Ap T240 13

AP-T240-13
AUSTROADS TECHNICAL REPORT
Development of a Wheel-tracking Test for Rut

Resistance Characterisation of Unbound
Granular Materials
Development of a Wheel-tracking Test for
Rut Resistance Characterisation of
Unbound Granular Materials
Development of a Wheel-tracking Test for Rut Resistance Characterisation of Unbound
Granular Materials
Published May 2013
Austroads Ltd 2013
This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968,
no part may be reproduced by any process without the prior written permission of Austroads.
ISBN 978-1-921991-97-4
Austroads Project No. TT1611
Austroads Publication No. AP-T240-13
Project Manager
David Hazell
Roads and Maritime Services NSW
Prepared by
Didier Bodin, Michael Moffatt, Geoff Jameson
ARRB Group
Published by Austroads Ltd

Level 9, Robell House
287 Elizabeth Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 9264 7088
Fax: +61 2 9264 1657
Email: austroads@austroads.com.au
www.austroads.com.au
Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept
responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should
rely on their own skill and judgement to apply information to particular issues.
Development of a Wheel-tracking Test for
Rut Resistance Characterisation of
Unbound Granular Materials
Sydney 2013
About Austroads
Austroads purpose is to:
promote improved Australian and New Zealand transport outcomes
provide expert technical input to national policy development on road and road transport
issues
promote improved practice and capability by road agencies.
promote consistency in road and road agency operations.
Austroads membership comprises the six state and two territory road transport and traffic
authorities, the Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure and Transport, the Australian Local
Government Association, and NZ Transport Agency. Austroads is governed by a Board consisting
of the chief executive officer (or an alternative senior executive officer) of each of its eleven
member organisations:
Roads and Maritime Services New South Wales
Roads Corporation Victoria
Department of Transport and Main Roads Queensland
Main Roads Western Australia
Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure South Australia
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources Tasmania
Department of Transport Northern Territory
Territory and Municipal Services Directorate Australian Capital Territory
Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure and Transport
Australian Local Government Association
New Zealand Transport Agency.
The success of Austroads is derived from the collaboration of member organisations and others in
the road industry. It aims to be the Australasian leader in providing high quality information, advice
and fostering research in the road transport sector.
Development of a Wheel-tracking Test for Rut Resistance Characterisation of Unbound Granular Materials
SUMMARY
This report outlines the development a wheel-tracking apparatus and its use in a performance-
based testing method to predict the performance of granular pavements.
Austroads project TT1163 Better Basis for Bases: Optimum Use of Granular Materials compared
full-scale pavement deformation performance data, collected using the ARRB Accelerated Loading
Facility (ALF), with laboratory test results under both repeated load triaxial (RLT) and Wheel-
tracking (WT) conditions. Whilst the RLT deformation data did not rank the material performance
in the same order as observed with full-scale ALF testing, WT tests trials provided a better means
of ranking the performance. In particular, a plastic material which exhibited a base shear failure
under ALF after only 6000 axle loads was highlighted by WT tests, but was ranked as very
deformation resistant by RLT tests. The project recommended that research be undertaken to
develop a new test for granular base rut resistance characterisation based on the wheel-tracking
test principle. As a result, Austroads established a project TT1611 Improved Rut Resistance
Characterisation of Granular Bases, and commissioned ARRB to obtain an appropriate wheel-
tracking device, to commission it, and to develop test methods to allow the laboratory performance
assessment of unbound granular pavement materials.
A worldwide review of existing devices was conducted, and it was concluded that a new machine
design should be able to compact large unbound granular samples. The Australian company IPC
Global was chosen to design and manufacture the new machine. The machine was commissioned
in the ARRB laboratories.
It was found that compaction of materials, conducted at the test moisture content, in 50 mm thick
layers, produced specimens of uniform density in the area to be wheel-tracked. However lower
densities were obtained against the walls of the mould. Applying a reduction of 2% of total material
to be compacted was found to ensure that the material in the area of the wheel-tracking reached
the target density, notwithstanding the lower densities achieved close to the mould edges.
To keep the moisture condition of the specimen constant during the long test duration different
moisture sealing membrane materials were evaluated. The flexible epoxy membrane finally
selected ensured that the loss of moisture at the top 100 mm of the trafficked specimen was
reduced to 0.3% during the wheel-tracking test and the moisture at the bottom of the specimen
remained constant.
Draft test methods for sample preparation and wheel-tracking testing have been developed, using
the Austroads test method format, and the surface permanent deformation repeatability obtained
for unbound granular materials was found to be in the same range as typical asphalt
wheel-tracking tests.
Finally, samples of the materials that were previously tested using ALF were prepared and
wheel-tracking tests conducted. Significantly, the ranking of the permanent deformations obtained
under wheel-tracking did not match those observed during the ALF trafficking. These findings
have reinforced the need for additional research into the fundamental properties of the unbound
granular material prepared in laboratory conditions. It is recommended that further development of
the testing conditions should be undertaken to examine differences in rut resistance assessed in
the laboratory and full-scale ALF pavements. Additionally, evaluation of the fundamental material
properties obtained in the laboratory using the wheel-tracker and in a pavement should be
compared. Effect of the post-compaction drying back, which is not implemented in the current
wheel-tracking method, should be investigated to assess practicality. Additionally, the aggregate
structure obtained by compaction in the laboratory should be compared with that obtained from
full-scale pavements.
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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
2 BACKGROUND .................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Development of Performance-based Testing Methods........................................................... 2
2.2 Manufacture and Commissioning of a Wheel-tracking Device ................................................ 2
2.3 Objectives of the Project ........................................................................................................ 2
3 EQUIPMENT ......................................................................................................................... 3
3.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 3
3.2 Specification for Compaction ................................................................................................. 3
3.3 Specification for Wheel-tracking ............................................................................................. 3
3.3.1 Large Device .............................................................................................................. 3
3.3.2 Extra-large Device ...................................................................................................... 4
3.4 The New Wheel-tracker ......................................................................................................... 4
4 METHODOLOGY USED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TESTING

CONDITIONS ........................................................................................................................ 7
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 7
4.2 Methodology .......................................................................................................................... 7
4.3 Materials used to Develop the Testing Conditions ................................................................. 8
4.4 Testing Program .................................................................................................................... 9
5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPACTION PROCEDURE ................................................... 10

5.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 10
5.2 Specimen Compaction Process ........................................................................................... 11
5.2.1 Preparation Sequences ............................................................................................ 11
5.2.2 Compaction Data ...................................................................................................... 12
5.3 Assessment of the Slab Uniformity ...................................................................................... 14
5.3.1 Source Material ........................................................................................................ 14
5.3.2 First Specimen (Slab No. 1496) ................................................................................ 14
5.3.3 Second Specimen (Slab No. 1630)........................................................................... 20
5.3.4 Findings.................................................................................................................... 22
5.4 Assessment of Unbound Slab Specimens ........................................................................... 24
5.5 Correction of the Compacted Mass of Material .................................................................... 26
5.5.1 Simple Correction Method ........................................................................................ 26
5.5.2 Efficiency of the Correction Method .......................................................................... 26
5.6 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 28
6 MOISTURE CONDITIONS DURING SAMPLE PREPARATION AND TESTING ................ 29

6.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 29
6.2 Moisture Condition after Wheel-tracking Testing .................................................................. 29
6.3 Analysis of the Moisture Variation Mechanism ..................................................................... 32
6.3.1 Laboratory Investigation of the Membrane Performance .......................................... 33
6.3.2 Validation of the Moisture Loss on Wheel-tracker Specimen .................................... 35
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7 WHEEL-TRACKING TEST RESULTS ................................................................................ 37

7.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 37
7.2 Permanent Deformation Data .............................................................................................. 37
7.2.1 Permanent Deformation Data ................................................................................... 37
7.2.2 Average Permanent Deformation Calculation ........................................................... 38
7.2.3 Laser Scan Schedule ............................................................................................... 39
7.3 Laboratory Test Results ....................................................................................................... 39
7.3.1 Inventory of Tests ..................................................................................................... 39
7.3.2 Repeatability............................................................................................................. 40
7.3.3 Effect of Slab Thickness ........................................................................................... 41
7.3.4 Influence of Other Testing Parameters ..................................................................... 43
8 SUMMARY OF THE PREPARATION PROCEDURE DEVELOPED TO DATE ................... 46
9 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON WITH ACCELERATED LOADING RESULTS ............... 47

9.1 Data Available from Previous Experiments .......................................................................... 47
9.2 Preliminary Assessment of the Materials ............................................................................. 49
9.2.1 Particle Size Distribution ........................................................................................... 49
9.2.2 Compaction Properties ............................................................................................. 52
9.2.3 Additional Validation Tests ....................................................................................... 52
9.3 Sample Preparation ............................................................................................................. 53
9.4 Test Results ......................................................................................................................... 53
10 CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECT SUGGESTIONS .......................................................... 56

10.1 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 56
10.2 Suggestions for Future Work ............................................................................................... 58
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 60
APPENDIX A MATERIALS USED ............................................................................................. 61
APPENDIX B COMPACTION DENSITY UNIFORMITY ASSESSMENT DATA ......................... 64
APPENDIX C METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT

DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS OF UNBOUND GRANULAR
MATERIALS BY WHEEL-TRACKING TEST ...................................................... 68
APPENDIX D WHEEL-TRACKING TESTS RESULTS .............................................................. 79
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TABLES
Table 4.1: Description of the method used for preparation assessment .................................... 8
Table 4.2: Density and moistures data of materials used .......................................................... 8
Table 5.1: Sand replacement method data from the slabs compacted using
material no. 1369 and 1475 .................................................................................... 26
Table 5.2: Sand replacement method data from the slabs compacted with other
materials ................................................................................................................ 27
Table 6.1: Moisture loss data .................................................................................................. 30
Table 6.2: Moisture changes data along the wheel-path direction ........................................... 31
Table 6.3: Moisture changes recorded on the slab specimen coated with sealant 3................ 35
Table 7.1: Parameters for the different testing conditions........................................................ 37
Table 7.2: Summary of the wheel-tracking tested slabs and conditions .................................. 39
Table 9.1: Testing condition for the new wheel-tracking tests ................................................. 48
Table 9.2: Previous ranking of wheel-tracking test results compared to RLT and
ALF data ................................................................................................................ 48
Table 9.3: OMC-MDD obtained for the material samples compared with the original
data ........................................................................................................................ 52
Table 9.4: Plasticity index of the modified hornfels material (sample no. 1671) ....................... 52
Table 9.5: Summary of wheel-tracking tests performed on the previously tested
ALF materials ......................................................................................................... 53
Table 10.1: Inventory of the main differences between pavement and laboratory
wheel-tracking environment.................................................................................... 57
FIGURES
Figure 3.1: Photo of the machine ............................................................................................... 5
Figure 3.2: Photo of the machine operating on extra-large size specimen
(a) compaction, (b) wheel-tracking ........................................................................... 5
Figure 3.3: Photo of the laser operating a scan of a reference surface ....................................... 6
Figure 5.1: Compaction sequences for a 300 mm high granular specimen .............................. 12
Figure 5.2: Typical sensor signal outputs plotted charts ........................................................... 13
Figure 5.3: Steel guides used to allow lifting of compacted slab ............................................... 15
Figure 5.4: Cutting slab no. 1496 using four foot bridge saw .................................................... 15
Figure 5.5: Cutting into layers using brick saw ......................................................................... 16
Figure 5.6: Density data for the segments extracted from slab no. 1496:
longitudinal profile .................................................................................................. 17
transverse profile.................................................................................................... 19
Figure 5.8: Compacted second slab showing improved lifting design ....................................... 20
longtitudinal (left hand side plots) and transverse (right hand side plots) ................ 21
vertical profiles ....................................................................................................... 22
Figure 5.11: Photo of the material taken from the side just after removing the mould
side ........................................................................................................................ 23
Figure 5.12: Effect on voids in asphalt samples ......................................................................... 23
Figure 5.13: Schematic illustration of the wall effect influence on the density in the
trafficked area (side view) ...................................................................................... 24
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Figure 5.14: Comparison of the target dry density with the density measured as per
the sand replacement method ................................................................................ 25
Figure 5.15: Density measured as per the sand replacement method vs target dry
density considering corrected or uncorrected compaction protocol......................... 27
Figure 6.1: Moisture samples taken from the slab after trafficking (a) extraction of
the samples, (b) schematic view of the sampling process ...................................... 30
Figure 6.2: Data obtained from the material samples extracted from the slab in the
top part of the central cross-section........................................................................ 31
Figure 6.3: Conceptual scheme presenting the moisture transfer mechanism .......................... 32
Figure 6.4: Principle of the measurement ................................................................................. 33
Figure 6.5: Weight loss monitoring for moisture retention efficiency assessment ..................... 34
Figure 6.6: Moisture loss data obtained from the top samples of all the tested
specimens before and after improvement of the sealing membrane ....................... 36
Figure 7.1: Examples of profiles evolving with the number of loading cycles for one
cross-section .......................................................................................................... 38
Figure 7.2: Repeatability data for slab of thickness = 200 mm (a) hornfels
(mat. no. 1369), (b) rhyolite (mat. no. 1475) ........................................................... 40
Figure 7.3: Repeatability data for slab of thickness = 300 mm (a) hornfels
(mat. no.1369), (b) rhyolite (mat. no. 1475), (c) hornfels (mat. no. 1157)
from the commissioning trials ................................................................................. 41
Figure 7.4: Wheel-tracking results obtained for two slab thicknesses
(i.e. height = 300 and 200 mm) and two tested materials ....................................... 42
Figure 7.5: Comparison of the mean and octahedral stresses under the centred
wheel for two slab thicknesses (200 and 300 mm) ................................................. 43
Figure 7.6: Wheel-tracking results obtained for two different protocols ..................................... 44
Figure 7.7: Effect of a slight over-compaction of the top 50 mm of the 300 mm thick
specimens .............................................................................................................. 45
Figure 9.1: Permanent deformation under accelerated loading ................................................ 47
Figure 9.2: Permanent deformation under laboratory wheel-tracking ....................................... 49
Figure 9.3: Grading curves of tested sample (no. 1670) compared to original data .................. 50
Figure 9.7: Mean surface deformation for previous ALF materials under wheel-
tracking .................................................................................................................. 54
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1 INTRODUCTION
For many years Australasia has led the world in the design and management of low cost sealed
unbound granular pavements. This has allowed for the provision of sealed road access to
secluded areas which would otherwise only be serviced by gravel roads.
However, much of the design and specification technology for unbound granular pavements
remains empirically-based. This poses a significant challenge to road authorities and road design
practitioners alike as they are coming under increasing pressure to deliver higher levels of
serviceability to the road user. This demand has been spurred by: increasing traffic volumes; the
introduction of new-generation heavy vehicles; increasing reliance on the public sector in the
management of their roads; and increasing competition for limited funding for road management.
In addition to this, traditional road building materials are becoming scarce in some regions and, in
some cases, the use of these materials is becoming unsustainable from both an environmental and
heritage point of view. As such, more and more emphasis has been placed on improving the
performance of granular basecourse materials.
The performance of sealed granular pavements is influenced by many factors, one of which is the
selection of the basecourse material which heavily influences the shear resistance of the
pavement. Assuming 20% of the poor performance of the pavements is due to the use inadequate
materials, it is estimated that approximately 2% of the total length of sprayed-seal pavements in
Australia suffer from inadequate granular base quality and become distressed well before the end
of their design life.
The possible causes of rutting of granular basecourses under thin bituminous surfacing include:
densification or vertical compression, without accompanying base surface shoving
lateral flow or plastic movement and lateral shoving of the base due to inadequate shear
strength
particle breakdown or disintegration.
Given the current limitations of contemporary empirical-based design, it is clear that there is an
underlying need to develop a performance-based testing method to accurately assess and predict
the likely future performance of granular pavements.
This report outlines the key stages of development of the wheel-tracking apparatus developed by
ARRB as part of Austroads project TT1611 Improved Rut Resistance Characterisation of Granular
Bases.
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2 BACKGROUND
2.1 Development of Performance-based Testing Methods
A critical finding of the successfully completed Austroads research project TT1163 Better Basis for
Bases: Optimum Use of Granular Bases (Austroads 2010) was the observed inherent deficiencies
in existing laboratory testing methods. In particular, it was noted that the results from the repeated
load triaxial tests (RLT), which were used for assessing the permanent deformation of unbound
granular bases, were not an indicative measure of the shear resistance of the materials subjected
to full-scale accelerated loading.
After much discussion by the various working groups and committees, it was agreed that a new
test for granular base rut resistance needed to be developed. Given the success, during the
project, of limited large-scale laboratory wheel-tracking tests in replicating the material
performance observed under an accelerated loading test, it was decided that the new test method
should be based on a wheel-tracking apparatus.
In July 2009, Austroads commissioned ARRB to undertake research project TT1611 Improved Rut
Resistance Characterisation of Granular Bases which was tasked with developing a new design for
a wheel-tracker machine developing a subsequent testing method and assessing its suitability in
the laboratory. A worldwide review of existing devices concluded that a new machine design
should be able to compact the large unbound granular samples and should also be able to meet
existing European standards for both compaction and wheel-tracking of asphalt samples.
2.2 Manufacture and Commissioning of a Wheel-tracking Device

