ncreasos, with the result For in-line tubes, the economic gas mines the cost of a heating surfa ce. economizers is selected so as to pre-
that the healing surface is smaller velocities are 40% hig her. All superheaters can be divided into vent s tratification of the steam-water
262
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Boller 263
21.1. Boller Layout and Structures
J
.• '
(a) (b) (d)
21.1. Boiler Layout and Structures makes it possible to diminish the depth
of the convective shaHs and the heigbt
of the connecting horizontal ducts. The
Boiler layout. The mutual arrange- total cross-sectional area of the two
ment of the gas ducts·or a boiler and convective shafts is higher than in the (f) (g)
the direction of combustion products io former scheme. The draft fans are mo-
them d etermine what is called the I~ig. 21.1. Various schemes o{ boiler layout
unted on the zero level. The T-shaped
boiler layout which may be II- T- N- layout is especially suitable for the
' ' '
U-shaped, four-pass or t ower-type boilers fired on fuels which produce so as to prevent slagging in the high- nerative air heater and draft means nre
(Fig. 21.1). abrasive ash (such as Ekibastuz coals) temperature zone . mounted on the floor level and conne-
. Among them, the IT-shaped layout where it is essential to reduce the ve- High-capacity supercharged boiler cted with the boiler tower by a descen-
IS most popular (Fig. 21.1a): the locity of combustion products. There- plants are often buill by the tower ding gas duct which has no heating sur-
furnace is arranged in an ascending moval of combustion products from scheme (Fig. 21.1e) in which combus- faces.
shaft and the convective heating sur- the two shafts i~ this layout involves, tion products move in the furn ace and The tower l ayout requires a heavier
!
I.
I
I 264
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Cit. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Boller 21.1. Boller Layout and Structures 265
I with tho turbine by a shorter pipeline; m ents of the particu Jar beating sur- Fig. 21.2. Structure of a once- 57840
and the air path has a low aerodyna- faces of boilers have been described in through boiler type P-57 (D = ...:L-\p±c:~ '~::c:j::::r::Jc=;
mic resistance (the a ir healer is quite 1 650 t/h) with an indepondcnt k
more detail in Chs. '17-1!). foundation
i
close lo the burners). l ts draw backs arc Boiler s tructure. Modern high-capa- J- column; ( 2-verlicnl truss; J-horl·
as follows: fuel must be supplied t.o the city boilers manu[acturod in the USSH zonta l truss; 4-stand; s- roor: 6- rnnln
~>enm; 7-m~lined ceiling pi~Le; a-
burners t.o an appreciable height; draft are usually of tho 11- or T -shaped lay- beam; 9-furnace frame; JO-laes; 1 t- 145534 7
and exhaust fans and ash collectors shoc _;g
out. The layout of a boiler determines
must be mounted on a high level. The the design of the hoi Ier structure and 3 8
U-shaped (inver ted) layout can be stress distribution in it.
employed for the combustion of gas, The boiler structure is essentially a
fuel oil and solid fuels provided that supporting sleet framework wh icll car- _H
the furnace is of the dry-bottom type. ries various hoi ler elements, such as
The layout of high-capacity boilers the drum, heating sur[aces a nd hea- 27950 lllz!siz~
of monobloc units should meet certain d ers, refractory setting, insu lation and
add itional r equirements (in view of casing, pipelines and duels, s tages,
lhe considerable size of the plant in stairs, etc. The boiler stru cture may be
pl an, tho application of steam rehea- either isolated from the load-carrying
ting, etc.) and ensure reliable opera- structure of the boiler roo m building
tion of the boiler in combination with
I.I t.l1e turbine.
and be supported on an individual
fmJndation or made integra l with tho-
tOZOO
The span of roof beams in high- se structures. In tho for·mer case, the
cap acity boilers is sometimes dimi- boiler structure ca uics the wholo load
nished by dividing the furna ce and of the boi ler and tra nsm its it to tho
convective shaft.s into two sections, foundation. The load on the foundati-
i. e. a boiler has two housings (each on includes tho mass of tho boiler pro-
with its own metal structure and re- per and its structure and the mass of
fractory setting) in which the h eating A·A
the working fluid: water and steam.
surfaces are arranged symmetrically In southern regions where an open or
(two-housing symmetrical boiler lay- semi-open layout of boiler equipment
out) . Provision of shut-off valves on is allowed, the boiler structure s hould
the two symmetrical sections gives also withstand the wind load, and
what is ca lled the double-bloc layout. often , seismic loads.
With one of the sections shut down , Figure 21.2 shows schematically a
a dl•uble-bloc boiler p lant can operat e once-through boiler (type II-57, D =
at 50-% load, which improves its = 1 650 t/h) of the T-shaped layout
manoeuvrability, but increases the mounted on a sep arate foundation. lers), heating surfaces, and the su ppor- prevents substa ntial thermal stresses.
cost and the unit fuel consumption The boiler structure consists of vertical ting structures of stages. Additional Boiler structures are mostly made of
since the superheater has the sam~ columns, horizontal beams and sup- stands and beams of smal ler cross carbon steels, such as Grade St. 3 .
rated h ydrau lie resistance. Furth er, port t russes, main beams, roof ceiling section are mounted to in crease the Some less critical elements may be
the turbine effi ciency decreases at ties, and stands. All elements of th~ structure rigidity and to fasten water made of steel Gt·ade St. 0.
partial loads. structure are joined by welding. walls, headers, hot-air ducts, etc. The introduction of gas-tight all-
In two- a nd multi-pass schemes of The number of supporting columns The columns of a boiler stru cture welded water walls (see Sec. 17 .3) with.
gas motion, the furn ace and gas ducts dep ends on the s team-generating ca- transmit substantial concentrated lighter refractory setting has made it
may either be fully · separated from pacity of a boiler. Columns are usually loads onto the foundation. The unit possible to substan tially reduce the
I eacl1 other (us in Fig. 21.1a, b, d, and mounted only at tho coroet·s of the pressure on the foundation is decreased boil er mass (sometimes by 30-50% ).
f) or have a common longitudinal par- furnace and convective shaft. Additio- by providing supporting shoes at tho A lighter boiler can thus be supported
tition form ed by gas-tight water walls nal columns may be installed in high- lower ends of the columns. Metal con- by the structures of the boiler room
(Fig. 21.1c and g). capacity boilers having an appreciab- sumption for a boiler structu1:e de- bui ldiug. Tho drum and all h eating
Air heaters arc arr anged either in le width or depth. All co lumns are pends on boiler capacity and may con- sw·faces of the furnace and convective
the lower portion of the convective connected at the top by transvet·se be- stitute 0.8-1.2 kg per kg of hourly shaft are susp ended from heavy
shaft or outside the boiler or even the ams or trusses. They increase the boi- steam-generating capacity. Supporting beams of tbe boiler room build ing roof
boiler room, so as to leave space for ler structure stab ility, prevent the columns and beams are not heated by and can freely expand downward. In
the arrangement of burners or shot- buckling of columns, and serve to gases; this insures more favourabl e this case, the boiler structw·e proper
blasting installation. The arrange- support the drum (in drum-type boi- operating conditions of the metal and serves only to ensure the required ri-
Download From Boilersinfo.com 21J. Boller Layout and Structure•
267
:266 Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Bolle r
sible to dispense with separate boiler
l 11 ded only from the main beams of the foundations, allow more space for
' .
..u. building and are not connected with mounting the auxiliary equipment, sa-
I ). the building walls, so that deforma- ve much metal [or the construction of
tions of the building are not trans- the boiler structure, and r educe th e
ferred to the boiler. The boiler ele- time of construction work.
;l; l: -5 ments are suspended from the main
_.- 16 A boiler and its elements have defi-
.-
II
I~ beams by means of numerous suspen- nite dimensions in the cold state and
o· 1- 17 sion ties. The heating surfaces are occupy certain positions in space. In
f- -n ljlftt -fli connected with the boiler structure
!--,3\2 the working 'hot' condition, their di-
I and their temperature expansions mensions and positions in space vary
~'---t4 I
1-,_.1:-w - 19 should be essentially of the same ma- substantially. Thermal displacements
. ! f.:
~ -Gu
"' gnitude to avoid temperature stresses. are determined by the working tem-
IV IJVJ...
~/\
T his is ensured by means of 'hot' perature of the metal and the length
Ill*
~ ~»
I suspensions which are made from tu-
- 21 of an clement from its fixed end. With
IJ<[ \ t> -~
)
bes supplied with the working fluid at
a temper ature r oughly equal to that
the coefficient of thermal expansion of
the metal equal to 0.012 X 10 - 3 m/K,
~
in the corresponding beating surfaces.
) I n supercharged boilers, the pressure
in the gas path is absorbed by horiton-
certain boiler elements may expand
by 300 mm or even more.
Figure 21.4. shows the diagram of
tal beams spaced 2.5-3.0 m apart on
- I~ + It all walls of the furnace, convective
thermal expansions of elements in a
'T T suspended boiler typo TGM.P-204. All
shaft and connecting gas ducts. These level marks relate to the cold state.
beams ensure proper rigidity of the
0
5 ~ boil er walls.
Displacements have been calculated
for temperatures of the metal in ope-
Suspended str uctures make it pos-
'G G'"'
. .
~67270
1
I ~ I
iJ!IIll
.Jl200l
. .
Jj5JD~ •• • • • • ••
• • ••
•• k
I
,I
. 3< tliM
lis
~
111
IJ!It
At'" H,
.
2~
Fig. 21.4. Diagram of temperatu- I\
re expansions (H, mm; I, mm) or '
lzo l~ 35J(),'0
j54DD 1117
I \..__/\__f\_1--f\__/'u elements of a boiler type
lTGMP-204 (D = 2 650 t/ u)
tteaders or the bottom water Nau,
fl, - 290 ; benders or water walls in
H
fl.
I-ll
~,: '
lzr i Hzo "
lzr
. .
'
I Fig. 2L3. Structure of gas-ttght botler type P-67 (D
.
4J--~uspended
bo1ler roomtubes
column· suspensi.fnstJ1 ~1ld
('bot't-workin s-Jro!f
t 1
room
= 2 650 t/h) combined witll boiler
gidity an d to fasten the boiler to the patl~ (in supercharged boilers), and
H,. - I 38; vertical tubes or furnace
water walls, fl,. = 248, H,. = 221, , - - - t- H,s 1-F H,z
r?om buildin? structures. I n such de- carrtes st~ges and stairs. An example
H" = 162. H., = t03; supporting
plaLes on 'hot' suspens ions, H,. = 247; j 81X1 lt9
~
Ill.
of the bo1ler structure carried by the common wind box ol rumacc. H,. =
s igns, the bo1ler structure ensures the - 322. 1,. • 62; bcadcrs or control sw·- 1ft
l,s 11,!1vi Hut 11,!1
appropriate rigidity of welded water room building is illustrated in Fig. race or rehenter , u,. = tt9, 1,' 0 = 8. u
• ' •
walls, absorbs the pressure in the gas 21.3. Tho boiler elements are suspen- I t o - 105. H., = 142, ht = 4, lu =57
I
268
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 21. Layout and Beat Calculation of Steam Boiler 21.1. Bolle r Layout and Strncturu 269
Untti Fig. 21. .5. Arrangement of burner stresses from temperature displace- 11
in n port ment of other boiler ele;nents, static
f 2 J 4 J - turn ace wull; 2- port tJ a n ~:rc: J-
sca llng sheets; 4- burno:r · loads from various s tructures above it,
Unit I aud so on . The most dangerous are ll m 1lf
3 temperature sti·esscs which appear on
2 start-up and shu t-dow n owing to un- 1 T
-
--- c,·cn heating of boiler elements , so
thal various compressive, tensile and
shoat· stresses may appear in the en-
closure.
(a) (6}
- - On-tube enclosure
- - Ptale enclosure
All these factors can hardly be con- U ]oinl
s idered properly in the de'sign and
I construction of th e enclosure. For this Fig. 21.6. Types or enclosure in various por-
I. reason, reliable operation of the en-
closure is ensured by selecting tho
tions of n boiler
appropriate materials which can ope- fractory material. Two or three l ayers
ration. Ver tica l displacements are mar- the furn ace to p, which preven ts the ra te under the heavy cond itions indi- beneath i t, which operate at tempera-
ked by H's and horizontal, by l's . In leakage of combustion products to the cated , and by certa in design measures tures of 500-900°C, are made of heat-
the example iJlustratcd , horizontal outs ide, bu l, increases so mo\\·hat air which can minimize the effect of insulating ma tel"ials . The outside sur-
displacements are marked only for tltc inleakage. these factors (composite enclosure, ex- face of the enclosure is coated wil,h
common box of the furnace, l 1u, and The nu mbe•· of 'passes' from the hot pansion joints, expansion compensa- gas-impermeable pl aster (the allowa-
for the headers of the control stage box to the outside is much sma ller tors , etc.). Tho modern light enclo- ble t emperature for plaster coating is
of rehealer , l 20 and l 21 • th an through the boiler roof; they sure of boilers has a mass of around 100-200°C} or metal sh eets . In gas-
T o avoid excessive t hermal stres- main ly include the external pipelines 850 kg/m 3 . The mass of enclosure re- tight boilers with all-welded membr·a-
ses, the structure of a boiler should and suspensions of headers . These lated to kg of hourly steam-generating ne water walls (soc Sec. 17.3), light
have proper means to allow ils !Tee 'passes' usually have sil phon sealings. capacity of a boiler is usually 0.4-0.5 heat insulation over the tubes is quite
exp ansion on healing. A steam boiler When a boiler is shut down for r e- kg or more. The enclosure of a high- sufficient .
is connected with its auxiliary eq uip- pairs , the Lime for natura l cooling of capacity boiler consumes on. the tota l In some boilers , the enclosure is of a
m ent mounted externally of the boiler the hot box is as much as 20-30 hours. more than 2 000 t of ceramic mate- combined type: plate enclosure in tho
structure (pulverizing plant, feed wa- Cooling can be accelerated by cold rials. The boiler enc'losure should have prismatic portion of the furnace and
ter pipelines, etc.). It is also connected air blowing of the hot box. a high refractoriness, high mechanical on-tube enclosure in the dry-bottom
by pipelines with the turbine. Pipe- Boiler enclosures. Boiler enclosmes strength , proper tightness, possess h e- hopper or inclined bottom. Enclosure
lines usually all ow free expansion of are important elements of boiler pl ants at-insulating p roperties, withstand blocks are suspended from r oof beams
the boiler owing to their seli-compen- and consume much of work and mate- ~em perature s tresses and resist the of the boiler structure and can expand
sation . Exceptions are pulverizing rials for the manufacture. They ha,·e action of ash and molten slag. The on heating together with the water-wall
pl ants with mill fans, which h ave no an essential effect on the conditions enclosme design is heavily dependent tubes. The two portions of the enclo-
dust pipelines of appreciable leng th , of operation of the furnace and con- on the tube system of the heating sure form a temperature joint around
but are connected directly to t he bur- vective shaft. In high-capacity boilers, surfaces in the furnace and convective the furnace periphery, which should be
ners. In such cases,· burner por-ts of a the enclosure mass is so large that it shaft. properly sealed to prevent air inleaka-
boiler are designed so as to move freely greatly influences the design of the In modern power-st ation boilers, gc (the horizontal plane /-/ in Fig.
r elative to the fixed burners and the boiler structure and foundation. two t ypes of enclosure are employed. 21.6a) . The enclosure of convective
gaps between them are sealed (Fig. I n boilers of un tight design, tho en- The enclosure of tho first type is atta- gas ducts is usually of the plate type.
21.5). closw·e is formed by continuous walls ched immediately to tubes (on-tube If the furnace has an on-tube enclo-
•Hot box' . In' high-capacity boilers, of coram ic materials, which isolate the enclosure), i.e. to tubular water walls sure, a vertical joint is provided at the
a great number of tubes and suspen- gas path of the boiler from the sur- of \.he furnace and gas ducts. the se- entry from the furnace to the horizon-
sions pass through the furnace roof to roundings . I L is subjected to the cond type is made in t.he form of bloclcs tal convective duct (II-II in Fig.
the outside, so that tight sca ling of action of hot combustion products or: plates which are fastened to the 21.6b). In a number of designs, on-
all of them is a problem. In s uch ca- which rnn y carry ash, molten slag boiler structm·e. E nclosure plates or· tube enclosure extends further into
ses, the roof is covered by a Light s teel and unburned fuel particles . The en- blocks are manufactlll'ed industrially the convective duct and the ternpcra-
shell which receives hot air from the closure is also subjected to pressure and mounted simu ltaneously with the tiue joint is provided in a horizontal
air heater; this forms what is called vari ations in the furnace (on flame boiler. The boiler enclosme consists of plane of the convective shaft (/II -II I
the 'hot box' . Air pressure in a hot break-off and fuel ignition), variable several layers: the first layer fa cing in Fig. 21.6c). If the on-tube enclo-
box is somew hat higher than the pres- temperature stresses appearing on the gases and operating at temperatu- sure extends further into the convecti-
sure of t.ltc combustion prod ucts a t start-up and shut-down oi the boiler, res of 1 500-1 800°C is made of a rc- ve portion of a boiler, the temperature
Download From Boilersinfo.com 21.2. Thermal Diagram of a Boller 27'1
270 Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Botler
joint between it and plate enclosure uld not exceed 850°C to avoid m etal Fig. 21.7. Thermal diagram o£ a J 4
drum- type pulverized coal-fired
operates aL a lower temperature and failure should steam supply to the re- boiler
may be simpler in design and more re- h eater be occasionally stopped (see z-cvopo raling bea ting surfaces (fur-
liable. Sec. 18.2). The reliability of the last nace water wa lls); t-·platen superhea-
ter; 3 and 4-hot and cold stage of
Heat insulation. The boiler drum, banks of tho superheater, which ope- convective superheater; s ond 7 - 2nd
and 1st stage of economizer; 6 and a-
h eaders, superheated steam, feed wa- rate under the most severo tempera- 2nd nnd 1st stage or tubul ar nlr bea ter
t er and blow-down water pipelines , ture conditions, is determined at the
gas and air ducts, etc. are arranged s pecified steam parameters by the
beyond the boiler enclosure around allowable temperature of the superhe-
the boiler, above the roof or along the ater metal , which defines tl1 e design of
boiler walls. These elements have a the s uperheater and its position in a
t emperature of 200-600oC and are hea t- particular temperature zone along the
insulated to protect the personnel gas flow (see Sec. 18.3). To ensure sta-
against burns and minimize heat los- bility of hydrodynamic processes in
ses to the s urroundings. B y sanitary intensively heated elements of once-
norms, the temperature on the exter- through boilers, these elements must
nal surface of heat-insulated elements not be fed with a two-phase mixture. I
must not exceed 55°C. A properly ma- For this reason, the convective econo- I
---
I
de heat insulation can diminish heat mizer should supply them with water I I I I
losses by 95-97% compared with a of a certain degree of subcooling, rather I I I I
non-insulated surface. In addition, than with a steam-water mixture, i.e. I I I I lea
heaL insulation of drums, headers, pi- it must be of the non-boiling t ype
pelines and fittings improves the t em- (see Sec. 11.2). A t s upercritical pres- 1 2 4 5 7 8
perature conditions for the metal, sin- sures, r eliable operation of heating
co it decreases the t emperature gra- surfaces in the zones of high heat ca-
d ient across the wa ll , and t herefore, re- p acity of the work ing fluid imposes
duces tem per ature stresses. T he exter- s pecific r equirements for their posi-
nal surface of heat insulation is made tioning in the furnace. For subcritical-
smooth and mechanically strong by prossure b oilers, the transition zone,
applying cotton cloth and metallic in which scale deposition is mainly
casing or p ainting . Painting is also concentrated , should be arranged in at a higher temperature, so as to main- nected sections, which diminishes the
userul for marking various pipelines . the zones of moderate heating. Tho tain a high temperature gradient; it is maldistribution of heat and ensures
hot air temperature , which is deter- advisable t o employ counter~urrent better intermixing of the flow (see
mined by fuel characteristics , is es- flow of the working fluid and com- Figs . 18.10 and 18.11).
21.2. Thermal D iagram of a Boiler bustion products where possible. The- In high-capacity boilers, the heat
sential for the selection of a particu-
All heating surfaces of a boiler lar type of air heater (see Sec. 19.3). se conditions, however, are not always absorption by the water walls in the
communicate with one another in the Thus, there is a system of limiting properly satisfied. For inst ance, the furnace is insufficient, which has led
gas and steam-water path, thus for- conditions, or reference points , for the heating intensity of radian t heating to the appearance of platens (see
ming a complex system. Let us recall temperatures of pa1·ticular h eating s ur- surfaces arranged in the burner zone Sec. 7.1) and curtain walls (see Sec.
that the temperature of combustion faces. Selection of these points means m ay b e enormous, resulting in the low 18.1). They diminish the t emperature
products in certain points of the gas essen tially the distribution of enthal- reliability of m etal operation. For of combustion products at the furnace
path and the temperature of water py increm ents between these heating this reason, the hea ting surfaces to be exit to the required level.
and steam ir1 other points of the water- surfaces and optim a! positioning of arranged in such zones have a low The superheated steam path in v er y
steam path should be maintained with- these surfaces in tho flow of combus- tem perature of i.he w orking fluid p owerful drum-type boilers and the
in definite limits to attain the high- tion produc ts, i.e. it means selection (preheating and evaporating surfaces entire water-steam path in once-thro-
est efficiency and reliability. For of the thermal diagram of a boiler. and 'cold' s uperheater banks), while ugh boilers are made in the form of a
instance, the temperature of combu- 1'he thermal diagram of a boiler is tho last superheater banks are moun- number of individually controlled
stion products at the exit from the the scheme of arrangement of the he- ted in the zones of moderat e tempera- flows. For convenience of control, the
furnace is determined by the kind and ating surface banks along the gas tures of combustion products . n1llllber of flows is us ually two or four.
