THE 7 QUALITY

CONTROL TOOLS
An adequate science of control for management should
take note into account the fact that measurements of
phenomena in both social and natural science for the
most part obey neither deterministic nor statistical laws,
until assignable causes of variability have been found and
removed.

- Walter A. Shewhart
Process Control
The quality of a product/service depends on the quality of
process employed.
Processes should produce products as per design.
The objective of process control is to control the quality of
the processes and ensure that the deliverables are
produced as planned.
The aim of statistics based quality control is to produce
products and services with quality consistently.
Therefore, application of statistical process control and
quality control tools, known as SPC tools or 7QC tools,
are very important in TQM.
Process Control
The goals of Statistical Process Control are:
Collection of data of product performance and service deliverables
Finding out variations
Analyzing through brainstorming and determining the causes of
and eliminating the causes
Improving performance process continuously
Process control will ensure that products are produced as
per specifications by closely monitoring all processes.
Measurements and examinations are conducted during
the execution of tasks in the processes.
Tool 1: Process Flow Chart
A process flow chart is a diagrammatic view of the various
steps in sequential order that form an overall process in an
organization.

Flow charts are used for depicting the processes in an

easily understandable form how any job or process is
being carried out.
An organization is composed of many processes that are
interlinked together. A flow chart aids employees in
understanding these processes.
Process flow charts are a requirement for ISO
certification.
Tool 1: Process Flow Chart
Steps in making a process flow chart:
1. Define the process
2. List the steps involved
3. Draw the diagram placing the process steps in boxes in
the order of their sequence and link each other by
arrows
4. Analyze the flow chart
Tool 1: Process Flow Chart
Symbols used in a flow chart:

Start/End of Process Ellipse

Input/Output or information
Parallelogram
giving or taking

Inspection/Decision making Diamond

Activities/Operations/Tasks Rectangle

Lines to connect portions of chart

Arrows to show direction of flow

Circle with letter to indicate chart z

is continued at another place
Tool 1: Process Flow Chart
Advantages of a process flow chart:
Employees understand all processes and sub-processes
in the organization
Management will be able to analyze and eliminate
unnecessary processes
Improves communication between departments
Improves understanding of internal customer-supplier
relationship which leads to better quality in processes.
Tool 2: Cause and Effect Diagram
Newtons law of motion says that there can be no effect
without a cause. If the quality (effect) is bad, it is due to
many causes both known and unknown.
This is also called the fishbone diagram or Ishikawa
diagram as it was developed by Prof. Ishikawa and it
looks like a fishbone.
The tip of the fish is the effect to be achieved. The causes
can be written in the bone portion of the diagram. The
main cause is the biggest bone (spine) in the middle while
other level causes are written above or below the spine.
Tool 2: Cause and Effect Diagram
Tool 2: Cause and Effect Diagram
Steps in constructing a cause and effect diagram:
1. Identify the end objective
2. Construct a skeleton diagram
3. Identify the main causes first
4. Identify the next level causes
5. Incubate (reassemble after 1-2 days)
6. Analyze the causes and make recommendations
7. Take action
Tool 3: Check Sheet
A check sheet is a form (document) used to collect data in
real time at the location where the data is generated. The
data it captures can be quantitative or qualitative. When
the information is quantitative, the check sheet is
sometimes called a tally sheet.
A check sheet is very simple and easy to use. The time
taken for analysis is NIL, and immediate conclusions can
be arrived at.
Tool 3: Check Sheet
Tool 3: Check Sheet
Tool 4: Scatter Diagram
Scatter diagrams helps in analyzing the relationship
between 2 variables. In the x-axis the variable is plotted
and in the y-axis the effect of the variable.
For example, the relationship between absenteeism and
errors committed in manufacturing a product can be
plotted in a scatter diagram.
A scatter plot is effectively a line graph with no line - i.e.
the point intersections between the two data sets are
plotted but no attempt is made to physically draw a line.
Tool 4: Scatter Diagram
Tool 5: Pareto Chart
Named after Vilfredo Pareto, a 19th century Italian
economist, who observed that a large share of wealth was
owned by a very few people.
In 1950, Juran defined the Pareto principle which
suggests that 80% of the problems are due to 20% of the
causes, i.e. machines, raw materials or operators.
Pareto charts help identify the problems in the
organization that cause the greatest loss or profit.
In the x-axis, we plot the different categories. In the y-axis,
we plot the percentage to total.
Tool 5: Pareto Chart
Tool 5: Pareto Chart
Steps in constructing a pareto chart:
1. Calculate the share of each cost as percentage of total
2. Then arrange the causes in descending order
3. If there are too many small causes, group them under
miscellaneous
4. Draw column graphs for each cause equal to their
distribution
Tool 6: Histogram
Histogram was developed by AM Gurrey, a French
statistician, in 1893.
Histogram is a diagram consisting of rectangles whose
area is proportional to the frequency of a variable (y-axis)
and whose width is equal to the class interval (x-axis).
Class intervals can be computed as the square root of the
total number of readings or measurement results.
Class intervals can also be any convenient number. The
important thing is that all class intervals have the same
width.
Tool 6: Histogram
Tool 6: Histogram
Steps in formulating histograms:
1. Measure and record data pertaining to a process
2. Arrange values in ascending order
3. Note the range, i.e. maximum and minimum values
4. Divide the range into number groups called class intervals
5. Divide the x-axis as per class intervals
6. Choose proper scale for the y-axis
7. Count the number of occurrences of data in each class
interval called frequency of occurrence
8. Plot the frequency corresponding to each interval in the form
of bars a column graph
9. Give a suitable title for the histogram
Tool 6: Histogram
Histograms are also called frequency distribution
diagrams
If the middle points are joined through a smooth curve it
will result in a bell shaped curve. This is a normal
histogram.
Fundamentals of Statistics
Statistics the collection, organization, analysis,
interpretation and presentation of data.

A tool to analyze complex problems and arrive at a

conclusion with a high probability of accuracy.
A special branch of mathematics to provide logical
analysis and decision-making ability with sample data.
It is impossible to survey all people because it will be time
consuming and expensive. Therefore, only a sample data
will be collected.
Fundamentals of Statistics
Statistic a numerical data measurement taken from a
sample used to make an inference about a population.

Example
Measuring daily consumption of milk of a family is
numerical data measurement. The result of the
measurement is called numerical data.
If we want to measurement the milk consumption per
family in Binmaley, then we can measure the consumption
of 1,000 households in Binmaley, called population.
The numerical data measured from 1,000 households can
be used to make an inference on the consumption of milk
in Binmaley.
Fundamentals of Statistics
Parameter the true population value, often unknown,
estimated by a statistic.

The daily consumption of milk in Binmaley is a unknown

and that is a true population value.
We dont collect data from every household but we collect
data from a sample household then estimate the
population value.
Fundamentals of Statistics
Population and Sample Population is a large collection
of items of the same type. Sample is a group of taken from
the population (or larger group) and tested or questioned to
get information. Sample may also be defined as a finite part
of a statistical population whose properties are studied to
gain information about the whole.
Fundamentals of Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
1. Arithmetic Mean the average of a sample is obtained
by dividing the sum of values by the number of
readings. The sample average mean (x bar) is

X1 + X2 + + Xn
=
n
2. The sample average mean is the best estimator of the
arithmetic mean ()of a population. Therefore

=
Fundamentals of Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
2. Median the value that divides a series of readings
arranged in order of magnitude of their values so that an
equal number of values are on either side of the center
or median value.

median = (n + 1) / 2 if n is odd

median = (n / 2 + 1) if n is even
Fundamentals of Statistics
Measures of Central Tendency
3. Mode the most frequently occurring data in the
collection.
Fundamentals of Statistics
Measures of Dispersion
1. Range the difference between the largest value and
smallest value in a given data set. This is the simplest
measure of dispersion but used in many applications
such as control charts.
2. Standard Deviation a measure of the spread of the
values of a lot. A sample standard deviation is computed
from samples drawn from a lot.

