International Journal of Environmental Studies

ISSN: 0020-7233 (Print) 1029-0400 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/genv20

A review of adsorbed natural gas storage

technologies

S. Alhasan, R. Carriveau & D. S.-K. Ting

To cite this article: S. Alhasan, R. Carriveau & D. S.-K. Ting (2016): A review of adsorbed
natural gas storage technologies, International Journal of Environmental Studies, DOI:
10.1080/00207233.2016.1165476

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2016.1165476

Published online: 28 Apr 2016.

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 International Journal of Environmental Studies, 2016
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2016.1165476

A review of adsorbed natural gas storage

technologies
S. ALHASAN, R. CARRIVEAU* AND D. S.-K. TING
Turbulence and Energy Laboratory, Centre for Engineering Innovation, University of Windsor, 401
Sunset Ave., Windsor, ON N9B 3P4, Canada
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Adsorbed natural gas (ANG) storage and supporting transportation technologies can become com-
petitive alternatives to existing fuel storage systems. This paper illustrates ve key elements funda-
mental to the success of an ANG storage system. Adsorbent characteristics, thermal dynamics,
desorption, and deliverability rates are examined in some detail. The adsorbent characteristics dis-
cussed include adsorbent surface area, composition, and particle distribution. It is clear that novel
gas storage monoliths, metal organic frameworks and high surface active carbon can perform better
than a standard activated carbon. The heat of adsorption and the thermal uctuations in the ANG
storage system have a signicant impact on its performance. The paper discusses future prospects
of the ANG system, and efforts to overcome critical obstacles.

Keywords: Natural gas storage; ANG; Activated carbon

1. Introduction

Storage of natural gas with the use of an adsorbent is a promising technology for on-board
storage of natural gas in motor vehicles [1]. Natural gas has numerous benets over con-
ventional fuels [2]. It is cheaper than diesel, petrol (gasoline), and propane. Natural gas is
cleaner, having fewer emissions than other conventional fuels. It emits less carbon dioxide
and other pollutants known to harm the environment [3]. Although natural gas is a fossil
fuel, it generally produces lower emissions per vehicle than diesel or heavier oils [4]. The
attractiveness of natural gas in part comes from its lower carbon content, roughly 55% car-
bon per unit energy compared to coal and 73% compared to petroleum [5,6]. Natural gas
burns at a lower temperature than most liquid hydrocarbons, resulting in low NOx
emissions [5]. Natural gas is considered a reasonable fuel alternative for storage systems
including vehicles because of its availability, reliability, low prices, and minimized
emissions relative to conventional fossil fuels [6].
Being in gaseous form at standard room conditions, natural gas is expensive to trans-
port, especially in remote areas not served by gas pipelines. Under standard energy density
(combustion heat per volume), it is 0.038 MJ/L (0.11% of gasoline value), restricting its
use in remote areas. This has restricted its use for the transport sector so far. But, there has
been an increased interest in the use of natural gas vehicles owing to the global rise of
emissions from greatly increased car ownership, particularly in South East Asia. Most
of these vehicles use higher carbon liquid fuels. Yet, there are a considerable number of