With a high heat absorption of par- Separation of the water-steam path
characteristics of the fuel used (see flow and of arrangement of their pipe-
Sec. 7.1). The temperature of waste lines . Two conditions are important ticular heating surfaces (most often of into flows diminishes the non-unifor-
gases is determined by technico-eco- for th is selection: the wor king fluid superheaters), to enhance their r eli- mity of heat distribution across the
nomical calculations (see S ec. 6.2). The at a higher temperature should be ability the heating s urfaces are divi- boiler width and permits of using tu-
temperature in the reheater zone sho- swept by the combus tion products also ded into a number of successively con- bes of smaller diameter, but makes the
272
Download From Boilersinfo.com 21.3. Heat Calculation of Boiler 273
Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Botler
Fig . 21 .8. Thermal diagram o£ a once- wllicll delivers the s uperheated s team
through gas and fuel oil fired boiler of s pecified parameters . There aro two
5- - - IV1 - 6 J- lowc r radiation section; .1?- rnedlurn rn- water-s pray means to control tho t om-
4 - - c:... .!=;::!. .16!
!: ~ dlnllon section: J- upper rncllntlon section:
4- 18L platen superheater; S- 2nd plat en perature of Jive s l.oaru . Stearn reheating 5
r} \ 1><1 - 7 supcrl1c~a ter; 6 - con\'f!-CU vn super hen tcr; 7 is effected in two reheuter banks con-
3- :_ ,_ -- l>"<'l - 8 nn d 8- hol. a nd cold rc hcnter s tages; 9- cco-
t nomit.er; JO- regcnerat.i\'C nlr heater nected by a mixed scheme and ar-ran-
I><J - 9__ ged in the convccti "e shaft. Mea ns for
&:::: controlling the temper ature of rehea-
ted s tea m arc n ot shown in the d iag-
5
10 ram.
t,.,,,p,.,;,
1 Owl!
21.:3. Heat Calculation of a ·Boiler filii
Or
Aims and methods of heat calcula- Yt.a
I I! I Drr-- tioo. One should dis tinguish between
a design h eal calculation and check
7
I
--
u-r- - -
I
I ~ p1 ~~~~
I II
calculation of a boiler, which d iffer
from each olher in their aims and the
t ea
' -o--.f-1
1 I II t pl aut which uses a parti cular fuel and
is fed with tho feed water of a given
temperature. Tho resul ts o£ the design
calculation aro ftulher used for
arrangement in the boiler. In this
case, a check calculation should then
be m ade for these surfaces. Check cal-
s trength calculation and the selection culation can es t ima te tho efficiency
of materials for particular boiler ele- and reliability of a boiler, provide da-
b oiler pl ant design more complicated ranged in t he zone of a higher tempe- ments, hydraulic and aerodynamic cal- ta for recommendations on the boiler
and expensive, increases the number rature. Water spraying t o control the culations , and tho selection of au xi- reconstruction and the initial data for
of fittings, and complicates automatic t emperature of superheated s team is liary equipment. hydraulic, aerodynamic and strength
control. not shown in the diagram. Tho ordi- Check calculation is carried out for calculations.
Let us consider as examples the nates of the diagram (vertical hatch- an existing or a design boiler. It is The m ethod ics of heat calculations
thermal diagrams of a drum- type and ing) give the tempel'ature gradients in dono for t he given dimensions of tho of boilers arc s tandardized (201.
once-through boiler. The drum- type particular heating surfaces . As may be heating surfaces and the given chara- Design heat calculation of a drum-
boiler (Fig . 21.7) has two stages of air seen, they decrease signi fi cantly along cteris tics of the fu el and determines type boiler. T he procedure of the cal-
preheating and accordingly two s tages the gas p ath. the tempera tures of the working fluid , culation will bo demonstr ated for tho
of heating tho feed water which is In the once-through boiler whose ai r and combus tion products at the boiler s hown in Fig . 21.9. Firs t , we
fed to the drum from the second eco- thermal diagram is illus trated in boundaries between the healing s ur- have to establis h the theoretically
nomizer s tage. The eva porating water Fig. 21.8 , there is one stage of a_ir pr~ faces. Check calculation is also made required quantity of a!r and combu-
walls are arranged on the furnace hoating in an external regeneratlVe arr when the temperature of feed water ot· stion products . Tho actual volume of
walls and together with unheated h eater and one s tage of feed water s uperheated steam varies or a boiler air and combus ti on products in the
downtake tubes form circulation cir- heating in the economizer. Preheated changes over t o another kind of fuel. furnace and gas ducts is calculated by
cuits. Saturated s team separated in water is fed into the lower radiation An object of check calculation is to considering the organized air s upply
the drum is fed into the s uperhea- section of the1 boiler from whore it determine the thermal characteris tics to the furnace and air inleakages in
ter which consists of a r adian t sec- flows in to the' medium rad iation se- of a boiler and the possibilities for the boiler of this particular design
tion and pl atens connected in series ction, the firs t bank of the platen su- its control. In tho design calcu lation , (with balanced draft). Then, the on-
aloncr the steam path and of two perheater , the upper l'adiation section, the dimensions of pal"ticular heating thalpies of combus tion products and
conv~cti ve banks connected by a mi- the second bank of the platen s uper- s urfaces (say, of plat ens) can bo cho- air are determined. After that the
xed scheme, with the outlet bank ar- heater. and th e convective s uperheater sen from the considerations of their heat balance of the boiler is ·calcu la-
I 8 - 0 1524
I
274
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 21. Layout and Heat Calculation of Steam Boller 21.3. Heat Calculation of Boller 275
ted, from which we find the heat losses The rest of the heat should be allo- ticular heating surfaces is carried out
q2 , q3 , q4 , q5 , and q6 , gross efficiency cated to the economizer for which the by the methods given in Ch. 20.
and fuel consumption. outlet parameters of water are not Check calculation of steam boiler. It
T he furnac.e is calculated as given specified. Upon finding the quanti- is typical for tho check calculation
in Sec. 20.3. Assuming the allowable ties of heat transferred to the super- 2 that there are no available data on the
heat release rate per unit area q1, beater and air b eater, we can determi- t emperatures of waste gases (and the-
" ..
l rh.Prlt
MW / m2 , we find the cross-sectional ne the enthalpies and temperatures of r efore, on q 2 ). For this reason, one
area of the furnace. The total surface combustion products before and after 5 cannot determine the boiler efficiency
area of furnace walls F w is determined the economizer. and fuel consumption before the cal-
for the selected temperature at the The distribution of heat between culation. Without them, however, it
furnace outlet {}j . The last st age of the h eating surfaces is then checked by 1 is impossible to calculate further the
th e calculation is to check that t he tho heat b alance equation: furnace and convective heating sur-
heat release rate per unit volume qv Q~v'Tlgr = (Qr + Q pl +Qall Oan faces. Thus, we have to assume the
is within the specified limits and that temperature of the waste gases {}we
the assumed thermal efficiency,~ does + Qec) i~;;;;q• (21.1) 7 and that of the superheated steam t,,.
not diller greatly from the calcula ted Upon making the heat calculation.
value (the allowable discr epanc y is The discrepancy in the balance sho- these temperatures must be checked
,1,~ = + 0.05). uld not be more th an ± 0.5 % of t he and corrected, aft er wh ich we can
Calculation of the h eat exchange in available beat Q::'v· If the chosen heat find TJcr and B . Thus, the check cal-
the furnace should consider the heat distribution between the beating sur- Fig. 21.10. Calculation diagram or a once- culation is made by the method of
absorbed by the platens (heating sur- faces is correct, we can go furth er to through boiler successive approximations. With TJc,.
faces arranged at the furnace outlet) the design calcula l.ion of the super- J - lowcr radiation section: z-upper rndlnllon sec- and B being known and assuming a
lion: !-platen supcrbenter: 4-convec\lve super-
and by the radiant superheater section h eater , economizer and air heater heaLer; ~-con vective reheatu : o- cconomlzer: value of tho• we can begin the calcu-
7- nlr heater
on the roof. Therefore, the dimensions following the instructions given in la tion of t ho furnace and all the hea-
o[ the platens and r adiant superheater Ch. 20. ting surfaces . In the calculation of
should be known before the calcula- Design calculation of a once-through wer and upper r adiation sections, the the furnace, we have to determine the
tion. Further, we determine the quan- boiler (soe the diagram in Fig. 21.10). remaining h eat being distributed bet- actual temperature of combustion pro-
tity of heat absorbed by the platens In once-through boilers , there arc no ween the platens and convective hea- ducts at the furnace outlet, {}j. We
due to radiation from the furn ace and definite zones of tho particular slates ting surfaces. first assume this temperature to per-
to h eat exchange within their zone, of aggregation of th e working fluid. As the working fluid moves along form the calculation and then correct
Qp1, and can then find the tempera ture This circumstance should be properly the water-steam path, its pressure it by formula (20.31). If the discre-
of combustion products behind the pla- cons idered when determining the zones decreases to a specified value at the pancy is too high, the calculation is
tens , {}~ 1 • Having considered the heat of phase transition of the working outlet. The total pressure loss in the repeated for a n ew assumed value of
absorption by suspended tubes in the fluid. path is, estimated as .1p = (0.2-0.3)p ,., -&j. The convective heating surfaces
boiler, Q, 1, we can determine the tem- For the reliable operation of s team- where Pa s is the superheated steam are calculated by the found tempera-
perature of combustion products before generating tubes in the boiler, the pressure, and can be corrected when tures (and enthalpies) of combustion
tho convective superheater banks, {};h . convective economizer should be of needed by the hydraulic calculation. products at the inlet to a particular
The remaining heat of the combu- the non-boiling type (see Sec. 11.2}, The initial stage of the h eat calcu- surface and one of the known enthal-
stion products (upon their passage and therefore, a portion of the tube lation, including the determination of pies of the working fluid (either at the
through the furnace, platens and r a- system in the furnace will operate as a heat losses and fuel consumption and inlet or at the outlet of that surface).
diant superheater) should be distribu- radiant economizer (the inlet portion the calculation of heat exchange in Thus , among four sought-for quanti-
ted between the convective h eating of the lower radiation section). In the the furnace, is done following the same ties, two are usually known and the
surfaces of the steam-water path and boiler design considered (Fig. 21.10}, procedure as given earlier for the drum- calculation of particular convective
the air beater. This heat is first distri- the remaining p or tion of the lower ra- t ype boiler. heating surfaces is done by the succes-
buted between the heating surfaces for diation section functions as steam-ge- The heat distribution between the sive approximation method, presetting
which the inlet and outlet parameters nerating tubes (at subcritical pressu- heating surfaces is checked by the beat the value of Qb for the gases or the
of the working fluid are known or ha- re). Steam superheating takes place balance equation: working fluid and then comparing it
ve been assumed. Thus we can find in the top portion of the furnace (the with the calculated heat absorption
the quantity of heat that must be upper radiation section), platens and Q:vl'Jgr = (Q~c+Qlr•+Qur.+ Q pl+ Q.h) Q1 (see Sec. 20.5). For the last heating
transferred to the superheater, Qah • convective superheater. T he fixed va- (21.2) ·Surface in the gas path (air heater),
to obtain the specified steam p ar ame- lues of the enthalpies in t he reference the t emperature of gases at the inlet is
ters (D •h• p.., and t , ,) and the quan- points oE the steam-water path allow The discrepancy should not exceed already known: {}~h = {};~. We also
tity of heat to be given up in the air us to determine the h eat absorptions ± 0.5% of the available heat. Further, know {}wg (it has been preset earlier).
heater, Qoh (to obtain vho and t ho>· by the economizer surfaces and the lo- the design heat calculation of the par- With {};c found from the check calcu-
u•
276
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 22. Steam Boilers of High-capacity .!tfonobloc U11its
22.1. Selection of Boiler Dcsi.:rt 277
lation and with the known value of a steam boiler is essentially an inter-
facture, there is a design harrier, a~
Oa111 ~ve c~n determine Owe and com- related system with three levels. The
it were, which makes further growth
~·
pare 1t wtth the assumed value. The lower level. includes computation units }00
of the boiler unit capacity problema-
calc~lation is considered to be comple- for particular heating surfaces (furna- 98 ~ tic. A way out is to in tensify heat ex-
ted 1f the two values of \twg differ by ce, platens, convective surfaces, a ir
not more than ±10 deg C and the va- heater). Tlte mediu m level is a sub- '*..,
...: 96 """' change in the heating surfaces . The
lues of tlta by n ot more than ±40 deg C. system that determines the computa-
<:>
<>
94 ~ preliminary work has been carried
out in modern metallurgy and boiler
·--.,
~ '()
Otherwise, the calculation is r opeat.ed tion procedw·e for particul.ar surfaces
"1'-a."oo,#.~~. .
for a now assumed value of Ow g ·
A serious inconvenience of the succes-
and their interrelations (a l.ong the gas
and working fluid paths, injection li- - "'
<>:.
92
90
'-..... ~
--
800-MW
1200·AIW -
making to start the mass production
of intensified profiles of heating sur -
faces which can change radically the
s ive approximation method is that the nes, recirculation, etc.). The third • I I design of p articular bo iler elements
(upper) level is a su b-system (or t he 88
calculation for a particular heating 1.0 2.5 4.2 and the entire boiler plant. Th is can
surface must b e done more than once stabilization and optimization of the solve the problem of decreasing the
to properly match the values of Q1 calculation. Fig. 22.1. Unit capital expenditures depend-
ing on power station capacity and unit power boiler dimensions and increasing the
and Qb. It can be substantially faci- An accurate check h eat calculation of plants reliability and eHiciency of boilers.
litated by using electronic computers . of a boiler is only possible in lar(J'e
'j Computer calculation of a boiler in- high-speed comp uters possessing a la"'r -
Intensified heating surfaces of boilers
creases, the problem of reliability be- arc find ing ever wider application.
I volves a laborious work for developing ge capacity of the external and on-line
comes more important. This should An increase of the unit ca pacity of
the mathematical means, model, algo- memory; in that case the machine ti- be quite clear, since boilers of high er monobloc units is usually associated
rithm and program of the h eat cal- me of computation is around 10 mi- capacity have more heating surfaces with an increase of the capacity of
culation. nu tes. operating at supercritica l or high pre- power stations, and therefore, with a
A developed mathematical model of ssuJ·es; accordingly, they have a greater lower unit capital cost and accelera-
total length of tubes and a l.arger num- ted r ate of construction . As the capa-
ber of welded joints which are pro- city of thermal power stations increa-
bable poin ts of emergency situations. ses, the effect of red uced un i I. capita l.
Another probable cause of emergency cost becomes loss pronou nced (Fig.
situations is an elevated non-unifor- 22.1).
m ity of heat distribution. The efficiency o·r: a monobloc unit
Mainta ining the reliability of po- and thermal power st ation depends
werful monobloc units at the level al- substantially on the initial steam pa-
ready achieved in the existing smal- rameters. An increase in steam para-
ler un its presents a rather difficult meters involves, however, conside-
STEAM BOILERS problem. It places more rigorous re- rable technical difficu I ties . The pos-
OF HIGH-CAPACITY MONOBLOC UNITS quirements upon the quality of manu- s ibility for increasing the temperatu-
facture and the servicing of s team re and pressure is determined, in the
boilers. first. place , by the availability of spe-
A recent achievement is a monobloc An increase of the unit power of cial. steels which can operate reliably
22.1. Selection of Boiler Design at higher param eters of superheated
unit for a capacity of 1 200 MW with monobloc units is associated with an
According to the Type, Capacity
the boiler producing 3 950 t steam per increase in the boiler and turbine di- steam.
and Operating Conditions Pressure is one of the basic steam
of P ower Station hmu. mensions. A pulverized-fuel fired bo-
As the unit capacity of steam boi- iler for an 800-MW unit may have a parameters and is decisive for the
The principal trend in the develop- lers and especially of stearo turbines height u p to 90 m or even more, which selection of the boiler type. At sub-
ment of thermal pmver stations is the increases, the unit capital cost (the requires a corresponding increase in critical pressures, boilers of any typo
the height of the boiler room building . can principally be employed: once-
application of monobloc (boiler-tur- cost of 1 kW oi installed power) de-
vVith a greater cross-sectional area through, drum-type with a gravity
bine) un its whose capacity is steadily creases noticeably; the staff coeffi-
of the bo iler furnace and gas ducts, it circulation or dn1m-type with a mul-
increasing . Monobloc units for a capa- cient (the number of personnel per
is more difficult to properly organize tiple forced circulation. The last ty-
city of 300 l\f\>\T wit h boilers produ- unit power) decreases, too . This re-
the aerodynamics of gas flows. There pe has found no wide u se in the USSR .
cing 950-1 000 t steam per hour have duc tion however is substantial orily
are add itional difficulties in the moun- At thermal power stations for subcri-
been mastered . 500- and 800-MW for the power stations of the capacity ti'cal pressw·es, natm·al-circulation
units with single-housing boilers oi a up to 3-4 mln kW and becomes less ting and operation or: high-capacity
boiler equipment. drum-type boilers are usuallv em-
steam-generating capacity respective- essent ial for higher capacit ies (Fig.
With the traditional design of the ployed. The driving circulating head
.ly of 1 650 t/h and 2 650 t/h have be- 22.1). On the other hand, as the ste-
boiler heati11g surfaces and Lhe con- decreases with increasing pressure,
en constructed and put into service. am-generating capacity of boilers m -
vectional technology of tbeir manu- so that the highest pressure in the
'
278
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 22. Steam Botle rs of High-capacity .Monobloc Unlt1 27 9
22.1. Selection of BoUer De1tgn
drum is established at the level of at a supercritical pressure of 25.5 MPa In gas and fuel-oil fired boilers, tho
5
17 MPa so as to ensure reliable (o nce-throug~ boilers) . . Stea!D tom- b eating surfaces are not subject to
Xhi8Nt2T /
circulation. A higher pressure may perature b ehmd tho roheater IS usual- wear by ash, which makes it possible
cause a loss of reliability. This limit 4
to increase the velocity of combustion
I
.I
can be raised somewhat by using boi-
ler tubes with internal helical fins r ly t aken at the lev el of the temperatu-
re of live steam or slightly higher products and intensify the operation
I (rifled tubes) which increase turbuli- :
I
(545-565°C), since tho pressure in the
reheater is significantly lower.
of tho heating surfaces. Thus, fuel-
oil fired boilers are more compact than
I zation of the flu id at tho tube walls.
The decisi ve effect of pressure on
- t2KhMF j The kind and quality of fuel have those operating on pulverized coal. A
an essential effect on the boiler de- change to fuel oil or gas can raise the
the selection of the type of boiler is St20
sign. Fossil solid fuel s are characteri- reliability and efficiency of a boiler
limited by the monobloc capacity. zed by the presence of ash. The com po- plant. Since mineral impurities (ash)
With a very high capacity of mono bloc sition and temper ature chara cteristics are present in fuel oils only in low
units, the cost of the drum , which is 400 H O 500 550 600 °C. of ash determine the method of fuel concentrations and are not contained
the most expensive and metal-con- combustion and slag removal. They in natural gas, one can choose the
suming element of a drum-type boiler, Fig. 22.2. Relative cost of heating surfaces
as a funct ion of nominal wall tern pcra lUI"e also should be considered when selec- optimal and economically most fa-
becomes too high . For instance, the (the;cost of steel Grade 20 (0.25 C) at a wall ting the temperature of combustion vourable (or close) t emperature at
mass of the drum for a 500-MW boiler tcmperatUI"e of 450"C is taken as unity) and prodt•cts at the furnace outlet. This the furn ace outlet to minimize the
plant may be as high as 200 t, which temperature ranges of application of various t emperature should be selected so as cost of boiler; this temperature will
involves considerable di£ficulties in steels be much higher than the temperature
Kbl8Nt2T- 18Cr-t ON I-T; 12KhMF-O. t 2C-Cr-ll!o- to form granulated ash particles in
mounting and operating the boiler. V; St20- 0. 25C the convective gas ducts and thus in pulverized-coal boilers to prevent
For this reason, the capacity of mono- avoid the slagging of the heating surfa- the slagging of heating surfaces. For
bloc units with drum-typo boilers for operates. For ins tance , a change from ces. With a higher temperature at the gas and fuel-oil fired boilers this tem-
suppl ying base loads does not usually pearlitic low-carbon s teel to low-allo- furnace outlet, w ater walls in the fur- perature is usually t aken to be 1 250"C.
exceed 400-500 M\V. At suporcritical yed steel of the same class in the tem- nace m ay h ave a smaller area, and With such a high temperature of com-
pressures, the sole solution is the use p erature zone of 450-550"C invol ves no therefore, the furn ace may be sm aller. bustion products at the furnace out-
of once-through boilers wh ich are now substantial increase in the cost of the On th e contrary, a lower tem perature Jet , the fraction of radiant h eat ex-
built for the unit capacities up to superheater , since the low-alloyed ste- of the com bustion products at t he fur- ch ange in the furnace is not high and,
4 000 t/h (for 1 200-MW monobloc el has a higher str ength, and therefo- n ace outlet requires an extension of since the conditions of fuel combus-
units) . r e, superheater tubes may have a smal- tion allow a higher heat release rate in
water walls and an increase in the di-
The superheated steam temperatu- ler wall thickness. Poarlitic steel can mensions of the furnace and heating the furnace volume, it is possible
re is even more important than pres- however operate reliably only at tem- surfaces of the boiler plant, since to decrease the total area of water
sure for the selection of the boiler de- peratures up to 580-585"C (the s team the convective surfaces will operate walls, and therefore, the dimensions
sign and especially that of the super- t emperature 545"C). A t higher t em- at reduced temperature gradients. of the furnace, in particular, its
heater (see Fig. 18.12). per atures, more alloyed austenitic ste- The velocity of combustion pro- height. .