To design and construct the machine, an Australian-based company IPC Global, was engaged to
conduct the necessary works. The machine design proposed by IPC incorporated compactor and
wheel-tracker functions, allowing the compaction of specimens from loose granular materials to
typical field densities and the subsequent assessment of rutting performance by wheel-tracker in a
single machine. The surface deformation of the specimen surface is automatically recorded
periodically during the tracking process according to a user-defined schedule.
The prototype wheel-tracker machine was delivered to ARRB Groups laboratories in May 2011,
where it underwent commissioning trials in laboratory conditions for both the machinery and the
software. These trials highlighted both hardware and software issues, which were resolved
collaboratively with IPC Global during the testing program. These issues and the
later-than-expected delivery date of the machine created unwelcome delays in the conduct of the
research work.
2.3 Objectives of the Project

The general objective of the research was to define the testing conditions and the procedures
appropriate for unbound granular material characterisation based on wheel-tracking tests. A
testing program was developed to help determine the best methods. This report presents the
approach and the results obtained during the project.
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3 EQUIPMENT
3.1 General
The specifications for the wheel-tracker were chosen to be able to meet the requirements of the
European standard for compaction (EN 12697-33) and wheel-tracking (EN 12697-22). These
standards were developed for the testing of asphalt, but provided a good framework to start with
for granular material tests. The specifications detailed below build upon these European asphalt
standards but include additional requirements to allow the compaction and wheel-tracking of
large-sized unbound granular samples.
The following specifications were those used to design the prototype device. Commissioning and
subsequent use of the prototype device may lead to further refinements of the specifications for
subsequent devices.
In order to minimise laboratory floor space it was specified that a single machine be developed
which was able to operate as both a compactor and a wheel-tracker.
3.2 Specification for Compaction

As a compactor the device must be able to compact materials:
in accordance with EN 12697-33: steel roller method specifications
with layers in four mould sizes, with the following internal dimensions (2 mm)
500 x 180 x 50 mm
500 x 180 x 100 mm
700 x 500 x 200 mm
700 x 500 x 300 mm
in one or more layers, e.g. for a 300 mm deep mould, compaction of six 50 mm thick layers
with provision of a height adjustment to the bottom floor of each mould to enable loose
material for each layer to be progressively added
using either of two smooth steel roller segments
track width 180 mm, radius 350 mm
track width 500 mm, radius 350 mm
using applied loads ranging from 5 to 28 kN.
3.3 Specification for Wheel-tracking

The device must be able to perform tests in accordance with EN 12697-22: large size and
extra-large size specifications.
3.3.1 Large Device

The device shall be fitted with a 400 x 8 pneumatic tyre without tread pattern (about 425 mm
diameter) and having a track width of 80 5 mm.
The device shall be able to accommodate both asphalt and unbound granular materials.
A rolling vertical load of 5.00 0.05 kN or a user selectable load shall be possible.
The travel of the pneumatic tyre relative to specimen shall be 410 5 mm.
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The frequency of travel shall be 1 0.1 Hz (average speed 0.82 m/s).

The centre line of the tyre track shall be not more than 5 mm from the theoretical centre.
The angle of skew of the tyre shall be 0.0 0.5.
The temperature control shall be user selectable from room temperature up to 60 C, such
that the temperature within the specimen is maintained at the expected temperature 2 C.
The temperature sensor shall be in accordance with EN 12697-22.
The displacement measurement device shall be in accordance with EN 12697-22 or better.
3.3.2 Extra-large Device

The device shall be fitted with a 6.00-R9 pneumatic tyre without tread pattern (about 550 mm
diameter) and having a track width of 110 5 mm.
The device shall be able to accommodate both asphalt and unbound granular materials.
A rolling vertical load of 10.00 0.1 kN, or a user selectable load shall be possible.
The travel of the pneumatic tyre relative to the specimen shall be 710 5 mm.
The frequency of travel shall be 0.4 0.08 Hz (average speed 0.57 m/s).
The centre line of the tyre track shall be not more than 10 mm from the theoretical centre.
The temperature control shall be user selectable from room temperature up to 60 C, such
that the temperature within the specimen is maintained at the expected temperature 2 C.
The temperature sensor shall be in accordance with EN 12697-22.
The displacement measurement device shall be in accordance with EN 12697-22 or better.
3.4 The New Wheel-tracker

In response to the specifications, IPC Global produced designs for the combination compactor and
wheel-tracker. The concept was based on a servo-pneumatic vertical loading ram, with a capacity
up to 28 kN to satisfy the requirements for compaction. The machine manufactured by IPC,
named AUSTRACK, is shown in Figure 3.1.
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Source: IPC Global.
Figure 3.1: Photo of the machine
As shown in Figure 3.2, the load is applied from below by the pneumatic actuator pushing the
specimen onto the compaction plate or wheel. The sideways movement of the mobile carriage
supporting the compaction foot and the wheel is achieved by a simple push/pull rod connected to
an electric motor via a rotating cam. A computer-controlled system monitors the load being
applied, as measured by a load cell, and adjusts the position of the actuator to ensure that the
desired test conditions are obtained.
(a) (b)
Source: IPC Global.
Figure 3.2: Photo of the machine operating on extra-large size specimen (a) compaction, (b) wheel-tracking
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A ventilated enclosure, allowing heating up to 60 C, is also incorporated to allow controlled

conditions for asphalt testing. An automatic laser scanning system is used to measure rut
development on the specimens surface as shown in Figure 3.3.
Source: IPC Global.
Figure 3.3: Photo of the laser operating a scan of a reference surface
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4 METHODOLOGY USED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF

THE TESTING CONDITIONS
4.1 Introduction
In simple terms a wheel-tracking test uses a wheel loaded by a given vertical load to traffic, usually
bidirectionally, a slab specimen, the surface deformation of which is monitored with time. The
surface deformation data is used to evaluate the samples rut resistance. The lower the
deformation (or deformation rate) the better the performance. Whilst wheel-tracking tests have not
been widely used for unbound granular materials (UGM) characterisation they are routine tests
performed on asphalt materials.
Conditions used for established asphalt tests offered a good basis for the development of test
processes for unbound granular materials, and their documentation presented a framework to
document the new test methods. The main difference lies in the nature of the material being
tested. Unlike asphalt, unbound granular materials have very low cohesion and cannot be handled
outside of the mould used to compact the specimen. Other than load level, temperature is the
most important parameter which controls the rutting of asphalt, whereas for crushed rock the
moisture content is the most important environmental parameter affecting the permanent
deformation properties.
In a laboratory characterisation context, the challenge is to be able to manufacture a

well-controlled and uniform (density and moisture) sample of large dimensions. Any significant
non-uniformity in density or moisture will induce variability and will bias the subsequent
performance assessment.
Beyond the laboratory context, the preparation method should be able to provide samples similar
to material prepared in the road bed. Segregation should be as limited as possible and the particle
arrangement should represent that which is encountered in the field. The compaction method
used to achieve the test density must not lead to significant particle breakdown and change of the
particle size distribution. These aspects were not thoroughly investigated as part of the project.
Particle orientation analysis was not part of this research program as the semi-circular compaction
foot was already recognised has a good way of compacting relevant samples for asphalt. To
prevent breakdown during the compaction, the maximum compaction load applied to the material
was kept at levels commonly used for compacting (Austroads 2005) or cement treated granular
materials compaction (Austroads 2008).
4.2 Methodology
The testing program was focused on assessing the two major parameters affecting the rut
permanent deformation characteristics of road bases density and moisture content of the
specimen. These were assessed both after sample preparation and throughout the duration of the
wheel-tracking testing as shown in Table 4.1.
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Table 4.1: Description of the method used for preparation assessment

Parameter Type of assessment Method
Dry density (DD) Uniformity Density measurements on bounded aggregate
specimens compacted with the equipment.
Accordance with target Comparison of the actual density achieved with the
target density.
Moisture content (MC) Accordance with target Samples of loose material are taken after mixing and
prior to compaction.
Stability with time and uniformity Moisture content of samples extracted from different
locations in the slab was measured and compared with
the initial MC.
4.3 Materials used to Develop the Testing Conditions

Two materials were sourced from two different quarries from the eastern suburbs of Melbourne.
The first was crushed hornfels from Lysterfield (material sample no. 1369). This crushed rock
material is a class 3 subbase material according to VicRoads specifications (VicRoads 2003). The
second material was a class 1 material from Montrose (material sample no. 1475). This is a
crushed rhyolite material which has been used several times in previous research projects
(Austroads 2010). This last material is considered by VicRoads practitioners to be a very good
quality crushed rock. Key material parameters for these materials are listed in Table 4.2, with
more detail provided in Appendix A.
For the development of the test method the two materials were tested at the same relative
moisture content of 70% (i.e. same moisture content/optimum modified moisture content ratio).
This relative moisture content is the moisture commonly expected when sealing the pavement after
compaction. However, this moisture content is likely to be higher than the moisture in service for
standard conditions where drainage is good and water fall reasonable.
Table 4.2: Density and moistures data of materials used

Material Sample Granular skeleton properties at Moisture content parameter at Moisture content parameter at
no. maximum modified dry density OMC 70 % of OMC
Modified APD (1) Porosity(2) Relative MC Sr(4) Relative MC Sr(3)
maximal dry (%) moisture (%) (%) moisture (%) (%)
density content(3) content(3)
(t/m3) (%) (%)
Hornfels 1369 2.30 2.73 0.16 6.4 0.93 4.5 0.65
100 70
Rhyolite 1475 2.20 2.68 0.18 6.0 0.73 4.2 0.51
1 Apparent particle density.
2 Void volume/total volume.
3 Moisture content/OMC.
4 Degree of saturation, water volume/void volume.
The two selected materials had very similar grading curves, with material no. 1369 containing
slightly more fines.
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4.4 Testing Program

The evaluation of the density and density uniformity of compacted samples is detailed in Section 5.
During the testing program, issues relating to the control of moisture during sample preparation
and subsequent wheel-tracking led to a series of adaptions to the sample preparation method.
These issues, and the method ultimately selected to ensure stable moisture conditions during the
conduct of the wheel-tracking are discussed in Section 6. Overall analysis of the wheel-tracking
results is detailed in Section 7.
As a result of this work, draft test procedures for sample preparation and wheel-tracker testing of
unbound granular material were documented, and are included as Section 8.
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5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPACTION PROCEDURE

5.1 Introduction
When conducting wheel-tracking tests of unbound granular material, the samples are prepared in a
box mould in which they stay until testing is complete. The low material cohesion does not allow
un-moulding the slab between compaction and wheel-tracking. Moreover, the residual compaction
stresses resulting from the compaction in the mould should not be altered between compaction
and trafficking.
The permanent deformation of unbound granular materials is highly dependent on the density and
the moisture content of the tested materials. Therefore these parameters must be controlled as
precisely as possible. This section focuses on the assessment of the level and uniformity of
density achieved during compaction. Control of the moisture content parameter is specifically
examined in Section 6.
From a laboratory characterisation point of view, the ideal situation is to be able to repeatedly
prepare specimens with uniform physical properties, without any variation of material properties
within each sample, and without the effect of the edges of the sample affecting subsequent
characterisation tests. However, most of the tests currently performed on granular materials have
to accept edge effects and experimental variability. The minimal requirement is to obtain uniform
properties in the area where the measurements are performed and reduce or correct for the
presence of boundary effects.
Edge effects in granular material specimen compaction are well identified and result from two
major mechanisms:
a gradient of density with depth due to the diffusion of the compaction load in the material
a drop of the density when the material is compacted against a wall.
These phenomena occur in both laboratory compaction and field compaction. Density gradients
are linked to material packing and depend on the organisation and reorientation of the aggregate
particles under the compaction forces. As well as material properties, these effects also depend
on the compaction mode used. Specifically, the geometry of the compaction tool, the magnitude of
the load and use of vibration or not, all have an impact on the material organisation and
densification.
The compaction process is complex and, given a range of constraints, laboratory methods used
usually involve some compromises in order to obtain the best outcome. In pavement construction,
unbound granular materials are compacted at their optimum moisture content (OMC) and are left
to dry back before applying the bituminous surfacing. This technique is generally used for triaxial
tests in the laboratory where the cylindrical specimens are dried back before being tested at the
target moisture content. Given the large dimensions of the slab specimen used in the
wheel-tracker, monitoring the drying phase accurately and guaranteeing that uniform moisture
content was established throughout the specimen prior to testing was anticipated to be difficult, if
possible at all.
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Therefore, material is compacted at the moisture content at which the performance is be

evaluated. The targeted moisture content is generally lower than the OMC, as the OMC is
acknowledged to be unrepresentative of the condition of a pavement material during the majority of
its performance life. As a consequence of compacting at lower than OMC, the compactive effort to
reach the same density has to be increased and the risk of obtaining an unwanted density gradient
is increased. To achieve the compaction at close to maximum dry density, but at moisture
contents of between 50 and 70% of OMC, the material is compacted in thin layers. A thickness of
50 mm for each compaction layer has been adopted to facilitate the compaction and to avoid
significant gradient of density with depth. This process was used in the first successful trial during
the previous research project (Austroads 2010).
5.2 Specimen Compaction Process

The compaction procedure must guarantee good control of the properties in the 150 to 200 mm top
part of the slab as this is the area in which permanent deformation will mainly develop during the
subsequent wheel-tracking. The compaction procedure adopted involves compacting the granular
material in several thin layers to progressively fill the mould up to the nominal height. In the early
project, the New South Wales Roads and Maritime Services (RMS) determined that 50 mm thick
compaction layers would yield a sufficiently homogeneous specimen (Austroads 2010). This
practice was adopted in the sample preparation method develop by the ARRB team. Limiting the
thickness of each layer reduces the likelihood of developing a vertical gradient of density in the
final specimen as thin layers do not require the large amount of compactive effort that would be
required for thicker layers remembering that the material is compacted in a substantially dryer state
than would occur in a pavement construction environment.
5.2.1 Preparation Sequences