*Corresponding author. Email: rupp@uwindsor.ca

2016 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group

 2 S. Alhasan et al.

vehicles that use conventional compressed natural gas (CNG) [7]. There are more than
16.7 million natural gas vehicles operating worldwide including motorcycles, cars, vans,
light and heavy duty trucks, buses, lift trucks, refuse trucks and marine applications [8].
On an energy-equivalent basis, oil has been more expensive than natural gas. Oil prices
are generally set in a global market, while US natural gas prices are determined domesti-
cally. The discovery of large domestic reserves suggests that prices will remain relatively
low. New drilling and recovery techniques have resulted in a dramatic increase in the
amount of recoverable natural gas and a consequent decrease in domestic natural gas
prices [9]. Thus, natural gas supplies have increased while prices have dropped, suggesting
a promising future for the natural gas vehicle market [4]. In the US, bus eets form the
largest market for natural gas vehicles. The American Public Transit Association reports
that nearly 19% of the nations full sized transit bus eet operate on natural gas [10].
The current storage methods of natural gas for vehicles are CNG, liqueed natural gas
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(LNG), and more recently adsorbed natural gas (ANG). CNG is natural gas that is stored
under high pressure [2]. CNG systems require that the natural gas is compressed to
20 MPa, through a costly multi-stage compression process, and it is then stored in a high
strength tank [5,6]. CNG is the form of natural gas most commonly used in vehicles [2].
The energy density of CNG at 20 MPa and 20 C is about 8.8 MJ/L, which amounts to
25% of the energy density of gasoline [7]. Its density is about 230 times greater than natu-
ral gas in normal conditions of temperature and pressure, referred to as 230 v/v [7]. LNG
is puried natural gas, condensed to a liquid by cooling it below -162 C, after which it is
stored in small volume tanks. It is a clear, colourless and non-toxic liquid [11]. LNG occu-
pies 1/600th of the volume of natural gas under normal conditions, which makes it conve-
nient for transportation by specially designed vehicles to areas remote from natural gas
wells [12]. It is stored in a double-wall vacuum-insulated pressurized tank in order to keep
the gas in a liquid form at 160 to 196 C [2]. There are many serious challenges in the
storage and management of LNG. Thus, it is only used as a vehicle fuel in heavy duty,
high fuel demanding vehicles such as highway trucks and construction equipment [2].
ANG is produced by packing a micro porous solid in a vessel to increase the storage
density of the system [13]. The manufacture process begins with the raw carbon material
preparation, pelletizing, carbonization, and activation. The material is then installed in a
container, and nally applied to vehicles, as shown in gure 1. ANG has the potential to
replace CNG and LNG storage in vehicles [13]. ANG technologies recently became com-
petitive with CNG and LNG technologies because of their high energy density capability
achievements. ANG tanks are environmentally favourable. They produce 99% less CO,
30% less NOx, 96% less hydrocarbons than do petrol drive vehicles [14]. ANG storage
systems operate at lower pressures (<4 MPa) and use lighter tanks, reducing the cost and
safety concerns in comparison to CNG [3].
The micro porous solid in the ANG system permits lower pressure operation at room
temperature, producing the same capacity as CNG [13]. ANG technology can provide sat-
isfactory energy density at lower pressures and at room temperature [15]. Natural gas

Figure 1. Adsorbed natural gas vehicle application.

 Adsorbed natural gas storage technologies 3

stored in the adsorbed form operates at lower pressures, meaning that the costs of vessel
construction and compression are lower. ANG can also be transported to remote areas
where demand cannot be supplied by a gas pipeline [7]. The performance of an adsorbent
for natural gas storage systems in vehicles has been an active area of research. The focus
has been to design an inexpensive, and extremely hydrophobic, suitable porous material
that can be used to operate an ANG system. The deliverable natural gas is a useful param-
eter to provide a direct measure of the adsorbent storage capacity in an on-board storage
tank [16].
The success of an ANG storage system is highly dependent on several factors listed in
gure 2. Some obstacles which must be overcome include the management of thermal
effects, contamination of adsorbent, and deliverability of energy. The heat of adsorption
has a great effect on the overall performance of an ANG storage system. If the heat of
adsorption released during charge is not removed from the system, less methane is
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adsorbed as the substrate heats up. If the heat of adsorption is not resupplied during dis-
charge, the bed temperature drops, increasing the residual amount of NG that remains in
storage at depletion. An effective thermal management process could capture the heat dur-
ing lling and later supply it during discharge; current work appears promising. Note,
however, that discharging is a much slower process and thus may not be an issue. Contam-
ination of the adsorbent is another factor affecting the ANG system. The adsorbent can
become contaminated with heavy hydrocarbons and water vapour present in natural gas. If
contaminants enter the storage system, they can adsorb preferentially too high equilibrium
residual levels and decrease storage capacity [3].
Much research has focused on the search for suitable porous material to improve ANG
storage volumetric energy density and to lower the cost for commercial use. If an
inexpensive ANG storage system becomes available that provides up to 7080% volumet-
ric energy density of that of CNG, economics would clearly favour ANG over CNG for
fuelling motor vehicles [16]. To achieve this, however, some obstacles must be overcome.

