Mineralium Deposita (2001) 36: 477489

DOI 10.1007/s001260100184

A RT I C L E

James R. Lang Timothy Baker

Intrusion-related gold systems: the present level of understanding

Received: 30 May 2000 / Accepted: 12 April 2001 / Published online: 27 July 2001
Springer-Verlag 2001

(315 t Au), Pogo (160 t Au), and Dublin Gulch,

Introduction True North, and Brewery Creek (40 t Au each) in
Yukon, Canada, and Alaska, United States, as well as
This volume presents new data on a group of gold de-
Mokrsko, Czech Republic (120 t Au), Vasilkovskoe,
posits that are hosted primarily within or in the imme-
Kazakstan (300 t Au), Salave, Spain (30 t Au), Korri
diate wall rocks to intrusions, and which have recently
Kollo, Bolivia (160 t Au), and Kidston, Australia
been suggested to comprise a distinct class of magmatic
(140 t Au).
hydrothermal system. These deposits have been called
A paucity of detailed descriptions of individual in-
``porphyry gold deposits'' (Hollister 1992; Bakke 1995),
trusion-related gold systems, the plutonic provinces that
``intrusion-related stockwork-disseminated deposits''
host these systems, and the genetic processes critical to
(Sillitoe 1991), ``plutonic-related gold deposits'' (New-
their formation currently limits our ability to either de-
berry et al. 1988; McCoy et al. 1997) and ``intrusion-
velop precise criteria for their denition or to formulate
related gold deposits'' (Thompson et al. 1999). Lang
well-constrained geological and exploration models. The
et al. (2000) preferred the term ``intrusion-related gold
principal discussions (Sillitoe 1991; Hollister 1992;
systems'' because it reects a tendency common to all
Newberry et al. 1988, 1995; Lang et al. 1997; McCoy
magmatichydrothermal environments to form ores that
et al. 1997; Thompson et al. 1999; Goldfarb et al. 2000;
manifest multiple styles, metal assemblages, and spatial
Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000) suggest that there are
associations with their related intrusive centers. Al-
several features common to most intrusion-related gold
though in its infancy, investigation and exploration of
deposits and provinces, including: (1) metaluminous,
intrusion-related gold systems has accelerated markedly
subalkalic intrusions of intermediate to felsic composi-
in the last 5 years, due in part to their global distribution
tion that lie near the boundary between ilmenite and
and to the large number of deposits that contain a gold
magnetite series; (2) carbonic hydrothermal uids; (3) a
resource of >30 metric tonnes (Fig. 1). Major deposit
metal assemblage that variably combines gold with ele-
examples include Fort Knox (210 t Au), Donlin Creek
vated Bi, W, As, Mo, Te, and/or Sb and low concen-
trations of base metals; (4) a low sulde mineral content,
J.R. Lang (&) T. Baker mostly <5 vol%, with a reduced ore mineral assem-
Mineral Deposit Research Unit, blage that typically comprises arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite,
Department of Earth and Ocean Science, and pyrite and which lacks magnetite or hematite; (5)
University of British Columbia, areally restricted, commonly weak hydrothermal alter-
6339 Stores Rd., Vancouver,
British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
ation, except in systems formed at the shallowest depths
spanned by these deposits; (6) a tectonic setting well
Present address: J.R. Lang inboard of inferred or recognized convergent plate
Lang Geoscience Inc.,
10556 Suncrest Drive, boundaries, where continental magmatism commonly
Delta, British Columbia V4C 2N5, Canada contains coeval intrusions of alkalic, metaluminous calc-
e-mail: jlang@dccnet.com alkalic, and peraluminous compositions; and (7) a lo-
Tel.: +1-604-5823808 cation in magmatic provinces best or formerly known
Fax: +1-604-8226088
for tungsten and/or tin deposits. Deposits that can be
Present address: T. Baker condently placed within the group formed during much
Economic Geology Research Unit,
School of Earth Sciences,
of the Phanerozoic, but inclusion of some Proterozoic
James Cook University, Townsville, and even Archean deposits has also been proposed (e.g.,
Queensland 4811, Australia Robert 2001, this volume).
478
Fig. 1 Location of major,
recognized intrusion-related
gold systems and related
plutonic provinces. Diagram
after Thompson et al. (1999)
and Lang et al. (2000)
The dening criteria, as presently recognized, show
that intrusion-related gold systems and their associated
plutonic provinces are globally widespread (Fig. 1), but
adequate descriptions of the contained deposits are only
now beginning to emerge. The Tintina gold belt of
eastern Alaska and central Yukon in the northern part
of the North American Cordillera (Fig. 1) is thus far the
most extensively studied province of intrusion-related
gold systems. This belt is 1,000 km in length and
contains gold deposits of Early Cretaceous to Eocene
age (Newberry et al. 1995; McCoy et al. 1997; Goldfarb
et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000) that, as a group, span much
of the globally recognized variation among these sys-
tems. As such, the Tintina gold belt is currently the
primary standard against which deposits in other prov-
inces can be compared, and is, therefore, emphasized in
this introduction.
This paper briey considers the status of our
knowledge of intrusion-related gold systems, and is in-
tended only as an introduction to the major character-
istics of these deposits rather than as a comprehensive
description. The discussion emphasizes the nature of the
associated igneous rocks and their tectono-magmatic
setting, the styles of deposits and their spatial distribu-
tion, the characteristics and evolution of hydrothermal
uids, and structural controls. It concurrently highlights
some of the important gaps in our understanding of
these systems that will be fruitful areas of investigation
in ongoing and future research programs. The paper
concludes with comments on deposit classication and
the relationship of intrusion-related gold systems to
other types of magmatichydrothermal systems.
