DEVELOPMENT OF A ROCKET ENGINE IGNITER USING THE CATALYTIC

DECOMPOSITION OF HYDROGEN PEROXIDE

Wouter A. Jonker(1), Alfons E.H.J. Mayer(2), Barry T.C. Zandbergen(3)
(1)
TNO Science&Industry, P.O.Box 155, 2600AD, Delft, the Netherlands, Wouter.Jonker@tno.nl
(2)
TNO Defense,Security&Safety, P.O.Box 45, 2280AA, Rijswijk, the Netherlands, Alfons.Mayer@tno.nl
(3)
Delft University, Aerospace Engineering, P.O.Box 5058, 2600GB, Delft, the Netherlands,
B.T.C.Zandbergen@lr.tudelft.nl

ABSTRACT An igniter based on the catalytic decomposition of HP

requires less complex hardware than a spark-torch
TNO has defined a new concept for a restartable rocket
igniter since it needs only a single feed line and valve,
engine igniter which facilitates the catalytic
and compared to spark-torch igniter with separate feed
decomposition of hydrogen peroxide monopropellant to
system it needs only a single storage tank. The use of a
generate hot, oxygen-rich gas. Such an igniter can offer
monopropellant and a catalyst also removes the need for
advantages over existing igniter concepts: the reactivity
electronics for numerous valves and a spark exciter,
of the hot oxygen aids in the ignition while the use of a
which is complex and therefore expensive to design and
monopropellant and catalyst allow a simple design. To
qualify. Unlike hydrogen or oxygen, HP can be stored at
demonstrate the concept, a propellant feed system and
high density under ambient temperature and pressure,
an igniter prototype were constructed, based on
while unlike triethylborane and triethylaluminium, HP
requirements derived from the new European Vinci
is a clean liquid of low toxicity and has completely non-
rocket engine.
toxic reaction products[1].
The adiabatic decomposition of 90% concentrated HP
Test results indicated complete decomposition of 87.5%
produces gas of 1033K, well above the auto-ignition
concentrated hydrogen peroxide at a mass flow of 45
temperature of e.g. LOX/LH2 or LOX/Kerosene
g/s, corresponding to a power output of 105 kW, one
mixtures[2], but low enough to not require active
quarter of that of the Vinci igniter. It was demonstrated
cooling. Contrary to existing igniter concepts, an igniter
that it is possible for a full-scale igniter to meet realistic
based on HP decomposition produces an exhaust
requirements for restartability and starting transient,
containing hot oxygen; for 90% concentrated HP this is
while thermal analysis shows losses remain acceptable.
about 40% by mass. The reactivity of the hot oxygen
This paper presents the design of the igniter prototype
results in an easier ignition than the inert flame alone
and the feed system, and the results of testing and
could achieve, especially since bipropellant mixtures in
analysis. The work was executed at TNO as part of a
rocket engines are usually fuel-rich. It is expected that a
student Masters Graduation assignment from Delft
complete ignition system based on HP decomposition
University of Technology.
can be made lighter, safer, more reliable and at lower
cost than current systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
An important step early in the development process is
Most modern restartable rocket engines use either a the design and construction of an igniter prototype and a
spark-torch igniter or a pyrophoric (hypergolic) igniter. ground-based propellant feed system. To provide a
Spark-torch igniters burn a bipropellant mixture, which realistic background for the development, the
is obtained from the main propellant tanks (e.g. RL10) performance requirements for the Vinci igniter are
or from a separate feed system (Vinci). This requires considered typical for modern engines; design and
many valves, tubes, and relatively complex and testing of the HP igniter prototype must indicate
expensive control electronics. Pyrophoric igniters have whether it is possible for a full-scale HP igniter to meet
been used to ignite restartable LOX/Kerosene engines similar requirements.
(e.g. RD-180) and LOX/LH2 engines (EADS cryogenic
300N engine), and operate by injecting a third chemical
into the combustion chamber, which reacts 2. IGNITER AND FEED SYSTEM DESIGN
spontaneously with oxygen. The chemical used is
2.1 Requirements
usually a mixture of the substances triethylborane and
triethylaluminium. These chemicals are highly toxic and The difficulty with igniter design in general is that it is
ignite spontaneously on contact with air, making them not very well understood what exactly is required to
difficult to produce, store and handle. ignite a rocket engine. The approach usually taken is to
determine the thermal power required to raise the
temperature of the bipropellant mixture from the inner
ring of injector elements to the auto-ignition
temperature. It is assumed that once the inner ring has
been ignited, the rest of the engine will follow. The
thermal power is delivered by heat transfer from the hot