Adsorbent
Characteristics

Desorption
Deliverability
Processes
Success of ANG
System

Heat of Thermal
Adsorption Effects

Figure 2. Key factors affecting success of an ANG storage system.

 4 S. Alhasan et al.

This paper reviews literature focused on the key elements for success of an ANG storage
system.

2. Adsorbent characteristics

The adsorbent is a principal element affecting the commercialization and success of an

ANG storage system [17]. The development of new porous materials and the ability to
measure their storage capacity for methane at high pressures is a vital area of research
[18]. The performance of an ANG system is evaluated in terms of its volumetric and
gravimetric methane storage capacity. This performance is also highly dependent on the
surface area, composition, particle distribution, the microporous properties of the
adsorbent, and the global heat and mass transfer properties [19]. The performance of an
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adsorbent depends on its type and is governed also by characteristics including bulk
density, surface area, and micro-pore volume.

2.1. Adsorbent materials

Several types of porous adsorbents have been tested experimentally under conditions of
vehicular natural gas storage at 500 psig and ambient temperature. Table 1 shows the
methane adsorption capacity and characteristics of porous materials at 500 psig and ambi-
ent temperatures compiled from data reported in the literature by various researchers. The
bulk density of the adsorbent is the ratio of the mass of an untapped sample and its vol-
ume including the contribution of the inter-particulate void volume represented in g/cm3
[20]. Micro-pore volume determines the adsorptive capacity and the frequency of regenera-
tion of the adsorbent required during adsorption-desorption cycles, represented in cm3/g
[21]. The performance of an ANG system is represented by its volumetric methane storage
capacity (v/v). In order to increase the driving range of natural gas vehicles, it is important
to increase the volumetric capacity, rather than the gravimetric capacity. The effects in
gravimetric and volumetric usable capacity on driving range are considered independently.
The surface area of the adsorbent is described using the Brunauer, Emmett and Teller
(BET) method [22]. This method is effective for materials with mono-multilayer formation,
particularly when the monolayer is well formed [23]. The bulk density and other parame-
ters like maximum pore volume, internal and specic surface area of the pellet are con-
trolled easily by changing the heat-treatment conditions [24].
Data on activated carbons, metal organic frameworks (MOF), coal derived carbons, acti-
vated carbon from scrap tyres, and High Surface Activated Carbon (HSAC), have been
collected from the literature and further analysed. Figure 3 compares the performance of
the adsorbent based on its volumetric storage capacity (v/v) and the type of adsorbent.
Activated carbons have complex porous structures with associated energetic and chemical
inhomogeneity. Their structural heterogeneity results from their micro-pores, meso-pores
and macro-pores of different sizes and shapes. The raw materials for activated carbon are
carbonaceous matter such as wood, peat, coals, petroleum coke, bones, coconut shell, and
fruit nuts. The activation process allows for more pores and distribution of the desired size.
After initial treatment and pelletizing, one activation process carbonizes the material at
400500 C to eliminate the bulk of the volatile matter, and partially gasies it at 800
1000 C to develop the porosity and surface area [27]. Sun et al. [17] studied different
methods for producing adsorbent carbon from Illinois bituminous coal and scrap tyres,
 Adsorbed natural gas storage technologies 5

Table 1. Adsorbent characteristics at ambient temperature and 500 psig reported in the literature.