Status of current understanding
The geological and exploration model for intrusion-
related gold systems presented in Figs. 2 and 3 has been
synthesized from previous work (McCoy et al. 1997;
Thompson et al. 1999; Hart et al. 2000; Lang et al. 2000;
Newberry 2000) and new results presented in this vol-
ume. It is biased toward systems in the Tintina gold belt
(Fig. 1), but also incorporates important variations
found in other provinces. The essential feature of the
model is the vertical and lateral variations in ore envi-
ronment as reected by deposit styles, metal assem-
blages, and hydrothermal uid compositions.
The research presented in this volume addresses a
wide range of topics relevant to understanding the gen-
esis of intrusion-related gold systems. Mustard details
the geology of the Timbarra gold deposit of eastern
Australia, and the relationship between granite facies,
alteration, and gold distribution. Rombach and New-
berry (Shotgun, Alaska), Maloof et al. (Dublin Gulch,
Yukon), and Zacharias et al. (Petrackova hora, Czech
Republic) also provide detailed geological descriptions
of individual intrusion-related gold deposits and discuss
the types of uids present and their potential sources.
Baker and Lang recognize a wide range of uid types and
processes from studies of several intrusion-related gold
systems in Yukon. They document the critical role of
carbon dioxide during hydrothermal processes in intru-
sion-related gold systems, a topic that is expanded upon
by Lowenstern, who addresses its role and behavior in
magmatic processes. Coulsen et al. (Emerald Lake, Yu-
kon) present additional data on the behavior of volatiles
during magmatic fractionation processes. Robert de-
scribes several deposits that may extend the formation of
intrusion-related gold systems into the Archean. Col-
lectively, and in combination with earlier literature, these
papers signicantly improve our ability to dene the
general features of intrusion-related gold systems.
Tectono-magmatic setting
Thompson et al. (1999) observed that the tectonic
environment of many plutonic belts that host

Fig. 2 Schematic geological and exploration model for intrusion-
related gold systems emphasizing the vertical and lateral variation
in deposit styles, uid characteristics, and metal signatures
(Modied from Lang et al. 2000)
intrusion-related gold systems is poorly understood, and
that back-arc, foreland fold-thrust, collisional, post-
collisional, and magmatic arc environments have
been variously proposed (e.g., Thompson et al. 1999;
Goldfarb et al. 2000). Goldfarb et al. (2000) examined
the tectonic setting of several plutonic provinces that
host intrusion-related gold systems and concluded that
accretionary to collisional, subduction-related orogens
may be the most favorable environment. Two prominent
examples of this type of setting that are well-endowed
with major, potentially intrusion-related gold deposits
are Mesozoic rocks in the North China Platform that
have been subjected to multiple episodes of tectonic
reactivation (Miller et al. 1998), and the Paleozoic
Variscan orogen that extends from Iberia across much
479
of central Asia and into northern China (e.g., Fernan-
dez-Suarez 1998; references in Goldfarb et al. 2000). The
nature of crustal heating and possible episodes of del-
amination in collisional/accretionary settings are also
suggested by Goldfarb et al. (2000) to at least partially
account for the diused character of magmatism and the
diculty in relating it to specic loci of subduction in
many provinces that host intrusion-related gold systems.
Reconstruction of the Tintina gold belt by Flanigan
et al. (2000), however, has shown that, even within a
single province, intrusion-related gold systems can form
within a tectonic environment that varies in style across
both time and space. In this example, the Tombstone
plutonic suite forms the northeasternmost mid-Creta-
ceous plutonic belt in the Tintina gold belt (Mortensen
et al. 2000). It comprises coeval alkalic, metaluminous
calc-alkalic, and peraluminous intrusions emplaced into
old continental crust, possibly during an episode of local
extension that followed movement on major thrust
faults (e.g., Murphy 1997; Marsh et al. 1999), and is
480
Fig. 3 Schematic geological
and exploration model for
intrusion-related gold deposits
illustrating the variation in
styles from intrusion hosted
to proximal and distal deposits
(Modied from Hart et al. 2000;
Lang et al. 2000)
reminiscent of a back-arc or foreland environment. In
contrast, Late Cretaceous intrusions in southwestern
Alaska have a demonstrably more direct relationship to
subduction processes (e.g., Buntzen and Miller 1997;
McCoy et al 1997; Flanigan et al. 2000; Goldfarb et al.
2000; Newberry 2000). Despite uncertainties between
and within provinces, most or all intrusion-related gold
systems formed above or within old, typically cratonic,
continental crust (Thompson et al. 1999) in a setting well
removed, or most distal, from convergent margins active
at the time of magmatism. Although debate will no
doubt continue, the apparent formation of similar styles
of intrusion-related gold systems across a range of tec-
tonic settings, both between and within individual
provinces, suggests that no single tectonic regime is
uniquely required.
The igneous centers associated with intrusion-related
gold systems typically form multiphase complexes that
were rapidly emplaced and cooled quickly (e.g., Coulsen
et al. 2001, this volume). The complexes can comprise
batholiths, large or small plutons, irregular plugs, dome
complexes, or swarms of dikes and sills (Thompson et al.