Figure 5.1 presents the compaction sequences for the six sub-layer steps to achieve a 300 mm
high specimen. The walls of the mould are comprised of 100 mm sections. Figure 5.1 shows the
three mould sections used to achieve the specimen depth of 300 mm. Due to the geometry of the
machine, the minimum sample height that can be wheel-tracked using the extra-large configuration
is 200 mm, and this can be achieved using two mould sections. In order to test a 100 mm high
specimen, a spacer of 100 mm should be placed at the bottom of the mould, with the remaining
100 mm of height composed of the material to be tested. In this case compaction would proceed
from configurations three to four in Figure 5.1.
During the compaction of each layer the load is progressively increased in steps. The first load
level used in the sequence is generally 5 kN. However, before this is applied, a pre-compaction
sequence is undertaken to smoothly reach a uniform state of the material. The load level is
progressively increased to reach the initial compaction load level. This pre-compaction is essential
to limit irregularities in the specimen surface.
After pre-compaction of the layer, proper compaction commences. All stages of the compaction
process are controlled by a computer control system, which allows the user to define the
compaction stages.
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Figure 5.1: Compaction sequences for a 300 mm high granular specimen
5.2.2 Compaction Data

The equipment records both specimen height and compactive effort (load applied and number of
applications of that load) during compaction. Data are recorded at each pass when the
compaction foot is located at the centre of the slab. Two sensor signals are recorded and
analysed:
The compaction load magnitude: load value given by a load cell, located between the
pneumatic ram and the base of the mould, when the compaction foot is located at its central
position.
The height of the specimen: the height of the specimen is calculated from a position sensor
which measures the extension of the ram. Analysis uses a calibration height, representing
zero height of material, and this is measured when the compaction foot is touching the
bottom surface of the empty mould.
Both sensor signals are recorded at the time when the compaction foot is located at the centre.
Typical sensor signals are presented in (Figure 5.2).
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Mat. no. 1369 slab 1856: compaction load data Mat. no. 1475 slab1836: compaction load data
Mat. no. 1369 slab 1856: specimen height data Mat. no. 1475 slab1836: specimen height data
Figure 5.2: Typical sensor signal outputs plotted charts
In compacting a layer of material, the control software applies a user-defined, fixed number of load
passes to be applied for each load level. After application of this number of passes at a given load
level, the load is increased to the next programmed level and more cycles applied. This process
can be halted at any stage if the height of the compacted layer matches the programmed target
level.
The charts presented in Figure 5.2 show two examples of compaction data obtained for the two
tested materials. In these two examples the same compaction process was programmed (i.e. the
same number of passes per load step) and it can be noticed that the slab compacted from one
material (no. 1369) required more compaction effort than the specimen of the other material
(no. 1475). Further investigation of this data may yield a quantitative measure of compactibility of
a material. However, at this stage simple examination of data typified by Figure 5.2 remains a
qualitative measure.
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5.3 Assessment of the Slab Uniformity

There is no easy way of assessing the distribution of density in the specimen when the material is
unbound. Unbound crushed rock specimens do not have enough cohesion to allow them to be
removed from the mould, and for sections of the specimen to be trimmed for investigation, without
dramatically altering the nature of the material. For this reason, the assessment of density
uniformity was undertaken using cement-treated crushed rock specimens.
Two cement-treated slabs were prepared and three sets of measurements were taken:
the height of the slab after each sub-layer compaction (variation in this height indicates
potential variations in the density if the material has been evenly spread)
the direct density measurement on segments trimmed from the slab
complementary ultrasonic wave propagation.
The height and wave propagation data were consistent with the direct density measurements. For
the sake of brevity, the following discussion on the uniformity of the slabs focusses entirely on the
direct density measurement data. The data from the experiments, including the height
measurements, are illustrated in Appendix B.
After compaction, the two slabs were left to cure for 21 days, the wave propagation measurements
were taken, and then the slabs were trimmed into smaller segments. The density of each of these
segments was then measured.
In addition to the assessment of density of these trimmed segments, the comparison between the
achieved density and the target density for unbound crushed rock specimens can be found in
Section 5.4.
5.3.1 Source Material

The material used for the compaction uniformity assessment was the crushed rock material
(no. 1369) described in Section 4.3. The material was bound with 5%, by mass, of
general-purpose cement.
5.3.2 First Specimen (Slab No. 1496)

Compaction
Prior to compacting the slab, consideration was given to the means by which the final slab could be
removed from the mould and transported to appropriate saw cutting facilities. Sections of steel
C-section were placed at the bottom of the mould prior to compacting the first layer of material.
These sections (Figure 5.3) were placed to provide rigid locations for the straps that would be used
to lift the cured sample.
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Figure 5.3: Steel guides used to allow lifting of compacted slab
Cutting
The slab was cut using an off-site four foot bridge saw with a 1.2 m wet cut diamond blade
(thickness 10 mm). The speed of the blade was set at 9000 rpm and the table holding the slab
moved at 2 m/h. The first cuts performed longitudinally as shown in Figure 5.4. Cuts were then
made in the transverse direction. Some ravelling of material did occur during this process. These
cuts resulted in the slab being divided into a series of slender vertical sections. Cutting each of
these sections, parallel to the layer faces, was done with a brick saw (400 mm wet cut diamond
blade) located at separate site to both the large saw and the ARRB laboratory (Figure 5.5). Use of
this smaller saw ensured that the minimum amount of material was lost, due to the blade width, at
the layer interfaces. Some of the layers fell apart from each other before cutting with the brick saw,
others came apart after partial cutting with the brick saw and some had to be cut completely. No
significant ravelling or loss of material occurred at this stage of cutting.
Each of the segments was numbered and its original location within the original slab was recorded.
Broken segments were kept together to be assessed separately for density testing. The density of
the original segment was deduced from the average value of the two readings if the scatter was
judged acceptable. Otherwise the data point was excluded from the analysis.
(a) (b)
Figure 5.4: Cutting slab no. 1496 using four foot bridge saw
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(a) (b)
Figure 5.5: Cutting into layers using brick saw
Density test method

Testing for density of the trimmed segments was carried out in accordance with WA 733.2 (Main
Roads Western Australia 2008). This method uses the volume of water displaced by submerging
the samples as the measure of the volume of the samples. The samples are wrapped in vacuum
sealed plastic bags. The method is as follows:
1 Masses of sample and plastic bag were recorded.
2 Sample was vacuum sealed inside plastic bag.
3 Water mass of sample inside bag was recorded.
4 Calculations were performed to determine density of sample.
WA 733.2 requires that the samples be removed from their bags and their mass taken after step
three in order to discover if water has infiltrated the sample during submersion. As it was easily
visible when water had entered the bag and the edge of the samples crumbled in the packing
process (resulting in a loss of mass when removed from the bag) it was decided not to remove the
samples from bags for a second mass measurement.
The method accuracy is greatly dependent upon the size of the specimen used for the testing. The
plastic bag not perfectly matching the roughness of the sample surface will have more effect for
smaller samples. In this study, two sizes of blocks were used. The larger blocks were cubic
(100 x 100 x 100 mm), and the segments trimmed from the sides of the slab were smaller
(50 x 100 x 100 mm). It would be expected that the effect on density results by the plastic bags not
perfectly following the roughness of the sample faces would be more pronounced for the smaller
blocks.
Density results
The longitudinal profiles (i.e. along the longest dimension of the slab) for the two top 100 mm parts
of the slab are presented in Figure 5.6.
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(a) Top layer (depth = 0100 mm)
(b) Middle layer (depth = 100200 mm)
Figure 5.6: Density data for the segments extracted from slab no. 1496: longitudinal profile
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The individual lines within this graph show that a relatively stable density value at the centre of the
slab was achieved, and that the density of the segments extracted at the extreme edges of the slab
was lower.
As the different longitudinal profiles shown in the graph are not superimposed, it is apparent that at
the different transverse locations the density was slightly varying. Figure 5.7 plots the transverse
profiles of the densities for different longitudinal locations taken in the central area. It is clear that a
consistent gradient in density occurred, with lower densities achieved at the front of the sample.
The slope of this gradient was later correlated with a measured misalignment of the compaction
axis compared to the bottom plate of the mould. Over the length of 500 mm the back part of the
foot was found 2 mm higher resulting in 0.4% of slope compared to the specimen bottom surface.
As the material is evenly spread in the mould before compaction, the higher allowable height of the
slab at the back of the device resulted in a lower density being realised by compaction.
This issue highlights the sensitivity of the compacted specimen properties to slight misalignments
in the device. This misalignment was resolved, as demonstrated in the density results of the
second slab. It is recommended that extra care be taken to ensure that the compaction foot is
parallel to the mould surfaces when manufacturing subsequent devices. Additionally, it is
important that a robust check of the alignment of the machine be made as part of commissioning of
future wheel-trackers.
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(a) Top layer (depth = 0100 mm)
Figure 5.7: Density data for the segments extracted from slab no. 1496: transverse profile
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5.3.3 Second Specimen (Slab No. 1630)

Compaction
The use of steel guides used in the compaction of the first slab had proven awkward, especially
during the saw cutting operation. An improved design was used in the compaction of the second
slab. Instead of embedding steel sections within the compacted slab, the entire slab was
compacted on a 50 mm thick timber plate. The plate had two removable sections, the removal of
which created locations for lifting straps. The use of a timber-supported plate meant that the entire
slab could be placed onto the bench of the large saw. Figure 5.8 shows the compacted slab and
highlights the timber plate and removable sections.
Figure 5.8: Compacted second slab showing improved lifting design
Density results
As noted above, the misalignment of the compaction foot was corrected before the second slab
was compacted. The measured densities of the segments in the longitudinal direction shown in
Figure 5.9 demonstrated very uniform values in the central area and, significantly, did not show
any variation in that density in the transverse direction. It was concluded that the correction of the
foot alignment had been highly successful.
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Top layer (depth = 100200 mm): longitudinal Top layer (depth = 100200 mm): transverse
Middle layer (depth = 100200 mm): longitudinal Middle layer (depth = 100200 mm): transverse
Figure 5.9: Density data for the segments extracted from slab no. 1630: longtitudinal (left hand side plots) and transverse
(right hand side plots)
The data confirms the drop in density at the mould sides in both the longitudinal and transverse
direction.
Figure 5.10 shows the vertical profile of the mean density calculated in the central area. It can be
seen that the densities of the two first 100 mm of the specimen are consistent and that there is a
density drop in the 50 mm of material overlying the timber plate that was placed to facilitate lifting
and transportation of the compacted slab.
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Figure 5.10: Density data for the segments extracted from slab no. 1630: vertical profiles
5.3.4 Findings
Three conclusions can be drawn from the density results:
The central part of the specimen is uniformly compacted.
There is a significant edge effect against the mould wall, leading to a drop in density.
There is no evidence of consistent over-compaction in lower layers as a result of the
compaction of overlying layers.
The decrease in achieved density adjacent to the walls of the mould is a well-known phenomenon.
The mobility of particles is altered by the sides of the mould and it is less likely that smaller
particles will fill the gaps between the coarser aggregates. This is illustrated well by Figure 5.11
which shows a wheel-tracked slab with the end of the mould removed. It can be seen that some of
the voids between the coarse aggregates are not filled. This is consistent with observations made
by others for asphalt compaction. For example, Massad et al. (1999) examined the variability of
the void content of asphalt samples prepared in both gyratory and slab compactors.
Their data (Figure 5.12), showed that for a coarse asphalt mix, the edge effect influences only a
few centimetres of samples prepared in a Superpave gyratory compactor (SGC). By comparison,
in the compaction of thick slab specimens, as illustrated here with the linear kneading compactor
(LKC) data, the edge effect can reach more than half of the thickness. Slab compactors are
generally improved by the vibration of the load.
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Figure 5.11: Photo of the material taken from the side just after removing the mould side
Source: Masad et al. (1999).
Figure 5.12: Effect on voids in asphalt samples
An unfortunate consequence of this density variation in slabs manufactured in the laboratory is that
only an assessment of the density of the core of the slab is of relevance to the real testing
condition, and analysis cannot be built on the average density for the whole slab. To illustrate this,
a schematic view of a cross-section of a slab of material is presented in Figure 5.13. This figure
highlights that the density of the core of the slab is likely to be higher than the mean density of the
whole slab as a result of the density drops at the edges. Furthermore, the figure also shows that
the difference in magnitude of the edge effect between materials with different physical properties
will result in a different density in the core of the slab. Whilst there is a relationship between the
mean density of the slab and the density of the central core, this relationship is dependent on
material and compaction conditions such as moisture content, compaction type/load, size of the
mould etc.
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Figure 5.13: Schematic illustration of the wall effect influence on the density in the trafficked area (side view)
For the preparation of asphalt slabs it is common practice to apply a correction factor on the mass
of material to be compacted in order to achieve the target void content (density) in the core of the
slab where fatigue beams will be extracted or wheel-tracking conducted. The adjustment
necessary to achieve an appropriate bulk density depends on the material properties (maximal
aggregate size, grading curve, particle shape) and can only be estimated empirically for a range of
mixes and be refined when data are available.
5.4 Assessment of Unbound Slab Specimens

The slab uniformity data in Section 5.3 provided a relative assessment of the density distribution in
the slab, however the material was blended with cement to build up the strength of the slabs. This
data set cannot directly be used to evaluate whether the achieved density in the core of the slab
meets the nominal target value for unbound materials.
Targeting a specific dry density of a test specimen, the compaction process is as follows:
1 The material quantity to be compacted in the mould is pre-calculated.
2 The current moisture content of material is determined.
3 The amount of water that must be added to the material to achieve the target moisture
content is calculated.
4 Water is added to the material.
5 The mixture is combined together in a planetary mixer.
6 The mixed material is divided, by weight, into the components needed to compact each
sub-layer.
7 Each sub-layer is compacted in the machine, and throughout the compaction process the
height of the specimen is monitored (when the compaction foot is passing its central
position).
8 The wet density is monitored by controlling the height of the compacted specimen.
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Assuming the specimen to be totally uniform and its density constant and equal to the mean
density, the mass of material to be compacted is calculated as in Equation 1.
= ()() = ( (1 + )) 1
where
= Theoretical mass of material to be compacted for a uniform specimen (t)
= Nominal volume of the mould (m3)
= Wet density of the material (t/m3)
= Dry density of the material (t/m3)
Moisture content calculated as the ratio of the mass of water divided by the
=
mass of dry aggregates (%)
However, the compaction of the cement-treated slabs discussed in Section 5.3, demonstrated that
the assumption of constant density throughout the slab and particularly near the mould edges, is
not valid. Further it is established that the influence that the mould edges had on the compaction
of material is, in part, dependent upon the properties of the material itself. The addition of cement
in these slabs would have significantly altered the degree to which reorientation of aggregate
particles would be affected by proximity to the module edges.
Therefore an assessment using unbound specimens was considered to be necessary, and so

direct assessments of specimen dry density were performed on a few slabs using the
sand-replacement method. The assessment was performed post-trafficking in areas outside of the
trafficked area in order that they could be related to the slab prior to wheel-tracking.
The data are plotted in Figure 5.14 shows that the material dry densities were close to the target
values, with the maximum variation below 5%. Of note is that the achieved density was
consistently greater than the target value.
As has been anticipated by the assessment of the cement-treated slabs, some form of correction
factor is needed to ensure that the density of the material in the central area does not exceed the
target density as a result of the decrease in density that occurs in proximity to the mould edges.
Figure 5.14: Comparison of the target dry density with the density measured as per the sand replacement method
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5.5 Correction of the Compacted Mass of Material