igniter exhaust to the cold bipropellant mixture, and so
takes the form of Eq. 1:
P = m& (H c H 0 ) (1)
where Hc is the enthalpy of the exhaust at the chamber
temperature and H0 is the enthalpy at reference
temperature. During the initial development of the Vinci
igniter, a reference temperature of 298K was used;
during newer studies within the frame of ESAs GSTP
program the reference temperature is taken as the auto-
ignition temperature of the main propellants. Table 1
shows assumed performance requirements for the full-
scale HP igniter; the prototype will have to demonstrate
whether these requirements can be met. The number of
ignitions, ignition duration and output power are based
on the requirements of the Vinci igniter[3].
Table 1. Assumed HP igniter requirements
Number of ignitions 5 minimum
Duration of ignition 2 seconds minimum
Output power > 440 kW at the start of the last
ignition for a reference
temperature of 298K
Starting transient Pc 0.95 Pnominal in <100ms
Envelope Must fit existing interface
equipment
2.2 The effect of hot oxygen
The definition of Eq. 1 takes only the energy of the inert
flame into account, while one of the key advantages of
the HTP igniter is the fact that it produces an oxygen-
rich exhaust. This hot oxygen can react immediately
with hydrogen in the combustion chamber and
contribute strongly to the output power. Consider the
case where the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide is
used to ignite a LOX/LH2 mixture with an auto-ignition
temperature of 840K[2]. From an initial temperature of
298K, the adiabatic decomposition of 1kg of 87.5%
concentrated HP yields 0.588 kg H2O and 0.412 kg of
O2 at 969K. The output power from equation 1 for a
reference temperature of 840K is 225kW so 440kW
requires a mass flow of 1.96kg/s. If it is assumed all the
oxygen in the igniter exhaust is used to burn hydrogen
from the inner injector ring, an additional 5.57MW is
available, which lowers the required mass flow to 0.074
kg/s. Most modern engines with regenerative cooling
have injector elements that inject gaseous hydrogen
around a core of liquid oxygen[4]. In such a case, the
igniter exhaust first comes into contact with the
hydrogen, and the advantage of hot oxygen is used to its
fullest.
2.3 Design of the igniter
For comparison with the Vinci igniter, the reference
temperature for the HP igniter prototype is set at 298K
and only the energy of the inert flame is considered. An
87.5% concentrated HP solution was selected as it could
be easily obtained; relevant physical parameters of this
solution and its decomposition products have been
summarized in table 2. The enthalpy difference Hc - H0
is ~2520 kJ/kg so a power output of 440kW would
require a mass flow of 0.175 kg/s.
Table 2 Properties of 87.5% HP and its
decomposition products[5]
H2O2 H2O O2
Density, kg/m3 1374 1000 -
298K
Heat of kJ/mol -187.777 -285.829 0
formation
Molar mass g/mol 34 18 32
The HP igniter prototype consists of a main body which
houses a catalyst bed, a plug containing the HP inlet,
and a tube/nozzle (fig.1, fig.2). The distance from the
inlet to the catalyst pack is minimized to achieve a short
starting transient. The plug is movable so that the voids
below and above the catalyst bed can be varied should
the minimum void prove too small. The tube is required
to transport the hot gas from the space reserved for the
igniter to the injection area of the main engine.
Stainless steel 316L was selected for the prototype
housing because of its easy machinability, good
corrosion resistance and low cost. The prototype was
designed using basic engineering equations to withstand
a pressure of 75 bar at the reduced material strength that
occurs at a temperature of 1033K, with a safety margin
of ~2. The prototype fits the envelope of the VINCI
igniter except for a ring of material on which sensors are
mounted. The available space for the catalyst pack is
limited by the need for 6 M5 bolt holes, which are used
to mount the igniter in the engine.
2.4 Design of the catalyst pack
The catalyst pack is designed along guidelines from
Davis&McCormick[6] (fig.3). Silver mesh screen is
selected as the catalyst material, based on the high
reactivity and easy machinability. The catalyst pack
starts with an injector plate, containing some 200 holes
of 1.5mm diameter, resulting in an open area of about
20%. Along with the injector plate, 4 mesh screens
made of 304 stainless steel act as a diffusor to spread
the peroxide evenly over the available area. Stacks of
~15 catalyst screens are alternated with anti-channel
baffles which prevent HP from flowing around the 3. TEST RESULTS
catalyst material. Four stainless steel screens provide
The igniter firing tests took place at TNO in December
mechanical support between the relatively weak silver
2004 in Test Facility 3 (TF3) for igniters and small
screens and the support plate on which the whole pack