1999; Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000). Intrusions are
surrounded by contact metamorphic aureoles that range
widely in size; in Yukon and Alaska these can reach
several kilometers in width and commonly enclose sev-
eral discrete intrusive bodies within a district (Poulsen
et al. 1997), whereas in northern Iberia contact eects
are very limited. Volcanic rocks coeval with the intru-
sions are preserved in systems that have not been deeply
eroded, such as Kori Kollo, Bolivia, and Kidston,
Australia (Thompson et al. 1999; Goldfarb et al. 2000;
Lang et al. 2000). The composition of igneous rocks in
these magmatic centers varies greatly (e.g., McCoy et al.
1997; Lang et al. 2000; Newberry 2000), with the most
common rock types being metaluminous, subalkalic,
intermediate to felsic intrusions. Newberry (2000) has
shown that the compositions of such intrusions in the
Tintina gold belt exhibit great spatial and temporal
variation and encompass within-plate, collisional, and
volcanic arc compositions on trace element discrimina-
tion diagrams, which might again reect possible intra-
province dierences in tectonic environment and the
mechanisms of magma generation. Most provinces also
contain less abundant silica-oversaturated to silica-un-
dersaturated alkalic intrusions. In the Tombstone plu-
tonic suite, alkalic plutons and volumetrically minor
lamprophyre dikes are common along the length of the
belt and document the widespread presence of mac
alkaline magmas. Peraluminous intrusions are also
typically present. In Yukon these range from large,
discrete plutons (Gordey and Anderson 1993) to small
subzones that formed by fractionation processes within
larger metaluminous intrusions (Duncan 1999); in con-
trast, peraluminous plutons are the dominant igneous
rock type in the Iberian Massif, but consistently pre-date
the metaluminous intrusions associated with intrusion-
related gold systems by 10 to 20 m.y. (Fernandez-Suarez
1998). In general, however, it is most typical to nd
spatial and temporal overlap among the alkalic, meta-
luminous, and peraluminous igneous subtypes within a
given province.
The relative oxidation state of the intrusions in these
systems has been discussed by several authors (e.g.,
Thompson et al. 1999; Fig. 4). Although this parameter
varies signicantly between systems, most intrusions can
be classied as reduced, subalkalic, metaluminous, I-
type intrusions, based both on geochemical composition

and on the presence of minor to signicant ilmenite
without, or accompanied by only trace to (rarely) minor,
magnetite (Thompson et al. 1999). A few intrusions
contain signicant magnetite and ilmenite and reect
relatively more oxidized conditions; the occurrence of
such intrusions at Timbarra may reect emplacement of
magmas into a pre-existing batholith rather than into
reduced metasedimentary rocks (Mustard 2001, this
volume). Alkalic intrusions in intrusion-related gold
provinces contain oxidized magnetitetitanite assem-
blages, whereas peraluminous intrusions are invariably
ilmenite-rich and reduced. The intermediate oxidation
state of most intrusions is compatible with the long-
recognized empirical correspondence between magmat-
ichydrothermal deposits of various principal metal
signatures and intrusions of distinct composition, as
outlined by Thompson et al. (1999; Fig. 4). Empirical
geochemical models, such as the one proposed by Lev-
eille et al. (1988) and Newberry et al. (1995), which uses
indices related to alkalinity and oxidation state, have
sought to exploit these relationships in order to distin-
guish intrusions whose compositions may be favorable
to formation of gold deposits.
The role of magmatic processes in formation of in-
trusion-related gold systems is the least understood, but
perhaps the most critical, factor for our ultimate un-
derstanding of these deposits. Three important processes
that need to be addressed include: (1) the importance of
magma source(s); (2) magmatic dierentiation processes;
and (3) controls on volatile composition and exsolution
(Fig. 5). Available NdSrOPb isotopic data for the
intrusions show a predominance of old continental crust
(e.g., Nd values are 8 to 15 in the Tintina gold belt;
Fig. 4 A schematic representation of the relationship between
degree of fractionation and oxidation state for magmas associated
with dierent dominant metal assemblages (after Thompson et al.
1999)
481
Lang et al. 2000), although a small, but potentially
critical, component of asthenospheric or lithospheric
mantle cannot be excluded (Farmer et al. 2000; Lang
et al. 2000). Cogenetic intrusions that comprise the gold-
mineralized Emerald Lake pluton in Yukon range from
metaluminous alkalic augite syenite to peraluminous
biotite granite (Duncan et al. 1997; Coulson et al. 2001,
this volume). Duncan (1999) suggested that LILE en-
richment, HFSE depletion, and neodymium and stron-
tium isotopic signatures ()14 and 0.715, respectively)
in this pluton were the result of interaction between
material derived from subcontinental lithosphere and
evolved continental crust. The possible importance of
mantle components is most obvious where the more
typical felsic to intermediate, subalkalic intrusions were
cospatial and cotemporal with mac alkaline magmas.
Keith et al. (1998) have proposed that intrusion of mac
alkaline magmas into intermediate calc-alkalic melts
may be a key process in the formation of porphyry
copper and molybdenum deposits. The eect of the
mac alkaline melts may be to either provide volatiles
and/or metals to the calc-alkalic melts, or to act as a
catalyst for volatile streaming and metal transport
within those melts (Keith et al. 1998). Either eect could
be important to metallogenesis in intrusion-related gold
systems, but constraints are lacking.
Fig. 5 Schematic model illustrating the critical processes which
generated magmas associated with intrusion-related gold systems.