5.5.1 Simple Correction Method
Data available from the testing program based on two crushed rock materials was used to develop
an initial average correction factor to adjust the mass of material to be compacted in the box mould
in order to obtain the target material density in the core of the slab (i.e. where the deformation will
develop and be monitored during wheel-tracking).
With the data available obtained on seven specimens, from two different materials, the densities
determined using the sand replacement method were found to be 2% higher than the target
values. Accordingly, a 2% reduction in the total material added to the mould was trialled as a
simple correction in order to obtain densities closer to the target values in the central area. The
efficiency of this simple empirical correction method was then evaluated.
5.5.2 Efficiency of the Correction Method

The results of the densities, measured using sand replacement, obtained on 13 slabs are
presented in Table 5.1. The fourth column of the table refers to the correction applied to the wet
mass of material. A correction of 100% means that the weight of material was determined using
Equation 1. A correction of 98% indicates that the wet mass of material was reduced by 2%.
Table 5.1: Sand replacement method data from the slabs compacted using material no. 1369 and 1475
Material Slab no. Target DD Correction Mean slab Measured dry density Average SR DD/
no. (t/m3)(1) density (t/m3) (t/m3) target DD(3)
(t/m3)(2)
Back Front
1369 1669 2.3 100% 2.3 2.34 2.60 2.47 1.07
1475 1706 2.2 100% 2.2 2.41 2.22 2.31 1.05
1369 1712 2.3 100% 2.3 2.41 2.32 2.37 1.03
1369 1726 2.3 100% 2.3 2.39 2.36 2.38 1.03
1369 1742 2.3 100% 2.3 2.33 2.30 2.32 1.01
1475 1752 2.2 100% 2.2 2.29 2.32 2.31 1.05
1369 1766 2.3 100% 2.3 2.33 2.33 2.33 1.01
1475 1770 2.2 98% 2.16 2.24 2.23 2.24 1.02
1369 1773 2.3 98% 2.25 2.33 2.28 2.31 1.00
1369 1774 2.3 98% 2.25 2.25 2.25 0.98
1475 1801 2.2 98% 2.16 2.18 2.13 2.16 0.98
1475 1836 2.2 98% 2.16 2.16 2.15 2.15 0.98
1369 1856 2.3 98% 2.25 2.35 2.30 2.32 1.01
1 Target DD: Target dry density.
2 Mean slab density is correction x Target DD.
3 SR DD/target ratio: ratio of the dry density measured by the sand replacement method and the target value.
The data in Table 5.1 summarises the first validation trials. On the two tested materials, the 2%
reduction prevented over-compaction in the central area of the specimen.
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However, for the previous ALF materials testing further developed in Section 9, the two compaction
methods were also applied. For these four additional materials, the correction method was found
to be necessary as the achieved density was above the target value without correction. Applying
the 2% correction reduced the difference (Table 5.2). For some of these materials, the correction
was not sufficient to compensate the edge effect in the specimen.
Table 5.2: Sand replacement method data from the slabs compacted with other materials
Material Slab no. Target DD Correction Mean slab Measure dry density Average SR DD/
no. (t/m3)(1) density (t/m3) (t/m3) target DD(3)
(t/m3)(2)
Back Front
1671 1867 2.33 100% 2.33 2.44 2.44 2.44 1.05
1671 1878 2.33 100% 2.33 2.37 2.41 2.39 1.03
1672 1882 2.27 100% 2.27 2.31 2.33 2.32 1.02
1670 1885 2.26 100% 2.26 2.33 2.33 1.03
1585 1895 1.77 100% 1.77 1.76 1.83 1.80 1.01
1672 1900 2.27 98% 2.22 2.37 2.28 2.32 1.02
1671R(4) 1906 2.33 98% 2.28 2.35 2.40 2.37 1.02
1670 1913 2.26 98% 2.21 2.23 2.31 2.27 1.00
1585 1931 1.77 98% 1.73 1.75 1.74 1.75 0.99
1 Target DD: Target dry density.
2 Mean slab density is compaction % x Target DD.
3 SR DD/target ratio: ratio of the dry density measured by the sand replacement method and the target value.
4 Due to the lack of fresh material, the slab no. 1906 was compacted using recycled materials from previous slabs for the bottom 100 mm of the specimen.
The effect of the correction is illustrated in Figure 5.15 where data from Table 5.1 and are plotted
together.
Figure 5.15: Density measured as per the sand replacement method vs target dry density considering corrected or
uncorrected compaction protocol
The simple correction method of the mass of compacted material appeared to have provided an
improvement of the achieved density of the material. It is recommended that refinement of the
correction value be made as additional data becomes available.
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5.6 Conclusion
It appears that the prototype wheel-tracker is able to produce samples of uniform density in the
central core area. A correction to the amount of material added to the mould was found to be
necessary in order for the targeted density to be accurately achieved in the central core area of the
slab the area that is subject to wheel-tracking loads. A simple correction method was developed
wherein the mass of material added to the mould is 2% lower than the theoretical amount
necessary. The correction method is relatively crude, and refinement of the method is warranted
as more data is obtained.
Particle breakdown and orientation was not specifically examined during the process, as the
principle of using a segmental wheel compactor is already established and the load levels imposed
on the aggregate particles are similar to those applied in full-scale compaction and in the
laboratory preparation of cemented material slabs.
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6 MOISTURE CONDITIONS DURING SAMPLE

PREPARATION AND TESTING
6.1 Introduction
Material density and moisture content are the most significant material parameters which affect the
development and progression of permanent deformation. Material permanent strains increase
significantly when the moisture content increases. Generally, coupled with the permeability of the
material, the effect of a high degree of saturation is interpreted as reducing the effective stress and
the material interlock when submitted to loadings and a small variation of moisture content can
result in a dramatic drop of rut resistance (Thom & Brown 1987, Gidel et al. 2001). It is, therefore,
essential to control the moisture conditions of unbound granular specimens, and any test method
developed for assessing the performance of these materials should prevent changes of moisture
conditions throughout the test duration.
A key component of the testing procedures proposed for the wheel-tracker is that the preparation
of the specimen is undertaken by compacting layers of the material mixed at the moisture content
desired for the wheel-tracking test. Testing protocols must, therefore, ensure that the specimen is
protected from drying during the test duration. When compacted in the steel mould, the critical
issue is to avoid moisture evaporation form the top surface (which is not protected by the mould
sides). Protecting the moisture content in this area is even more important as permanent
deformation grows from this top part of the specimen.
In order to avoid evaporation of the specimens moisture from the surface of the slab, a sealing
membrane has been used in previous wheel-tracking experiments (Austroads 2010). A
polyurethane membrane was used because it offered waterproofing, low stiffness and high
mechanical flexibility to reduce its interaction with the permanent deformation development.
Applied while liquid, this membrane was able to match the roughness of the crushed rock
specimen. The specified curing time is approximately 68 hours at 20 C. In practice it was found
necessary to cure the membrane overnight (12 to 14 hours) to avoid the tyre sticking and removing
the membrane in the wheel-path when trafficking.
The polyurethane membrane used in the earlier work was Bostik - INSTANT
PROWATERPROOF IT. A similar water-based polyurethane material was sourced for the
current study: Davco K10 Plus.
6.2 Moisture Condition after Wheel-tracking Testing

To investigate whether this membrane was a good means of keeping the moisture constant in the
slab, material samples were extracted after completion of wheel-tracking and the moisture content
of the samples determined. Figure 6.1 shows the extraction of samples (a) and the location of
each sample taken from the slab (b).
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(a) Extraction of the samples (b) Schematic view of the sampling process
Figure 6.1: Moisture samples taken from the slab after trafficking (a) extraction of the samples, (b) schematic view of the
sampling process
From each tested slab, six samples were extracted from the middle cross-section. At two different
depths (top 100 mm and bottom 100 mm), three samples were taken from the back, middle and
front position of the slab respectively. Each material sample was about 100 x 100 x 100 mm in
size.
The moisture content of 11 slabs, compacted from two materials, was monitored. The moisture
loss data are given in Table 6.1, where the moisture loss is calculated as the difference between
the moisture after testing and the moisture measured from samples extracted immediately after
mixing of the material. A negative value indicates a loss of moisture.
Table 6.1: Moisture loss data

Material no. Moisture deviation Top Bottom layer
Front Middle Back Front Middle Back
1369 Average 0.9 1.1 0.8 0.3 0.3 0.4
Standard deviation 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3
Number of samples (4) (6) (4) (4) (6) (4)
1475 Average 1.0 1.5 1.0 0.3 0.3 0.4
Standard deviation 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.5 0.4 0.4
All materials Average 1.0 1.2 0.9 0.3 0.3 0.4
Standard. deviation 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 0.3 0.3
Note: Moisture difference is the moisture content measured after tracking minus the original moisture content, i.e. it is negative when there is a moisture loss.
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This data allows the following conclusions to be made:

The moisture at the top of the slab does drop even when protected by the polyurethane
sealing membrane.
Moisture samples extracted from slabs after testing showed that it was consistently wetter at
the bottom of the slab than at the top.
There is a consistent gradient of moisture with depth (loss of around 1% of mass moisture
content).
The moisture is lower directly underneath the wheel-path. This is likely related to the cyclic
loading mechanical effect and/or rutting and densification of the material.
The front and the back of the sample do not have significantly different moisture contents.
Figure 6.2 presents the moisture after testing vs the actual moisture of the material just before
compaction. The data presented on that charts are obtained from the samples extracted at the top
of the slab at three locations (Figure 6.1(b)). Maintaining the moisture level in the top part of the
slab is very important as it is where the permanent deformation occurs underneath to the
wheel-path.
On the charts the data are obtained from the top part of the slab where during wheel-tracking the
permanent deformation develops.
(a) Mat. no. 1369 (b) Mat. no. 1475
Figure 6.2: Data obtained from the material samples extracted from the slab in the top part of the central cross-section
To complement the above data, additional samples were taken longitudinally from a slab. On a
specific slab (sample 1554 material no. 1475) the moisture samples were extracted along the
wheel-path direction to determine if there is also a longitudinal deviation of the moisture in that
direction. On this particular slab, the moisture was found relatively constant excluding the drop
recorded on the left part of the slab where the moisture loss was found to be slightly higher.
Nevertheless, the moisture variations have to be examined considering that the moisture content is
determined with a precision around 0.2%.
Table 6.2: Moisture changes data along the wheel-path direction

Sample Top layer Bottom layer
Left Middle Right Left Middle Right
Slab no. 1554 1.2 1.2 1.1 0.9 0.7 0.7
(material no. 1475)
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6.3 Analysis of the Moisture Variation Mechanism

The moisture changes that occurred in the slabs during testing were considered unacceptable, and
means of reducing the loss was sought to improve the test procedure. To do this, an
understanding of the main mechanism involved in the moisture loss was required. A conceptual
model, shown in Figure 6.3, illustrates the different potential sources of moisture loss in tested
slabs:
Leakage through the steel mould side joints. This should be very small because no gaps
were present between the mould parts.
Drainage (constant volume process driven by gravity in the non-saturated soil), which should
be negligible due to the small height involved (h = 0.3 m).
Evaporation from the top surface. This would be mitigated by sealing the top surface.
Diffusion through the membrane and subsequent evaporation. Depends on the moisture
diffusion characteristics of the sealing membrane (both liquid and vapour diffusion
characteristics are relevant).
Diffusion through rutting deformation induced cracking of the sealing, which can be reduced
by the adoption of a flexible membrane. Despite this, a few cracks may appear when a
significant amount of permanent deformation is reached in the wheel-path (trafficked area
and shoulders) of a granular material slab.
The moisture measurements performed after testing indicate that some diffusion was occurring
through the sealing membrane.
Figure 6.3: Conceptual scheme presenting the moisture transfer mechanism
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6.3.1 Laboratory Investigation of the Membrane Performance

To assess whether the membrane provided an impermeable barrier to water in both liquid and
vapour states, a laboratory experiment was set up to evaluate, on a smaller scale, moisture loss.
The membrane used to avoid water transfer from the surface was tested on gyratory compacted
specimens prepared in the laboratory. Paired samples were compacted in the gyratory compactor
and the samples left in their compaction moulds. One sample was sealed with the sealing
membrane and the other left unsealed as a control. Additionally, the sealing material was applied
to a plastic disc of the same diameter as the compacted samples.
During the experiment, the specimens illustrated in Figure 6.4 were kept in a temperature
controlled room at 25 C (the room humidity was not controlled). Over time, the weights of the
specimens were recorded in order to calculate the loss of moisture.
Figure 6.4: Principle of the measurement
Three different sealing materials tested were:

Sealant 1: Polyurethane membrane (Davco K10 plus)
Sealant 2: PmB (latex) bitumen emulsion (Betta Bitumen Rubber)
Sealant 3: Flexible epoxy (Ardex AF 545).
The moisture loss data obtained for the three different membranes are presented in the results
shown in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5(a) shows that the moisture loss in the specimen was reduced by the sealant 1 material.
However, the weight loss was greater than the loss in the sealing material itself, which confirms
that evaporation and moisture diffusion took place within the sample. This was confirmed by
moisture content measurements from the material after testing. These results show that there was
a change in moisture content with height, for both the sealed and unsealed specimens, despite the
sealed specimen losing less moisture.
Figure 6.5(b) shows that the bitumen emulsion (sealant 2) behaved in a similar fashion to the
original polyurethane sealant. Both sealing compounds proved to be permeable to water vapour
and so were deemed to be not appropriate for maintaining the moisture constant in the
wheel-tracking slabs. The weight loss in the sealant-only specimen was largely limited to the first
eight hours of observation. However the loss in moisture for sealed specimen continued past this
time, indicating that the cured sealant was allowing the passage of water vapour.
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Examination of the moisture loss data for sealant 3 (Figure 6.5(c)) clearly shows that the sealed
specimen did not exhibit moisture loss for the 40 hours of testing.
The experimental approach was considered to be an effective and efficient means of evaluating
the permeability of various sealants to both liquid water and particularly water vapour states.
(a) Sealant 1: Polyurethane membrane
(b) Sealant 2: Bitumen emulsion
(c) Sealant 3: Flexible epoxy membrane
Figure 6.5: Weight loss monitoring for moisture retention efficiency assessment
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6.3.2 Validation of the Moisture Loss on Wheel-tracker Specimen

As a result of the above small-scale study, use of the third sealant was implemented for
subsequent wheel-tracking tests, and post-tracking moisture samples were extracted from the slab
for testing and analysis.
After compaction of each slab, the liquid membrane was placed and left to cure overnight. The
next day the wheel-tracking test was started. After tracking, six moisture samples were dug from
the slab to analyse the moisture content. Sampling was done at the same six locations shown in
Figure 6.1(b). Whilst the data from the trafficked area might be affected by the deformation of the
material and the cyclic action of the rolling wheel, the two samples taken from the sides outside of
the trafficked area would be relatively unaffected by this and allowed assessment of the moisture
variation in the top part of the slab specimen. Data is presented in Table 6.3, and a considerable
reduction in moisture loss, compared to the polyurethane sealed slabs shown in Table 6.1, is
evident. In the graphical representation of this comparison shown in Figure 6.6 the improvement in
moisture control is clear.
Table 6.3: Moisture changes recorded on the slab specimen coated with sealant 3
Material no. Moisture deviation Top Bottom layer
Front Centre Back Front Centre Back
1369 Average 0.3 0.0 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.3
Standard dev. 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2
1475 Average 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.1
Standard dev. 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.1
All materials Average 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.0 0.3
Standard dev. 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2
Note: Moisture difference is calculated by subtracting the moisture after tracking from the moisture extracted achieved in the mixer before compaction. It is negative
when there is a moisture loss.
The comparison of the data sets from the two unbound granular materials could indicate that the
moisture loss mechanism is dependent in part upon the type of material. The moisture diffusion
involved in the moisture loss phenomenon is directly related to the materials permeability which is
an independent material parameter. However, the prediction and/or modelling of permeability is
probably too complicated for implementation in laboratory routine testing, especially as material
permeability in unsaturated materials will change in highly non-linear ways during moisture
movement within and out of the material.
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(a) Mat. no. 1369 (b) Mat. no. 1475