For tile same steam temperature, els must be employed which are much ducts in convective gas ducts must be A high temperature of combust10n
the metal temperature of the superhea- more expens ive (5-8 times) and thus limited to avoid quick wear of the products in tho convective gas ducts ,
ter tubes is higher than tha t in the pi- greatly increase the capital expenditu- h eating surfaces by ash ; this is asso- in combina tion with a higher allowa-
peline and the differenc·e depends on res. On the other hand, within the ciated with a r educed intensity of ble velocity (to avoid wear of heating
the heating intensity. The usual trend temperature limits of the applicability heat exchange, wh ich necessitates an surfaces) m akes it possible to inten-
in the design of sup erheaters is to use of a particular steel grade, an increase increase in the area of heating surfa- sify h eat transfer and heat absorpti~n
various steel grades in tho super heater in temperature causes only a slow rise ces and the metal consumption. A de- and thus t o diminish the cross-sectiO-
proper and in t ho pipelines which con- of capital expenditures (due to a de- crease in the velocity of combustion nal area of gas ducts and thus the di-
nect the superheater sections and the creased allowable stress and increased products, especially in high-capacity mensions of the boiler plant.
boiler with the turbine, so as to mini- metal consumption). For this reason, plants with high flow r ates of fuel In the combustion of high-sulphur
mize the cost of metal and ensure the it is _q~ite important to ensure a high and combustion products , requires an fuel oils the metal of heating surfa-
required reliabi 1it y. coeff1c1ent of heat transfer at the ste- essential increase in the cross-sectio- ces in tl~e gas path may be subjected
When selecting the parameters of ~m. side of the superheater, especially nal area of gas ducts , which may lead to corrosion l.Ulder appropriate condi-
s uperheated steam, it should be taken m 1ts hot b ank and radiant section, so t o a high non-uniformity of veloci- tions . The principal method for pre-
into consideration tha t the cost of m e- as to lower the metal temperature. ties and tem peratures of gas flows and venting higl1-temperature corrosion is
tal in the superheater and pipelines In view of the p ossibilities offered by p oor r eliability of the boiler . This al- 't o main tain tho temperature of the
increases with an increase in tempera- pearlitic s tools, now boilers are desig- so makes the boiler design more com- heat ing surface walls below 600"C.
ture (Fig . 22.2) . This incr ease in the ned for a steam outlet temper ature of plicated. A way out is to use a m_ore Low-temper ature gas corrosion is pre-
cost may be different an d depends on 560°C at a subcritical pressure of int ricate and heavy T -shaped bo1ler vented by raising the temper ature of
t ho temper ature zone wh ere the metal 14 l\lPa (dru m-type boilers) or 545°C l ayout (see F ig. 2t.1 b). air a t t he inlet t o th e air h eater and
280
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 22. Steam B oilers of High-capacity Atonobloc Units 22.2. Charac teristics of Modern Steam Boilers 281
I
I 100
N other hand, manoeuvring uni ts, i.e. design manoeuvring power units for loads. Recirculation of the working
,j % ~ fluid in water walls by means of re-
• J\ _[1..
those for supplying semi-peak and the same initial pressure.
90 Th e experience of operation of high- circulation pumps can also serve the
1.. peak loads , are ch aracterized by a low
1'1. tim e of u tilization of the installed capacity high- pressure drum-t ype bo- same purpose.
80
power and an elevated speed of start- il ers in the power units fori00-200 MW
70 llp. Subcri tical-pressure plants are h as revealed t hat cracks of corrosion-
more suitable for supplying semi-peak fa tigue origin form in the boiler drum, 22.2. Characteristics or Modern Steam
IJO and p eak. loads than those operating at which appeared due to non-un iform Boilers
50
40
"L - 1:'
'
supercritical pressures.
.Monobloc units for supercritical
pressures require a longer time for
temperature fields at variable load
conditions. In the boiler drums of mo-
re powerful units (500 1\tl\<V), ..)vhere the
Most supercritical-pressure once-
througll boilers at therma l power sta-
0 4 8 12 16 20 h boiler firing and heating up of pipe- drum has larger d imensions'rind thick- tions operate in monobloc uni ts of a
lines and greater heat consumption er walls, the danger of high t em- capacity of: 300 ivlW or more . There are
Fig. 22.3. Daily load curve of a power system for start-up. They are less convenient perature non-uniformity and tempe- a Rum ber of once-through boilers for
Jor control. Their valves and fitting 1·a ture stresses is higher, esp ecially at subcri tical pressures which are instal-
are worn more rapidly, especia lly with varying operating modes in which the led in 150-200-~.nv monobloc units,
' by using corrosion-resisting ma te rinls .frequent start-u ps, and the metal is equipment is shut down and started up but their manufaclure has been discon-
! and protective coatings . These meth- more liable to develop high thermal. too frequen lly. In once-through boilers tinued.
ods have been described in Ch. 19. stresses owing to often load Yariations there are no such heavy metal ele- The high-capacity once-through bo-
Power engineer ing is the sole branch at the high pressure. ments as the drum; they are lighter ilers produced in the s ixties were
of n ational economy where the l'inal For the E uropean terri tory of the and can be shut down and started up mainly of the two-housing scheme, i.e.
product is not stored, hut consumed USSR, subcritical- pressurc units of more quickly. For this reason, once- in the form of two symmetrical hou-
completely just as i t is produced. This l,he capacities up to SOO MW are recom- through boilers are recommended for sings constituting a doub le-bloc toge-
specific feature defines the interrela- mended for suppling sem i-peak and power units wh i.ch s upply semi-peak ther with the turbine. A double-bloc
t ion between the operating modes of peak loads . Steam reheating is often and peak loads. can operate at a load half of the nomi-
energy-producing systems and energy employed in order t o avoid erosion A manoeuvrable steam boiler nal with one of the boiler housings
con sumers. This determines one of th e oJ turbine blades in the las t stages, es- should be compact and the mass of me- shut down. Th e experience of opera-
! principal problems: organization of pecially at vari able load conditions, tal and other materials in it should be tion of the double-bloc plants has re-
., the optimal conditions for operation though this makes the plant more ex- as low as possible. With a lower mass, vealed no essential advan tages over
of electric power systems, power sta- pensive. less ti me is needed for a change from the single-housing type. On the other
tions and their equip ment. For the reliable operation of poar- one thermal state (mode) to another. hand, their disadvantages (more in-
The total power developed at a par- li tic steels under semi-peak and peak This condition is more easily met in tricate layout, greater number of flows
ticular momen t~by all plants of a sys- load conditions, the temperature of li- fuel oil-fired boilers which also h ave a of the working flu id, and greater num-
t em is called the system load. F igure ve and reheated steam can be taken wider range of operating loads in which ber of valves and fittings) make them
22.3 shows a curve of daily electric equal to 530-535°C. To prevent erosion fu el combustion can be officien t and less convenient in exploitation. Their
load of a power system which includes in the last s tages of the turbine, the stable. manufacture has been abandoned in
all its consumers: industrial and agri- lower limit of superheated steam tem- Since peak-load boilers are in ope- favour of single-housing steam boilers
cult ural plants, electric transport, il- perature is 480-500°C. As a result, the ration only a limited number of hours, for monobloc un its .
h.Jmination and appliance loads. Peaks steam temperature of 510°/510°C turns they are made less cxpensi ve by redu- Single-housing boilers for 300-MW
o.f the load curve a.re due to uneven out to be the most preferable from the cing the consumption of metal for the monoblocs h ave a prismatic (open)
operation of industrial enterprises, considerations of minimizing the me- low-temperature h ea ting surfaces; in furn ace without constriction, which
transport, illumination , etc. tal consumption in the superheater this case the temperature of waste ga- makes it possible to r educe the average
As regards the loading coefficient and decreasing the time and cost of ses is taken to be 160-180°C. l•eatiog intensity of water w alls in
and the utilization of installed power star t-ups. For more convenient maintenance, the flame core zone to a safe level. The
of monobloc units, t hey may operate When selecting the initial pressure all heating surfaces of a manoeuvring same object is achieved by the recir-
to supply a base load, i.e. to operate at of steam, it should be remembered boiler should be drainable, because of culation or combustion products which
their rated capacity for 6 000-7 500 that pressures of 13 MPa and Hi MPa which the convective elements are are taken at a relatively low tempera-
hours per year (Tmax = 6 000- ensure roughly the same econorn ic ef- made with the horizontal arrangement ture from the convective gas duct (usu-
l 7 500 h), a semi-peak load with "'max = ficiency characteristics. The manoeu- of tubes. ally downstream of the economizer)
= 2 000-4 000 h , or a peak load with vrability of the power units at these The wo rking flu id in once-through and supplied by the recit·culation fan
<max less than 2 000 h. L arge monobloc pressures is also roughly the same. manoeuvring boilers has an elevated into the furnace. This decreases the
units for supercritical pressures usual- In view of the positive experience of mass velocity which ensures proper heat absorp tion in the lower radiation
'i ly supply a base load and are not sui- operation of steam-turbine plants at a cooling in a wider range of loads and section, which is favourab le for stabi-
ted well for load variations. On the pressure of 13 MPa, it is adv isable to r eliable operat ion of a boiler at low lizing temperature conditions of the
I'
282
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 22. Steam Boilers of High-capacity Monobloc Units
.. I.
/ .
/1
"
.•
water walls and decreasing high-tem- the number of successively connected J!D5~00 .1[
perature corrosion. Fuel is burned at water wall sections whi ch must be
I
the minimal excess air ratio which is welded together by their sides); the !2 I:
-effective for combatting low-tempera- temperature difference between the
ture corrosion and preventing fouling welded sections is decreased duo to re-
of the heating surfaces. circulation and bypassing of working JJ5UOO
Recently, steam boilers with gas- fluid in water walls.
tight enclosures have found wide ap- In supercharged boilers of supercri-
plication. T he principle of gas tight- tical pressmes, the superheater tubes
ness can be more easily realized when are passed from tho furnace through
the water walls are made from verti- welded roof sections, with a second roof I ~IIIHMI:::"'"" t5 I
~al sections with a single-pass flow of being provided on the furnace. The Ia
the working fluid . convective reheater banks are arran-
Gas-tight water walls substantially ged in the down-take gas duct hori-
increase tho economic efficiency and zontally; the probable effect of non-
r eliability of boiler plants. Tho prin- uniform temperature dis tribution is
cipal advantages of gas-tight boilers minimized by scctionalizing the rehe- ''
are as follows: there are no air inlea- ater across the gas duct width into II _] , 1 IIJH t;-... 17 II
kages in to tho furnace and gus ducts autonomous parallel flows . All sides of 1 I I
Upper
radtolfon v
(and therefore, q 2 is lower); tho boiler the convective shaft are formed by the section
plant consumes less auxiliary power gas-tight water walls of the economizer
for the transport of air and combusti- and superheater.
on products; combustion can be orga-
nized under the optimal conditions
The economizer , live-steam reheater _l ?_l ! .,
shortens the time for start-up and shut- cture is mostly combined with the I
down, and reduces the mass of the boi- v l
ler structure and foundati on); slag
building structures (see Sec. 21.1) ,
which gives a noticeable saving in
k---
v ---71 Hoi qa<e.r to
cot'~ miils
and soot can be more easily removed metal. For instance, the metal saving
from the furnace by water washing of for a gas and fuel-oil fired boiler type
the water walls without risk to dama- TGMP-204 for an 800-MW monobloc
ge the lining. unit is around 1 500 t. This {I·
Supercharging places a number of design is employed in new monobloc
additional requirements on tho boi- boilers, of capacities of 500, 800 and
I I
ler design: the single-housing scheme 1 200 MW, both gas and fuel-oil fi-
should be preferred so as to diminish red and those fired on pulverized
the unit surface area of expensive gas- coal. Upper edge of
tight walls ; all-welded gas-tight wa- V-s!Japed drg· boltom
An example of high-capacity sing- hopper
ter walls serve as the enclosure of the le-housing boilers for supercritical
furnace and gas ducts; the number of steam pat·amet.ers is shown in Fig. 22.4.
individually controlled flows of the The boiler type P-67 for 800-MW mo-
working fluid is smaller, and therefore, nobloc units is fired on K aosko-Achi- Fig. 22.4. SLeam boiler type P-67
there are fewer points of passage of the nsky coal; its s team-generating capa- J-ail-welded water walls In furnace; 2-bumera,. 3-n:c1reu1 a tedscreen:
gases· 6-
4-expanslon Joints (parting Jolnta);
3rd platen superheater (tbe last
tubes through gas-tight walls which city is D = 2 650 t/h and stea m para- .S-Ist platen superhcnter; 6-2nd platen superheater. 7-sla~ or rebeater· JO-roor tubes; JJ-"hot box•;
must be properly sealed; the furnace meters: 25.5 MPa, 545°/545°C. I t has scetlon or su pererltlcal-pressure superbeatcr); 0
Jll-maln beams; 13- llvc-steam rebeatcr; 14-
1
';We
"";u!'~umns· u-ail-wclded water walls In convcc-
er ro I I· ressuro superheater; 17-lst rcbcntcr stage;
chamber has a narrower front, but the T-shaped layout with tho boiler live furnace sh a ft; JG - Ist stage of convective supererl~_ca Pnscs to tubular air beater· 20-tubes SUSJlen-
greater depth and height (to reduce structure suspended from tho boiler
78-eCDnomher: JD- gns duct 1!o1rt~he remov1031 8°l! ~01 ~~':.~~~~rgremova l of dryln~t gases
ded lrorn tntcrmcdlotc beams JO s uspcns n • I ldlt b It•
to
pulverlzl nt: mill•;
2s- r· {f , y e ~
'I!
28't
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 22. S team Boilers oj High-capacity Monobloc Uni b I ..1.
if'.. A
room buil ding structure. The boiler A tubul ar air heater is m ounted in a
has gas-tight water walls , but opera- separ·ate bay of th e nHH n buil-
tes w ith balanced draft . T he furnace d ing. I
5 /·
15 - -v ..,
~H
-dllrx '>( 1.>< X o,.- 20
ter wnlls at a mass flow nlte wp ~
~· ].':,[£on
purpose, ptH:t of the com lw stio n pro- ~ 2 000 kg/( m ~ s). The hoiler is su- . 5 H )H
I •~•• ~"
du cts (roughly 20 %) is taken Jrom t ho percharged. The furn ace is 3'1 280 mm
~ ~
J!5200 n:
h orizontnl gns duct nt n tornpora lu re X 10 <1.20 mm in pian and en..·l"ies me- ~ ~ IX IX lX
of 670°C a nd recircul a ted t hrough a t> Zt1K 2
.. IX IX
I
mbrane sections of un ified w idth . The ,...
I~ ~~
It H
water-wal led gas condu it to th o hlll'- enclosing sections of lhe cou,·ce-ti vo
ncrs beh ind the gas drier. Tho t angen- and conuecliug gas d uels are also u ni -
tial burners form a ver tica l tu rbulent
fl ame in the h1r n ace centro, so that
fied . T he furn ace h as a rather large
depth which allows free de,·elopment H
l OWI!r
:,~ IH ,H
IX IX I~ ,..._ ZJ
I • •• I•
the direct contact of the fl a me with 'If'
lX I~J~
of the flame without touching water r: I
the water wa lls is m in im ized . walls . F iring-up of the hoi lor is done J- I•
T ho heating su rfaces beh ind the flll'- 10420 7!100
by us ing the fuel oil burners . 1 n order H IH
n ace arc of the p laten type, w h ich mi- to dim in ish the firing-up load (to
n imizes tho probability of tubes slag-
ging . Slugging is also prevented by
0.15D ,) and increase the reliability ' ~z, 1"!: "
~&
of al l-welded water walls, the boiler 2 --J::
r ecirculating another 10 % of the com- is provided with a w a ter recirculating 1- -
bust ion products through nozz les in- system which opera tes w hen th e load ......
to the top portion of tho ftll'n ace so as D, J!5500
is less than 40-50 % of D , . T he bur- ~u lr:' 2~
to ma intai n the gas temperature befo- ners are arranged in t wo fronts and
re the pl atens at a level below 1 025°C. f_s;
T he recycled gases are taken off Ly
th ree tiers . Combus t ion gases are ta-
"\
n-1
- [Jl ~:- I
I
I'
!.
•''
2 .13
I '
0 •
17000
r----n ~
Fig. 22.9. Small-size gas and fuel oil fired boiler type TGM-'•44 (D = 500 t/h, p = '14 MPa,
560°C) ·
0.00 J -cyclonc primary furnace; 2-burncr; J-coollng chamber; 4- furnace platen; 5-drum; ~ -external cyc-
lones· 7-eeonomlzcr; &-platen; 9-bcnt-tubc bank; JO- convecUve su perheater platens, JJ-asccndmg
' rras duct; 12-Lo rcgcueratiVe air hea ter
burners (two in each furnace section). with conventional boi lers and by 25-
l ln the zone of tho com bus lion pro- 30% lower mass of the metal; the
Il furnace roof and in the radiant super-
healer located in the lop portion of tho
bulent furnaces or by intensifying
heat transfer in the heating surfaces
ducts exit hom t he furnace there are volume of construction work for the
12 vertical all-welded s ingle-pass su- main building of the power stat ion,
•I, furnace under the constriction above perheater platens. The heal release including the boiler, can be decreased
I by us ing finned tubes. An example of
• the water wall tubes. Tho convective
I a small-size boiler plant is the boiler rate per un it vol ume of the primary by 50-66% and t h e labour consump-
l superhea ter an.d reheater are arranged type TGM-444 developed at the Cent- furna ce is roughly 2 MW/m3 and for tion for the boiler manufacture and
<~ l most completely in tho horizon tal ral boiler and turbine ins titute the whole furnace 0.7 MW/m 3 • mounting by 30-40 %. The boiler is
ga~ ducts. Steam for reheating is sup- ( ~ig. 22.9). It is essentially a gas- A horizontal gas duct and two ver- universal as regards its thermal cha-
piled from lho turbine in two flows ttght supercharged dru m-typo boiler. tical connected gas ducts are mounted racteristics and manufacture. The lat-
each of which is separated into tw~ Tho furnace h as two chambers: a tur- behind the furnace chamber, all en- ter is achieved by developing a' stand-
flows in a con trol bypass valve and bulent primary furnace at tho bottom closed by all-welded water walls. The ard furnace module of a length M =
can be directed partially into an ad- and a furnace chamber with bare- vertical shafts carry convective platen 4 480 mm and diameter 3 960 rom .
ditional (control) reheater surface and tube water walls above it. The total sections of the superheater. At t he A number of modules can be combined
partially arou nd it into the convective ~urface area of the heating surfaces outlet hom the ascending gas duct, to form the furnace for boilers of
banks. The temperature of high-pres- ts enlarged by adding two finned- combustion products pass through an various capacities. For instance, the
~ ure superheated steam is controll ed tube platens which are arranged per- economizer and, fin ally, through a boiler described (D = 500 t/ h) r e-
by the injection of boiler condensate. pendicul ar t o the fu rnace front and regenoraliYe air heater (one for the quires three modules, i.e . th o length
The econorn izer is arranged in tho divide the furna ce along its whole whol e boiler plant). All heating sur - of the primary furnace (width across
down take shaft together with its head - height into tluee sections. All water faces of the boiler are drainable. the front) is: L = 3M = 3 X 4 480 =
• ers. The air heater is o( the tubular walls of the furnace are conn ected into The boiler offers the .following ad- 13 440 mm. Small-size forced boilers
' throe-pass t ypo. vantages: it has substantially smaller are in Uro stage of industrial develop-
l Tn conventional boiler designs whore
wat~r walls arc arranged on the on-
the natural-circulation circuits. In-
stead of a large number of downtake
tubes, the boiler has four water-des-
cl i mens ions (by 30-40 %) compared ment.
closmg walls of the furnace the cending stand-pipes of 426-mm dia-
dimensions of tho boiler plant m'ay be meter and 36-mm wall thickness.
too large. Their dim ensions can be The front wall of tho furnace carries
d ecreased by applying forced-flow tur- s ix straight-flow gas and fu ol oil
19-015 24
I' 290
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operatum 23.1. Operating Condlltons and Characlertstlcs 291
I
trol system of a boiler should quickly The characteristics of manoeuvrabi-
respond to load variations without lity of the boiler equipment are deter- I
. interference of the persoimel. In this mined largely by startup-shutdown
range, it is not a llowed to change the
composition of the operating auxiliary
regimes. The principal types of boiler
shut-down are as follows:
lI
equipment, the number of boiler bu~· (1) shut-down to reserve or for some
ners and the adjustment of automattc t ypes of repair work which require no-
STEAM BOILER OPERATION regulators. The ~oncept o~ the a;Z~ow cooling of the boiler and steam pipe-
able load range mcludes, 10 add1t10n, lines;
tho region of loads fr om the lower (2) shut-down for t·epairs with cool-
23.1. Operating Conditions (c) lite availability factor , i.e. the limit of the control range to the lowest ing of tl10 whole boiler plant or a
and Ch aracteristics ratio of the total time during which capac ity at which the bailer can particular element;
a boiler was in operation and reserve operate steadily. In this range, the (3) emergency shut-down; it is car-
The principal object of boiler oper- to the calender time; load varies relatively slowly according ried out by the prescribed t echnology
ation is to satisfy the current power (d) the capacity factor which is the to tho load-dispatching curve and it which is determined by the cause of
demand according to the load curve ratio of th e steam generation during is allowed t o vary the composition of shut-down and the possibility of re-
and ensure ·th e highest service life 'top to tho probable steam generation the auxiliary equipment, change tho starting.