1 Generation of primitive melts (dark shades) during partial melting
of subcontinental lithosphere and/or asthenosphere. Carbon
dioxide may have played an important role in production of
alkali-rich magmas (Kaszuba and Wendlandt 2000). 2 Magma rises
through crust and undergoes substantial assimilation and fraction-
al crystallization inferred from Nd and Sr isotopes and geochem-
istry (e.g., Duncan 1999; Lang et al. 2000). 3 Magma emplacement,
further fractionation, and exsolution of a carbon dioxide rich
volatile phase resulting in intrusion-related gold mineralization
(e.g., McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 2001, this volume;
Mustard 2001, this volume)
482
Fractionation has been implicated as an important
process in several intrusion-related gold deposits, in-
cluding Fort Knox (McCoy et al. 1997) and Timbarra
(Mustard 2001, this volume). In both cases, gold min-
eralization is spatially and temporally associated with
the most fractionated phases of the local magmatic
complexes. The importance of late-stage fractionates,
and the concurrent transition from magmatic to hy-
drothermal processes, is further supported by the com-
mon presence in many Yukon systems (Lang et al. 2000;
Baker and Lang 2001, this volume) and at Timbarra
(Mustard 2001, this volume) of late-stage, mineralized
aplites and pegmatites that grade laterally and with time
to gold-bearing quartz veins. These observations suggest
that the ore-forming uids were concentrated in late
phases of crystallizing intrusions. Mineral chemistry
data on biotite and apatite in the Emerald Lake pluton
in Yukon (Coulson et al. 2001, this volume) show that
substantial changes in volatile activities accompany even
subtle igneous fractionation in these systems, although
the importance to ore formation remains unclear.
Carbon dioxide is abundant in uid inclusions in
hydrothermal veins in intrusion-related gold systems.
McCoy et al. (1997), Thompson et al. (1999), and Baker
and Lang (2001, this volume) have argued for a mag-
matic source for these uids. Elevated carbon dioxide in
magmas has a major eect on both magma generation
and crystallization (Lowenstern 2001, this volume). For
the former case, recent experimental studies by Kaszuba
and Wendlandt (2000) suggest that carbon dioxide is
critical for generating alkaline magma in the continental
crust. Touret (1992) also argued that carbon dioxide
plays an important role in both the generation of mantle
magmas and their migration into, and accumulation
within, overlying crust. The eect of carbon dioxide
during crystallization processes in intermediate melts
hinges mainly upon its much lower solubility compared
to water, which leads to exsolution of carbonic uids
prior to loss of hydrous uids, and at higher pressures
(Fogel and Rutherford 1990; Blank et al. 1993). This
may explain the wider range of emplacement depths
encountered in intrusion-related gold systems compared
to that of relatively carbon dioxide poor porphyry
copper deposits, as well as similarities of intrusion-re-
lated gold deposits to some molybdenum-dominated,
carbon dioxide rich magmatichydrothermal systems
(e.g., Lowenstern 1994). Consequently, the presence of
abundant carbon dioxide may be a key inuence on all
stages of evolution of intrusion-related gold systems,
from initial magma generation to late-stage fractiona-
tion and volatile exsolution (Fig. 5).
Alteration, mineralization, and metal assemblages
Mineral deposits in intrusion-related gold systems span
a broad range in style and position relative to intrusive
centers. McCoy et al. (1997), Thompson et al. (1999),
Hart et al. (2000), Lang et al. (2000), and Newberry
(2000) have described the more common patterns of
zoning (Figs. 2 and 3). Hart et al. (2000) separated de-
posits into three categories based on their spatial rela-
tionship to intrusions. Intrusion-hosted deposits comprise
auriferous, mostly sheeted and lesser stockwork vein
deposits that are characterized by a metal assemblage of
AuBiTeAsMoW. Gold can also be found in
the inll of miarolitic cavities within the plutons, and in
pegmatites and/or aplites that cut the intrusions. Prox-
imal deposits are located in host rocks adjacent to the
intrusions, or slightly removed from them, but within
the metamorphic aureole. Common deposit types are
WCuAu and CuBiAuW skarns, high to low
sulde replacements of calcareous rocks, tin-bearing and
copper-rich breccias and diatremes, and veins and dis-
seminated deposits in metasedimentary host rocks. Dis-
tal deposits are located beyond the outer limit of
hornfels. They include auriferous, mesothermal to epi-
thermal quartzsulde veins along steep faults (e.g.,
Donlin Creek, Alaska; Ebert et al. 2000; similar deposits
in China described by Miller et al. 1998), hydrothermal
breccias and base metal veins enriched in AgAu, and
auriferous disseminations in variably calcareous and
carbonaceous metasedimentary host rocks which have
been favorably compared to Carlin-style deposits
(Poulsen 1996). Distal deposits have a typical metal
signature of AuAsSbHg. Vertical variations in de-
posit style are less well characterized, but include dif-
ferences in the relative importance of ductile and brittle
structures, the degree of lateral dispersion or concen-
tration of hydrothermal uids, metal signatures, and the
composition of hydrothermal uids (e.g., Lang et al.
2000; Newberry 2000). Placer deposits of gold, and more
rarely tungsten or tin, are commonly derived from in-
trusion-related gold systems and have been an important
historical lure to lode gold potential in many provinces
(Goldfarb et al. 2000).
The intrusion-hosted and proximal settings contain
the deposits most characteristic of intrusion-related gold
systems. These deposits contain fracture-controlled and
rarer pervasive alteration that can include feldspathic,
sericitic, silicic, greisen, calc-silicate, and/or advanced
argillic assemblages. Feldspathic alteration, dominated
by albite and/or K-feldspar, is nearly ubiquitous and is
invariably early. It is commonly associated with tung-
stenmolybdenum mineralization and, in many cases, its
relationship to gold is comparatively weak or poorly
dened. Gold, and the metals with which it correlates
more closely, are most commonly associated with a later
stage of sericitic (e.g., Maloof et al. 2001, this volume;
Mustard 2001, this volume) or, in some cases, greisen
assemblages (e.g., Fernandez-Catuxo 1998; Yao et al.