Figure 6.6: Moisture loss data obtained from the top samples of all the tested specimens before and after improvement of
the sealing membrane
As a result of these findings, all subsequent slabs were sealed with the epoxy sealant.
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7 WHEEL-TRACKING TEST RESULTS

This section presents the permanent deformation data obtained during the wheel-tracking tests
undertaken during the project. Most of the specimens prepared during the project were trafficked
and the permanent deformation at the surface of the slab was recorded.
7.1 Introduction
The principal objective of the project was to define the testing conditions suitable for testing
crushed rock materials in the laboratory. During the conduct of the project refinements to the
sample preparation and wheel-tracking procedures were made.
The various sample preparation and testing protocols are presented in Table 7.1.
Table 7.1: Parameters for the different testing conditions

Testing Compacted Membrane Type of sealing Seating time Type of tyre Inflation Vertical load
protocol wet mass of used for pressure applied for
no. material sealing (bar) wheel-tracking
(kN)
WMth(1) Polyurethane Full surface Overnight Inflatable 7 10
1
(Davco K10 (20 h) Trelleborg T522
Plus) 6.00-9/10
2 Shoulders only None
3 Flexible epoxy Full surface Overnight
(AF 545) (20 h)
4 6 8
5 0.98 WMth
1 Theoretical wet mass presumes that there is no wall effect, i.e. WMth = WD x volume.
These protocols are used, denoted P1P5, when presenting the results of wheel-tracking tests in
the following sections.
7.2 Permanent Deformation Data

7.2.1 Permanent Deformation Data
The laser system fitted on the machine allows measurements to me made across the wheel-path.
An area within 100 mm either side of the longitudinal axis can be recorded. The maximum
resolution in the transverse direction is one measurement every 1 mm. For the Trelleborg (T522
6.00-9/10) inflatable tyre the width of the wheel-path is around 50 mm (i.e. the width of the tyre
slab/contact area is 100 mm). The wheel-path is centred on the longitudinal slab axis, leaving
50 mm on each side of the wheel-path to capture any material heave of the shoulder material. The
apparatus does not allow recording of the full transverse profile up to the mould edges.
At the start of the test a laser scan is undertaken, before trafficking, to record the initial slab profile.
This set of data is then subtracted from the subsequent measurements in order to calculate the
traffic-induced deformation at each laser scan.
The grid adopted for the measurements is defined as follows:

Five transverse cross-sections have been adopted; their longitudinal locations relative to the
symmetry axis are 150, 75, 0, +75 and +150 mm.
For each cross-section the measurements are taken each 1 mm.
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Figure 7.1 shows a typical example of deformation measured at the surface of the specimen for
one particular cross-section (the centre of the slab) at different numbers of cycles. Similar profiles
are obtained for each of the scanned cross-sections.
Figure 7.1: Examples of profiles evolving with the number of loading cycles for one cross-section
7.2.2 Average Permanent Deformation Calculation

For each laser scan more than 1000 data points are recorded. For engineering purposes and
performance assessment, the average permanent deformation is calculated. For each laser scan,
the average deformation is calculated as an average of the deformation in the wheel-path as
shown in Equation 2.

( 0 ) 2
() =

=1
where
= Mean surface deformation measured at cycle (mm)
= Number of locations defined for profile measurements
= The actual position recorded at the location and the cycle (mm)
0 = The position recorded at the location obtained for the initial profile
measurement (mm)
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7.2.3 Laser Scan Schedule

The deformation curve generally exhibited a highest rate at the start of the test and then
progressively stabilised with additional load cycles. The control software for the machine allows
the user to define the number and timing if laser scans up to a maximum limit of 18.
The cycle counts at which laser scans were taken was 0 (where the deformation is defined to be
zero), 10, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 10 000, 15 000, 20 000, 25 000,
30 000. It is currently anticipated that 30 000 cycles will probably be sufficient for routine testing,
however in order to check this additional data was collected up to 40 000 cycles. Moreover when
possible some of the tests were performed up to 100 000 cycles to assess the reliability of the
apparatus for long lasting tests. These tests provided the opportunity to check whether the
deformation stabilises after 40 000 with a decreasing deformation rate or not.
7.3 Laboratory Test Results

The different testing conditions adopted allowed the first assessment of the following issues:
repeatability of the tests
effect of the slab thickness on the test results
effect of the preparation conditions on the test results
comparison of test results for two different materials.
7.3.1 Inventory of Tests

A listing of all the specimens prepared and tested during the development of the testing protocols
is presented in Table 7.2.
Table 7.2: Summary of the wheel-tracking tested slabs and conditions

Material no. Slab no. Thickness Target DD Target MC Test protocol
(mm) (t/m3) (%)
1369 1450 300 2.30 4.48 1
1369 1483 300 2.30 4.48 1
1369 1519 200 2.30 4.48 1
1475 1547 200 2.20 4.20 2
1475 1554 200 2.20 4.20 2
1369 1567 200 2.30 4.48 2
1369 1580 300 2.30 4.48 2
1475 1595 300 2.20 4.20 2
1475 1611 300 2.20 4.20 2
1369 1669 300 2.30 4.48 2
1475 1706 300 2.20 4.20 2
1369 1712 200 2.30 4.48 2
1475 1721 300 2.20 4.53 3
1369 1726 300 2.30 4.48 3
1369 1742 300 2.30 4.48 3
1475 1752 300 2.20 4.20 4
1369 1766 300 2.30 4.48 4
1475 1770 300 2.16 4.20 5
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Material no. Slab no. Thickness Target DD Target MC Test protocol

(mm) (t/m3) (%)
1369 1773 300 2.25 4.48 5
1369 1774 300 2.25 4.48 5
1475 1801 300 2.16 4.20 5
1475 1836 300 2.16 4.20 5
Further details are presented in Appendix D.1 where the targeted and achieved conditions are
summarised in Table D 1.
7.3.2 Repeatability
During the testing program most of the tests were repeated at least once in order to assess the
variability of the permanent deformation on two specimens compacted from the same material
sample prepared in the same conditions. Repeated results obtained for two specimen heights of
200 mm and 300 mm are presented in Figure 7.2 and Figure 7.3 respectively.
Repeated average permanent deformation data measured on slabs tested in the same conditions
are consistent.
(a) (b)
Figure 7.2: Repeatability data for slab of thickness = 200 mm (a) hornfels (mat. no. 1369), (b) rhyolite (mat. no. 1475)
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(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 7.3: Repeatability data for slab of thickness = 300 mm (a) hornfels (mat. no.1369), (b) rhyolite (mat. no. 1475),
(c) hornfels (mat. no. 1157) from the commissioning trials
7.3.3 Effect of Slab Thickness

Figure 7.4 presents the data collected to allow examination of the effect on test results due to
changing the thickness of the slab. For material no. 1369 (Figure 7.4(a) and (b)) the permanent
deformation obtained for the two thicknesses was clearly different. The amount of deformation
was below 3 mm, however on the graphs the two sets of curves related to each condition are
clearly disassociated. For these four tests, the effect of the thickness of the specimen was greater
than the repeatability at a given condition. Figure 7.4(b) shows that part of the difference noticed
between the two thicknesses was due to the initial deformation i.e. the deformation measured at 10
cycles. This deformation was greater for the thicker slabs.
For material no. 1475 (Figure 7.4(c) and (d)) the effect of the thickness was less clear. For this
material, the average deformation measured up to 40 000 cycles was around 7 mm. The two sets
of data obtained for the two thicknesses were not clearly separated.
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Material no. 1369 thickness 200 vs 300 mm

(a) Linear scale (b) Semi-logarithmic scale
Material no. 1475 thickness 200 vs 300 mm

(c) Linear scale (d) Semi-logarithmic scale
Figure 7.4: Wheel-tracking results obtained for two slab thicknesses (i.e. height = 300 and 200 mm) and two tested
materials
At this stage it is difficult to draw conclusions on the effect of the specimen thickness, but the data
available shows a trend having larger deformation for higher specimen thickness. Further testing
and analysis are required to determine whether the variance in slab thickness has a direct effect on
the initial deformation, and whether this effect extends into further cycles of the tests.
To complete the analysis, a 3D elastic stress analysis of the wheel-tracking specimen was
undertaken to evaluate whether the thickness has an important effect on the stress distribution.
The mean and octahedral stress parameters under the wheel when it is positioned at the centre of
the slab are plotted in Figure 7.5. The stresses in the top 100 mm of the specimen, where the
peak stresses are located, can be seen to be not significantly different for the two thicknesses.
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Figure 7.5: Comparison of the mean and octahedral stresses under the centred wheel for two slab thicknesses
(200 and 300 mm)
The above testing data was collected using testing protocol 2, which used the polyurethane sealing
compound. As demonstrated earlier, this compound did not provide adequate control of moisture
during the sample preparation and testing period. Additionally, as discussed in Section 7.3.4, the
fact that the protocol did not seal the trafficked area had a marked effect on test results. Given
these issues, it is considered unwise to draw final conclusions from this data alone. Subsequent
testing will need to be undertaken to determine whether the effect of the thickness of slab material
does have a consistent effect on the test results. Because this issue was not definitively resolved,
the testing within this project continued to use the thicker slab thickness of 300 mm. If the effect of
thickness is subsequently found to be negligible, the testing of materials using a 200 mm thick
specimen would be recommended as such samples require considerably less material.
7.3.4 Influence of Other Testing Parameters

During testing, several incidents or problems gave the opportunity to obtain data conditions which
were not originally planned. In particular a few experiments provided information about:
the sealing protocol (discussed in Section 6)
the effect of an excess in compaction of the top 50 mm layer.
Effect of two top-sealing protocols

The two sealing protocols applied during the development of the wheel-tracking tests for unbound
granular materials were:
Protocol 1
place a polyurethane membrane after compaction on the full surface of the specimen
cure the sealant overnight (from 14 to 16 hours)
start tracking after completion of curing to avoid any sticking of the tyre with the
membrane.
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Protocol 2
place a polyurethane membrane only in the untrafficked area (i.e. two-thirds of the
surface is sealed)
start trafficking immediately after placing the membrane.
The influence of the two protocols is presented in Figure 7.6. On the plots, protocol 1 is displayed
in black, while the green and blue represent protocol 2. They show that the permanent
deformation was significantly lower when the specimen was left overnight for the membrane to
cure. The permanent deformation was nearly halved by using protocol 1 compared to protocol 2.

Material no. 1369 thickness 300 mm: protocol 2 vs protocol 1
(c) Linear scale (d) Semi-logarithmic scale

Material no. 1369 thickness 200 mm: protocol 2 vs protocol 1
Figure 7.6: Wheel-tracking results obtained for two different protocols
Effect of an over-compaction of the last layer

Due to a software problem, the last 50 mm layer of a prepared specimen (slab no. 1611) was over-
compacted. The excessive compaction was evaluated to be between 2 to 3 mm for the 50 mm
layer. This excess is equivalent to an increase of around 5% of the dry density compared to the
target value for this particular layer. The slab was tested, and the results can be compared with
the one obtained using the standard compaction method. In Figure 7.7 the blue line represents
this particular specimen, which gave less deformation than the other specimens tested using the
correct compaction procedure. These first results clearly show an impact on the permanent
deformation development.
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Figure 7.7: Effect of a slight over-compaction of the top 50 mm of the 300 mm thick specimens
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8 SUMMARY OF THE PREPARATION PROCEDURE

DEVELOPED TO DATE
The procedures developed during the research work have been drafted as a test method in
Austroads standard test method format (Appendix C). Development of this test method will
continue as more testing is conducted and additional refinements are deemed necessary.
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9 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON WITH ACCELERATED

LOADING RESULTS
In this section the test procedures developed for unbound granular materials under wheel-tracking
tests (Appendix C) are applied to four materials which had previously been tested in full-scale
pavements using the Accelerated Loading Facility (ALF). The objective is to compare the
permanent deformation measured in the laboratory with the deformation in the test pavement to
evaluate if the laboratory test provides an appropriate material performance ranking method. The
comparison between deformations in full-scale pavements tested by ALF and a large wheel-tracker
had been conducted as part of an earlier study (Austroads 2010). In that study an old
wheel-tracker in the NSW Roads and Traffic Authority (now Roads and Maritime Services) central
laboratory was used. Data from that study is repeated in Section 9.1, after which the findings of a
repetition of this exercise using the new wheel-tracker are presented and discussed.
9.1 Data Available from Previous Experiments

The deformation data from the test pavements were obtained for the same pavement structures
which only differed in the material used to make the 300 mm thick base, which was laid above a
150 mm cement-treated subbase to avoid any contribution of subbase/subgrade deformation in the
surface deformation records.
The mean deformation data measured from the different tested pavements are plotted in
Figure 9.1. The final recorded deformation clearly highlighted two groups of materials. Both the
crushed rhyolite and limestone exhibited a lower mean deformation after hundreds of thousands of
loading cycles, and the crushed tuff almost reached 20 mm of deformation after around 300 000
cycles. The modified hornfels material with an increased PI, failed after 6000 cycles.
Figure 9.1 shows that that, except for the crushed hornfels which failed rapidly, the three other
materials had deformation rates very close to one another until 20 000 loading cycles. From this
point the deformation rate stayed relatively constant for both rhyolite and limestone crushed rock
but increased for the tuff material.
Figure 9.1: Permanent deformation under accelerated loading
Samples for wheel-tracking were made using material excavated from untrafficked areas of the
ALF test pavements.
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The in situ material density and moisture contents were determined immediately prior to ALF
trafficking of each section had been completed. In situ density measurements were taken, using a
nuclear density gauge in the area to be trafficked. However a better accuracy is provided by
oven-dried moisture contents.
The moisture content is defined as the average moisture measured immediately outside the
trafficked area using oven-dried moisture tests. Using this data, the test conditions adopted for
wheel-tracking testing were selected (Table 9.1).
Table 9.1: Testing condition for the new wheel-tracking tests
Sample no. Material Target dry density Target moisture content

(t/m3) (%)
1670 Crushed rhyolite 2.26 3.6
1671 Crushed hornfels 2.33 4.7
1672 Crushed limestone 2.27 4.8
1585 Crushed tuff 1.77 15.1
Data from the wheel-tracking is presented in Figure 9.2. The final deformation data between the
wheel-tracking device in RTA and ALF were found to be in good agreement as shown in Table 9.2.
Table 9.2: Previous ranking of wheel-tracking test results compared to RLT and ALF data
Material Sample Dry Moisture Deformation Maximum Deformation rate Ranking Ranking Ranking
no. density content in first 50 deformation (mm/log(kcycle)) from from RLT under
(t/m3) (%) cycles depth after between 50 and wheel test accelerated
(mm) 10 000 10 000 cycles tracker loading
cycles (mm) test
Crushed 1561/02 2.30 3.6 1.7 2.5 0.37 1 3 1
rhyolite
Crushed 1561/05 2.29 4.9 3.4 11.8 6.4 4 1 4
hornfels
Crushed 1561/04 2.27 4.7 1.9 4.8 1.2 2 2 2
limestone
Crushed 1561/03 1.76 15.3 4.8 10.9 2.8 3 3 3
tuff
Source: Austroads (2010, Table 8.10).
The laboratory tests clearly separated the materials which had significant rutting from the material
which had deformed less. However, during these first trials the specimens were sealed using
water-based polyurethane. The findings presented in Section 6 clearly showed that this type of
membrane could remain porous when cured. The moisture content was checked and found to be
on target when investigating the specimen after testing. If the materials had lost moisture through
the membrane during testing that would indicate that the material was prepared at higher moisture
content than was targeted.
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Figure 9.2: Permanent deformation under laboratory wheel-tracking
9.2 Preliminary Assessment of the Materials