and highest effi ciency of boiler plant. during 'teal if the boiler operated at numhor of burners, and 'brighten' The firing regime of a boiler includes-
T he load curve of a power station is the rat,od steam-generating capacity; the pulverized-coal flame by startup heating the water-steam and gas-air
mostly non-uniform which is deter- and fuel in order to stabilize combustion. paths , after which the process of steam
mined by variations of energy con- (e) the average and max imu m time It is also allowed t o vary the adjust - generation begins and steam para-
sumption by the consumers. There of a campaign or , using the tet·minolo- mont or switch off some of the auto- meters are raised t o the specified val-
are daily, weekly and seasonal load gy from the rei iability theory, the maLic regula tors. The lowest capacity ues. For monobloc units, boiler firing
curves. As a rule, a load curve has operating time to failure (a failure of a boiler is determined by the relia- is a part of the starting-up regime of
peaks in the morning and in the is u11derstood as an event th at dis- bility of t emperature and hydraulic a unit. Firing a boiler is considered
t'
evening and drops down at dayti me t urbs tho operal.ing ab ility of a boiler). condi tions of lhe water walls and the to be completed when tho steam-
' and especially at night. Load drops Boil ers operating in base regimes stability of fuel combustion and dis- generating capacity and steam para-
arc also observed on non-working should have the highest values of the charge of molten slag from the slag- meters have been r a ised to the specified
days, especiall y at nighl. The seasonal indicated characteristics. It should be hole. values so as to 'push' the turbine
load curve mostly has a maximum in clear that such high indices cannot be Regimes of operation at any load rotor and accelerate its rotation. This
autumn and winter. Energy-producing attained by the boilers operating in with insignificant variations of steam regime is also called the starling-up
equipment may operate in the·l base, semi-peak and peak regimes. parameters are called steady . I n con- regime. The firing and starting-up
semi-peak or peak regime (mode). I n a Since monobloc units gradually re- trast, regimes characterized by load regimes heavily depend on the original
base regime, the load is essentially place older equ ipment in thermal variations and deviations of steam thermal state of the equipment. A boil-
constant, though certain variations power stations of power systems, some parameters due to internal or external er can bo started fl'om a hot state, a
are allowed in this regime and even of thoro, including those of super- disturbances are called r.msteady. I n- warm state or a cold state. For mon'J-
shut-down to reserve on non-working critical pressures, are employed in- t ernal disturbances of an operating bloc unit boilers, these regimes are
days . In semi-peak regime, the station creasingly for supplying the variable regim e are caused by variations of one distinguishfd roughly by the tLn;te of
equipment is shut down to reserve portion of the load curve. In that or more boiler inlet parameters (flow the preceding idle time (respecttvely
in the nighttime and all tho days of respect , the manoeuvrability of boiler rate or tern perature of feed water, 6-10 h, from 6-10 h to 70-90 h, and
rest. In peale regime, the equipmen t equipment is a characteristic that fuel consumption, air flow rate, etc.). more than 70-90 h). For conventional
is in operation onl y during peaks of grows in importance. Extemal disturbances are caused by boilers (not monobloc) the differen~e
the load. The concept of manoeuvra bility of variations in the external conditions between the first and second group ts
The following principal characteris- monobloc units includes: the ch ar acter- (such as the pressure of steam in st eam determined by the time of the prece-
tics are adopted to describe the oper- istics which determin e the range of main, the load of the turbo-gener ator, ding idle time (6-10 h or more) and
ating conditions of boilers: operating loads of a unit; the startup- the degree of opening of the startup- between the second and third group,
(a) the net efficiency of a boiler a t shutdown characteristics; t he dynamic shutdown device, etc.). An important by the loss of gauge pressure in the
• rated load and the average efficiency properties; the characteristics a t sud- characteristic of a boiler is its ahili ty boiler and the drop in the tempera-
ror a particular operating period ; den sheddings and surges of tho load. to change the load quickly, which is ture of the hottest elements down to
(b) t he operation factor which is The condi tions of operation of boiler often called the acceleration characteris- 150°C. For monobloc boilers , in ad-
essen tially the r atio of the actual equipment at various loads are charac- tic . It is determined mainly by the dition, the starting-up regime from
operating t ime of a boiler, 'top• to tho terized by the load control r ange and dyn amic properties of a boiler, i.o. the state of hot reserve is known.
calender time '1:, 01 of the period con- the range of all owable loads. In the by its response to r egime disturban-
s idered (month or year); load control range, the automatic con- ces.
292 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation
23.2. S teady R egim es of Boiler Operation 293
23.2. Steady Regimes of Boiler peratures Arc contro ll ed b v m ai ntain -
Operation ing the specified tcrnpcralur('S of the pera tures above 450°C is checked perio-
dically by measuring their dimensions _tss /1 tss
Steady cond itions of boiler oper -
working flu id at the outlet from p ar- 1
..... ~ -
ticular heating surfaces . In some cnscs, or b y cutting metal specimens from
ation h ave been considered in many these temperatures m ay exceed the the tu bes for metallogra phic an alysis .
1-
500 1-
f-..--<-..z
preceding chapters, so that the present specified values. For instance, in once- An impor tan t task of the boiler per- tr/1
chapter w ill give only some additional l r /1
through boilers th is may occur on a sonnel is to organize the bo iler oper- 540
data . I n the general case, boiler oper- decrease in the flow rate of feed water ation so as t o minimize low-tem pera- ./
at ion is carried ou t according to a
regime char/ which g ives the principal
or an increase in the flow rate of spray
w ater (the t,ota l or· in some spray
tu re corrosion in the t ail heat ing sur-
faces and gas ducts. As has been given
500 v
characteristics of the regime obtained nozzles). In any boiler, this also ca n inCh. 16, it is essential for the purpose
by the results of boiler tes ts . Modern resul t from improper conditions in the to burn high-sulphur fuel ..oil at tho
monobloc un ils ar e equipped with I I ,.0/.Dr
furn ace. For instance, if the com bust- leas t excess air ratio (1.02-1.03) and O.J 0.5 0. 7 1.0
computer m eans which make it pos- ion core in the boiler furnace is too maintain the temperature of the pre-
sible to determine the current or aver- high, it may raise th e steam t emper- heated air at a level of 70°C before Fig. 23.1. Static characteristics of fresh and
age (for any given period, such as a ature behind some stAges of the super- a tublllar air heater or 60°C befor e reheated steam for (i) once-through and (2)
shift) effi ciency characteristics and heater, especial ly behind th e unpro- regenerative air healers . Combustion drom-type boiler
the ch aracteristics of the working fluid t ected superheater sections . N on-nrli- of fuel oil at a low excess air ratio
in the water-steam path of the boiler. form distribution of fu el between tho involves certain difficulties , in par-
This inform ation is used for . the burners may lead to an increased tem- ticular, the furnace should bo perfectly volume of combustion products and
optimit ation of boiler· operation. In p erature of one o[ gas flows and to tight, fuel and air should be uniformly higher temperature gradients in the
addition , a number of m•tomatic regul- increased maldistribution of hent in distributed between the burners, the convective heating surfaces whose h eat
ators maintain the process parameters some heating surfaces . J1, is clear plant should be provided with oxygen ahso•·ption thus increases somewhat.
at optim al values (for instance, the that in once-through boilers it is meters and smoke density indical,ors . S ince the flue gases have a higher t em-
air regulato1· main tains the specified essential to redistribute continuously If these conditions are not observed , pera ture and the excess air ratio is un-
concentration of oxygen in flu e gases). the flow rate of feed wa ter a nd the soot will be deposited on the hea ting changed , the loss q2 increases. In
For these devices the regim e chart flow rates of fuel between tho burner surfaces(its ignition may cause damage some cases, the boiler furnace is run
gives the extreme variations of the tiers and furnace sides so as to ensure to the tubes) and ejected into the at an elevated excess air ratio to form
variables, above which the p ersonnel reliable opera tion of tho heal.ing sttr- atmosphere. appropriate furnace conditions or main-
should correct the operation of the faces. In drum-type hoi lers , an ad- S teady r egimes of the boiler oper a- t ain the specified temperature of steam
controllers or ch ange to manual oper- ditional variable is tho water level tion m ay be different depending on the at r educed loads. In th is case the loss
ation. load. Variations of a particular steam
in the drum. Ar. excessively high q2 m ay even increase at r educed loads.
Controlling the efficiency of com- water level can lead to carry-o ver of parameter or regime characteristic as a T ho loss of h eat due to incomplete
bustion p rocess consists in maintain- water droplets which can impair the function of load are described by wh a t combustion , q 3 , is usually very low.
ing the opti mal excess air ratio in the steam quality and for m interna l depo- is called tho static characteristic . As T ho loss with unburned carbon , q4 ,
f~n ace (a.1) and in distributing the si ts (scale) in superheater tu bes. This follows from what has been said in first decreases with increasing load,
atr flow between tho burners in ac- may result in a high er temperature of Ch. 18 , an increase in the load de- duo to a higher t emperature level
cordance with fuel distribution. The the tube metal and even in burn- creases the fr action of heat absor bed of combustion , but then can rise due
optimal a.1 is found by minimizing the through. by radiation and increases tha t ab- to a shorter time of fuel particles
heat losses (soc Ch . 6). Uniform dis- The temperature conditions of the sorbed by convection. In a drum-t ype presence in the furnace. The loss of
tribution of fuel and air between the heating surfaces are also im pa irerl if boiler, this leads to an increase in the heat to the surroundings, q5 , decreases
boiler burn ers is favourabl e for de- some tubes have l.eaks ot· bw·sts. temperatures of live and rcl1 eated with an increase in load. It can be
creasing the max imum temperatures of Tube-burst indicators of the acoustic steam, water behind the economizer, concluded from the foregoing that the
water-wall tubes, decreasing temper- type are finding increasing use for and bot air. In once-through boilers relationship between the boiler ef-
ature stnttification of flue gases at detecting bursts and leaks in boil er where no distinct bow1dary is obser- ficiency . and load is influenced by a
the ~urnaco . outlet, and preventing tubes. If the temperature behind par- ved between the steam-generating and number of fac tors: boi'ler design, fuel
slaggwg of the heating surfaces. ticular heating surfaces has increased superheating sections , the temperature grade, a ir conditions, air inleakage,
It is essential to hold the temper- above the allowable lev el or if a tubo of live steam may remain constant. otc. The highest efficiency can be
ature of tube walls of tho heating sur- burst has been detected, tho boiler is Typical static characteristic~ of live obtained at a load somewhat below
faces within the limits allowed for shut down (see Sec. 23.5). In addition and reheated steam in a once-through the rated load [near (0.8-0.9) Dr in
tbeir metal (seo Ch. 10). Direct m eas- to the current control of tempera ture and drum-type boiler are shown in th e combustion of solid fuels and
urement of lemperatttre of the tube conditions in a hoi ler, the state of the Fig. 23.1. (0.6-0.7) D, in the combustion of fu el
metal can only bo carried out in boiler metal of the heating surfaces, h eaders With an increase o[ load , the tem- oill .
tests. In boiler opera tion, lhese tom- and steam pipelines operating at lem- perature of flue gases at tho [urn aco A change in fu el consumption on a
outlet increases, re~ulting in a grca t.er change of load is determined by the
II
I
I
294
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boller Operatton 23.9. Unsteady Regimes of Operation 295
(23.1)
where c is specific heat and the sub-
(23.4) (a}
B__.,.-"' ..... --
-----
where D "'" Drlt are the flow rates of
live and reheated steam ' i s B and "r
;· h scripts 'm', 'w' and 's' stand res- -----
•
are re.~pecbvely their enthalpies, itw
and trlt are the enthalpies of feed
water and steam at the reheater inlet
pectiv&ly for 'metal', 'water' and
'steam'.
Specific processes occurring in the 0 ...
1---
-- ·B
It
...._____
----~
and the subscripts 'r' and 'x' refer drum-type and once-through boilers 1---<' firw
to the rated and reduced load. are determined by the differences !---+---'>---· I ·--
If load is reduced at constant rated b_e tween these boiler types: · the posi- 8
'C• O
parameters of steam, i1w and i'1 will tion of the boundaries of the steam-
d ecrease wtt r ' of
. h only a slight change generating. portion, its filling mass, ~ig. 23.3. Variations of the operating condi-
'l" • O '£,min tions of a drum-type boiler with increasing
'I'Jb, so that the fuel consumption will and capactty of heat accumulation. (b) fuel consumption
change less substantially tl1an the It should be recalled , in particular,
Fig. 23.2. Variations of operating CQnditions
boiler load. that the steam-generating portion in of a once-through boiler with increasing
the drum-type boilers has the bound- fuel consumption
the working fluid and metal increases,
As has been established by boiler t ss becomes higher. The processes
tesLs and by experience of boiler aries determined by the drum whereas (a.}displacement of boundaries of the steam-gene-
operation, the lower limit of the load in the once-through boilers th~se boun- rating portion; (b) varinllons of tile flow rate and
temperature of steam
occurring in a s upercritical-pressure
d aries are indeterminate. Since the boiler can be presen ted in a similar
control range is as follows: 40-50%
I
drum: type boiler has a multiple cir- manner if the zone of the highest heat
'' ' ()f the rated load in the combustion of (Fig. 23.2), the surface area of tubes capacity of the fluid is regard ed as the
I fuel oils, gas and high-volatile coals; culatiOn, the steam content at the out-
I let from the wall tube system is low required to heat water to the boiling steam-generating portion.
50-60% for lean coals; and 60-75% temper ature decreases in this case, The process in a drum-type boiler
for slaggiog-bottom boilers. The lowest a1_1d the mass filling is respectively
htgh. On the other hand, in once- and therefore, the boundary of the occurs in a different manner (Fig. 23.3).
load for stable operation of a boiler economizer portion displaces in the T he mass filling of the boiler is several
is usually 30-4.0% of the rated load. through boilers, the working fluid
circulates in a single pass, so that the direction against the water flow (from times greater than in the once-through
steam content increases substantially l ec1 to lec 2 ). The heating surface area type, and therefore, the steam flow
23.3. Unsteady Regimes of Operation and the mass filling is appreciably of the steam-generating portion also rateD will for a certain time be higher
Within Allowable Loads lower than in the former case. Besides, decreases (from l 8 Dl to lc vz) and, than the flow rate of feed water G,
wa_ter-wall tubes in the drum-type besides, its beginning displaces. There- leading to a lower water level h in
Let us consider the principal un- fore, the point in which steam gener- . the drum . On the other hand, since the
steady processes which can occur in boilers have a larger diameter (to
ensure proper circulation) than in ation is completed shifts against the pressure in the water-wall tube system
boilers on the typical disturbances of flow more substantially than the boun- and drum increases with D, some heat
their operating r egimes. According to once-through boilers, which again in-
creases their mass filling and the heat dary of the economizer portion. Thus, must be spent for heating the water
the laws of conservation of mass and the mass filling of the boiler decreases contained in the drum to the corres-
energ~, we can write the equations of
accumulated by the metal. The drum
is also an element that accumulates (see the hatched area in Fig. 23.2a), ponding boiling point. For this reason,
matenal and heat balance: while the superheating portion of the D increases more slowly aod for a
much heat, so that the terms d (Gin)ld't
and d (Q;n)ld't for the drum-type boilers boiler increases (from z.,ll to lshz>· certain time the proportion between
(23.2) These boundaries displace gradually. B and D is disturbed and results in
are substantially higher.
. Such are the principal differences First, the boundary of the beginning a higher t,,. As D approaches a new
(23.3) m unsteady processes occurring in of steam generation is shifted and, static value, steam temperature ceases
these two principal types of boiler*. since part of the water contained in to rise and then drops down to the
where Gs and Q8 are the quantities of the boiler is evaporated, the steam original or a new level which is deter-
water and heat supplied to the boiler Let us analyse a regime in which
flow raLe D exceeds for a certain time mined by the static characteristic of
D d and Qd are the quanti ties of stea~ the fuel consumption B (and therefore
the flow rate of water G1w. During the superheater (whose dimensions are
and heat delivered from it, and G;n heat release in the furnace) increase~
at a constant flow rate of feed water this period, the r atio BID remains con- pot changed in the regime considered).
and Q;n are the quantities of water stant and the temperature of live It should be clear that the considered
and heat contained in the boiler. Gtw· In a once-through boiler
steam t •• is not changed (Fig. 23.2b} . pattern of the process is true only for
The term G;n is the mass of water Further, as the boundary of the end the period in which water level in the
and steam contained in the boiler (it * A more de~iled discussion of unsteady
processes and the1r mathematical description of the steam-generating portion is drum decreases to a lower allowable
ma~r be called mass filling). The Lerro can~ be found in (56, 61), etc. limit.
shifted and the heat accumulated by
Download From Boilersinfo.com 297
296 Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation 23.3. Unsteady Regimes of Operation
II the flow rato of feed water in the With t., maintained at the specified
2 val ue, the process considered m akes
once-through boiler decreases at con-
s tant B, the process w ill occur essenti- it possible to utilize the accumulating
h capacity of the boiler for quick varia-
all y .in the samo way as s hown i n
Fig. 23.2. In tho drum- type uoiler in tion of tho turbogenerator load when
it is needed to control the frequency
this case, the luiat cons umption for
heating water in the drum decreases, I
{
--- ' '-,
0 ond energy tran::;fe r in the system. Tho
resulting in a higher s team generation process has a definite effect on tho
+---~----- --
unit operation in a regime of variable
in the water walls and higher s team
flow rate through the s uperheater.
Since the dimensions and heating
B
•
__--·-·-,.,.. -
"'-.......... p pressure of live s team. Load shedding
in the unit is [it·st carried out at a
load 9f tho superheater remain un- constant pressure of live s team by
changed, the temperature of steam closing the control valves of the
drops somewhat down. This process, -r:-(J
turbine. With furthe r unloading of
'C'm in
as the previous one, occurs only in th e I the unit, tho position of the control
period when the water love! in the Fig. 23.6. Variations or the operating condi- valves remains unchanged and the
drum falls down to the lowest mark. ·r: = (J tions of a boiler on opening o[ turbine cont- pressure of live s team decreases. This
A different process lakes pluce if fuel rol valves regime offers certain advantages in
Fig. 23.5. Val'iatioos of the water level in boiler operation. In particular, the
combustion is increased s uddenly. In the boiler drum on n sharp chanae o[ [uel
• <> ef£i.ciency of the un it increases due to·
the once-through boiler, Lh is leads to consumptiOn for preheating water in tho drum de-
an 'ou t burst', i.o. vi gorous s team creases, whicl1 leads l.o an increase of lower tlt1·ottling of s team in the cou-
generation and can·y-ovor of mois ture drum 's wells' to a heiaht as much us tho s team flow rate through the super- l.rol valves or the turbine a nd s mall er
by s team along the s tea m path. In "'
a few hund red millimetres. Tho d istur- hea Ler portiou an d a decrease of t •• . energy consumption by the feed pump.
this case, the length of tho s team- bance of tho material bal ance and the If the flow rate of feed water increases The range of tiHJ u11it loads in wlli ch
generating portion increases sharply $\Yelling of water in the circulation and i ts temperature decreases, the the temperature of reheated steam
(Fig. 23.4b), r esul ting in a shorLcr system have opposite effects on tho processes occur in reverse d irection. can be maintained at nearly nomiual
super heating p ortion and lower live water level in the drum (Fig. 23.5). An An exception is the process of 'out- value becomes wider since. as tho
steam temperature. As the additional increase in D abov e G1w results in bursting' of moisture in the once- unit is unloaded, the temperature of
steam passes from the boiler, the Jive a lower h (curve 1), while swell ing through boiler, which can only be steam at the inlet to the reheater is
s team temperature begins to rise and leads to a sharp rise in h which is then observed on a sharp riso of heat release not decreased but increased. Those
may exceed substantially the original stabilized (curve 2). Using the super- in the furnace. With an external advantages are mainly revealed at
level (Fig. 23.4c). The process that position method, one can find the disturbance of the regime, the processes supercritical pressures. On the other
takes place in tho drum-typo boiler resulting change in h (curve 3) . This in the once-through and clrum- type hand, tho variable-pressure r egime
is similar, in a certain respect, to that curve shows that the effect of water boilers are essentially similar. For decreases the rate at which the boilel·
described. The water leve l in the swelling is predominant at the initial instance, as the opening H. of the load can be raised since part of heat
stage of the process and that of a control valves of the monobloc turbine is accllmulated in tho working fluid
change in tho material balance, at the increases, the pressure of live steam and tube metal. This drawback, how-
lee! l shf ever, can be decisive for the selection
final stage. In contrast to the process and the saturation temperature di-
-- .......... . ..
• • • . • .. .
...... : . .............
...... ....
: .._
. . ......