Bulk Micropore Methane Area

Density Volume Storage v/v BET
Sample (g/cm3) (cm3/g) (cm3/cm3) (m2/g) Type Reference

Scrap Tyre 0.16 0.25 43 AC from Tyres [17]

Scrap Tyre pellet 0.42 0.13 44 AC from Tyres [17]
Scrap Tyre 0.68 0.23 51 AC from Tyres [17]
activated pellet
Produced from 0.33 0.33 54 Coal Derived AC [17]
Illinois Coal
SMS-15 0.57 0.86 128 2524 Adsorbent [25]
Carbon Monolith
SMS-16 0.48 1.09 111 3173 Adsorbent [25]
Carbon Monolith
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SMS-17 0.56 0.85 124 2454 Adsorbent [25]

Carbon Monolith
SMS-18 0.53 0.78 118 2237 Adsorbent [25]
Carbon Monolith
SMS-19 0.65 0.88 149 2552 Adsorbent [25]
Carbon Monolith
SNS-22 0.63 0.84 150 2451 Adsorbent [25]
Carbon Monolith
SMS-23 0.7 0.56 112 1494 Adsorbent [25]
Carbon Monolith
SMS-30 0.39 0.98 120 2860 Adsorbent [25]
Carbon Monolith
HSAC Sample 19 0.62 145.5 1619.29 HSAC [24]
HSAC Sample 23 0.58 146.4 1784.36 HSAC [24]
HSAC Sample 23B 0.37 108 841.14 HSAC [24]
HSAC Sample 29 0.45 120.3 1087.46 HSAC [24]
HSAC Sample 30 0.15 77.1 346.86 HSAC [24]
HSAC Sample 21 0.83 147.2 1465.67 HSAC [24]
Ni2 (dobdc) 1.195 0.56 230 1218 MOF [26]
Cu3(btc)2 0.881 0.73 206.3 1642.5 MOF [26]
Co2(dobdc) 1.173 0.495 207.5 1056 MOF [26]
Cu2(adip) 0.829 0.85 218.5 1868.5 MOF [26]
Mg2(dobde) 0.909 0.643 197.75 1542.3 MOF [26]
Zn4O(bdc) 0.621 1.3875 153.67 3800 MOF [26]
AX-21 activated 0.49 1.64 154 AC [26]
carbon
Maxsorb 1.088 174.4 AC [19]
KF-1500 0.601 149.4 AC [19]
CMS 0.303 103 AC [19]

physically and chemically. In addition to the adsorbent carbon produced from coal, shred-
ded automotive tyres obtained from three vendors were also used to produce two addi-
tional adsorbents. Activated carbons with high specic surface area and pore volumes can
be synthesized from a variety of carbonaceous materials [28]. Policicchio et al. [24] stud-
ied the methane adsorption properties of HSAC samples, activated carbon pellets from cel-
lulose microcrystal without any binder. The HSAC sample reached a storage capacity
closest to 150 v/v. The main advantage of this activated carbon is that it offers a reversible
adsorption/desorption process [24]. MOF are porous polymeric material, consisting of
 6 S. Alhasan et al.

250

Methane Storage (v/v) 200

150

100

50
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0
Activated Adsorbent High Surface Metal Organic Activated Coal Derived
Carbon from Carbon Activated Framework Carbon Activated
Tyres Monolith Carbon Carbon

Figure 3. Methane storage performance of various materials tested in the literature.

metal ions linked together by organic bridging agents. A wide range of new structures
have been prepared which generally feature the largest pore known for crystalline com-
pounds and very high adsorption capacities [29]. Table 1 shows a detailed evaluation of
six MOF and an activated carbon with a range of surface area, pore structures, and surface
chemistries [26]. Activated carbon monoliths are prepared using activated carbon and a
different binder that keeps the carbon in a compressed state. Carbon monoliths have
reduced inter-particle voids in comparison to other adsorbents, thus maximizing bulk den-
sity [30]. The material exhibits a continuous carbon skeleton and thus provides superior
thermal conductivity and is electrically conductive. Historically, activated carbons and zeo-
lites have been the most studies microporous material.
The current studies on ANG are guided by targets set by energy companies and govern-
mental sectors. The United States Department of Energy (DOE) has a target of 180 (v/v)
as the stored gas volume that must be delivered from an ANG system for it to be consid-
ered economically feasible [31]. Figure 3 shows that MOFs have the highest performance
and have a great potential for vehicular application of ANG systems compared to other
adsorbents. MOFs have attracted academia and industry in recent years because they have
shown great promise for the adsorption of natural gas in clean energy applications. The
emerging ability to tune pore size and power wall functionality allow researchers to focus
on increasing both the volume available for storage and the afnity of the network for the
stored gas molecules [32].