The same material that was used in the earlier study was used to compact samples for testing in
the new wheel-tracker. This material had been stockpiled since the conduct of the earlier work. To
obtain relevant samples all of the remaining material from the stockpiles were processed (twice)
through a rotary material divider, yielding a uniform sample suitable for testing.
9.2.1 Particle Size Distribution

Particle size distribution curves (Figure 9.3 to Figure 9.6) did not show any significant difference
from the pristine material used in the previous study (i.e. the particle size distribution of the
materials before they were compacted to form the test pavements). This indicates that significant
particle breakdown had not occurred as a result of the material placement, compaction, excavation
and storage exercises.
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Figure 9.3: Grading curves of tested sample (no. 1670) compared to original data
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9.2.2 Compaction Properties

The compaction properties of the four materials from the test pavements has been assessed and
compared with the original results. The results are shown in Table 9.3. Most of data are
consistent with the properties determined originally for the previous ALF trial (Austroads 2010).
Table 9.3: OMC-MDD obtained for the material samples compared with the original data
Material Sample no. OMC MDD
(% ) (t/m3)
Rhyolite 2009 sample 5.8 2.34
No. 1670 5.9 2.3
Relative difference 1.7% 1.7%
Hornfels (PI = 8) 2009 sample 6.5 2.32
No. 1671 6.4 2.28
Limestone 2009 sample 6.5 2.31
No. 1672 7 2.32
Tuff 2009 sample 17.2 1.81
No. 1585 17.5 1.8
In Table 9.3, both OMC and MDD are less than 12% different from the original parameters,
except for the OMC measured on the limestone sample (no. 1672). For this material the optimum
moisture content is 0.5% higher than the original value which remains less than 10% different than
the original value. The new data set do not highlight significant changes in the material properties
since originally characterised in the previous research project.
9.2.3 Additional Validation Tests

As explained in detail in Austroads (2010) the hornfels material used had been prepared for the
purpose of the research with an enhanced plasticity index by the addition of plastic material into
the commercial crushed rock from the quarry. The plasticity index of this material was tested prior
to sample preparation to confirm that it had not changed from the original material (Table 9.4).
Table 9.4: Plasticity index of the modified hornfels material (sample no. 1671)
Material Sample no. Liquid limit Plastic limit Plasticity index
(%) (%) (%)
Hornfels material (PI = 8) (Austroads 2007) 29 na 8
1671 (Test 1) 21.5 17.5 4
1671 (Test 2) 25 17 8
Note: na = not available.
This preliminary assessment indicated that the basic properties of the materials had not changed
significantly when compared to the original, untrafficked, materials.
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9.3 Sample Preparation

The slab samples were prepared in accordance with the procedures developed and summarised in
Section 8. Slabs were compacted in six layers (each 50 mm thick) to obtain a 300 mm high
specimen. Compaction was undertaken with the material at the test moisture content.
For each slab the general testing process was the same. Immediately after compaction the
sample was sealed using the flexible epoxy material in order to stop evaporation. The slab was
cured overnight to allow the settlement of the epoxy compound before trafficking. After
approximately 12 hours the proper wheel-tracking test was started and the surface deformation
monitored at a given number of loading cycles from 10 to 40 000 cycles.
9.4 Test Results

The tests performed on the four materials are listed in Table 9.5. The mean surface deformations
obtained during the wheel-tracking tests are presented in Figure 9.7. For each material, except the
tuff, the test was repeated once, providing two wheel-tracking test for analysis. From the test result
the repeatability was found to be acceptable and not greater than the first assessment presented in
Section 7.3.2. In Figure 9.7 the tests performed for each individual material are generally
separated from one another. This is showing that the change of material provides more difference
than the scatter obtained when the test on a single material is repeated.
Table 9.5: Summary of wheel-tracking tests performed on the previously tested ALF materials
Material no. Slab no. Thickness Target DD Target MC Test
(mm) (t/m3) (%) protocol
1671 1867 300 2.33 4.70 4
1671 1878 300 2.33 4.70 4
1672 1882 300 2.27 4.80 4
1670 1885 300 2.26 3.60 4
1585 1895 300 1.77 15.10 4
1672 1900 300 2.27 4.80 5
1671R 1906 300 2.33 4.70 5
1670 1913 300 2.26 3.60 5
Further information is available in Appendix D.2 where the targeted and achieved conditions are
provided in Table D 2.
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Figure 9.7: Mean surface deformation for previous ALF materials under wheel-tracking
Figure 9.7 demonstrates that the modified hornfels material developed less deformation under
wheel-tracking conditions than the other materials tested. This does not match the observations
from the full-scale test pavement where the material failed under 6000 cycles of ALF loading (truck
dual wheels loaded at 60 kN).
In terms of deformation reached at 40 000 cycles, the wheel-tracking test ranked the four materials
in the opposite way when compared to ALF performances. Ranking of both magnitude and rate of
the permanent deformation did not correlate with the deformation recorded under ALF. The
material performance rankings obtained using the new wheel-tracker obviously do not match those
obtained by the earlier study using the RTA device.
All of the new wheel-tracking tests were undertaken using the same conditions for each material,
and with the same sample preparation processes. Unfortunately, project constraints did not allow
detailed investigation of the underlying causes of these discrepancies. Nevertheless, the following
potential issues have been identified:
The tests were performed assuming that the materials were identical to the material in the
trial pavement bases. The preliminary assessment of grading curves did not show major
changes due to particle breakdown or loss of fines. The assessment of the plasticity index of
the modified hornfels gave scattered results from 4% to 8%. There is a possibility that the
plasticity of the materials, especially the hornfels material, changed during the whole process
(digging the pavement, and repeatedly passing the material through the rotary splitter).
The test conditions were defined using the moisture data from samples taken from the ALF
pavements before trafficking and extracted outside the trafficked area. Samples were taken
at three depths, and only the data from the top part of the base (depth between 25 mm and
150 mm) were considered to be relevant moisture content for permanent deformation
characterisation and were used to define the wheel-tracker test conditions.
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The target dry density was calculated as the average of the dry density measured, prior to
trafficking with ALF, using a nuclear gauge along the length of the (to be) tested area. The
readings were taken at a transverse position at which the majority of the transverse
wandering ALF load would be applied. The significant effect that density can have on
wheel-tracker results highlights that any lack of precision in the nuclear density testing could
be significant.
The accuracy of the techniques used for both moisture content and dry density
measurements have a low accuracy and can be very dependent on how the samples are
extracted.
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10 CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECT SUGGESTIONS

10.1 Conclusions
This report documents the development of testing conditions for the characterisation of rut
resistance of crushed rock materials used for road base construction. A new combined compactor
and extra-large wheel-tracking device was manufactured.
The wheel-tracking test principle and technology used are mature in the testing of asphalt
materials, and have been shown by this study to be easily transferable to crushed rock
characterisation. Most of the research undertaken in developing the new procedures was focused
on assessing the sample preparation conditions to be used to ensure that uniform samples are
prepared for subsequent wheel-tracker testing. For unbound granular materials characterisation,
the major physical parameters which have to be controlled are the dry density of the material and
the moisture content.
Uniformity of the density in prepared slabs was evaluated using the data from two slabs of
cement-treated crushed rock. The results showed that the density is uniform across the slab
except on the edges where a significant wall effect is noticed. Variation with depth was small and
there were no vertical density gradients in the top 200 mm of the specimen. Therefore, the density
of prepared slabs was uniform across the area of relevance to subsequent wheel-tracking, i.e. the
area where the deformation will develop and where the surface deformation will be measured as
proposed in the test method.
Because of the density drop towards the mould sides, the achieved density in the core of the
sample is higher than the mean density of the whole slab. This phenomenon was confirmed by
density measurements undertaken on tested unbound crushed rock samples outside the trafficked
area as per the sand replacement method. Considering that the precision of this field
measurement method is low compared to laboratory standards, a correction of the compacted
mass of material to be compacted was considered able to cater for the lower density of the sides of
the mould. Using results available to date, a reduction of at least 2% of the compacted mass of
material should be applied to obtain a density in the core of the specimen closer to the targeted
value. However, the segregation associated with the wall effect is material dependent and the
correction factor will have to be refined when further results will be available. It is considered that
the compactor and the compaction process can produce reasonably uniform samples appropriate
for testing.
Control of the moisture content of the sample is vital. The moisture content of the material is
controlled by targeting the test moisture content when preparing the material in the mixer.
Moisture content of the material is then checked prior to compaction. To avoid moisture loss
during the test, a membrane is placed on the top surface of the sample, preventing evaporation
from occurring and keeping the material at the target moisture content. Experiments initially used
a water-based polyurethane sealant, but samples extracted from the slab after testing indicated
that the moisture had dropped showing moisture loss occurring throughout the test.
To solve the moisture loss problem, three different sealants were tested on gyratory compacted
cylinders to assess the performance of each product. A flexible epoxy product has been found to
provide the best outcome without compromising the flexibility required to avoid any interaction with
the deformation of the crushed rock underneath it. Moisture loss has been reduced from around
1% of moisture content to around 0.3% using this membrane type.
The findings of this work have been incorporated into draft test methods for the preparation of
samples, and for the conduct of wheel-tracking tests.
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A short factorial testing program that considered the variation in the thickness of the specimens
(200 mm and 300 mm) for two different crushed rock materials (rhyolite and hornfels) has been
undertaken to evaluate the repeatability of wheel-tracking test results and also the influence of the
specimen thickness. The results showed that the whole process provided repeatability in the same
range as obtained for established wheel-tracking tests on asphalt samples. For one material, the
deformation was decreased by 25% for the thinner slab, whereas for the second material the effect
of thickness was not larger than the scatter in test results. Both thicknesses seem appropriate for
testing. Comparison of finite element stress analysis conducted for the two thicknesses confirmed
that the peak stresses are not significantly affected by the specimen thickness. However, further
experimental validation should be undertaken before reducing the specimen height from 300 mm
to 200 mm. Such a reduction would be desirable as it would reduce both the cost and effort
required for each test.
In the last stage of the project, four materials re-used from former test pavements were tested, and
the test results compared to performance data obtained under full-scale accelerated loading. For
each material the wheel-tracking specimens were prepared at the same dry density and moisture
content as had been present in the test pavements at the time of full-scale loading. The
wheel-tracking test results were repeated at least once for each material and did not exhibit
significant variability in permanent deformation test results. However, the wheel-tracking test
results ranked the relative performance of the four materials in the opposite manner to the ranking
based on full-scale loading. Additionally, the ranking was opposite to the ranking of performance
that had been made based on wheel-tracker testing using the RTA wheel-tracker. This issue was
not resolved within the project, and further research is necessary to discover what is fundamentally
different in the laboratory and field conditions, and how this could result in such large differences in
performance characterisation.
The wheel-tracker provides relatively realistic loading conditions when compared to field
conditions; nevertheless it remains a laboratory exercise and cannot fully represent all of the
conditions in the road bed and the full history of a pavement material. Table 10.1 shows known
differences between the laboratory conditions as opposed to the field conditions.
Table 10.1: Inventory of the main differences between pavement and laboratory wheel-tracking environment
Parameters ALF/road pavement Wheel-tracker
Geometry The pavement is made of layers of different materials and The material slab is confined in a steel mould.
thicknesses. Compared to the size of the loads, it is almost
infinite in length and limited transversally by the shoulders.
Material Prepared at the quarry at the moisture content matching The material is processed in the laboratory from a stockpile
OMC. using the following sequence:
Transported by trucks, laid and levelled using standard 1 processed through material divider
construction equipment. Construction includes quality control 2 mixed at the desired moisture content in a laboratory
of the achieved properties. mixer (medium size concrete mixer)
3 kept in sealed container
4 moisture is assessed (oven-dried method)
5 ready for compaction in batches for each layer.
Compaction Compaction in layers at the optimum moisture content to The developed method is based on compaction in 50 mm
achieve a relative density controlled by nuclear gauge thick layer. Vibration cannot be applied in the laboratory with
measurements on site. Compactors used are drums segmental steel wheel compactors.
including vibration.
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Parameters ALF/road pavement Wheel-tracker

Moisture The road base compacted at the OMC then dried back to Compacted at the test moisture content which is lower that
history around 70% of OMC prior to sealing. Then the moisture OMC. However, the test can be run at any moisture content
history is variable and depends on the hydrological and allows assessing the moisture sensitivity. Practical
conditions, the rainfall and the integrity of the seal. The ALF means of drying back slabs to lower moisture content than
test pavements were constructed inside a large shed. used at compaction, and still obtaining a uniform sample,
have not been identified to date.
Loading Real traffic conditions with variety of load, type of tyres, Load is applied by an inflated tyre fitted on the machine
condition transverse position and speed. Traffic is constituted of (inflation pressure p = 600 kPa) and the vertical load is
steering, free rolling and directly powered axles. limited at 8 kN imposed by the load capacity of the tyre used.
Under ALF a single tyre type (11R22.5, or other) is used and No load wandering.
the load wandering follows a symmetrical pattern close to a Free rolling conditions, following a sinusoidal motion of the
normal distribution. The tyres are directly powered and are axis from one end to the other of the slab specimen.
not free rolling. When moving forwards and backwards, the wheel-load is
Under ALF, the rolling load is applied in one direction by applied in both directions
lifting the wheel carriages when moving backwards.
Rutting On a pavement, rutting is interpreted as the distance under a At this stage the analysis is focused on permanent
definition straight-edge seated on the pavement. Rutting deformation in the wheel-path. Part of material heaving can
measurements can result from two contributions: permanent be assessed by analysing laser scan data on the sides.
deformation and heaving. ALF data results are expressed in
terms of permanent deformation only, and exclude heaving.
10.2 Suggestions for Future Work