__
in the once-through boiler, the drum minish. This resul ts in n lower filled- of the operating r egime onl y in ex-
ceptional cases.
in this case serves as a trap for en- in mass of the boiler, higher steam
(a) The combination of the processes
trained mois ture, and therefore, t •• generation, and lower temperature of
leY2 changes much in the same manner as s uperheated s team (Fig. 23.6). In the discussed determines the dynamic pro-
--~- -
~
-
.... ..........
·---- - - ·... .............
- . - ---.-
·. •_
• • • • • .. r
, __,
0
_ on a common increase of fuel con-
sumption.
• ••
drum-type boiler, this process takes
more time, since the mass filling
perties of a boiler. It should be em pha-
sized that the variable component of
(6) The effect of variation in the feed s hould be changed more s ubstantially. mass filling and the accumulating
water tempcratm·e t1w in the two The change in t •• in tho once-through capacity of a boiler are decisive in
-
-
- --. ..... .·. .
~0_. • ..
..
(c)
• •
.•
...
• •
·..
... .......·............
•
....
. . ..
• •
. •
boilers is also different. In the once-
through boiler, n change of t 1w, under
other conditions unchanged, results
boiler is greater than in tho drum
type , since in addition to an increase
in steam flow rate, tho length of the
this res pect. Assuming these factors to
be ineffective [d (G;n)ld-r: = 0 and
d (Q 1n)ld-r: = OJ, it follows from equa-
in the displacement of the boundaries steam-generating portion d im inishes tions (23.2) and (23.3) that the fl ow
Fig. 23.4. Displacement of boundaries of the of steam-generating portion in a simi- (the boundary of this r egion shifts rate of s team s hould be equal at any
I
ste_am-generatiDg. portion in a once-through lar manner as shown in Fig . 24.2, and downstream due to an increase of the moment to the flow rate of the feed
boiler on a sharp mcrease of fuel consumption in an increase oft,. . I n the drum-type enthalpy of dry s team on a decrease water and that t he temperature of
(a) conditi~ns before disturbance: (b) niter dis tur- superheated steam should follow the
bance. (c) final stcndy-stl\tc conditions boiler, the quantity of heat consumed in pressure).
298
Download From Boilersinfo.com 299
Ch. 29. Steam Boller Operation ~.,.4. Starting-up Circullt of Monobloc Unit.
after the first-stage condensate pumps. boiler unit, which is continuously used in all types of monobloc units is load shedding. Starting-up circuits of
During that period, clean condensate fed with water, is reduced by means steam bypassing in the reheating sys- monobloc units are described in more
is supplied from the condensate stor- of a constant-flow r ate circuit com- tem (line 15 in Figs . 23.7 and 23.8). detail in [12, 43].
l age tank through pipeline 10 immedi-
ately ~efore the demineralizer. During
p~ising a bypass line 13 (see Fig. 23.8)
w1th a set of orifices and a line 14
'Part of the steam is passed from the
cold reheat line into the hot reheat 23.5. Shut-down and Load-shedding
the umt start-up, pipeline 11 supplies with tluottle valve Thr4 for recircul- line, thus lowering the temperature
clean condensate to the condenser. Regimes
ating water into the deaerator. The gradient, and therefore, the heat ab-
S~arting-up circuits have special valve Thr4 maintains a cons tan t pres- sorption in the reheater. As steam from Before normal (not emergency) shut-
dev1ces to maintain the temperature sure 'before itself', which makes it the cold reheat line is mixed with down, the boiler of a monobloc unit
of live and reheated steam. A charac- possible to redistribute water between that in the hot reheat line, the tem- should be unloaded, i.e. its load should
teristic feature of drum-type boilers the starting spray and deacrator at a perature of the reheated steam can be be shedded. When shutting down for
is t~at their steam-generating capacity constant total water flow rate and in controlled at a lower level._-ln once- a short time (for instance, overnight),
l
' durmg start-up lags substantially he- the set of orifices at a constant pres- through boiler units, a starting spray the hot state of the plant is usually
•• hind the increasing fuel consumption, sure gradient. This circuit allows water is additionally provided in the steam retained wherever possible, so that
!' so that the temperature of tubes of to be supplied to the starting spray main (16 in Fig. 23.8), which is used load shedding is limited (for tho most
the superheater rises substantially and from .the discharge of the feed pump. to control the temperature of reheated part not less than 50% of the rated
may exceed the allowable limit. Besi- This scheme is inapplicable in cir- steam upon closing tho steam bypass. load). Wben shutting down for a longer
d~~· it is essential to maintain the spe- cuits with drum-type boilers, since a Feed water to the starting spray is time, it is advisable to utilize the
Cifled schedule of live-steam tem- boiler is fed with water during a cer- supplied at a pressure of more than accumulating capacity of the boiler
perature variation before the turbine. ~ain p e~iod of firing from neighbour- 7 MPa from the intermediate stage as much as possible. This is favoured
f
On the other hand, the condensate- JOg UDLts through a crossover feed of the feed pump, so that there is no by the deep unloading of the unit
spraying system of the main circuit wa~er pip~line (11 in Fig. 23.7), so that need to control the water pressure in with sliding (variable) pressure of live
(5-7 in Fig. 23.7) can operate only at rec1rculatton of water to the deaerator the spray line. In some cases, only steam. I n addi tioo to this, upon flame
boiler loads not less than 30 % of the of the unit being started would cause one means of r eheated s team temper- extinction in the boiler furn ace, the
. rated val ue. For this reason , there o.verfilling. Because of this, the pipe- ature control is employed. It is pos- turbogenerator is left for a certain
.! is provided a starting-up spray sys- sible t o employ s team bypassing only, time connected to the system so as to
line for supplying water from tho cros-
~em with at omizing nozzles arranged sover line 11 is provided with the if it has been est ablished by boiler work off the accumula ted steam in the
10 the cond ensate-spray diffusers. The tes ts that the r eheater has reliable boiler. The load-shedding conditions in
main control valve 12 in which the
first two groups of the spray nozzles excessive pressure gradient is reduced. temperature conditions at the maxi- a drum-type boiler are determined by
(8, 9) are in tended to hold tl1e tom- When. the boiler is changed to feeding mum load at which the s team bypass the rate at which the saturation tem-
perature of the platen superheater from 1ts own feed pump, the starting will be used. The allowable conditions perature in the drum decreases; this
section tubes within the safe limits sprays are switched over to tho feed for starting spraying are determined should not exceed 1.5-2 · deg C/min.
w.hile the tl~i~d group (10) maint~ water pipeline 13. by the minimal flow rate and pressure The rate at which load shedding oc-
ams the specified schedule of tho live- The feed water supply to the drum- of steam at which moisture will be curred in a once-through boiler by the
steam t emperature growth. This group type boiler is controlled by means of evapor ated completely in the steam action of its automatic control system
can be arranged in the circuit before bypass lines 14 with a reduced through- flow and will not precipitate on the is determined only by the dynamic
the outlet stage of the superheater if put capacity and the main feed water internal surface of the steam main, properties of the boiler.
t~is bas fav?u~able dynamic proper- COJ;ttrol :val~e. In the once-through especially in the nearest bend after the A boiler is shu t down by interrup t-
ties and a limJ ted rise of steam en- hotler CirCult, only the ma in feed spray. Depending on the test results, ing the fuel supply to the burners and
thalpy (up to 170 kJ/kg at the rated water control valve is provided since the distance from the spray to the the supply of feed water. In drum-
load). In once-through boiler units the minimal flow rate of feed w~ter is nearest bend of the steam main should type boilers, the drum is first filled
this condition cannot usually bo ob~ much higher than in the drum-type be not less than 18-25 m. with water to the upper workin.g level.
served, so th at the starting spray boiler. The starting circuits discussed above Upon flame extinction in~ the furnace,
group is provid ed in the steam main In most cases, the starting regime have been employed in monobloc units the draft fans remain in operation for
(12 in Fig. 23.8). Moreover, the heat- of a monobloc unit should ensure a of a capacity of 500, 800 and 1200 MW. 10-15 minutes to prevent the accum-
accumulating capacity of once-through reduced reheated steam temperature Their specifics are determined by the ulation of an explosive mixture in the
boilers is relatively low and there is level and further control of this tem- application of feed pumps and in gas-air path, which is thus ventilated.
no need to employ spraying to protect perature according to the specified some units, of air blowers driven by During the standstill, measures are
the superheater stages against over- schedule. In view of the dynamic pro- steam turbines. To this end, the cir- taken to prevent the condensation of
heating. perties of the reheater and some other cuits can be supplied by steam from s team in superheater tubes, since this
In the sliding starting-up regime, factors, the main means of control other plants to drive these turbines might involve complications in sub-
the pressure o£ feed water is much can be used only beginning from loads and also can be fed with live steam sequent firing of the boiler and de-
higher than that of live steam. The of 25-30% of the rat ed value. A me- (through the startup-shutdown device crease the boiler r eliability. In view
Jlressure of water in a once-tluough thod for starting control that is widely of the quick-action desuperheater) at of this, as a once-through boiler is
II Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation
23.5. Shut-down and Load-shcddinf! Jlcgimcs 305
shut down to reserve and the feed ize the temperature difference between
wa ter supply to it is discontinued, the the top and bottom of the drum (which played for cooling the path of once- mote-control ·devices and measuring
water path up to the internal gate should be not more than 40 deg C) . At a through boilers up to tho internal and co ntrol ins truments; and
va lve is closed (by closing the feed pressure of 0.6-0.8 MPa in the boiler, ga te valve. (9) 0 11 switching off of the turbine
water valve, internal gate valve, and the gas-a ir pa th is intensively ventila- · fn emergency situations, a boiler (in monobloc units) or of some of the
tho fiLLin gs of the interna l separator} ted. Once-through boilers have no mas- is shut down with ' pressure retention' . a uxi li ary equipment (draft fans, blo-
and s team is discharged from . the sive me ta l elements (such as the drum) As the furnace is extinguished, t he wers, etc.) .
s uperheater (via the start~p-shutdmyn and can be cooled more quic kly . The feed water control \'al ve a nd steam- In a ll such cases, a delayed shut-
device) and reheater (vta the dts- load shedding of a unit up to the fur- outlet valve are closed , the tu rbo- down can aggravate the situation a nd
charge line from the s team mai?s) nace extinction and turbine switch-off generator is switched off, and the cause ser ious dam age, so that the
into tho condenser. When shuttmg is carried out a t the rated pressure s tartup-shut down dev ice is ke pt closed boi lor opera tor is ins tructed to stop
down a drum-type boiler , the pressure of live steam. In suporcri tica l-pres- if the pressure of the live s team is tho boiler without waiting for per-
in it is reduced gradually (by steam sure boilers, steam discharging is then below the actua ting pressure of t he boi- m iss ion from the station management
discharging through the startup-shut- started through the steam drainage ler safety valves. In this me thorl, tho or load dispatcher of the power system.
down device of the desuperheater), before the steam-outlot valve , with pressure and temper ature of fluid A n emergency shut-down of a boiler
so as to maintain the saturation tem- the startup-shutdown device being along tho hoi ler path are first he Id is effected by the protection system
perature below the te mporat~re of closed. When the t emperature of Jive at the sam e values as in normal oper- on receiving tho signal on tho appear-
flue gases in the superheater, 1.e. by steam has dropped dowo roughly to ation. After that, they dim in ish s lowly ance of som e or other emergency situ-
forming conditions preventing the con- 420°C, the feed water supply to the owing to heat transfer to tho surround- a tion. If the ·protection system fails,
densation of live steam in the super- boiler is restarted at a flow rate of ings and loose fittings of the water- the required procedures should be
heater. Tho drum is periodically fed 10-15% of the nominal value. Duo to steam path. If the trouble is elimin- ca rried out by the operating personnel.
with water. The reheater is freed from the heat accumulated in tho boiler, ated quickly, this method of shutting- These functions are facilitated by pro-
steam in the same way as in a once- the temperature of fluid along the path down makes it possible to start the vis ion of ligllt and audio s ignalling
through boiler . decreases gradually. As the wa tor tom- boiler from tho s tate of ho l reser ve. means on tho control board of the
When the cold shut-down of a mono- perature drops down roughly to 300°C, Otherwise, shutting-down is contiuu- llllit.
bloc unit mus t be performed, requir- the flow rate of the feed wa ter is in- ed and steam from the suporhea tor is lu certain situations, a boiler can be
ing tha t a ll boiler equipment be cooled, creased up to 30% of the nominal discharged. shut down only upon agreement with
load shedding is carried with the gra- value and water is pumped through Emergency shut-down of a boiler the s tation management, since the
dual reduc tion of the pressure of live the path until the complete cooling must be carried out immedia tely in th e de velopment of a failure and serious
steam. In a once-through boiler, the of the boiler and pipelines is accom- following situations : consequences are only probable after a
internal gate valve is closed at a load plished. In subcritical-pressure mono- (1) when the water level in the drum certain time. Such situations include
roughly 60 % of the rated value an.d bloc units, the once-through boiler and passes beyond the safety marks or the the appear ance of small failures
tho pressure in the path up to th1s pipelines are cooled by gradually de- s upply of feed water to one of the fl ows (cracks) in the water-steam p ath elem-
v alve is then maintained constant. In creasing the saturation temperature in a once-through boiler is in terrupted eo ts, a rise in the temperature of the
both types of boilers, the temperature at the superheat er outlet . To perform for more than 30 s; m et a l of p articular heating surfaces,
of live steam is lowered together with this, as the feed water supply to the (2) on failure of the wa ter-level gau- low quality feed water, failures in the
its pressure a t a rate allowed by ther- boiler is restored at 10-15% of the ges in a drum-type boiler or of the pro tection sys tems , automatic control-
mal stresses in massive metallic ele- nominal flow rate, the pressure in the feed water flowm etors in a once- lers, measur ing and control instrum-
ments of the boiler, pipelines and tur- boiler is maintained cons tant (by through boiler; ents, remote-control devices, etc. In
bine. A t the s ame time, the tempera- means of the startup-shutdown device) (3) when there is no flo w of s team such cases, measures first should be
ture of reh eated steam is lowered. The until the temperature of fluid at the through the reheater; t akon to eliminate the trouble and if
superheater and reheator can thus be boiler outlet drops down to the s atur- (4) when the pressure has risen in- those [ail, it should be decided how
cooled roughly to 300°C. ation point. The feed water flow rate tolerably (in once-throug h boilers , a long the boiler can be in operation
When it is needed to coo l a drum- is then increased to 30-40% of the pressure drop is also dnngerous); bo[oro shut-down.
typo boiler and s team pipelines for nominal value and, since the boiler (5) on rupture of tubes in the wate r- If a group oE tho auxiliary equ ip-
repairs , as tho boiler furnace is extin- has accumulated an appreciable quan- steam path; mont is switched off, the boiler load
I guished and tho turbine switched off, tity of heat, the fluid at its outlet is (6) on flame extinction in the furn- should be immediately shedded to
I the steam accumulated in the boiler
is discharged into the steam main of
for an appreciable time in the state of
a steam-water mi x ture. Tho reduction
ace, explosions in the furnace or gas
ducts , or inflammation of combus tible
avoid heavy ~amage to the equipment.
For instance, if one of tho two induced-
I tho station, tho turbine condenser or rate of the saturation tempera ture can deposits in convective boa ting sur- d!·aft fun s has been stopped, the flame
I!I Lho a tmosphere. The water level in be controlled properly by regulating faces·
(7) ' on an intolerable roducti.on of
will shoot out from viewholes, blow-
down holes, etc. und can cause fire in
Lhe drum is raised to the ·upper mark the pressure reduction rate of tho fluid;
(roughly 200 mm below the top surface this ensures the desired cooling rate the pressure of gas or fu el oi l behind the boiler room, damage to the boiler
of tho drum); this measure can minim- of the plant. Similar methods are em- the control valve; s t.ructuro, etc . If one of two Eorced-
(8) when there is no voltage a t re- d•·A ft fans is s lop pod, this ma y cause
20 - 0 1524
I'
306
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation 23.6. R egi mes of Boller Firing and Un it Starllttg 307
flam e extincLion, the accumulation properly conducted, this can lead to before the inLorual gate valve. Water periphery and for minimizing local
of unburned fuel in the furnace and emergency situations. In boilers with from the in lernnl separator is dis- thermal stresses; in drum-type boi lers,
its explosion which can lead to serious a single bypass in the starting-up cir- charged into tho start-up expander this measure is addition ally essential
consequences. As may be clear [rom cuit, it is especially important to cut SE and further into the circulation for the developmen t of circulation in
these examples, the pri me task in down the fuel consumption as quickly conduit (6 in Fig. 23.8) . The startup- all the water walls. As established by
such situations is to diminish tho fuel as possible, since otherwise 'burn- shutdown device is opened to create tests of the exis ting drum-type a11 d
consumption to a sufficient level for through' of the rehea tor tubes is I i kely vacuum in tho s uperheater (except for once-through boilers in the USSR , the
operation of the remaining equipment. to occur. In view of this, it is pre- cases of starting from hot reserve). flow rate of fue l during the initial
At tho same time, it is essential to scribed by boiler rules that a monobloc This procedure is also carried out in period of firing should not exceed 20%
control tho flow rate of feed water and unit can continue its opera tion only a drum-type boiler if there is no of the nom inal va lue. Unde1· such
the temperatures of live and reheated if its protection system and automatic excessive pressut·e in it; this ensures conditions, the tube wall tempet·ature
s team and to change the load of the control systems are intact. a slower rise in the saturation tem- of sup erheating surfaces does noL ex-
steam consumer and of the auxiliary perature of the drum during firing. ceed the allowable limit even in no-
equipment that still remains in op er- In cases when the s tartup-shutdown load operation or the boiler. fn boiler
23.6. Regimes of Boiler Firing ?ovice is initially closed , its opening
ation. In some cases, certain swit- and Unil Starting starting from a cold or warm state, the
chings should be made in the circui Ls IS performed only upon firing the initial flow rate of the fuel is control-
of the water-s team and gas-air pa ths . These regimes include the following furnace, so as to maintain a cons tant led at a level of 12-15 % of the nominal
All these procedures are performed by three main stages: preparatory pro- pressure of the live steam that has value. I n a drum-type boile1·, this
the protection system or specia l sys- cedures, boiler firing proper, and rais- been generated to that moment. ensures the quick development of cir-
tems for automatic load shedding of ing the load to the specified value. During boiler standstills, moisture culation in water walls and, on the
the unit. Nonetheless, the operating These regimes will be described as ntay accumulate in some stages of Lho other hand, the rate of pressure rise
personnel should be always ready to applied to mono bloc units, the most. superheater, though certain measures, in the drum is within the tolerable
perform those procedures by moans of advanced equipment of modern thor· as indicated in Sec. 23.5, huve been limits (with steam discharge from the
remote-control devices. For this reas- ma l power s tations. T h e fi rs t, ' pre· tak en to prevent this. Besides, un- drum to the 11 tmosp here or with the
on, the personnel is periodica lly train- para tory' , stage includes 'assembling' tightnoss of the internal gate valve drainable superhea ter). Irrespective of
ed to cope wi tlt emergency situations . the wa ter-steam, fuel, and gas-air and thr ottle valve Thr3 in a once- the type of boi ler, the indicated flow
Training simulators are used effecti v- paths , preparing aH mech anisms and through boiler may lead to mois ture rate of fuel is sufficient for heating
ely for the purpose. systems, creating vacuum in the turb- accumulation in the pipeline and the the steam pipelines.