1999) that typically include chlorite, carbonate, and al-
bite. Silicic alteration is only locally recognized. Calc-
silicate alteration is restricted to metasomatic skarns or
contact metamorphism of calcareous units near intrusive
contacts. Advanced argillic alteration has been recog-
nized only in subvolcanic deposits of the Bolivian poly-
metallic belt, such as Kori Kollo and Tasna (Sillitoe et al.

1998). Alteration within intrusions is most commonly
conned to narrow alteration envelopes around individ-
ual veins, and a low or very conned uid ux is implied. Lang 1999, 2001, this volume; Lang et al. 2000; and their
In rarer and more localized cases, envelopes can coalesce
into more extensive zones of pervasive alteration, but
with the notable exception of the subvolcanic system at
Kori Kollo, Bolivia, this is not observed at the scale or
intensity typical of porphyry deposits dominated by base
metals. The distribution of alteration in the proximal and
distal settings is controlled by, and in most cases tightly
surrounds, pre- and syn-intrusion structures.
An important feature of some intrusion-hosted de-
posits is that gold precipitated from near solidus to low
temperature hydrothermal conditions. Individual sys-
tems, such as Emerald Lake in Yukon, or the Penedono
district, Portugal, can contain gold in the inll of mi-
arolitic cavities, in late-magmatic pegmatites and aplites,
and in mineralogically diverse hydrothermal veins that
formed from >500 to <250 C (Duncan 1999; Baker
and Lang 2001, this volume; Zacharias et al. 2001, this
volume). The ow of hydrothermal uids in these several
manifestations of mineralization was generally passive,
and uid evolution appears to have been mainly unidi-
rectional with little or no evidence for the dynamic,
multiple pulses of uid that typify porphyry systems.
Intrusion-hosted ores typically contain only 1 to
3 vol% ore minerals (e.g., Fort Knox; Bakke 1995). A
few deposits or sub-zones within deposits, such as
Salave, Spain (Fernandez-Catuxo 1998), Kori Kollo,
Bolivia (Columba and Cunningham 1993), and
Niuxinshan, China (Yao et al. 1999), can contain
>20 vol% ore minerals. The sulde mineral concen-
tration in proximal and distal deposits is commonly
higher, particularly in late or peripheral base metal veins
(e.g., Keno Hill district, Yukon; Lynch et al. 1990) and
replacement bodies in calcareous host rocks (e.g., Mike
Lake and Scheelite Dome districts, Yukon; Lilly 1999;
Mair et al. 2000). Ore mineralogy comprises a complex
suite of tellurium- and bismuth-bearing minerals, native
gold, gold alloys, sulfosalts, and suldes. The ore min-
erals in most deposits are consistent with strongly to
moderately reduced conditions (McCoy et al. 1997). In
many intrusion-hosted deposits, gold correlates strongly
with bismuth, to a lesser but signicant extent with tel-
lurium, and more variably with As, Mo, Ag, and Pb.
Tungsten is commonly cospatial with gold but the two
metals do not correlate well. Maloof et al. (2001, this
volume) account for this divergence in the Dublin Gulch
deposit, Yukon, through early precipitation of scheelite
in feldspathic quartz veins, followed by a later episode of
AuBiAsTe precipitation associated with sericite portant in distal AgPbZnAu vein deposits in the
chloritecarbonate alteration that inlled fractures and
replaced the earlier veins.
Sources and evolution of uids
Fluid inclusion and stable isotope studies of the com-
position and evolution of hydrothermal uids in intru-
483
sion-related gold systems are few. Available data from
individual deposits (see McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and
contained references) reveal several recurrent themes: (1)
the CO2-rich uids are nearly ubiquitous, except in some
very shallow systems such as those in the Bolivian
polymetallic belt; (2) the NaCl oversaturated to under-
saturated, aqueous chloride brines are most common in
systems formed at relatively shallow depths, at pressures
below 1.5 kbar; (3) there is a common pattern of early
carbonic uids evolving to later aqueous brines; (4)
other components, such as CH4, N2, and H2S, have been
identied by Raman spectroscopy, but are generally
most abundant in intrusion-hosted deposits formed at
higher pressures, and in proximal or distal deposits; (5)
temperatures and pressures attending precipitation of
gold and related metals span broad ranges of <200 to
>600 C and <0.5 to >3.0 kbar, respectively; and (6) a
correspondence between uid composition, host rock
composition, and pressure is evident. These character-
istics and patterns are consistently developed in most
provinces.
Fluids in intrusion-hosted settings are dominated by
a magmatic component, but important roles for meta-
morphic and meteoric uids have also been proposed.
Metamorphogenic uids are most plausible and have
been most widely called upon (e.g., Moravek 1995;
Spiridinov 1996) in provinces where magmatichydro-
thermal activity overlapped regional metamorphism in
time. In comparison, deposits in the Tintina gold belt
post-date regional metamorphism and deformation by
as much as 15 m.y. (Goldfarb et al. 2000) and appear to
reect formation from exclusively magmatic uids
(McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 2001, this volume).