Clearly further research must be conducted to yield that laboratory test methods for sample
preparation and wheel-tracking that can be confidently used to rank material deformation
performance, and equally that the results be confidently considered to reflect field performance.
As only very small quantities of the four materials used in this study remains, it is recommended
that additional work be conducted using new materials, and that the remaining existing four
materials, be stored until such time as they can be used to confirm the findings of new work.
The testing program on previously tested materials was focused on testing the materials at the field
conditions. In the laboratory, the slab density was controlled but the slight difference (achieved vs
target) noticed were systematically toward higher density conditions. Similar comment can be
made for the moisture conditions were the moisture in the tested slabs was either on target or
slightly lower than the target content. As permanent deformation will decrease with an increase of
density and also with a decrease of moisture content, the experimental conditions might not have
allowed capturing instabilities in the material deformation mechanism. A sensitivity analysis on
both density (lower density) and moisture content (higher moisture content) effect could provide a
better appreciation of the results obtained to date. It will also quantify the significance of these
testing parameters on the rut resistance properties measured in the laboratory.
Moreover, the research project findings have reinforced the need for additional research into the
fundamental properties of the unbound granular material prepared in laboratory conditions.
It is suggested that:
Evaluation of the fundamental material properties obtained in the laboratory using the
wheel-tracker and in a pavement should be compared. Effect of the post-compaction drying
back, which is not implemented in the current wheel-tracking method, should be investigated.
Additionally, a comparison of the aggregate structure obtained by compaction in the
laboratory should be compared with that obtained from the experimental pavements.
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The effect of increasing the WT load, to even better represent pavement loading levels,
should be investigated.
As the research has highlighted the importance the accuracy of the density testing for large
size samples, any improvement in density measurement techniques will facilitate
achievement of precise targeted densities in specimen preparation. A non-destructive
method that allowed assessment to be undertaken before trafficking would be ideal.
Further development of the testing conditions should be undertaken to further examine
differences in rut resistance assessed in the laboratory and full-scale ALF pavements. It is
proposed to undertake the same validation used in TT1163 but with a set of four new
materials.
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REFERENCES
Austroads 2005, Sample preparation: compaction of asphalt slabs suitable for characterisation: test method,
AGPT/T220, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2007, Optimum use of granular bases: material selection for detailed performance evaluation,
AP-T85/07, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2008, The development and evaluation of protocols for the laboratory characterisation of
cemented materials, AP-T101/08, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Austroads 2010, Assessment of rut-resistance of granular bases using the repeated load triaxial test,
AP-R360/10, Austroads, Sydney, NSW.
Gidel, G, Hornych, P, Chauvin, JJ, Breysse, D & Denis, A 2001, A new approach for investigating the
permanent deformation behaviour of unbound granular material using the repeated load triaxial
apparatus, Bulletin de liaison des Laboratoires des Ponts et Chausses, (in French), no. 233,
pp 5-21.
Main Roads Western Australia 2008, Bulk density and void content of asphalt: vacuum sealing method, test
method WA 733.2, MRWA, Perth, WA.
Masad, E, Muhunthan, B, Shashidhar, N & Harman, T 1999, Quantifying laboratory compaction effects on
the internal structure of asphalt concrete, Transportation Research Board, no. 1681, 1999,
pp. 179-85.
Thom, NH & Brown, SF 1987 The effect of moisture on the structural performance of a crushed limestone
road base, Transportation Research Record 1121, pp. 50-56.
VicRoads 2011 Standard specifications for roadworks and bridgeworks, VicRoads, Kew, Vic.
Standards
AS 1289.5.8.1-2007, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil compaction and density tests:
determination of field density and field moisture content of a soil using a nuclear surface moisture:
density gauge: direct transmission mode.
AS 1289.6.4.1-1998, Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil strength and consolidation tests:
determination of compressive strength of a soil: compressive strength of a specimen tested in
undrained triaxial compression without measurement of pore water pressure.
AS 1289.5.2.1-2003 Methods of testing soils for engineering purposes: soil compaction and density tests:
determination of the dry density/moisture content relation of a soil using modified compactive effort.
EN 12697-22: 2004, Bituminous mixtures: test methods for hot mix asphalt: part 22: wheel tracking,
European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium.
EN 12697-33: 2007, Bituminous mixtures: test methods for hot mix asphalt: part 33: specimen prepared by
roller compactor, European Committee for Standardization, Brussels, Belgium.
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APPENDIX A MATERIALS USED

The test method procedure was developed using crushed rock material sourced from two quarries
located in Melbourne eastern suburbs in Victoria. A typical good quality 20 mm crushed rock
produced commercially at a quarry in the eastern Melbourne suburb of Montrose was selected.
This rhyolite material has previously been used in several previous research projects focused on
permanent deformation of unbound granular materials (Austroads 2007). The other material is a
hornfels material, which was obtained from a quarry in the south-eastern Melbourne suburb of
Lysterfield. However, the new sample differed from the sample referenced in Austroads (2007)
which was altered to improve its plasticity.
A.1 Particle Size Distribution

Grading curves data are shown in Table A 1 and plotted in Figure A 1.
Table A 1: Grading curves of the two materials used

Material no. Sieve (mm)
0.075 0.15 0.3 0.6 1.18 2.36 4.75 6.7 9.5 13.2 19 26.5
1369 13 14 17 21 29 43 59 67 79 93 100 100
1475 11 13 16 22 32 47 64 75 85 90 100 100
Figure A 1: Grading curves of the two materials used
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A.2 Modified Compaction Curve

The material compaction curve was performed on the two material samples to determine the
optimum moisture content and the dry density using the modified testing protocol referring to
(AS 1289.5.2.1).
A.2.1 Crushed Rock Materials

Compaction curve obtained for the materials no. 1369 and 1475 are presented in Figure A 2 and
Figure A 3 respectively.
Figure A 2: Compaction curve: material no. 1369
Figure A 3: Compaction curve: material no. 1475
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A.2.2 Material No. 1369 + 5% Cement

For the assessment of the density uniformity one of the material was modified by adding 5% of GP
cement. Figure A 4 shows the compaction curve.
Figure A 4: Compaction curve: material no. 1369 + 5% of cement
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APPENDIX B COMPACTION DENSITY UNIFORMITY

ASSESSMENT DATA
B.1 Slab No. 1496
B.1.1 Height Measurements
Height measurements were performed according to a grid (100 x 100 mm). Heights were recorded
for each 50 mm sub-layer of material). The data is presented in Figure B 5.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure B 5: Height measurements recorded during compaction (slab no. 1496 mat. no. 1369 + 5% cement)
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B.1.2 Directly Measured Density Data

Density measurements were performed on cement-treated slab. Density was measurement from
the segments sawn according to a 100 x 100 x 100 mm pattern for the central area and
50 x 100 x 100 mm on the edges. The data is presented in Figure B 6.
(a) Top layer ( depth = 0100 mm)
(c) Bottom layer (depth = 200300 mm)

Figure B 6: Density measurements from the trimmed segments (slab no. 1496 mat. no. 1369 + 5% cement)
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B.2 Slab no. 1630

B.2.1 Height Measurements
Height measurements were performed according to a grid (100 x 100 mm). Heights were recorded
for each 50 mm sub-layer of material). The data is presented in Figure B 7.
Not recorded for the bottom plate (50 mm)
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f)
Figure B 7: Height measurements recorded during compaction (slab no. 1630 mat. no. 1369 + 5% cement)
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B.2.2 Directly Measured Density Data

Density measurements were performed on cement-treated slab. Density was measurement from
the segments sawn according to a 100 x 100 x 100 mm pattern in the central area,
50 x 100 x 100 mm on the sides and 50 x 50 x 100 mm for the bottom parts. The data is presented
in Figure B 8.
(a) Top layer ( depth = 0100 mm)
(c) Bottom layer (depth = 200250 mm)
Figure B 8: Density measurements from the trimmed segments (slab no. 1630 mat. no. 1369 + 5% cement)
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APPENDIX C METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF

PERMANENT DEFORMATION
CHARACTERISTICS OF UNBOUND
GRANULAR MATERIALS BY WHEEL-
TRACKING TEST
PREFACE
This wheel-tracking test method for unbound granular materials has been prepared with the results
obtained to date. On behalf of Austroads, ARRB Group is developing the test method, and as new
developments become available this document will be amended.
FOREWORD
This method has been prepared as an alternative or complementary way of assessing the
permanent deformation performances of granular material to the repeated load triaxial test. It
better represents in-service loading conditions by modelling, in the laboratory, the effect of a rolling
wheel on a specimen of material. To guarantee the integrity of the unbound granular material
specimen, it requires to be manufactured in the mould used for testing.
Granular material characterisation tests require specimens of uniform composition that are
representative of the material placed in the field. Criteria include uniformity of the density and
particle distribution, particle orientation consistent with in-situ materials, and absence of
unrepresentative change in particle size distribution due to the compaction process.
SCOPE
This test method covers the determination of permanent deformation of unbound pavement
materials using wheel-tracking equipment. The test method includes the sample preparation
procedure in which test specimens are compacted to a specified density and moisture condition.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT
This document is an evolving draft test method, and contains some areas which may change when
new data and evidences will be available.
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DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT DEFORMATION CHARACTERISTICS

OF UNBOUND GRANULAR MATERIALS BY WHEEL-TRACKING TEST
1 REFERENCES
The following documents are referred to in this method:
AS/NZS
AS 1141 Methods for sampling and testing aggregates.

AS 1141.3 Part 3: Sampling of aggregates.
AS 1152 Specification for test sieves.
AS 1289.1 Method 1 Preparation of disturbed samples for testing.
AS 1289.2.1.1 Method 2.1.1 Soil moisture content tests Determination of the moisture
content of a soil Oven drying method (standard method).
AS 1289.5.1.1 Method 5.1.1 Soil compaction and density tests Determination of the dry
density/moisture content relation of a soil using standard compactive effort.
AS 1289.5.2.1 Method 5.2.1 Soil compaction and density tests Determination of the dry
density/moisture content relation of a soil using modified compactive effort.
AS 1289.5.5.1 Soil compaction and density tests Determination of the minimum and
maximum dry density of a cohesionless material Standard method.
AS 1289.5.5.1 Soil compaction and density tests Determination of the minimum and
maximum dry density of a cohesionless material Standard method.
2 DEFINITIONS
For the purpose of this standard, the following definitions apply:
1 Laboratory moisture ratio: The ratio of the moisture content of the specimen to the optimum
moisture content of the material, as determined by AS 1289.5.1.1, AS 1289.5.2.1 or
AS 1289.5.5.1.
3 EQUIPMENT
The following equipment is required.
3.1 Mixing Equipment

The mixing equipment shall be capable of meeting the following requirements:
1 an even distribution of moisture shall be obtained within a few minutes of mixing for each
batch of materials
2 unrepresentative aggregate crushing caused by the mixing process shall be minimized
3 suitable devices include (but not restricted to):
rotary mixer (concrete mixer style)
planetary type mixer
4 the unit shall have a tipping discharge mechanism.
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3.2 Slab Mould Assembly

A mould assembly capable of producing material specimens with the dimensions stated in
Table 3.1 shall be used. It shall be constructed of suitable material and thickness such that it will
not deform during compaction.
Table 3.1: Specimen dimensions after compaction

Test Depth Width (transverse to direction Length (parallel to direction of
(mm) of compaction) (mm) compaction) (mm)
Wheel-tracking 300(1) 3 500 1 700 1
1 The standard compaction procedure can be transposed to prepare thinner slabs. If the availability of material is a concern part of the sample can be replaced by
a spacer of the desired thickness.
The mould shall comprise an upper frame to prevent the material falling outside the mould at the
beginning of the compaction.
3.3 Compaction Device

The compaction device is a segmental plate of 500 mm of diameter wheel compactors capable of
achieving requirements specified in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Target performances of the compaction devices

Parameter Performance required
Particle orientation To be uniform in respect to particle distribution and orientation consistent with in-situ pavement materials.
Uniformity of density To have uniform density distribution.
Aggregate crushing There shall be no significant change in the particle size distribution of the due to the compaction process.
The diameter of the steel roller of 500 mm was adopted to develop the standard. To limit the
transverse variability of specimen properties the compaction foot width shall allow compaction of
the full width of the specimen without requiring lateral repositioning. The device shall enable
application of a static load up to 30 kN.
3.4 Wheel-tracking Device

The following apparatus is required:
1 Wheel-tracking device consisting of a loaded pneumatic tyre that bears on a surface of the
specimen. Tracking will consist of an oscillating movement of the wheel relative to the
specimen. The relative movement can be achieved by either having the wheel moving and
the specimen fixed or having the specimen moving when the wheel is fixed. However, the
specimen shall not rotate and its surface shall be kept parallel to the axis of the wheel travel
direction. The device must meet the following requirements.
Wheel-tracking shall be via pneumatic tyre. A wheel-fitted with a 6.00-R9 pneumatic
tyre without thread pattern (about 550 mm diameter) and having a track width of
110 5 mm is suitable for the test.
The travel of the pneumatic tyre relative to the specimen shall be 700 5 mm.
Depending on material type, the response of granular materials can slightly depend on
the velocity of the load. The time travel (outward and return) shall be kept constant
during the test and shall be 2.5 0.5 s.
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The centre line of the tyre track shall be parallel to the theoretical centre line of the
tested specimen. The centre of the track shall not be more than 10 mm from this
theoretical symmetry line.
A load up to 10 kN shall be applied to the specimen, accurate to within 0.1 kN of the
target value. The applied load shall be measured at the level of the top surface of a
specimen normal to the plane of the specimen theoretical flat surface.
The test temperature should not affect the granular material response significantly.
However, the test shall be performed at a laboratory room temperature of (20 3) C.
Mould of internal dimensions 700 x 500 mm, all dimensions 5 mm, capable of
withstanding the test conditions without any deformation. The height of the mould
corresponds to the nominal thickness of the test specimen e.g. 300 mm.
The specimen mould and support shall provide fixings to firmly hold the specimen.
During the test, the moisture content of the specimen shall not vary. A sealing
membrane and sealing of the mould is required if the specimen is expose to significant
drying after being compacted and during the tracking test.
The loading equipment shall be capable of providing at least 30 000 continuous wheel
load cycles (i.e. outward and return).
2 The compacted specimen shall provide a smooth top surface with a tolerance of 5 mm
between the highest and the deepest point compared to the theoretical nominal height. The
height of the specimen can be indirectly measured by using a calliper and a ruler which seats
on the upper frame across the slab. Measurements according a symmetrical square grid
(100 x 100 mm) provide an appropriate evaluation.
3 A measuring device shall be provided that measures the vertical depth of the rut as it
develops. Depth gauge or laser sensors can be fitted.
If the equipment is fitted with a depth gauge measurement system, it shall allow
measuring according to the grid shown in Figure 10.2. The position of the measuring
point should be defined with an accuracy of 1 mm and the accuracy of gauge system
shall be 0.2 mm.
If the equipment is fitted with a laser sensor measurement system, it shall allow
measuring the local deformation to within 0.2 mm. Laser sensors shall be capable of
measuring the vertical deformation with maximum intervals of 2 mm along at least five
cross-sections as indicated in Figure 10.1.
3.5 Other Apparatus

1 Mixing and preparing utensils.
2 Tamping pad to flatten the surface before each sub-compaction.
4 TEST CONDITIONS
The following test conditions shall be specified:
1 the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density of the material, as determined
by AS 129.5.1, AS 1289.5.2.1 or AS 1289.5.5.1 and relevant test method by which they are
determined
2 the moisture ratio at the beginning of the test (see Note 1)
3 the target density ratio.
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5 SAMPLE
The sample shall be obtained and prepared as follows:
1 Obtain a bulk sample of the material to be tested in accordance with AS 1141.3.
2 Prepare the sample in accordance with the appropriate Section of AS 1289.1.
3 From the sample prepared in Step (b) obtain, by riffling or splitting, a representative
subsample of about 260 kg for the compaction of the slab specimen. Place the subsamples
in sealed containers. Compaction will require a subsample for each sublayer and possibly
several batches per subsample depending on the mixing device capacity.
4 If required, obtain at least two samples of 1 to 2 kg each from each batch mixed according to
Step (c) above for the determination of the actual moisture content in accordance with
AS 1289.2.1.1.1.
5 Allow the subsample to cure for an appropriate time for the soil type.
6 PREPARATION OF THE TEST SPECIMEN

Mix the sample of granular material to the appropriate moisture content. The mass of material
sampled shall exceed the required mass to manufacture the slab to the specified dimensions.
To avoid vertical density gradients in the manufactured specimen compaction is to be undertaken

in several sub-layers. Compaction of multi-layer specimens from laboratory prepared granular
material is performed by repeating steps 6 (d) to 6 (f) for each sub-layer:
1 Determine equi-thick sub-layers to achieve the full specimen. Each sub-layer thickness shall
be 50 mm for material with a maximal aggregate size of 20 mm.
2 Produce granular material subsamples in accordance with the sample preparation
(Section 5).
3 Calculate the mass of material required to achieve the target wet density of the layer. The
mass of material should be the mass calculated to give the desired density in the cut
specimen. Allowance should be done for lower density on the side of the slab in the method
at this stage. However a first estimation on a few base materials of the influence of wall
effects on the density of the core of the slab as shown that at centre, the density can be
higher than the average density. The results available to data indicate that a reduction of 2%
of the wet mass of compacted material.
4 Transfer the mixed material into the compaction mould.
5 Spread the material uniformly throughout the mould, to avoid segregation. Manual spreading
or mechanical spreading devices that can assist in uniformly distributing the material in the
mould can be used.
6 Compact the sub-layer.
After completion of the compaction, the thickness of the specimen at all point of the measuring
zone shall not be more that 2% of the nominal thickness of the specimen.
After compaction a waterproof membrane might be required to prevent the loss of moisture from
the top surface before and during the test. Two components flexible epoxy membranes can be
used for this purpose. Products with similar properties as epoxy ARDEX AF545, should be
suitable after checking.
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7 PERMANENT DEFORMATION TESTING