(X1 - )2 + (X2 - )2 + + (Xn - )2
s=
n-1
Fundamentals of Statistics
Measures of Dispersion
Population Standard Deviation is computed as follows

=
(x - )2
N

1. Variance. Variance of population is 2 variance of

sample is s2
Tool 7: Control Chart
Control chart is aimed at monitoring the quality of the process
continuously.
Proposed by Shewhart and developed by Deming.
A chart has a central horizontal line which indicates the mean
(average) specification of a product.
An Upper Control Limit (UCL) is above the central line and a
Lower Control Limit (LCL) is below it. UCL and LCL are called
statistical limits.
The UCL and LCL are set after studying the process. Once set,
the process should be maintained to perform within the control
limits.
If the process performs within the limits, then the process is
good. Otherwise, it is out of the control and the root cause
should be identified and corrected.
Tool 7: Control Chart
Causes of Process Variability
Process can be expressed as an ETX model and a
process flow chart with clear inputs and outputs.
Process results can also be affected by other factors such
as the men, machine, materials, temperature, pressure,
humidity, dust, vibration, etc.
Any variations of the above can lead to variations in the
overall process and if not corrected, these can lead to
variations in the end product.
The two types of variations are
Random Causes causes that cannot be traced to a particular
cause and are due to common causes. Examples are temperature
changes, voltage fluctuations, etc. The process is said to be under
statistical control when there are only random causes.
Causes of Process Variability
Special Causes causes that are indentifiable with analysis and
are also called assignable causes. Examples can be a vendor
supplied product, a particular machine or operator, etc. The
process is said to be out of control or unstable when special
causes are present. These causes have to be prevented.
Six Sigma
Defined as a business process that allows organizations to
drastically improve their bottom line by designing and
monitoring everyday business activities in ways that minimize
waste and resources while increasing customer satisfaction.
Started by Motorola in the 1980s and adopted by other
companies like GE, IBM, Sony, Honda, Canon, Texas
Instruments, etc.
GE defines six sigma as a vision of quality which equates to
only 3.4 defects per million opportunities for each product or
service transaction and strives for perfection.
Six sigma aims at consistency in its products.
If an organization controls variations in the process to only 3.4
out of 1 million results from the specification limits, then it has
achieved six sigma process.
Defects and Six Sigma
Six Sigma Process Models
1. DMAIC
Six Sigma Process Models
2. DMADV
Six Sigma Implementation
To implement six sigma, an organization needs the
following:
Champions assumed by senior management who sponsors the
projects. They should be knowledgeable in basic and advanced
statistical tools.
Master black belts these are consultants who are experts in
statistical tools. They act as consultants to black belts. The ideal
number is 1 master black belt for every 30 black belts.
Black belts may be a junior to middle level manager and heads a
team for a certain project. There should be 1 black belts for every
100 green belts.
Green belts the process owners and they execute 6 sigma
projects as part of their normal jobs. They focus on day to day work
and helps the black belts in collecting data.
Six Sigma, Kaizen, Lean and TQM
Kaizen continuous incremental improvement. Kaizen is
part of TQM.
Lean manufacturing focuses on speed of processing,
reducing WIP, elimination of waste, standardization of
processes, flexibility of workstations, etc. Lean
concentrates on eliminating wastes by removing non-
value adding processes. Lean is part of TQM.
Six sigma focuses on variations and finally the root cause
of the variation and reducing the variation so as to
achieve zero defects. It enables improvement of process
capability, defect prevention, stability and predictability of
the processes and variation reduction. Many
organizations believe that six sigma covers almost all the
elements of TQM.