Similarly, the presence of nearly pure CO2-rich uids in
melt inclusions from Timbarra (Mustard, personal
communication, 2001) document the presence of ap-
propriate carbonic uids in the melt phase of associated
plutons. The extensive contact metamorphic aureoles
that surround most intrusions in the Tintina gold belt
are certainly artifacts of large-scale uid ow, but the
potential contribution to ore formation by uids gen-
erated in this environment remains to be tested. Mete-
oric uids have generally been considered minor to
absent during gold mineralization in these systems
(McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang 1999; Goldfarb
et al. 2000). Zacharias et al. (2001, this volume) report
post-ore inltration of meteoric waters at the Petrachova
hora deposit in the Czech Republic, and Lynch et al.
(1990) have suggested that meteoric waters were im-
Keno Hill district, Yukon.
A large number of uid processes have been recog-
nized in intrusion-related gold systems. Immiscible sep-
aration of uids of initially moderate salinity into a high
salinity brine and a low salinity, aqueous or carbonic
vapor, has been encountered in some intrusion-related
gold systems (e.g., Kidston, Baker and Andrew 1991;
Mike Lake, Baker and Lang 2001, this volume; Shotgun,
484
Rombach and Newberry 2001). These deposits appear
to have formed at pressures of less than 1.5 kbar.
Immiscible, low salinity carbonic uids are common in
deeper deposits (McCoy et al. 1997; Baker and Lang
2001, this volume), and in several systems these uids
were followed by inux of an aqueous brine (typically
<20 wt% NaCl equiv.). This plausibly reects either the
dierences in solubility of carbonic and aqueous uids in
intermediate melts, as described above, retrograde boil-
ing, or uid mixing (Baker and Lang 2001, this volume).
The importance of mixing between uids of distinct
provenance remains to be addressed in detail, although
existing data do not support it as a key process for ore
formation. More importantly, data required to con-
dently distinguish between magmatic and metamor-
phogenic uids are lacking.
Structural controls
The formation of intrusion-related gold systems, like
most ore deposits, involves a component of structural
control. In these systems, structures have inuenced
deposit location and geometry at all scales, but few de-
posits have been suciently mapped to understand the
details. Ongoing work in the Tintina gold belt is ad-
dressing structural controls on the emplacement of in-
trusions and the localization of alteration and ores (Mair
et al. 2000; Miller et al. 2000; O'Dea et al. 2000; Ste-
phens et al. 2000). Data thus far show that structures
related to both regional and local stress regimes were
important for uid ow and localization of ore (Mair
et al. 2000; O'Dea et al. 2000; Stephens et al. 2000).
Detailed mapping at Clear Creek, Yukon (Stephens et al.
2000), has documented a well-dened structural control
to magmatichydrothermal evolution. Early, north
northwest trending, sinistral master faults pre-dated
emplacement of intrusions, and were reactivated during
and after magmatism. These structures at least partially
guided emplacement of magmas, and were also related
to formation of secondary, eastwest trending exten-
sional structures. The extensional structures were par-
ticularly important for formation of veins and late-stage
dikes. Similar easterly-oriented extensional structures
controlled the formation of sheeted vein arrays in de-
posits distributed along several hundred kilometers of
strike length in the Tombstone plutonic suite in Yukon,
and document operation of similar structural processes
at the regional scale (Poulsen et al. 1997; Mair et al.
2000; O'Dea et al. 2000). Ebert et al. (2000) and Miller
et al. (2000) have also described a control by regional
scale, mainly strike-slip faults and related structures in
ore systems at Donlin Creek and elsewhere in south-
western Alaska.
Deposits of similar alteration assemblages and metal
signature can form across a wide range in PT condi-
tions that span brittle and ductile regimes. The Pogo
deposit is essentially a series of stacked, massive quartz
veins that replaced high-grade metamorphic host rocks
along sets of earlier, small, at-lying, ductile shears at
pressures of about 2.5 kbar (Smith et al. 1999). Some
stages of auriferous quartz veins in the Petrakova hora
deposit, which formed at a similar pressure, are also
ductility deformed (Zacharias et al. 2001, this volume).
Most deposits, however, manifest predominantly brittle
strain, even under PT conditions normally ascribed to
the ductile regime. This may again reect the CO2-rich
nature of uids in these systems, which can extend brittle
behavior to higher PT conditions than is normal
(Wawrzyniec et al. 1999).
Comments on classication
It is relevant to consider whether the characteristics of
intrusion-related gold systems, as described above,
warrant a distinct classication among magmatichy-
drothermal deposits. Early references to these systems as
porphyry gold deposits (Hollister 1992; Bakke 1995)
highlight the problem. It is common for geologists to use
the term ``porphyry'' in reference to a deposit of almost
any principal commodity so long as it is a large, low-
grade, bulk tonnage deposit related to a porphyritic in-
trusion. Clearly, many intrusion-hosted deposits, such as
Fort Knox (Bakke 1995) and Salave (Fernandez-Catuxo
1998), conform to this simple denition. The gold-rich
porphyry deposit designation, however, has strong
connotations for physical and geochemical characteris-
tics that do not readily correlate with the dominance of
carbonic uids, the passive transit of apparently small
volumes of hydrothermal uid, the reduced nature of
associated intrusions and uids, and the metal signature
enriched in BiTeW and generally decient in base
metals that typies intrusion-related gold systems (cf.