An extreme case among tho above is ine condenser, pre-starting deoeration first heating surface behind the in- . In starting from the hot state, the
load shedding of a unit to a level at of feed water, etc. A drum-type boiler ternal gate valve. This moisture can fu el flow rate in the initial period is
which the boiler supplies only its auxili- is filled with water as required. The be 'pushed out' into the hot headers established at 20% of the nominal
ary equipment. water level in the drum should be of the boiler during firing and cause value or, if there is steam flow through
As has been demonstrated by boiler somewhat below the norm al mar k so their cr acking. In a drum-type boiler, the superheater, is increased addition-
tests, a drum-type boiler in such cases as to allow 'swelling' . A once-through this may result in a quicker pressure ally so as to attain the required tem-
can be shut down while the turbo- boiler is to be filled with water in all rise in the drum at the initia l stage of perature of live and reheated steam.
generator continues operation by con- firing regimes, except for firing from firing, which, in turn, diminishes the As the initial flow rate of fuel has
suming tho s team accumulated in the the state of hot reserve. As water is allowable heating intensity in the be~n established in a once-through
boiler. In monobloc units with once- fed into the boiler, it displaces air furnace . By open ing the startup-shut- botler, the f low rate of the 'feed water
through hoi lers, the load o[ the boiler from the system (provided thnt the down device, the superheater is co n- and the pressure of fluid before the
in such a s ituation decreases rapidly air pressw·e is not excessive). In a nected with the condenser which pro- internal gate valve are maintained
to the firing load (roughly 30 % of the once-through boiler, the food wa Ler motes the evaporation of mois ture constant. As the pressure of fluid in
rated load). In boilers fired on solid flow rate is adjusted at the slarti ng-u p from the superheater tubes duri ng the start-up expander SE has ri sen
fuel, part of the burners are closed level and the water pressure is raised boiler firing. up to 0.4-0.5 MPa, steam from the
(together with their fuel-supplying to tho working value by closing the After switching on the draft fans, expander is removed to the deaerator
means) and fuel-oil burners are swi t- throttle va lve Thr1 (with t he internal ventilating the gas-air path, and pre- and_, when a suffic ient quanti Ly of
ched on in order to 'bt"igh ten' the gate valve being closed). rn boiler paring fuel-supply mechanisms, the dram water has been accumulated, the
flame. In some cases, tho furnace firing from the hot state, fi rs l. n reduc- regime of burner firing is carried out cycle is closed (by switching over water
should be chnnged completely to fuel- ed flow rate of water is established (firing fuel-oil or gas burners are ignit- discharge from the start-up expander
oil firing. At the same time, all the (10-15% of the nominal. va lue), which ed). It is advisable to carry out the from the circulation pump to the
procedures required for partial load makes it possible to slowly cool the boiler firing by igniting as many condenser). A drum-type boiler during
shedding arc performed, but since the boiler path up to the interna l gate burners as possible with the least fuel this p~riod of firing is periodically
regime has been disturbed more sub- valve and internal sep arator. The £low rate through each of them; this fed w1th water from neighbouring
stantially, it is more diflicult to s ta- starting-up £low ratel of wa ter is set is essential for the uniform heating of monobloc units (lines 11 and 13 in
bilize it. Tf these procedut·es are not in upon raising the ·wa Lor pressure the water walls around the furnace Fig. 23.7) so as to maintain the water
~o ·
308
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Cit. 23. Steam Boiler Operation 23.6. Regime& of Holle r Firing aud Vnit Starting 30!l
leve l within tolerable limits. In boil- fraction. of the fluid in the inte rnal cylinders can operate at a low rrcq ue u- preset. In some 200-l\[W and 300-~1 \II,T
-ers with boiling-type economizers, the separator increases, the valve Thr2 cv without steam being. passed through monobloc units, the temperature o r
regime with periodic water feeding is closed more, until it is comp lete ly them . On the other hand , s ince onl y the reheated s team is controlled by
and a low constant flow rate of water closed upon appearance of superheated the high-pressu re cylinder is actlwlly the s team bypass. In units of higher·
-can in some cases lead to a substantial steam before tho internal sep a rator, in operation, the flow rate of s team is capacities (500, 800 and i 200 l\lW) ,
mald istribution of heat and hydraulic which is an indication of a change quite high anrl ensures quick heating the re is no steam b y pass and only the·
maldistribution. Some water-distri b- from a separating regime to a once- of the reheator system. In some cases, starting sprays to the steam main ,
uting tubes may supply the fluid of through regime having t aken place in Yacuum in the turbine condenser is which are put in operation before con-
a higher enthalpy (up to superheated the boiler. lowered in order to further increase necting the turbo-generator to the
steam) to the drum. This is prove n led As the steam £low rate through the the flow rate of steam through tho electric network , are used . Before con-
by maintaining the s pecifie d te m- superheater increases, tho steam mains S\'stem . necting the turbo-generator t o the
perature o[ fluid in an intermediate are gradually h eated. S team is dis- ·In some regimes, a moiiobloc unit network, when its rotor is accel erated
section and at the economizer outle t charged from them through the s tart- can be started without preheating the and synchronized, the steam-genera t -
by properly controlling the flow r ate up-shutdown device and the drainage s team pipelines, in pa rticular , the ing capacity of the boiler and th e
-of water and by increasing the rate of of the dead-end sections. H eating is reO'imc of starting [rom the hot s tate. tem pe rature of live steam are main -
blowdown on an increase in the water usually carried out u n ti I the tem- l\l~reover, when the the rmal insul a- tained cons tant. During this period,
level in the drum. perature of steam before the high- . tion is in proper cond iLion , a unit can tho te mperature of the reheated steam
A.s the initial flow rate of fuel has pressure cylinder of the turbine is be started without prehoal,ing tho grad ually increases for the same reas-
bee n es tab.lis hed, it is possible to roughly 100 deg C higher than the reheater system after a s tands till for ons as on connection of the super-
raise the flow rate and parameters of temperature at tho s team inlet . J n 1-2 days. A cri t.erion of such reg im es hea tor .
live s team in a drum- type boiler or units provided with a pressure-reduc- is a decrease in tho steam tcrnpm·ature The temperature of the reheated
the Lemperatut·e of fluid before tho ing desuperheater (sec Fig. 23 .7), the bv not more than 20-30 deg C com- s team rises especially sharply on cou--
interual gate valve (t1 cv), in a once- reheater system is hea totl by supply- pared with the temperature at. t.h e necUo rr of th o turbo-generator, i. e.
through boile r . The temperature of ing live steam to the cold reheat pipe- ~t eam inlet. to the turbin e. . when the s team flow rate throug h tile
the fluid determines its mo isture con- line and discharging it from the hot As preheating is comple ted, th o rl ow rchenl e r system is almost doubled.
t e nt on e ntry to the internal separator. reheat pipeline into tho condenser. ra te of fu el is correcled so as to ensu re fi"or this reasou, it is important to
As found from tests, the internal This heating is only started when the the steam-genera Ling capacity of the switch on in due time the de vices.
separator can operate efficiently at temperature of steam before the de- boiler at ·which the initial load of the which control the temperature or
a dryness fraction of 8-10% (t!cv = superheater exceeds the temperature at turbo-aenerator will be around 5% reheat. In units with once-thro ugh
= 250-270°C), and therefore, it is pos- the discharge end of the high- pressure of the ~ated value. In starling-up from boilers, tho startup-shutdown deYice.
sible to con nect the s uperheater to the cylinder of the turbine, so as to avoid a cold or a warm s tate, the flow rate is n ot closed during the period of
circuit. This procedure is performed cooling of that section. The end of of the fuel is usually established at the t Uibogenerato r synchronization, s o
by gradually opening the throttle heating of the hot r eheat pipe line is minimal level so as to o btain more that a ll the control valves of the
val \'O Thr3 (in s teps of 10-15 % in determined by the temperature of eas ily the required low temperatu re of turbine arc opened (and heated) due
2-3 minu te inter vals) . As the s uper- steam before the intermediate-pres- live and reheated st eam. In st ar ting-u p to a drop o[ pressUie in the live steam.
hcalCl' is counectcd to the circuit, the sure cylinder of the turbine which from the hot state, however, the flow In units with drum-type boilers, the
temperatu1·c of tube metal in the exceeds the tcmperatu re at the s tea m rate of fuel is increased to the u ppor startup-shutdown device is partially
heating zone decreases. At the same inlet by 50-80 dog C. In supercritical- limit (30 % of tho nominal value in cl osed to maintain a constant pressure
time, the temperature of steam at the pressurc monobloc units for 300 MW the circuits with s ingle bypass) to of live s team, which improves the
boiler ou tle t gradually increases, since and 500 MW, there is no desuper- obtain a steam tempera ture c lose to operatiog cond i tions of the boiler
the heat-tra nsfer coefficient a 2 in- heater in the s tarting-up circuits the nominal value. crru·m. and control over tho steam
creases with the flow rate of the steam. (Fig. 23.8) and tho reheater s ystem Before pushing the tu1·bin e ro tor, temperature. As the tUibo-generatot·
Since the throttle valve Thr2 is still is heated by the 'combine d ' method. the s tarting sprays arc switched on is connected to the network, the
fully open at t his s tage of starting-up, The turbine rotor is pushed by open- and tl1e temperature of live s t.oam is s ~nrtup-slwtdown device is closed and.
part of the s team is discharged to- ing the control valves and the fre- es tablished at a desired level. Tn a the unit begins to s upply the initial
gether with water from the internal quency of its rotation is the n raised to once-through boiler, th e throLUc Yalve load.
separator i o to the start-up expander. 800-1000 rpm. Live s team passes Thr4 in the line of water l'OCirculaLion A I, ~h e tllird s tage of starting (load-
Thus, the next procedure is to close throug h tho hig h- pressm o cy lind e r nnd to the deaerator is sot so as to obtain ing) a monobloc unit, its elements are
the val ve Tttr2 which is carried out the reheater system and is discharged a s team pressure llefore the ~ l,fl r·tin g heated from the initial temperature to
to ensure removal of all moisture and from the hot i-PI1 oat pipe line in to t.hc s pray nozzles that is 1.5-2.0 MPa the final te mperature corresponding to
part of s team (roughly 5% of the condenser, with the valves or tho in- higher than the pressure of live stea m. il.s operation under the rated con-
flow ra te of drain wate r) from the in- terme diate-pressur·o cy lind er being ln a drum-type boiler , the des ired ditions. An attempt to shorten the
te rn a l separa tor, which increases its closed. As prove n by tests, tho rotors steam temperatures beh iud the s tages time of loading may result in \.he
efficiency. F urther, as the dryness of \.he intermediate- and hig h- pressure of the superh eater arc addiLionnlly quick heating of the boiler elements
310
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 23. Steam Boiler Operation 23.6. Regtme1 of Boiler Firing and Unit Starting 311.
a nd the a~pea ra u ce of h igh t.e mper- of the m_e tal. The number of cycles N 111ode is rca lized, however, de pends on tom peratu re bch ind the control vn I ves
atltl'e grachen ls. Ji'or instance if a tho particular characteristics of the of tho turbine. T he internal gate val ve
to cra? k t~g depends on many factors,
wa ll of o a tl~ickness h is heated at a the prtnctpal one being the amp! itudo equipmout. Por ins ta nce, in monobloc is then closed and the boiler trans-
rate V , C/ mm, the temperatme gradi- of s tresses in a c •ycle·· 0ACJ = a mnx - unit s with drum- type boile r:- provided fe rred to the nominal pressure.
ent across the wa ll is: with radi ant !:lu per heater sections on Solid fuel-fired b oilers are transfer-
.-<Jm ln· The number of cycles IV is
furn ace w alls and a boiling- typo econo- red from s tar t ing fuel (gas or fuel
tnvorsely p roportion al to the square
(23.5) of 6CJ. The all owab le stresses in mizer (s uch as the TGM-9tt boiler), oil) to solid fuel, i[ the load is '1 5-30 %
t he pressure oF Ii ve steam is rtt isecl by of the nom in al value, and tho cons um-
eleme nts of a mo11obloc uni t depe nd
where a is the thermal d iffus ivi t y of on t he expec t~d number of s tMtup- au accole ra ted schedule. Upon connect- ption of tbe firing fuel is grad u a l!~·
the wall meta l, m2/h. · · sh':'tdown regnnes during its cam- ing the turbogenerator to the ne t- reduced. As tho boiler begins to s upply
If a wall is heated at a cons t ant p~tgn. These stresses, in turn , doter- work , its control valves arc set into the s pecified load , tho eleme nts of the
rate V, the temperature stresses in it a position in which the pressure of live s tarting circ uit which are used only
mtno the allowable heating ra tes of
<1t.t. m·e lin earl y re lated to the tern~ those clements. s team rises lo the nominal value, al- at s tart-up and s hut-down aro switched
p emture grAdien t : ready at a load tha t is 4.0-flO% of the off and the vol Lage s upply to the cor-
~ n v iew of the above , the Joad of a
rated value. In s uch a case, hcnt con- res ponding drive means is discon-
Ut.t = AaE D.t (23.G) untt s ho uld h_o inc t·eased strictl y in s ump tion for accu mulation in tho t inued.
accor~~ce wtth the specified rate
whe re a is th o coofri cient of linear of ra1s mg tbe parame ters of live an d fluid and tube metal takes place at Conventiona l boilers (not in mono
expa ns ion , E is the clastic modul us r~hea tod s~eam. As an example , a reduced te mperature level of the bloc units) are s tarted essentially in
of . the metal, a nd A is a proportion- Ftg. 23 .10 gtves th e s tarting cmve for fluid, so th a t the load of the boiler the same wa y , except for the s pecific
a lity factor. can be ra ised mo re quickly with the procedures t ypical of monoblocs .
a 300-M\\' monobloc unit aftei· a A special case is starting a once-
It. I hen foll ow!' that the hi rrhps t tem- s ta nds till for 60-90 h. As m av be l,e mperature of the tube metal in the
peru l urc grad ic•nts a nd high <'sl. tcm- seen , tho :ate of rais ing the tcii1pet·- radiant s uperheater rernai uing within through boiler from the state of hot
p e ~·a ture s tresses ca n a ppear in mAssi ve the tole ra ble li mits . Besides, an in- resen e. For s uporcritical-pt·essure boil-
atmes of ltve (t .. ) and re he11ted steam
thic k-walled el em en t~. suc h 11s the ~t r_h). s hould differ de pending on the c rease in the pt·essure a t low loads ers, this regime is allowed provided
hous ing 11nd rot or of 11 turbine th e mt t tal thermal s tate of the tur bine improves the thermal a nd h ydra ulic tha t tho pressure o[ the live s tea m h as
d_rum and he11dcrs of a boil er ,' a nd (Lu_PC• lu,cl. so as to ensure tho mos t. characteristics of the boiling econom- remained a bo,·c the critical val ue
fitt ings of the s toa m mains . I n s uch roltable regime of load a pplica l,ion to izer. A s imilar regime is ernplo yed in a[ter the poriod of stands ti II. In
cnscs , compressive s tresses appea r in the tut·bine. Sim il a r conditions s hould monobloc units with supercritical- subcritical-pressurc boilers , s ubcool-
the ~1eated surfMo of an cleme nt and n ~tura lly be ensured in monob loc units prcssure once-t.luough boilers, the only ing of the wate r at the in let to the
tcns d e s tresses in its unheated surface. wtth drum-type boil ers . Up to a load difference being that the rated pres- lower radiation section should not be
Upon heating an clement, temperature of 25-30 % of the nominal value, s team s ure of lh·e s team is attained at a loss than 15 deg C. Otherwise, as fol-
s l rcsses diminis h t.o zero and often temp_orature is controlled only by tho load roughly 60 % of the nominal value lows from experience, tho water walls
eveu change sign. Stresses of a n in- s tarling devices. After tha t, the main and is determined by the throughput of the lower radiation section may
verso sign can form in elements on the control devices are sw itched on a nd capacity oF the s tarting unit of the incur subs tanti al da mage during boil-
rerluction of tho s team tern perature the starting devices a re either 's wi t- boiler. As the load increases to this or s tarting [rom t he non-uniform dis-
or the shut-down of the unit. With ched off or used for the fine correction level and the s team pressure remains tri bution of fluid between the tubes
fre~u e ntly re peated s tartu p-shutdown of s team tempe rature . a t the nomin al value, tho internal (as regards i ts flow rate and enthalp y).
regunes. thermal s tresses vary cyclic- gate va!Ye is opened. [n 200-MW With these condi tions observed, the
~h e press ure of live steam is increas-
all y and can cause fatigue crncking ed 111 n 'sliding' mode . The way th is monobloc units with drum-type and boiler is s tarted by the method of
<>nee-through boilers, as the turbo- quick trausfer to tho regime of normal
generator is connected to tho ne twork, opet·ation. S ince tho parameters of the
500 fluid vary onl y s lightly during the
the control val ves of the turbine are
~ tHPc·28o·c opened fully and the rated pressure of period of s tands till in hot reserve,
.;, ~00 s tarting is performed b y controlling
~ live s team is attained onl y at the
uominal load. l n once-through boiler the Rtarting flow rate of the feed wa-
JOO ter, after which the fuel-oil burners
500 monobloc units, however, the through-
put capacity of the internal separator are put in operation for 2-3 min,
JOO with the flow rate of fuel oil controlled
and its fittings is not more than 60%
::,.. o f the no minal load. For this reason, according to the flow rate of the feed
~ 200 wa ter. Since tho flow rate of fuel
~- ,rpm 160·180 as the nomi nal load is attained , the
JOOO Fig. 23. 10. Main cbaracterislics pressur e of I i vo s leam before the tur- · lags somewhat behind that of feed
100 1.0 of cold starting-up of a 300-M W wa ter, the temperature of live steam
2000 n bine is raised to the nominal value
· 1000 mono bl oc unit firs t decreases (by 30-50 dog C), and is
' 0
-- f 2 3 4 5
71 - turhlnc rotor rrl!qucncy ; N-
lurbo ~crtcralot· lond; P 0- li w' Rtcam
a nd, at the same time, its temperature
is increased so as to obt ain n cons tant then restot·ed to the rated level. The
pressure
312
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 2.J. S t eam Gene rators of Nuclcrtr Power Stations
24_1 _ Clautjtcatlon of St eam Generators
pressure or Jive s lonm is ma in tain ed
con ~ tant by opening the startup-shut- control sys tem of this type, the boiler ill us trated in Fig. ~4. 2 . Assuming
down device . When these procedures operator· has the follow ing addi tioua t !), t
th r temperature gradient bet.ween the·
function s:
are properly carried out, the s tarting coolon t (pressurized water) and work-
or a boiler lakes only 15-20 minutes. (1) to perform prepnra tory operat- ing fluid to b~ ~t = 25 deg C so as
Some m onobloc units, especia lly ions for s tarting the uni t a nd select to e ns ure act• ve heat transfer, the·
those whic h suppl y a variable p ortion the reserve mech a nis ms which wilt be degree of superheating that c~n be
s witched on automa ticall y; I I
or tho load c urve, a rc s tar ted by an I obta ined a t p = 6.4 MPa will be
automatic process control s ys te m. In (2) to s upervise the func tioning of I only ~t' = 17 deg ~· For .this reason,
I
modern pl an ts, s uch s ys tems can per- the eouipment and perform ma nual lrw I I nuclear power statwns w 1th aqueous.
control should a f11iluro occu1· in the I 0
form :rutoma tic control of a given coolant usuall y op er ate on satura ted
process and ca rry out discre te oper- operation of a pm·ticular automatic
controller;
Oec I Qey
.•
Q,, s team of a pressure of .5-7 !\lPa. Wnen
ations by means of logic control units. supplied t o th o turbme •. wet steam
These units CllJl s witch on and off the (3) to correct the oper·ntiug cond i t- (w ~ 0.2%) can c~use eroswn of s~eam
p·1 24 1 1 Q-diagram of a steam generator
.v l{it a ga~e~us coolant (superheated steam or
m echanis ms of the auxiliary sys tem ions (when needed) by adjus ting the distributing dcvtces and lower t~e
of a boiler , c ha nge the pos ition (open set- point devices of automatic corrtrol- \ a particular pressure) turbine reliability. To prevent thlS·
lers ;
or close) of clos ing valves. switch on effect, it is essen ti ol to superheat th e
nnrl orr a utornal.ic controllers, switch (4) to check the s tato of l ho equip- a tme at tho reactor outlot. Liquid s team slightl y (usually by 20 ~eg ~)
O\'er the controllers from some actuat- ment upon complet ion of a purticli lar metals possess fa yourablo th ermopl ~ y- so as to avoid moisture formatwn tn
ors to othe r·s , alt.cr the s truc tural stage o[ th e startiug regime a nd issue sical propcrt.ies and can he .rasd y s team-d is tributi ng devices.
commands for a noxt s tage.
sclrcmef; of the con trollers, etc. Before heated to high tempcratu res .w r th~ut As steam mo ves through the tur-
performing a particular operation, a Thus, the a utom a tic contro l s ys tem tak ing sp ecial measures t.o rn t.e ns tfy bine, its mois ture conte nt increas.es,
log-ic con troJ unit checks that the of a rnon obloc unit is a comp lex of the hea t tra nsfer . On the con trAry, ga ~es so t'lt at some s tages oE . tho turbme
operatio n i~ nll owed. Jrr monobloc technical means of con tr·ol and I. be have poor thermophys ical proportrcs opera te i 11 the region of wet steam ,
unit ~ pi'Ovidorl w ith an automatic operating personn el which co-opcmtes and at a tmospheric pressure cannot be which decreases the effi cieucy ? f the
with th ese means .
used as coolants which co~ l ? onsuro power station and causes e ros ron of
suitable heat-transfer coeffrcte nts. It the e le ments in the low-pressure cy-
is poss ible to intens ify heat transfer linde t· of the turbine. In order to-
from gases by increasing the ·~ a.ss flow re move moisture, s team be tween the
rate of a gas flow, i.e. l~y r~rs m g the tUJ•bine cylinders is dried and _s uper-
as pressure in a circutt. 'Iherefore, heated. Both processes a re ca~rted out
;team of high or s upercritical pa_ra- in a separating superheater (F'tg. ~4.3).
m eters can onl y be produced by u ~ mg _ S tea m from the h igh-pressure cyltnd~r
a gas or liquid metal , which ~re htgh- of the turbine is introduced tangenti-
temperature coolants . For tns tnncc, ally at the top of the ap paratus, passes
STEAM GENERATORS OF NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS if the coolant at the reactor ou tlc t thro ugh the separator, s~veeps ~he
(or wh at is the same, at the inle t to s uperheating surfaces and ts rerno' ed
the steam aenerator) has a temperature ut a t empera ture of 241oc through the-
24.1. Classification and Cha racteristics {}' = 600-S50°C, it can ens ure s te nm top to th e low- press ure c ylinder of th (}-
of S team Generators for Nuclear ions , the function of s team generator is s~perheating to the standard para~o turbirte .
Power Stations performed by the nucleur renc tor pro- ters (p = 13-24 MPa and t •• :- 5<'. 5 C).
per. .
Figure 24.1 shows the t , Q-dtag~nm .or t
According Lo the th ermal diagram Water, gases and liquid meta ls ca u such a steam generator. J n th tS d ra- .d I+ - .
'/JOO
of a nuclear power s tation, steam is be used as reactot· coolants , and th ere- gram, the temperatures _of th e cool~nt I
Llt''l I-'
.-(
LJt' t(
generated either d irectt y in a boiling- fore, as the heat-transfer agents in and working fluid are latd .orr as ordtn- )/ I
t ype nuclear· r·eactor or in heat-ex- the steam generator. An aq ueous cool- ates and the quantities ol· heat l.r·ans- 200
__L
change s team ge ne ru tors in which ant in the primary circu it. , as a s ub-
s tance having a low boiling point,
ferred to the heating surJaces of s team I i I
heat. is trnnsfeued from a coolant
cannot be heated to n subs tantia lly
generator, as abscissae.