Unless otherwise specified, the specimen is to be loaded by applying a rolling wheel-loading during
the test according to the following specified conditions.
7.1 Testing Conditions

7.1.1 Tyre Inflation Pressure
The pressure in the tyre shall be (600 30) kPa during the test. If it is not monitored during the
tests, the pressure must be checked at least before starting and after the test.
7.1.2 Rolling Load

Unless otherwise specified the rolling load, applied to the tested specimen shall be (8 0.1) kN
along the tracking path. The load has to be checked at the centre at least of a dummy specimen
when the device is static.
7.1.3 Contact Area

When testing at the standard loading the wheel print area shall be approximately elliptical. The
length of the print parallel to the wheel travel shall be (170 5) mm. The width of the print
transverse to the track shall be (100 5) mm in the standard conditions (inflation pressure of
600 kPa and vertical load of 8 kN as defined in Sections 7.1.1 and 7.1.2). Measures are ideally
performed over a steel plate or alternative stiff and solid material. Ink applied on the tyre or carbon
paper can be used to print the wheel patch on a sheet of paper. The wheel-print area should be
controlled regularly to prevent any excessive wear of the testing tyre.
7.1.4 Average Contact Stress

The contact area observed is approximated by an elliptical surface. The average contact stress
is estimated according to Equation 1.
1
=

( 4 )
where
= average contact stress induced by the tyre (kPa)
= rolling load applied to the specimen (kN)
= length of the tyre contact area measured as described in Section 7.1.3 (m)
= width of the tyre contact area measured as described in Section 7.1.3 (m)
The standard measurements shall provide an average contact stress of 637 kPa.
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7.2 Permanent Deformation Testing

1 Place a test specimen in the wheel-tracking device.
2 Set the displacement measuring device such that there is sufficient downward and upward
range to cater for material rutting and heaving.
3 A preconditioning wheel-load can be applied if specified before starting the test.
4 Record the initial surface profile of each test. As a minimum, the pattern shown in
Figure 10.2 must be used. For the given locations 0 is the initial measurement at the
location.
5 Commence wheel-tracking test for a maximum of 30 000 load cycles (outwards and back).
Readings of the specimen deformation shall be taken, as a minimum, at the following
intervals: 0, 10, 50, 100, 200, 300, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000, 10 000, 15 000,
20 000, 25 000, 30 000 cycles. Rutting depths measurements can be taken at more frequent
intervals and include more data inside and outside the trafficked area to assess material
heaving.
Record the tracked surface profile of the wheel-path. As a minimum, the pattern shown
in Figure 10.2 must be used. For the given locations is the measure at the
location recorded at cycle .
The mean rut depth is calculated as the average of the specimen deformation
according Equation 2.

( 0 ) 2
=

=1
where
= mean rut depth measured at cycle (mm)
= number of locations defined for profile measurements
= is the actual position recorded at the location and the cycle (mm)
0 = is the position recorded at the location obtained for the initial profile
measurement (mm)
6 The test on a specimen is completed when one of the following termination condition is
reached:
the required number of cycles is completed
the mean rut depth exceeds 20 mm
the rut progression is stabilised. The rut progression is considered stabilised when the
test has been performed for at least 10 000 cycles and the mean surface deformation
has not changed from more than 0.5 mm in the last 5000 cycles.
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8 SPECIMEN DISASSEMBLY AND POST-TESTING

Prior to removal, both density and moisture content can be determined in and/or outside the
trafficked area as determined by AS 1289.5.3.1. Two samples taken from both side of the
wheel-path are necessary. The time between compaction and the density /moisture measurement
has to be reported.
9 RECORDED DATA AND TEST RESULTS

9.1 Contextual Data
The following raw data for the outputs of all measurement devices shall be recorded in a complete
test.
1 The loading apparatus and rut depth measure and acquisition system that meet the
requirements as specified in Section 3.4.
2 Calibration factors of all measurement devices and date of the calibration tests.
3 Wheel-print measure in the testing conditions over a solid plate (material to be stated) and
date of assessment
9.2 Permanent Deformation Results

For each specimen the mean rut depth of the specimen for the set of measurements, for the
values of local deformation using the relationship given in Equation 2.
9.3 Graph
Plot a graphlog( ), against log() for each specimen of the same material tested in the same
density and moisture conditions.
9.4 Average Rut Depth

Calculate the mean value of, of the two or more specimens tested of the same material tested in
the same density and moisture conditions.
10 TEST REPORT
10.1 General
The report should include the following information:
1 type and source and identification of material
2 the targeted and as-tested laboratory density ratio and laboratory moisture content, together
with the optimum moisture content and the maximum dry density of the material
3 specimen thickness
4 method of compaction used to prepare the specimen specifying the number of layers
compacted, the number of passes at each compaction force load level for each layer
5 specimen identification
6 test date
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7 loading conditions
applied load
tyre pressure at the beginning and the end of test
wheel-print measure in the testing conditions over a solid slab (i.e. metal or MDF)
frequency of wheel-travel
8 test temperature (i.e. room temperature or different is controlled)
9 number of cycles used for rut depth measures
10 tested initial material moisture content after mixing
11 tested final dry density and moisture content after tracking as determined by AS 1289.5.3.1
for the two extracted samples and their average value
12 time between compaction and the final density assessment
13 number of cycles used for rut depth measures
14 reference to this method
15 operator(s).
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Figure 10.1: Wheel-tracking device for granular materials: geometry and dimensions
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Figure 10.2: Wheel-tracking device for granular materials: location of rut depth measuring points
NOTES
Specimen moisture and density ratio: As both permanent deformation and granular material
response to load results are significantly dependent on the density and moisture condition of the
specimen, it is important that the specimen should have the target moisture and density ratios.
Therefore it is recommended that, if the test is performed at a single density and moisture
condition, at least two specimens prepared to the target density and moisture ratios shall be tested
to check the repeatability of the test results. The average values and the maximum differences of
density ratio, moisture ratio, and rut depth between tested specimens shall be reported.
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APPENDIX D WHEEL-TRACKING TESTS RESULTS

D.1 Tests Undertaken for Definition of Test Conditions
The testing program undertaken resulted in testing 22 wheel-tracking tests. Table D 1 summarises
the test conditions. These tests were completed on the two different crushed rock materials
previously presented in Appendix A.
D.2 Tests on Previously Tested ALF Materials

The test characteristics and main results are shown in Table D 2.
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Table D 1: Summary of the wheel-tracking tests parameters on material no. 1369 and 1475
Material Slab Thickness Target DD Target MC After mixing Test Number of After Relative After Relative Difference Test Mean surface
no. no. (mm) (t/m3) (%) MC protocol loading testing MC after testing DD after DD duration(1) deformation
(%) cycles (%) testing MC (t/m3) testing (t/m3) (day) (40 103 cycles)
(N) DD (mm)
1369 1450 300 2.30 4.48 4.14 1 40 000 0.46
1369 1483 300 2.30 4.48 1 5 000
1369 1519 200 2.30 4.48 4.56 1 40 000 1.3
1475 1547 200 2.20 4.20 4.49 2 40 000 3.34 0.80 8.23
1475 1554 200 2.20 4.20 4.09 2 40 000 6.9
1369 1567 200 2.30 4.48 4.45 2 30 000 3.41 0.76
1369 1580 300 2.30 4.48 4.40 2 40 000 3.77 0.84 2.71
1475 1595 300 2.20 4.20 4.34 2 30 000 3.44 0.82
1475 1611 300 2.20 4.20 4.31 2 40 000 3.23 0.77 4.75
1369 1669 300 2.30 4.48 4.38 2 30 000 3.65 0.81 2.47 1.07 0.17 6
1475 1706 300 2.20 4.20 4.04 2 40 000 3.15 0.75 2.31 1.05 0.11 4 6.44
1369 1712 200 2.30 4.48 4.42 2 40 000 3.74 0.83 2.37 1.03 0.07 4
1475 1721 300 2.20 4.53 4.49 3 30 000 4.44 0.98
1369 1726 300 2.30 4.48 4.43 3 3 000 4.23 0.94 2.38 1.03 0.08 2
1369 1742 300 2.30 4.48 4.40 3 15 000 4.23 0.94 2.32 1.01 0.02 2
1475 1752 300 2.20 4.20 4.19 4 40 000 3.77 0.90 2.31 1.05 0.11 23 7.35
1369 1766 300 2.30 4.48 4.06 4 40 000 3.98 0.89 2.33 1.01 0.03 3 1.28
1475 1770 300 2.16 4.20 4.33 5 40 000 3.83 0.91 2.24 1.04 0.08 5 9.8
1369 1773 300 2.25 4.48 4.66 5 40 000 4.41 0.98 2.31 1.02 0.05 6 3.37
1369 1774 300 2.25 4.48 4.83 3 4.36 0.97 2.25 1.00 0.00 2
1475 1801 300 2.16 4.20 4.38 no 3.91 0.93 2.16 1.00 0.00 1
tracking
1475 1836 300 2.16 4.20 4.16 5 40 000 3.85 0.92 2.15 1.00 0.01 2 12.23
1 Test duration is measured between the compaction time and the sand replacement density and moisture investigation.
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Table D 2: Summary of the wheel-tracking tests parameters on previously tested ALF materials
Material Slab Thickness Target DD Target MC After mixing Test Number of After Relative After Relative Difference Test Mean surface
no. no. (mm) (t/m3) (%) MC protocol loading testing MC after testing DD after DD duration(1) deformation
(%) cycles (%) testing MC (t/m3) testing (t/m3) (day) (40 103 cycles)
(N) DD (mm)
1671 1867 300 2.33 4.70 4 4.40 10 000 4.635 0.99 2.44 1.05 0.11 4
1671 1878 300 2.33 4.70 4 4.56 40 000 4.485 0.95 2.39 1.03 0.06 4 1.72
1672 1882 300 2.27 4.80 4 4.96 40 000 4.74 0.99 2.32 1.02 0.05 2 2.59
1670 1885 300 2.26 3.60 4 3.59 40 000 3.495 0.97 2.33 1.03 0.07 2 4.98
1585 1895 300 1.77 15.10 4 15.46 40 000 14.93 0.99 1.80 1.01 0.03 4 1.91
1672 1900 300 2.27 4.80 5 4.98 30 000 4.38 0.91 2.32 1.02 0.05 3 3.74
1671R 1906 300 2.33 4.70 5 4.72 30 000 4.575 0.97 2.37 1.02 0.04 3 1.28
1670 1913 300 2.26 3.60 5 3.49 20 000 3.25 0.90 2.27 1.00 0.01 3 5.57
1 Test duration is measured between the compaction time and the sand replacement density and moisture investigation.
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INFORMATION RETRIEVAL
Austroads, 2013, Development of a Wheel-tracking Test for Rut Resistance

Characterisation of Unbound Granular Materials, Sydney, A4, pp.86.
AP-T240-13
Keywords: permanent deformation, rutting, laboratory performance,

unbound granular materials, wheel-tracking tests
Abstract:
To assess permanent deformation of granular materials, repeated triaxial tests

are currently used in Australia. A previous research project highlighted interest
in using a wheel-tracking test to obtain a better agreement with field
performance. A new wheel-tracker/compactor was developed and
manufactured for unbound granular material characterisation.
Specimen preparation procedures have been developed and assessed, with

test repeatability comparable to wheel-tracking tests on asphalt. The density of
the compacted slab is uniform except close to the mould sides where
wall-effect leads to lower densities. A simple correction to the total mass to be
compacted was implemented. The control of the moisture conditions is
obtained using a membrane which stops the material drying from the top of the
specimen.
A comparison between deformation performance in the laboratory with

previous data obtained under accelerated pavement testing exhibited
differences. These differences could not be examined in detail in the project
timeframe. Results show that further research should be undertaken to
investigate fundamental differences in material structure that may occur
between wheel-tracking samples and in-service pavement.

Ap T240 13

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AP-T240-13

AUSTROADS TECHNICAL REPORT

Development of a Wheel-tracking Test for Rut

Published May 2013

Austroads Ltd 2013

Austroads Project No. TT1611

Austroads Publication No. AP-T240-13

Published by Austroads Ltd

4 METHODOLOGY USED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE TESTING

5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPACTION PROCEDURE ................................................... 10

6 MOISTURE CONDITIONS DURING SAMPLE PREPARATION AND TESTING ................ 29

7 WHEEL-TRACKING TEST RESULTS ................................................................................ 37

8 SUMMARY OF THE PREPARATION PROCEDURE DEVELOPED TO DATE ................... 46

9 PERFORMANCE COMPARISON WITH ACCELERATED LOADING RESULTS ............... 47

10 CONCLUSIONS AND PROSPECT SUGGESTIONS .......................................................... 56

APPENDIX A MATERIALS USED ............................................................................................. 61

APPENDIX B COMPACTION DENSITY UNIFORMITY ASSESSMENT DATA ......................... 64

APPENDIX C METHOD FOR THE DETERMINATION OF PERMANENT

APPENDIX D WHEEL-TRACKING TESTS RESULTS .............................................................. 79

2.2 Manufacture and Commissioning of a Wheel-tracking Device

2.3 Objectives of the Project

3.2 Specification for Compaction

3.3 Specification for Wheel-tracking

3.3.1 Large Device

The frequency of travel shall be 1 0.1 Hz (average speed 0.82 m/s).

3.3.2 Extra-large Device

3.4 The New Wheel-tracker

Source: IPC Global.

Figure 3.1: Photo of the machine

A ventilated enclosure, allowing heating up to 60 C, is also incorporated to allow controlled

Source: IPC Global.

Figure 3.3: Photo of the laser operating a scan of a reference surface

4 METHODOLOGY USED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF

In a laboratory characterisation context, the challenge is to be able to manufacture a

Table 4.1: Description of the method used for preparation assessment

4.3 Materials used to Develop the Testing Conditions

Table 4.2: Density and moistures data of materials used

4.4 Testing Program

5 DEVELOPMENT OF THE COMPACTION PROCEDURE

Therefore, material is compacted at the moisture content at which the performance is be

5.2 Specimen Compaction Process

5.2.1 Preparation Sequences

Figure 5.1: Compaction sequences for a 300 mm high granular specimen

5.2.2 Compaction Data

Figure 5.2: Typical sensor signal outputs plotted charts

5.3 Assessment of the Slab Uniformity

5.3.1 Source Material

5.3.2 First Specimen (Slab No. 1496)

Figure 5.3: Steel guides used to allow lifting of compacted slab

Figure 5.5: Cutting into layers using brick saw

Density test method

(a) Top layer (depth = 0100 mm)

(b) Middle layer (depth = 100200 mm)

(a) Top layer (depth = 0100 mm)

(b) Middle layer (depth = 100200 mm)

5.3.3 Second Specimen (Slab No. 1630)

Figure 5.8: Compacted second slab showing improved lifting design

Source: Masad et al. (1999).

Figure 5.12: Effect on voids in asphalt samples

5.4 Assessment of Unbound Slab Specimens

= Theoretical mass of material to be compacted for a uniform specimen (t)

= Nominal volume of the mould (m3)

= Wet density of the material (t/m3)