Sillitoe 1991, 1993). Even such limited criteria distin-
guish intrusion-related gold systems from their closest
porphyry analogs, the gold-rich, copper-poor deposits of
the Maricunga belt, Chile (Vila and Sillitoe 1991). Por-
phyry and intrusion-related gold systems are, however,
bound by similarities in generative processes such as
formation from magmatic uids that commonly under-
went immiscible phase separation, and by similarity in
the complexity of deposit types and their zoning patterns
(Lang et al. 2000). Lang et al. (2000) and Rombach
(2000) have also pointed out that the characteristics of
intrusion-related gold systems that formed at shallow
depths begin to overlap those of base metal rich por-
phyry deposits. In light of the unique set of character-
istics manifested by intrusion-related gold systems, the
recent inclusion by Rowins (2000) of some of these (in-
cluding Fort Knox and Shotgun) into a deposit subtype
that he calls ``reduced porphyry CuAu deposits,'' and
which he suggests are simply variations on the tradi-
tional base metal rich porphyry theme, may be mis-
leading and require reconsideration.
Intrusion-related gold systems may also be compared
to the alkalic CuAuAgFe deposits which are related

to shoshonitic volcanic belts and associated intrusions in
British Columbia, Canada. The alkalic deposits share
characteristics of igneous rock compositions, metal as-
semblages, and uid compositions and processes with
both Fe oxideCuAu (Holbeck et al. 2000; Ray and
Webster 2000) and subalkalic porphyry systems (Lang
et al. 1994). The alkalic deposits also manifest more
passive uid ux than is typical of calc-alkalic porphyry
deposits, include a component of carbonic uids, and
have compositional analogs in the intrusion-related gold
systems. The alkalic systems are clearly distinguished by
their primitive, intra-oceanic arc setting, the more mac
compositions of intrusions, the absence of subalkalic
and peraluminous intrusions, and the oxidized nature of
uids and magmas (Lang et al. 1995).
The intrusion-related gold systems also have simi-
larities to reduced tin- and tungsten-rich magmatichy-
drothermal systems (Newberry 1998). Overlaps include
the reduced composition of intrusions and uids, tec-
tonic setting, the presence of carbonic uids, and depths
of formation. The intrusion-related gold systems again
have lower uxes of uid, generally less extensive alter-
ation, intrusions are never as consistently peraluminous
as those in tintungsten systems, and they typically have
a greater lateral extent and diversity of deposit styles.
Metal assemblages show both similarities and dier-
ences. Although there is a partial overlap, tintungsten
systems and intrusion-related gold systems should be
considered distinct.
The ``orogenic'' lode gold deposits most closely mir-
ror the characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems,
particularly in terms of uid composition, metal as-
semblage, and alteration. Goldfarb et al. (2000) have
also suggested that both deposit types should be found
in comparable tectonic settings. The diculty in distin-
guishing between these two deposit types has been dis-
cussed by Sillitoe and Thompson (1998). A point of
departure may be the common zoning, both in time and
space, in the intrusion-related gold systems from sheeted
or stockwork vein systems within intrusions to veins
enriched in base metals outside the intrusions, a pattern
typical of most intrusion-related gold systems, but not
commonly found in orogenic gold deposits (Goldfarb
et al. 2000). In addition, orogenic gold deposits are
typied by strong sericiteankeritic carbonate alteration,
and alkali feldspar alteration is generally modestly de-
veloped to absent. Development of methods that dis-
criminate between intrusion-related and orogenic gold
deposits is particularly important to exploration in
Archean and Proterozoic terranes, and may bear directly
upon genetic interpretation of disseminated to fracture-
related gold deposits that have recently been described
within Archean intrusions (Leonardos et al. 1991;
Buchholz et al. 1998; Qiu and McNaughton 1999;
Robert 2001, this volume).
The characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems
clearly overlap those of other, more widely accepted
classes of deposit with respect to uid compositions and
processes, PT conditions of formation, vertical and
485
lateral zoning of deposit styles, metal assemblages, tec-
tonic setting, structural controls, and composition of
associated intrusions. Their unique combination of fea-
tures, however, appears to warrant a separate classi-
cation, even though the exact criteria that should be
employed to dene them remain to be fully determined.
Our current level of understanding only allows us to
conceptually view intrusion-related gold systems to lie
somewhere along a broader spectrum of magmatichy-
drothermal and related orogenic deposit types.
Recommended topics of investigation
The foregoing overview of physical characteristics and
genetic processes that have operated in intrusion-related
gold systems highlights many topics that require inves-
tigation before geological and exploration models can be
appreciably rened. Major topics include the following:
1. Basic deposit descriptions. A pressing need is for
comprehensive descriptions of intrusion-related gold
systems based on regional and deposit scale geologi-
cal mapping. The studies should emphasize the
physical and mineralogical characteristics of the as-
sociated intrusions, the spatial and temporal distri-
butions and parageneses of alteration assemblages,
the role of structures in localizing intrusions and
mineralization, and the physical and temporal rela-
tionships between diverse ore types. Field observa-
tions should be accompanied by precise isotopic
dating of intrusions and alteration. These studies will
form the groundwork for interpretation of analytical
data.
2. Tectono-magmatic setting. A better appreciation of
the timing and spatial position of intrusion-related
gold systems to convergent margin processes will
serve as a basis for understanding the generative
mechanisms of intrusions, and their initial composi-
tion and subsequent evolution. Isotopic and geo-
chemical studies of the intrusions will aid evaluation
of the relative importance of crustal and astheno-
spheric and lithospheric mantle components.
Regional mapping and syntheses will shed light on
the importance of local and regional structures to
magma emplacement and subsequent ore localiza-
tion. Regional isotopic dating will constrain the
relative timing of magmatic, hydrothermal, meta-
morphic, and deformational events, and provide a
framework for evaluating possible sources of hydro-
thermal uids.