Water is a low-temperature coolant.
. If i I 1
supplied from tho r·eacto r to the wotk- 100
I I
ing .fluid (water, from which steam is high temperature. This requires mn irr- If it is needed to generate ~ te am . a~ _l
I
produced). Thus, the s team generator tailling a high pressme in tho primary a pressure as high as poss.t ble (fot .0 2.5 50 10.0 t2.ar. p,MPa
is an essontia.l element of two- and circuit, wh ich makes the whol e pa t.lr ins tance , p = 6.!1 i\IPa and tc'?pot·-
too compl icated and e xpen!'ive. '· 24.2. Selection of the working flu~d
ature of aqueous coolant at th o rul e ~, Fia~ameters
three-circ uiL nucl eur powe r s tations.
Liquid me tals and gase~ have no fo r steam generators or nuclear-
In s ingle-circuit nuclear power stat-
I imitations as regards their tom per-
t~ = 320°C) , the degree of , ~ upo! ~ower stations with water-cooled water-mo-
heating will b e only 20 neg C. lhr s IS derated reactors
314
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 24. Steam Generators of N uclear Power Stations
24.2. Steam Generators wtth AqueOU$ Coolant 315
steam generators arc roug hly equival-
ent. Both t~• pes arc assorn hled and
tested at the manufac turing works
• r- 2 and can be I ransportcd b y railroads.
-4 - The dimens ions of horizontal s team
r- g enerators for a capacity of more than
8 ... 1\t I\ I 250-300 l\1\o\1 aro e xcessive ly large.
.
~
~ IP ~,-__..3
Tho verti cal design rnal; es it possible
to subs tanti a lly inc ronsc tho uuit.
capacity; in this a p paratus, tho t.o tal
- / ,_ 4
cross section in tho bottom portion is
0
r- occupied by the heating c lements and
7- 5 the separator is arranged in tho lop
portion. For more con von ien l trans - J -Ht- 13
portation, the h eat-exc hango1· and se-
·---\$-
I '
,_
r- -
(j parator sections arc madP separate l y
a nu the apparat us is liSSO m bled Oil the
construction s ite.
{8
(a) (b) (C )
passes through tho core anti the smal- reactors in which steam is not only (its height is roughly 7 m), tho [uel
ler £low is pumped by tho circulation generated, but also su perheated to the channels arc made from 88 mm X
pumps through two p nrn llol loops required temperature. A number of X 4 mm zirconium tubes. Beyond tho
outside of the reactor she ll. This fuel channels is isolated for steam core, they arc made of stainless steel.
portion of water is fod to tho in take superhea ting. They are fed with satu- Each cha nuel has a cassette with two
o[ the jet pumps and thus servo!; as rated s team whi ch h as boon separated fuel assemblies (with 18 fue l ole men ts
the working flu id [or tho pumps. from steam-water mixture in the reac- in each as::;embly). A fue l element
T hese externa l elements somewhat tor drum. consists of n zirconium t ube (13.5 rnm X
diminish the radiation safety of the 6 When a channel-typo reactor opera- X 0.9 rnrn) filled with uranium diox i-
reactor. 5 tes as a steam generator, its steam- de tablets. Some of the channels carry
The cylindrical shell houses the generating capacity is det~rmined by the absorpti on rods of the control and
reactor core with fue l assemblies sup- 4 the number of channels an·d the steam- protection system.
ported by a plate. At tho top, the generating capacity of each channel. The heat released in the reactor is
reactor core has a spherical cover With a given steam-generating capa- removed by two loops of the multiple
3
which forms the cham bcr for a steam- city of a channel, tho total capacity forced circulation circuit. The circu-
water mix lure. Ver tical tu bcs nrc can be increased by providing more lation of the coolant in each loop is
connected to the spherical cover (one channels in the core, but this compli- effected by means of four main circu-
tube for each cell of tho core). S team- cates the design and operation of the lation pumps (with throe pumps being
water mixture passes th rough these Fig. 24.13. Diagram o f multipl e force d c ir- plant. in operation and one in reserve).
t ubes into turbulent separn tors. Mois- culat.ion in ch nnnel- l.ypc boiling rea ctor Ch annel-type reactors can be built of Wa tor a £tor a pump (at a pressure
ture separated in tho turbulent. sepa- typo It BMJ<-1000 a substantial unit capacity (1000 MW, around 8 MPa and temperature 265°C)
rators is drained into tho space bot- J- rcoctor; 2- diRLdhu l.lnr.: group lu::111cr i J- is fed iuto a supply header and th en
supp ly hcud•·r: tl ruturu Vtl lve: .5 - mam <' IN' u.la- 2000 MW and more) and can operate
ween them a nd flows into tho wnter tion p1nnp; a- di schnrJ:!C hcnder: 7-scpnnlltntr flt high p arameters of the coolant, and into distributing headers and is dis-
drum~ 8 :uuJ U cquulb.lng- tubes: 10-SINHil to
s pace. T he separated wa to•· is mixed t urhhw; 1 t- downtakc tube$ therefore, have a h igh efficiency. tribu ted by means of control valves
with fee d water and sup pi ied to the The existing channel-type reactors between the fuel channels. Water iu
intake of the jet pumps which over- opora to with forced m u I tip le circula- the fuel channels movesfrom then bot-
come the resistance in the multiple of shell-type reactors in power units tion, but their design is suitable for Lorn u pwards and is first heated in
forced circul ation circu it. Separated is limited to 1 000 MW. The reactor once- through steam generation. the economizer section and then p ar-
steam is directed from tho separators shell, especially when it has lnrge The advantages offered by channel- tially evaporated . The s team-water
in to the steam space where it is dimensions, operates under heavy con- type reactors (the principal advantage mixture thus form ed (x = 14.5%) is
rlricd in steam driers to a moisture ditions, since it is subjected to the being that the pressure in the shell directed through individual pipelines
content roughly0.1 %. Since the steam- action of high pressure o[ the coolnu t. is not h igh) have led to the develop- into separating drums. The two sep a-
separating means arc arranged inside and o[ neutron flux in the core. ment of nuclear power stations with rating drums in each circulation loop
the reactor shell, tho circuit has no I n shell-type reactors, it is diffi- ba tch prod ucerl boiling reactors of are connected by a cross-over tube
external elements, which· improves cult to collect information for pred ic- high capacity. The ch annel-type ura- in order to equalize the water levels
tho radiation situation at the reactor. ting the appearance of defects iu the nium-graphite react or type RBMK- in them. The steam-wa ter mixture is
Shell-type boiling reactors have been reactor housing, especially in high- -1000 has been designed for produ- separated in the dn1ms into steam
thoroughly developed and are used capacity plants where a large volu me cing saturated steam. The unit oper- and water. Saturated steam (with
most widely. They are highly comp act, of welding is done at the constr uction ates by the single-circuit scheme, the moisture con tont 0.1 %) is directed
have a simple circuit, low worki ng site, r ather than at the manufacturing i .c. the steam generated in t he reactor into turbines and water is mixed with
pressure (roughly half tho pressure of work. Shell-type reactors can operate is directed immediately into the tur- tho turbine condensate, is purified,
coo lant in the primary circuit of with natu ral or forced circulation nod bine and the turbine condensate is preheated and dcaerated, and returned
water-cooled water-moderated power produce steam of subcritical parame- re turned into the reactor circuit. by circula tion pumps to the inlols
reactors}, relatively low consumption ters. T he reactor is mounted in a concreto of the fu el channels.
of structural materinls for the reactor A channel-type boiling reactor well with a cylindri cal stacking of As a nex t s tep, the chan nel-typo
core, and a low cost. Limited dimen- (Fig. 24.13) h as a core which is a gra- vertical graphite columns; these h ave reactors for a capacity of 1 500-
s ions of the shell-type . reactors are phite block with vertical fuel chau- central borings(fuel channels)inwhich 2 000 MW with s team superhontiug
defined by the conditions of their nels provided in a defin ite order. fuel elements arc placed and coolant in tho renctor channels at a pressure
transportation to cons tr uct_ion sites. Water in the ch anne ls moves a round is circulated. Within tho reactor core of u.S MT\1 aro now being developed.
The manufacture of large-diameter fue l assemblies, is heated to boiling
shells may involve difficulties clue to and partially evap or ated .
a n appreciable increase of the wall The adequate perfor mance of boiling
thickness, especially in high-pressure reactors at a high heat release rate
p\nnts. For this reason, the capacity had mad e it possible to develop
21 *
Download From Boilersinfo.com 25.1. Metal Behaviour at fl lph Temperature s 325
321, Ch. 25. llfelals for Steam Boilers
fore, the elements operating under the better maintenance of the equipment, slight defects of tho metal hecome tubes, so[t and plastic ferrite is the
conditions of creep can he calculated and more perfect methods of metal dangerous. main component, while the ·concent-
by the long-term strength rather than control in the operating equipment. As a result, modern steam lJOilers ration of tho hardening component
by the creep strength. Giving the According to the new norms of strength of high capacities require a better pearlite, is not high. Sheet. steel hn~
time of safe operation and a particular calculations, clements of steam bo i- technology o[ manufacture nnd care- an olevat.od content of carbon, in the
safe margin, we can calculate the lers can be. .ca lculated for a service ful meta l test.iug wh ich cnu provide average from 0.15% (grade 15C) to
stress at which these conditions will lifo of 200 000 hours. ample information on the structure, 0.25% (grade 22C) and has a higher
be satisfied. Tho operation of a metal at eleva- composi t.ion, mechanical properti es strength and satisfactory weldability.
'
The physical uaturo of the cr eep ted temperatures can .also . be charac- (includ ing creep strength) and tho Steel grade 22C is characterized by
stress is different from that of the terized by dUlusion processes which stresses that may appear in the metal an eleva ted strength, which is due to
long-term strength. The creep strength can substantiall y change the structure
(stress) characterizes the resistance of and properties · of the metal. Under
1 in operation. .
For operation of sfeels at high
a higher content of manganese and
minor addition of titanium.
a metal to a low plas tic. deformation such conditions, the metal can lose I temperatures and pressures, it is pos- J,ow-a.lloy pearlitic-class steels. A
at an elevated temperature, while the strength owing to embrittlement and sible to formulate the following ·prin- steel is low-alloyed if it contains up
long-term strength characterizes its graphitization. I ri some cases, these cipal requirements which can ensure t,o 4.-5% of all a ll.oying elemon ts.
resistance under the conditions of effects can lead to emergency si tua- a long and reliable operation of Such steels are used for making boiler
creep. Nonetheless, either characte- tions. boiler plants: the metal should pos- clements for operation under creep
ristic can be used in creep calculations; The operation of steels under the sess high values oi creep strength and conditions: superheater tubes and hea-
moreover, there is a definite relation effect of flue gases and superheated long-term strength, high scaling re- ders, and steam pipelines. They are
between these characteristics of a par- steam at elevated or high tempera Lu- sist.llnco, stable structure which can also employed for making boiler drums
ticular material. . res ' can also · be characterized by the ensure that its properties will not. for pressmes up to 18-18.5 MPa.
Until recen tly, boiler elements ope- activization of electrochemical cor- chango dangerously in long-term ope- Low.:alloy steels resist~n t to creep
rati.ng under creep conditions were rosion and, as a consequence, by the ration, good weldability, and absence at temperatures up to 580°C, i[ a v ery
calculated by using in the form u lao oxidation and scaling of surfaces in 1 of met.allurgic<li and mechanical de- high scale resistance is not required,
the allowable stress as found from contact with the active media. Flue feels · on the surface, which might are called heat-resisting, or high-tern-
the long-term strength at a given gases have an especially strong effect serve as stress concentrators and wea- perature gteels. Those which aro creep-
temperature of the wall for a speci- on tho external surfaces ol' superhea- ken the cross section of boiler ele- resisting at temperatures above 580°C
fied period of operation (usually ter tubes and superhoa ted steam, on rnen ts. and have a high scale resistance at
100 000 h). The long-term stren,..,th their internal surfaces, superheated these temperatures are called refrac-
.IS denote d a I (where t is the wall b
11 steam headers, and steam main pipe- 25.2. Metals for Steam Boilers. tory steels. ·
temperature). With the operation fac- lines. In some cases sca le formation The prlncipal alloying elements in
tor K 01, = 0.85, the operating time may be so strong that tho thickness The main materials for boilers are steels are Mo, Cr, Si, and AI. Molyb:
1: = 100 000 h is roughly equivalent of tube walls decreases to a dangerous carbon steels and alloy steels; the denum is dissolved in ferrite and
to 15 years. For expensive equipment, value and may involve premature latter can contain chromium, nickel, increases the long-term strength and
such as steam boilers and turbines creep and even tube rupture. Scaling molybdenum, tungs ten, vanadil1m,
in which the r eplacement of certain is aggravated by intensive heating
elements (steam . pipelines, superhea- loads or high stresses due to the
I
•
etc . .Most of these alloying elements
are expensive,· but their addition in
creep strength. Chromium, silicon,
and al uminium increase scale resis-
tance, since they form with oxygen
ters, headers, the high-pressure por- pressure in tubes. Thinning of tubes minor quantities imparts valuable dense refractory oxides Cr 2 0 3 , Si0 2
tion of the turbine, etc.) is lal1our- due to scali ng should be properly properties to steel, which are unat- and Al20 3 whose coefficients or expan-
consuming and costly, this time of consi dered in s trength ca lculations. tainable in carbon steels. sion are · very close to that of steel.
op.e ration (campaign) is - now consi- As t.ho unit capacity of power plants Carbon (unalloyed) steels are used These compounds protect a steel
dered to be too short in vi.ew of the increases, tho requirements for their for making steam boiler ·elements against oxidation .
high safety margins on which their reliability become more rigorous and which operate under no-creep condi- Boi ler making uses widely the low-
strength has been calculated. 'It is can be satisfied with greater diffi- tions, i.e. at temperatures not higher alloyed Cr-Mo steel of pearlitic class
now recommended to increase tho culties in view of the large consump- than 450°C. As required by the techno- (grade 15KhM with 1% Cr and 0.5%
depreciation time roughly twice, i.e. tion of metal in the hea ting surfaces logy of welding which is the principal Mo) and Mo-Cr steel grade 12MKh
up to 200 000 hours. This can reduce and enormous number of welded joints. process in boiler making, many cri- (0.5% Cr anrl 0.5% Mo). These steels,
somewhat the long-term s trength at An increase in unit capacity is often tical elements of boilers are made of especially 15KhM, are characterized
the end of the service Hfe of tho metal associated with an increase of steam low-carbon steels (grades 10 and 20). by good weldability, elevated creep
compared will1 that at the end of pnramcters, which requ ires the appli- Steel 20 is predominantly used since strength, and low liability to graphi-
a period of 100 000 hours, bn t tho cation of steel grades having a higher it has a higher strength than grade tization.
reduction will not be high in view strength and therefore, lower ducti- 10 and is not inferior to this in wel- The trend for increasing the t om -
of the improved technology of manit- lity. They arc more sensitive to dability and corrosion resistance. In pe,·at.nre of superheated steam with
facture and heat treatment of steels, stress co neon tra tions, so that o von the microstructure of steels for boiler the nse or inexpensive low-alloyed
32B
Download From Boilersinfo.com
Cit. 25. Metals f or S t ea m Eol/ers
25.2. Metals for Steam Bollert 329
steels of pearlitic clnss h as le d to the m ium regions lose corros ion resis ta n-
appearance of Cr-Mo s tee l :ulcl i tio- ce whi ch may learl to intercrys tall inc Table 25.t. Principal Characteristics of Boiler St eels
na lly alloye d with 0. 2-0.::!% van a- corros ion.
The capa bility of s teels for forming Mechanical pro perties al ro om
di um. V a na di um is a s trong carb ide- tem perature
a purel y aus teni tic s truc t ur e can be
former an d th us is favoura ble for -
.._-.. .. - '"'""
., -
- _.,.,
Grade Alloying c
increased by increas ing t ho N i/Cr - o
incrensing the c reep s t roug th. cl ement s. % - .<:;
-o-.,
.c C ·-
... u~e
App lica tio ns
In modern boiler mnking , wid e use rn t.i o. Among s teels of t his t ypo , it. E ::l~"< U a) "'c ....
- "P..-••"
'Z co. ::S ~c - C..c! y
>t ~A § ~..;
is made of Cr-Mo s tee l 12Kh 1M I"
(1 % Cr, 0 .3% Mo, 0.2% V) a nd s tee l
is worth mentioning stee l gra1le
1 2Kh18 N12T, a nd als o g racle
;;:,.,;
- "'
"o
.. 0
15 Kh1MF (1 % Cr , 1 % Mo, 0.2% V) Kh14 N14V2M (which con tains tungs- Low-earboo (una lloyed) pearlltic-class st eels
wh ich h as a s l ig htl y higher carbo n te n and molybdenum) aod steel t y pe 15K - 352 215 25 685 Drums and vessels for pres
content and subs tantiall y hig he r con- 16-13-3 (16 % Cr , 13% N i, a nd 3% 20K - ·' 402 245 23 590 sures u p to 6 MPa and tom-
te nt of molybde num a nd possesses Mo). Mol ybdenu m and t ungs ten a re pora tures up to 45o•c
a higher creep s t reng t h . The m inor adde d to aus te ni tic s teels in order to
add ition of vanadium decreases t h e
r ate of creep . These s teels can operate
furt her inc rease tbe heat resistance,
since they form high-disperse s t rong
compounds Fe 2 Mo and Fc 2W in t he
22K
10
-
-
I 500
335
I I I-
245
205
22
31
835 Drums for pressures of
12.5 MPa
at te mper at ures up to 565-570°C. - Vessels and pipelines for
Pearlitic s teel grnd c 12K h2MFSR s teel s tructure. 20 402 205 24 1,9() tempera t ure or fluid up to
h as a ver y h igh sca le res is ta nce a nd High-alloyed s teels of martc ns itic 4so•c ; tubes of heating
surfaces of steel 20 ror
h ig h refrac toriucss; i ts high sca le re- and martens itc-fcrritic class. A dra w t emperatures up to 480-
s is tance is obta ined by add ing 2% Ct· back of nus tc nitic s teels is t heir I ia · soo•c
a nd 0.4-0.7 % S i. Tho high refrac to- b ility to cracking under the combi ned Low-a lloyed pearlitic-closs steels
riness is obtn incd by a ve r y s ma ll ac Lio n o[ s tresses a nd corros i ve mod i a 1GGNMA 1\In = 0.8-1. t 500 335 16 685 Boiler drums for pressures
add it ion of horo u (0 .003-0.005% ). (corros io n crac king) and format io n o[ Ni = 1-1 .3 14-18.5 MPa
This s teel is, howeYer, ver y sensitive annul nr c racks in welds o wing to l\'1o = 0.4-0.55
to heat treatme nt cond itio ns. It is a s hnrp d ro p of duc tili t y in some
used for making s uperhea ter tubes . portio ns o[ the we ld meta l on h eating . t 5GS Mn = 0.9-1.3 470-590 343 16 490 Feed-water pipelines for
High -alloyed a us teni tic-class s tee ls. Aus teni t ic s tee ls are expe ns ive due to Si = 0.7-1.0 pressures up to 38 MPa
The trend to ra ise the temperat ure of a high content of nickel. Att empts to and t w ~ 450°C
s uperheating up to 600-650oC has led lower t ho cos t of heat-res isting s teels
t o t he applicati on of s teel possessing an d e l iminate the drawbacks t y pical 12MKh Cr = 0.4...().6 412 205 22 685 Headers and pipelines for
even high er h cn t and scale resis tance. of austenitic steels h ave resulted in Mo = OA-0.6 steam temperature up to
15KhM
The struct ur e of these s tools is mai nl y the devolopmeot of no-n ickel s teels o n Cr =
Mo =
0.8-1.1
0.4-0.6
'·30 215 21 590 475-54o•c ; from grad e
formed by higl t-nlloycd Cr-N i or Cr- the bas is of 11-13% Cr with the 12MKh , up to 51o•c , from
additions o[ mol y bde num , t ungste n 15K hM, up to 540•c; su-
N i-l'v1 u aus ten ito. A u ~ te n i tic steels porhea ter tubes at tw up
h ave a high scale resis tance due t o a nd vanadium for h ig her heat res is- '. to 540-560•c
•
a h igh concentratio n of chromi um . t ance . With s uch n com bina tion of tho
In contras t to low-a llo yed grades, a lloy ing e le me nts , the s tr uc ture of tho i 2Kh1M F Cr = 0.9-1.2 440 225 21 590 Boiler tubes and stoam
h igh-nlloyed a us l en i tic s teels m a y co n- s teel is low-carbon m artensite or m a r- Mo = 0.25-0.35 pipel ines at. t iD up to 580°C
lain up t,o 30 % of n ickel an d chro- tens i te-fe rrite, whic h determ ines t he v = 0.15-0.3
mi um or even more; t he ir cos t is, na rno of this c lass of steels.
however , severn! times that of the Low-alloyed s teels fo r opera tion t 5Kh 1Mi F Cr = 1.1-1.4 577 343 16 490 Superheaters and steam
former. Titan ium and u iobium (sta- under no-creep conditions. I n boi ler Mo = 0.9-1.2 pipelines at l w np to 580°C
bi l izing eleme nts ) l\l'e nclded to auste- m aking, wide usc is m ade of low- v = 0.2-0.3
nitic s teels in o rder to prevent intcr- a lloyed s tee ls f or operation at re la-
tivcl y low te mpera t ures when t he 12Kh2MFSR Cr = i.6-1.9 470 235 21 590 Superheaters at t w up to
cr ys t.all inc corros ion. T hese elemen ts Mo = O.S-0.7
phe nomeno n of creep does no t appear . 5SO· c
are stroug carhide-form ors and can v = 0.2-0.35
combine a ll the carh on into car bides , Tho f{Lcol has n hig her s t reng th th nn Si = 0.4-Q.7
thus preventing t he fo r mnLion of chro- carbon gr·ades a nd is employed in B = 0.005
mi um ca r bides at t.he bounda ries of orde r to decrease the wn ll t hiclmoss .
of hoi lor cl omen ts and tlws red uco f2Kh2MFB 392 - 30 - Superheaters at tw up to
a us ten tic g ra ins . l f, howe ve t·, chro- Cr =2.1-2.6
mi um ca r bides h ave fo rmed in the m e t nl consumption. For instnnco, bo i- Mo = 0.5-0.7 5oo•c
s t ruct ure , austen ito aro und them is le r dnun s for high s tenm par amot.ors v = 0.2...().35
Nb =0.5-0.8
deplete d in chr·onli um; t hese low-chro- are mndc of 1\[n-N i-Mo s teel g ra de
22-0I SH
Download From Boilersinfo.com
330~------------------~C~h~
· =
25~.~M
~et=a~
ls~fo~r~S~t~ea~n~l~B~o~i~le~r~s_____________________ 25.9. Stre'llglh Calwtations · 331
Cont i11ued tions of the metal mo re completely latio n . of the p lan t or determined by
and carefully. The rated pressure is tests. For each particular case, the
llfecbanlca I properties at room the pressure at the p lant outlet plus formula can ·be simplified and the
temperature
the hydraulic pressure loss at the design tem perature is determined as
. c .,
Grade
Alloying
elements. ')(, --
<> .:
=..... -c:::c:: ..=--.