thrusters. The igniter is fitted with a pressure sensor and
rests.
thermocouple to measure chamber conditions; two
The total available height for the catalyst pack is 40mm;
video cameras and a thermographic camera are used to
with this configuration 27.5mm is available for silver
monitor the igniter during operation. Due to the cold
mesh screens. The silver is cut from 40-mesh 12x24
weather the peroxide had a temperature of 275K leading
sheets of 0.5mm thickness into 46mm-diameter disks
to a maximum expected chamber temperature of 938K.
using a pneumatic punch. Silver screen catalyst has an
The initial cold-start ignition test was unsuccessful:
initially low reactivity which only picks up after some
chamber pressure remained constant, chamber
time of use, but the reactivity can be increased through a
temperature increased only some 50K and liquid HP
samarium nitrate coating, nitric acid wash or heat
was observed gushing from the igniter tube. During
treatment[7]. The silver screens for the HP igniter
several small tests, short pulses were given to pre-heat
prototype are rinsed with nitric acid for 2 minutes. After
the catalyst bed. The heating proved most effective for
being cleaned with distilled water, the screens are
0.2-second pulses at 5-second intervals. In follow-up
placed in a tube oven and heated at 10K per minute
tests five of these pulses were given prior to the main
from room temperature to 900K. The treatment results
ignition pulse. Four successful 8-second igniter tests
in a clean and porous silver surface and should thereby
were conducted with chamber temperatures reaching
increase the reactivity of the catalyst material.
865K. During one 8-second test loud oscillations were
The nitric acid wash dissolved part of the silver: screen
heard, and were visible in the exhaust jet on the video
mass had reduced from 2.818 gram to 1.808 gram,
monitor.
thickness had reduced to 0.32 mm and the gap size had
Fig.5 shows the temperature and pressure measurement
increased. After the heat treatment the silver screens had
of one of the 8-second igniter firing tests. The warm-up
turned from grey into bright white, had lost elasticity
pulses raise the catalyst bed temperature to some 450K.
and could easily be deformed. Despite the parameters of
During the main ignition the chamber temperature is
the surface treatment being chosen rather arbitrarily,
about constant at 8.63 bar while the temperature
testing at Delft University proved the reactivity of the
increases quickly to ~820K in 2.5 seconds, then
treated screens had greatly increased compared to the
continues to rise slowly for another 5.5 seconds
untreated screens. Bengtsson[7] has performed some
eventually reaching 840K. The mass flow during the 8-
more extensive reactivity tests for silver screen catalyst;
second ignition is on average 45 g/s, resulting in an
his first order approximation is that some 200 kg HP can
output power of 105kW (fig.6). The chamber pressure
be decomposed per minute per liter of catalyst material.
rises to >95% of the nominal value of 8.63 bar in about
Based on these findings we expect the HP igniter
90 ms, then oscillates a few times before finally settling
prototype to be able to fully decompose a mass flow of
above the 95% line after some 300 ms (fig.7). Fig.8
125g/s.
shows the igniter itself during a warm-up pulse,
producing a white jet of water vapor and oxygen.
2.5 Design of the feed system
The feed system is designed for a maximum operating
pressure of 12.5 MPa. The main components are a 4. ANALYSIS
propellant tank which can be pressurized using nitrogen,
To get an idea of the losses in the igniter, convective
and a solenoid valve which controls the HP flow to the
heat transfer is modeled in a FE analysis. Relevant gas
igniter (fig.4). There are provisions for filling/draining
properties throughout the igniter are calculated using
the tank, emergency depressurization and for purging
NASAs CEA2000 program for chemical equilibrium
the propellant lines. Sensors monitor temperature and
calculations, assuming a mass flow of 45g/s, a chamber
pressure at critical points. Mass flow rate is measured
pressure of 8.63 bar and complete decomposition. The
using a custom-built venturi fitted with a differential
heat flux is then calculated for every point on the igniter
pressure transducer.
wall for all time from t = 0 to 8 seconds. Like the
Component specifications are dictated by the expected
thermographic camera, the analysis shows a quick
pressure and mass flow, and by the required chemical
heating of the igniter tube while the main body stays
compatibility. Recommended materials[8,9] are
relatively cool. Convective heat transfer from the gas to
aluminum or stainless steel, and plastics such as PTFE
the igniter wall is largest in the tube section: initially
(Teflon), PCTFE (Kel-F), PVDF, Viton and
5.2kW or some 5% of the output power, causing a drop
polycarbonate. All critical valves of the feed system are