3. Igneous fractionation. The dierentiation paths of
associated magmas inuence the behavior of mag-
matic volatiles, hydrothermal uid egress, and metal
availability and transport. Detailed geochemical
databases should be assembled across a range of
igneous environments and compositions. Unfortu-
nately, there are few experimental constraints on the
variables that control the behavior of gold in melts,
486
including the conditions under which it will be se-
lectively sequestered into crystallizing mineral phases
versus the conditions of its release (e.g., Cygan and
Candela 1995). The importance of mac alkaline
magmas to the volatile and metal budgets of the
metaluminous, subalkalic intrusions associated with
most intrusion-related gold systems must also be
evaluated. Adequate geochemical data may allow
intrusions favorable to gold mineralization to be
condently distinguished from those that lack min-
eralizing capacity.
4. Hydrothermal uid evolution. Several types of uids
have been identied in intrusion-related gold systems.
They exhibit signicant vertical and lateral variations
in their PTX properties, yet uids of diverse com-
position appear capable of forming economic gold
deposits. Although the uids responsible for intru-
sion-hosted ores appear to be predominantly mag-
matic in origin, with little or no inuence from
metamorphogenic or meteoric uids, the relative im-
portance of these three uid types becomes less clear
with increasing distance from the intrusions. Resolu-
tion of this uncertainty will require studies that couple
uid inclusion microthermometry with microbeam
analysis of individual uid inclusions, and with iso-
topic and mineralogical data. Such studies should
address several key topics: (1) the relative importance
of carbonic uids and aqueous brines to the transport
of gold; and (2) the types of complexes that transport
gold in hydrothermal uids, which could include
telluro, hydroxyl, thio, sulde, carbonyl, and chloride
species (e.g., Gammons and Williams-Jones 1997;
Loucks and Mavrogenes 1999), knowledge of which is
limited by a near absence of experimental data for
gold complexing under (near) magmatic conditions;
even empirical constraints on gold transport will help
to address the wide variation in the suites of accessory
metals that accompany gold, and aid interpretation of
data collected during exploration geochemistry sur-
veys; (3) variations in the PTX properties of uids
in the intrusion-hosted, proximal and distal environ-
ments, from which better interpretation of the con-
trols on alteration and metal assemblages and their
zoning can be made; and (4) the role of host rocks,
either as a source of hydrothermal uid components
or as an inuence upon their composition. In light of
the recognized vertical and lateral variations in de-
posit styles and metal assemblages in these systems,
constraints on these questions will help determine if
and how focused uid inclusion studies might func-
tion as a practical aid to reasoned anticipation of ore
environment during exploration.
5. Structural control. The paucity of detailed mapping
of individual systems and regional structural synthe-
ses limits our interpretation of structural controls.
The origin of sheeted vein arrays remains to be es-
tablished, and structural controls on deposits located
in the host rocks to intrusions have been especially
under-studied (Hart et al. 2000). The inuence of
uid composition on ductile versus brittle behavior,
and its consequent inuence on the concentration or
dispersion of mineralizing uids, has also not been
addressed. Such studies will be particularly useful in
evaluating the role of uids generated in the large
metamorphic aureoles that surround many plutons in
this setting.
Concluding comment
Geological investigation of intrusion-related gold sys-
tems is in its infancy. Most relevant studies of these
systems have been published only within the last 5 years
but data are expanding at an extremely rapid pace,
reminiscent of the situation with base metal rich por-
phyry deposits in the 1950s and 1960s. It is clear that the
characteristics of intrusion-related gold systems overlap
those of many other deposit types, including base- and
precious metal-bearing porphyry deposits, alkalic Cu
FeAu deposits, and tungsten-, tin- and molybdenum-
rich systems, but they manifest a unique combination of
geological, genetic, and exploration characteristics wor-
thy of separate classication. The intrusion-related gold
systems are geologically intriguing even in isolation but,
perhaps more importantly, they oer unique opportu-
nities to further our knowledge of the factors that aect
availability, transport, and precipitation of gold and
other metals across a broad spectrum of magmatichy-
drothermal deposit types and conditions. As geological
and geochemical databases build in coming years, ge-
netic and exploration models will improve signicantly
with a commensurate increase in the eciency and rate
of success of exploration programs.
Acknowledgements JRL and TB would like to thank Richard
Goldfarb for the invitation to compile and edit this special issue on
intrusion-related gold deposits. The manuscript is the result of re-
search collaboration and discussion with numerous geologists over
the past 5 years. In particular, we acknowledge Craig Hart, Dan
McCoy, Jim Mortensen, Rainer Newberry, Dick Sillitoe, and John
Thompson for their contributions. We also acknowledge the -
nancial support of mining companies (Kennecott Canada Inc,
Cominco Ltd., Teck Corporation, Westmin Resources Ltd., Al-
maden Resources Corp., Barrick Gold Corporation, Canamera
Geological Ltd., Cyprus/Amax Minerals Corp., Echo Bay Mines
Limited, First Point Minerals, Homestake Canada Inc., Inco Ltd.,
Newmont Gold Corp., Phelps Dodge Mining Co., Placer Dome
Canada Ltd., Princeton Mining Corp., Rio Algom Exploration
Inc., South Pacic Resources, TVI Pacic Inc., WMC International
Ltd., and Yukon Gold Corp.) and NSERC (Grant No.
IOR0179765) to the MDRU ``Magmatichydrothermal'' project,
through which research on the Tintina gold belt was carried out.
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