~ o
o.,- AppltcaUons nom inal load of the path from tho recommended in (22].
.. o.=-
~ ec.=
=c- d ischarge header of the superheater Allowable stress. The allowable no-
.. u c:
,.. !!L-- - t,t.....
:: .
- c;:S
;:>Oi
.£c:;:
)1
-.. "'- -
::,,;eo" "'o
-c:.=Z...,
-" 0
to the point where the element being minal stress is the stress used in cal-
<- calculated is located, 'f.!J.p; filling the culations of the least thickness of
n igh-alloyed austenitic-class st eels elements by waler or steam-water walls and the highest allowable pres-
Kh14NtltV2M Cr = ·13-'1 5 540 2:1.5 35 - Superheaters nnd pipelines mixture is taken into account by the sure for ·a particular metal and expec-
Ni= 13-i5 a l lw up to G50"C hydrostatic pressure ,Of a column of ted conditions of operat ion.
w = 2-2.75 fluid above the element, 6p 1,. Thus, The allowable nominal stress is
1\lo =0.45-0.6 the design pressure is: selected for one of the strength cha-
12Kh t8K t2T Cr = 17-19 540 215 35 - -
Ni = 11-13
Ti = 0.65
P = Pss + 'f.!J.p + !J.p,, (25.3) racteristics of t he metal: t he ultimat e
tensile strength at 20°C, ai0 ; tho
Th e h yd r aulic resistances and th e yield l im it at 20°C an d at th e design
Cr = 15.5· 17 590 245 70 2 940 Stea rn pi pol i nos a t stea m pressure of t he column are considered tem per ature t ' <J 0·2
20
and a 0.2,,
t • tho
Kht 6N9 ~1 2
Ni = 8.5-10 temporn t u ro up to 650°C if their sum exceeds the pressure long-term strength at the design tem -
1\lo = 1.5·2 beh ind t he superheater by at least 3%. perature (10 5 hours to rupture), al110&;
An add ition al term appears due to the and the creep strength (to cause i %
09K h (1,::\ I!JV2BR Cr = 23-15 lr90 215 38 :1. 380 Steam pipel ines a t s team force of gravi ty acting on the elemen t defo rmation in 105 hours) at the
i'\ i = 18-20 torn porn tur·o up to 700"C;
w = 2-2.3 su perheater tulle~ at tw' u p being calculated and othe1· elemen ts design tem perature a~,·I%· T he allow-
Nb = 0.9-1.3 to 700"C connected t o it. T he ad ditional load able nominal stress is ta ken as the
B = 0.005 is restricted by extreme values at lowest of these characteristics d ivided
- which the safety margin dimin ishes by the safety factor adopted.
S team pipelines and s u-
w ithin tolerabl e li m its compared with l'vlost clements of steam boilers and
Kh16N 16V2l\IBR Cr = 15-17 510 215 38 1 380
pcrhcnters a t lru up to 700"C t he strength determined in terms of steam generators operating at a parti-
Ni = 15-17
\V =2-3 pressure. cular pressure of the working fluid are
lito =0.4-().9 The design temperature depends on of cyl indrical shape (drums, header&
N b =O.G-:1..0 the condit ion s of heating and cooling and tubes of the heating surfaces of
0 =0.005 of an element. For unheated elements, steam boilers , shells, chambers and
Kh16N14V2BR Cr = 15-17 520 235 38 1 380
Ni = 13-15 t he design temperature is taken to tu bes of the heat exchangers of st eam
w = 2-2.75 be equal t o the tem perature of the generators at nuclear power stat ions).
Nb = 0.9-1.3 working flui d ; for boiler drums, it is Cylindrical elements subjected t o an·
B = 0.005 taken as the temperature of satura- internal pressure can be calculated by
tion at the pressure in the drum; for the gener al formulae: .
headers and connecting pipelines as
16GNJ\1 A (1 % Mn , 1.2% N i , and up to 250-350°C. Scale-resisting cast the tempera ture of the working fluid S= (25.4)
0.5% Mo). F eed water pipelines for ir on (OCh) is all oyed with some cle- in them .
or
s upercritica l pressures are made of ments (such as sili con) wh ich endow For h eated elements, tho design
Mn-S i stee l grade 15GS (1.1 % Mn, it w ith scale-resisting properties. It is temperature is found fro m formula S= PDex
2<J>Oal+ P
+C (25 .5)
0.8% S i). .. em ployed in s pacing t eeth of super- (10 .10) which accoun ts for the na t ure
The principal char acteristics of steels heaters, tube s uspensions and other of thermal act ion on a heating s urface. where S is the cylindrical wall thick-
employed most w idel y for mak ing faste ning elemen ts operati ng in h igh- It is essential t o an alyse various n ess, m , p is the design pressure,
tubes, drlJrns, headers an d pipelines t emper atu re zones. portions of a tube bank, ·in particular MPa , DIn a nd D e x are respectivel y
of boilers are give n in T able 25.1. those which have the high est tempera- the in ternal an'd external diameter of
Cast iron (grey and 'scale-resisting) ture of steam and those with the h ighest an, element , m, <p is the coefficl.ent
25.3. Strength Calculations h eating intensity. It should ·also be
is also employed w idely in boiler of strength of · t he element which
m aki ng. Grey cast iron (SCh} h as T he calctll ation of s treng th is based considered that some tubes or a group might be weakened b y a longitudinal
high cast ing· properties and is used on estimating the strength of th e of tubes may oper ate w ith maldistri- weld seam or by holes for the expan-
for making various furnace d evices: metal in lerms of the ultimate load bution of heat !J.tmd• i.e. the fluid sion of tube en ds, and C is a n add ition
man- and vicw-lwles, explosion val- (stress) at tho rated pressure of the temperature in them may exceed the to the wall thickness which is in tro-
ves, fittings and fastenings of boiler work ing fluid, wl1ich makes it pos- averag~ design temperature. This dif- duced t o .account for probable vari a-
setting. It can operate at temperatures . sible to consider the operating condi- ference can be found from the calcu- tions of wall thickness in manufactu-
332
Download From Boilersinfo.com 25.4. ltfetal Control In Operallon
Ch. 25. Metals for Steam Boller1 333
red tubes, thinning of tho material pulsations on the internal surface of Bosses are welded on the surface of
in bends, and thinning from the for- the drum , say, on variations of water 25.4. Metal Contra' in Operation the control sections and , in addition
mation of scale during the element temper ature behind t he economizer. in straight portions of a pipeline more'
service lile. For the reliable operation of a drum As given earlier, the properties of than 1. 5 m long, in four points at two
Calculation of a drum. The drum is in various regimes, the strength con- steels are impnired at high tempera- mutually perpendicular diameters . All
one of the most intensively stressed dition should be satisfied for au y tures. For th at t·enson , it is essential measurements are made upon cooling
elements in boilers. The following moment of operation, i.e. the resoltled to periodical! y con lrol the state of the of tho molal at least to 50°C so as
kinds of stress can appear in a drum: stres~ (which is found by considering metal operal.ing uudcr the conditions to exclude the effect of tom per a tu ro.
from the internal pressure at the all the factors mentioned) should not of creep (at temperatures above 450°C) . Ct·eep in headers is controlled in
working parameters of tho fluid; ther- exceed the allowable stress of th e Periodic con trol of the metal is requi- a sim ilar way. Creep in superheater
mal stresses, which include stresses metal a t a given . temperature. Thus , red for pipe! ines, hoa!iCrs, tube coils co ils is controlled periodically by
due to the tempera ture diiference the strength calculation of a drum of superheaters, fl anges, and other means of measuring brackets; this
across the drum wall and those due to should consider all the stresses men- boiler elements . All points where makes it possible to prevent emergency
the temperature diiferenc·e b etween tioned and the non-cylindricity of the measuremen is arc carried out should situations.
the top and bottom portions of the drum and its solution is quite compli- have reliable thermal ins•1lation of the T he method of control sections is
drum. Thermal stresses across the cated. In the existing norms for tho same conductivity as in other portions disadvantageous in that cutting of
wall may appear during heating or strength calculations of boilet· cle- of a pipeline or a header. specimens is labour-consuming nnd
cooling of the drum. Those between ments, only the stresses from the In order to contr ol creep and the the cut-off portions of tubes must be
tho top and bottom portions of the internal pressure in a drum are con- structure and mechanical properties fill ed with metal by welding. The
drum also appear during start-up or sidered. In order to limit thermal of the metal in slonm mains, they are principal drawback, however, is l.h at
shut-down of the boiler; dLu·iug start- stresses, it is not advisable to allow provided with control sections 4.5 m the variations in the metal pr·operl.ios
up, for instance, the upper half of the t emperature differences between long in easil y accessible places near in a control section cannot be fully
the drum, which is in contact with the ad jacent elements of a boiler to tho boiler (see Fig. 25.3). lf a pipe- representative of the variations in all
the condensing steam, is healed up bo more than 50-55 deg C. line is made of pearlitic or ferrite- other tubes, so that control of all
more quickly than the lower h alf wher e Hea"ders are calculat<Jd essentially in austenitic steel, bosses are fastened to tubas is required.
the circulation of water is still too tho same way as boiler drums. In the surface of the control section so .'l !ethods have been developed for
weak. A t shut-down, on tho contrary, that case, one should consider t he loss as to control creep by variations of the control of all tubes by non-destruc-
,the upper half is cooled more slowly oE strength due to holes for the con- their diameter. With tubes made of tive testing, i.e. without cutting of
than the lower, since tho heat transfer nection of tubes. Headers have no austen itic st ools, bosses are not used, specimens. Microstructural analysis of
in the steam space is one or two orders longitudinal weld seams. A header and the r esidual deformation is mea- th o metal in operating tubes is carried
of magnitude smaller than in the has two transverse weld seams for sured directly on tho tube section by out in place by means of a portable
.water space. .the connection of end covers, but means of micrometers. Once in three microscope with a photographic came-
In addition to tho stresses indica- theil· effect on the strength is not years, a specimen is cut off from ra, wl1icb is fastened to tho tube to be
t ed, a drum is subjected to tho action considered. a control section for making mecha- t ested. Tho surface of tho tube should
of the mass of its metal and water and . Calculation of tubes in the heating nical and motallogruphic tests and be prepared, i.o. ground and polished
to the stresses caused by deformation surfaces and pipelines is carried out chemical and cnrbido analysis of the b y moans of a drill with a set of
of the attached water- and steam- by the formulae given earlier, with main meta l and weld seams (Fig. 25.4). grind ing and polishing discs.
circulating tubes and steam pipelines. q> = 1, since seamless tubes have no
These stresses are usually Low and can weakened points. Tubes of h eat ox- 4500
be neglected. changers subjected to pressure from A ..I 1000 1000 .1
'
In the r egimes of accelerated star- both sides are .c alculated for the
ting-up or emergency shut-down (for higher pressure , rather than for the
/ 2" ·~ ~
: :::
• ~ . i~
:I I' I ' I' I:
instance, on rupture of tubes in the pressure diiference. If the higher pres- I -t4;I -- I I
I' I
·c irculation circuit), thermal stresses sure is in a tube, the calculation is
inay exceed the allowable values. done by formulae (25.4) and (25. 5).
u
III
A
""" "
VJ ... 7
'Y
Yl
~ubstantial stress concentrations may With a higher pressure on the outside, .)~ A-A ....
occur at the sharp edges of holes in the a tube is compressed and is calculated -:_..(/'\)
'places of -tube COQnection, especially by the formula
5 ""\.\.. ~ v 4 5
of ?owntake · tubes. During start-up
and shut-down, these stresses vary S = Dcx V :.;~ +C (25.6) 19"/
from zero t 9· the maximum, while in where E is the modulus of elasticity,
steady regi,m es they vary less sub- MPa, and m is the safety (stabili ty) Fig. 25.3. Test section of a steam pi peline
·stan~ially , but with a higper frequen- factor; m :::::: 6 for carbon-steel tubes 1-steam pipeline; I- test ~t lon; 3-. bosses: 4-snap gauge for measuring residual deformation, 5-cutt-
mg spcc1 mcns for tests; 1- Vl- c ultlng sequence
cy in accordance with the temperature ·and m :::::: 5 for alloy-steel tubes.
334 Download From Boilersinfo.com
Ch. 25. M etals for S team Bolters
Model of combustion 55 Protopopov V.S. 9, 117 Slagging 193, 226 Theoretical surface area of pulverized coal 40
Moisture content of fuel 28, 40 Pulverization equipment 4t Slagging-hottom furnaces 33, 86 Theo reti cal volume o[ combustion products
Monobloc units 21, 2761 P u1 verizing fans 4 t , 44 Slag viscosity 27 61
Multi-jet retractable blowers 196 Pyrite sulphur 24 Sludge formers 168 Therm al characteristics o[ water walls 246
Multi-nozzle steam -mechanical burners 93 Sodium sal ts 166, 183 Thermal diagram of boiler 270
Radiant economizer 18 Sokolovsky's formula 53 Thermodynamic dew temperature 200
1\atural-circula ti on boilers 16 Radiant heating surfaces 18 Solubility equation t 66 Totnl ca rry-Q[f coefficient t 73
Na tural isotopes 12 Radiant heat transfer in furnace 25'1 Solubility product 168 Total-residue curve 38
Natural-circulation steam generators 314 Radiant superheaters 1.9, 217, 220 Spra y-type att~mpera tor 226, 227 Toxicity of gases 31
Natural gases 23 Radiation of triatomic gases 249 S tandard cone test 27 Toxic rate of substance 66
Net efficiency of boiler 70, 290 Rated fuel consumption 70 Starting-up circuits of monobloc units 298 Transi tion zone 1.8, 56, 203
Neutral water conditions 181 Ravich M.B. 63 Starting-up regimes 291 ·· Turbine bypassing 300
Nitrogen 25 Reaction rate 48 Start-up expander 301 Turbulent burners 80
Nitrogen oxides 65 Reaction rate constant 48 Static characteristic 293 Two-sc roll burners 80
Non-boiling economizer 202, 235 Recirculation of combustion products 213, 230 Static instability t 24
Non-destructive testing 333 Recirculation ratio 212 Unsteady regimes of operation 294
Steady regimes of operation 292
Non-luminous flame 240 Recuperative air heater 23G Upper heating value 25
Steam air heater 242
Non-scaling wn ter conditions 183 Reference fuel 25 Uptake tubes 16
Steam boilers, classification 15
R efractory-faced water wolls 203, 21& Uranium 22
Offset transition zone 18 Stearn bubbling 1.58
Refractory steels 327 Useful circulating head 1.46
Once-through hoi lcrs 1G, 278 Steam-distribution plate 159
Regenerative air heaters 236 Steam-generating capacity 21. Usefu l heat release 251
Once-through steam generators 314
Regenerative water heating H Stearn generators of nuclear ower stu ti ons, Vanadium corrosion 199
Open hydraulic systems 17, 124
Reheater 217 312 Vanad iu m pcntoxide 65, 199
Operating conditions of boilers 290
Relative velocity of steam 101 with aqueous coolant 314 Vune-typc burners 80
Operation factor 290
Removal of impurities 178 with gaseous coolant 319 Velocity of steam-water mixture 101
Optimal tempera ture or waste gases 71
Resolved characteristic of fu el 2(> with liquid-metal coolant 317 Vibration cleaning 19G
Organic fuels 22
Resolved flame length 59 Steam-mechanical burners 93 Viscosity of fu el oil 29
Organic mass or fuel 23
Reversible reactions 48 Steam-relieving area t 6 Vola tiles in fuel 27
Organic sulphur 24
RiUed tubes 218 Steam space 16 Volatile sulphur 24
Orifice pla tes t 29
Bittinger's law 39 Steam superheating 21 Volume steam content 102
Oxygen me ter 64
Roller mills 4t, 44 Steam-turbine plant t 3 Vortex burners 58, 80
Oxygen-neutral water conditions t 8t
Romm E.I. 190 Steam washing t 88 Vor tic ity parameter 58, 81
Pad dle-type mill 4 1 Rotary air heater 240 Stepped evaporation HIO
Parti cle-size distribu tio n curve 38 Washing circuit 179
Stepped tubes 130
Pearlitic steels 327 Scale 1.8 Washi ng of steam 162, 183
Sticky deposi ts 1.95
Peeker Ya. L. 63 Scale formers t 68 Waste gases, 19
Straight-flow burners 80
Periodic blowing-do wn 183 Scaling mechanism 192 Wa ter blowing 196
Straight-scroll burners 80
Phosphate water conditions 183 Scroll-vane burners 80 Water carry-off by steam.f73
Studded water walls 216
Physical hea t of fuel 68 Secondary air 1.9, 34 Wa ter conditions in boilers 178
Styrikovich M.A. 9, t 61, 1.76
Plain-tube economizers 234 Secondary atomization 91, Sulphate sulphur 24 Water co ntent of steam 1. 74
Pinlens 79, 207 Secondary circulation 11 8 Water space 16
Sulphur oxides 65
Pia ten superhea ters 217 Semenov N.N. 51 Water swell 159
Supercharged boiler 20
Plutonium 22 - Semi-luminous flame 249
Supergrid 1.0
Water walls 1.7, 203
Water wall section alizing 205
Polyak G.L. 253 Separating superheater 313
S uperheated steam 11, 21. Wetness fraction W1
Polydispersity coeffic ient of dust. 39 Shape factor 40
Superheaters 1.5, 21.7 We t-wall flow 1.04
Pomerantscv V. V. SG Shell-type boiling rea ctor 32 1
Superheat temperature control 225 Wick effect 169
Powcr-producing fuels 22 Shmukler B.l.. 9
Surface-type nttemperator 226· Working [)uid 10
Power system 10 Shorin S. N. 253
Synthetic isotopes 12 Working mass of fuel23
Prcdvoditelcv A.S. 511 Shot-blasting 196
Pressure gradient 105 Shut-down of boiler 291 Temperature asymm etry 12t Zmachinsky A.V. 9
Primary air HI, 34 Shut-down regimes 303 Temperature field 112 Zonal calculation of furnace 254
Primary furnace 88 Sieve analysis of pulverized coal 38
Primary superheater 2 17 Single-bank reheat er 11
Process stea m 11 Slag 26
Download From Boilersinfo.com
I
I
TO T HE READER
'
T . Af ARGULOVA, D.Sc. .•
The author of the textbook Prof. T. Margulova is a well-known
:Specialist in the field oE heat-and-power engineering. The boo k
.expl ains the theory of thermal electrical power stations as applied
to power plants usi ng nuclear fuel. It covers general problems for
.any thermal electric power stations (conventional nod nuclear) and
specific ones which are true for nuclear power plants only. The
textbook is for uoi \'ersity students and may be used by enginee rs
specializing in design start-up and opera Lion or nuclear power
-stn tions.
..
•
• Download
••
From Boilersinfo.com
·.
The b~ok presents the physico-chemical liab ili ty and efficiency of steam boiler
principles of the processes which oc- plants. Gives the principles of steam '.
_c ur in modern . high-capacity steam generation at nuc lear power stations •
boilers of powe·r stations and the ef- and describes particular designs of •
fects of tfle_s e prOCfi!SSes on the design steam generators for nuclear · power
of steam poilers and thei r elements. stations. • •
,.
.•
•
•
.
.. .
·~
~ .. ·' ., .
.·"'•. •
' ·.
••
•
•, - ·.;r·
•
·.
<-":
rI ••
'.
<
..
.. •
•
f;
•
'
I,
.. .
' '·
.. . ..
. ·-··'
.·.....
:. . ·..-..._;.'....... ••
,.
.. .,..' ~l
'.
\
• --r . ..... .·
Mir Publishers
•