in gas temperature of about 65K. Within 2 seconds the
computer operated and automatically revert to their safe
heat transfer has decreased to <1kW, corresponding to a
position in the event of a power failure.
drop in gas temperature of 12K. Heat transfer in the 4. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
main body is some 20 times smaller due to the low flow
W.A. Jonker wants to thank all his advisors at Delft
velocities. Fig.9 shows the heat transfer Q in the tube
University and TNO; in particular A.E.H.J. Mayer and
and the resulting wall temperatures at the tube inlet and
B.T.C. Zandbergen for their support throughout the
outlet.
thesis work and A.G.M. Maree and H.F.R. Schyer for
Due to non-conformance of the position of the
countless helpful discussions.
thermocouple wire, the temperature measurement took
place at the tube inlet, in the boundary layer near the
7. REFERENCES
igniter wall. In addition, the gas flow approached the
thermocouple wire tip from behind so the measured [1]Iarochenko, N., and Dedic, V., Hydrogen Peroxide
temperature is closer to the static temperature than the as a Monopropellant, Catalysts and Catalyst Beds,
total temperature. The resulting measurement does not Experience from more than Thirty Years of Exploitation,
accurately represent the chamber temperature, but it Russian Scientific Center :Applied Chemistry, Russia,
provides a lower boundary. The measured temperature St. Petersburg
lies roughly between the film temperature and the static [2]Chemical Engineers Handbook, 3rd edition, by John
temperature of the flow that were found in the FE H. Perry, Ph.D., McGraw-Hill publishing company Ltd,
analysis assuming complete decomposition (fig.10). 1950
The oscillations in pressure and mass flow that were [3]Frenken, G., Vermeulen, E., Bouquet, F., and
observed during several tests occur due to an Sanders, B., Development Status of the Ignition System
insufficient pressure drop over the injector. The for Vinci, 4th international conference on launcher
measured pressure drop over the injector plate, 94 mesh technology space launcher liquid propulsion,
screens and the support plate combined is 18% while december 2002
20-30% over the injector alone is recommended[4]. [4]Huzel, D.K., and Huang, D.H., Modern Engineering
Insufficient pressure drop allows reaction instabilities for Design of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines, AIAA
and pressure spikes to affect mass flow, causing Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics Series, AIAA,
oscillations such as those that are observed. Washington, 1992.
[5]Knacke, O., Kubaschewski, O., and Hesselmann, K.,
5. DISCUSSION Thermodynamic Properties of Inorganic Substances,
2nd edition, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, ISBN
Testing of the HP igniter prototype has successfully
3-54014-8
demonstrated the HP igniter concept. The HP igniter
[6]Davis, N.S. and McCormick, J.C., Design of Catalyst
prototype, which is of roughly the same size as the
Packs for the Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide,
Vinci igniter, has been fired over 15 times with 4 pulses
American Rocket Society paper nr 1246-60.
lasting as long as 8 seconds, indicating that
[7]Website: http://www.peroxidepropulsion.com by
requirements for restartability and minimum ignition
Erik Bengtsson, June 2005
duration can be met. The exhaust, containing nearly
[8]Whitehead, J.C., Hydrogen Peroxide Propulsion for
40% of oxygen, reached a temperature exceeding the
Smaller Satellites, 12th AIAA/USU Conference on
auto-ignition temperature of stoichiometric LOX/LH2.
Small Satellites, SS98-VIII-1
The starting transient was some 300ms due to
[9]Degussa brochure, Hydrogen Peroxide Properties
oscillations, but redesign of the injector can prevent
and Handling, Ch 547-9-2-495
these and reduce the transient to <100 ms. Whether a
full-scale HP igniter can meet a power requirement will
8. NOMENCLATURE
depend on the design envelope and on the exact
definition of the requirement. The output power p = pressure
increases linear with mass flow, but the maximum HP P = power
mass flow than can be decomposed within a certain m& = mass flow
space is unknown. The limit of the catalyst pack of the H = enthalpy
HP igniter was not reached during the tests, and the T = temperature
prototype was not optimized for a maximum catalyst 0 = index for reference conditions
pack size. In addition, the catalyst surface treatment was c = index for chamber conditions
not optimized. The output power depends even stronger DAQ = data acquisition
on the effect of the hot oxygen in the exhaust. Further HP = hydrogen peroxide
testing is necessary to determine to which extent the hot GSTP = General Support Technology
oxygen contributes to the output power. Programme
TF3 = Test Facility 3 for igniters and small
thrusters at TNO Defense, Security &
Safety
9. FIGURES

Figure 1. Igniter schematic Figure 2. Igniter hardware

Figure 3. Catalyst bed composition

Figure 4. Liquid-propellant feed system schematic

 850 1.2E+06 0.16 160
0.14 140
750 1.0E+06
0.12
P 120
650 8.0E+05
0.10 100

m (kg/s)
p (Pa)

P (kW)
T
T (K)

550 6.0E+05 0.08 80

0.06 m 60
450 4.0E+05
0.04 40
350 p 2.0E+05
0.02 20
250 0.0E+00 0.00 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35
t (s) t (s)

Figure 5. Chamber pressure and temperature Figure 6. Mass flow and output power

1.4E+06

1.2E+06
valve
1.0E+06 opens

8.0E+05
P (Pa)

p=0.95 pnominal
6.0E+05

4.0E+05

2.0E+05

0.0E+00
26.0 26.2 26.4 26.6 26.8 27.0
t (s)

Figure 7. Pressure starting transient Figure 8. Igniter firing test

1000 6000 1000

Tstatic
875 T (outlet) 5000 875
Tmeasured
Wall temperature (K)

Heat transfer (J/s)

Temperature (K)

750 4000 750 Tfilm

625 3000 625
Twall
T (inlet)
500 2000 500

375 1000 375

Q
250 0 250
0 2 4 6 8 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time (s) time (s)

Figure 9. Tube heat loss and temperature (analysis) Figure 10. Measured / calculated gas temperatures