2.2. Adsorbent bulk density

The initial focus of activated carbon storage work was on increasing the surface area and
the micro-pore volume on a gravimetric basis for ANG storage. Maximum surface area
limits have been achieved. The current focus is on improving the packing density, while
retaining the high surface area. The adsorbent packing density is highly dependent on
improvements towards bulk density, optimizing particles size, and monolith preparation
[16]. Methods to increase bulk density include pelletization and monolith processing [33].
 Adsorbed natural gas storage technologies 7

250

200

Methane Storage (v/v)

150

100

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Bulk Density (g/cm3)

Figure 4. Linear relationship between methane storage capacity and bulk density of various microporous carbons
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reported in the literature at ambient temperatures and 500 psig.

Figure 4 shows a linear relationship between the volumetric storage capacity and bulking
density among the diverse microporous adsorbents (i.e. activated carbons from tyres, coal
derived activated carbon, adsorbent carbon monolith, and MOF).
The storage capacity of the granular coal-derived carbon used by Sun et al. [17]
increased when the product was ground owing to the increase in bulk density. The chemi-
cally activated carbon using KOH had a higher surface area, micro-pore volume, and
methane adsorption capacity, but a lower volumetric storage methane capacity than physi-
cal activated carbons. The tyre-derived carbons showed lower methane storage capacity
mainly because of their lower bulk density compared to the coal derived activated carbon.
Pellets formed from the tyre-derived carbons had an increase in bulk density. Volumetric
methane capacities of pelletized and granular tyre-derived carbons were similar. The tyre-
derived adsorbent is a low-cost economic adsorbent and is environmentally friendly.

2.3. Micro-pore volume of adsorbent

Molecular modelling studies have suggested that the ideal adsorbent with maximum
methane storage capacity at 500 psig and 298 K would have only micro-pores with size
and shape corresponding to the optimal volumetric storage of two layers of methane mole-
cules. When deliverability is considered, the pore size and shape should correspond to the
optimal volumetric storage of at least three layers of methane molecules [16]. This ensures
the maximum deliverable capacity by minimizing methane retention on the mircro-pores at
ambient pressure. A linear relationship between the volumetric methane storage capacity
and the micro-pore volume is observed at ambient temperatures and 500 psig. Increasing
the micro-pore volume on a gravimetric basis is highly important to the performance of an
ANG system. Figure 5 shows this trend; the data are compiled from various researchers.
Biloe et al. [17] studied the inuence of the microporous characteristics of activated carbon
on the performance of charge and discharge of an ANG system using the Dubinin-
Astakhov equation. The ideal activated carbon should have an average micro-pore width
of 2.0 nm for an ANG storage system [19]. Results showed that Maxsorb was the best
available activated carbon with a width of 2.2 nm. This theoretical research was also
validated through experiment.
 8 S. Alhasan et al.

250

200

Methane Storage (v/v)

150

100

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

Micropore Volume (cm3/g)

Figure 5. Linear relationship between methane storage capacity and micro-pore volume of various microporous
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carbons reported in the literature at ambient temperatures and 500 psig.

2.4. Performance of adsorbent based on surface area

Advances in natural gas adsorbents have established that high surface area materials have
shown promise for increasing the density of natural gas under moderate conditions in the
form of ANG. The data studied from the literature indicated that in order to maximize
ANG storage capacity for vehicular purposes, the emphasis should be on creating adsor-
bents with high surface area on a volumetric basis [16]. Figure 6 shows the relationship
between the methane adsorption capacity at 500 psig and 298 K, and the surface area mea-
sure for the different adsorbents. Menon and Komarneni [15] compiled and reviewed
experimental and simulated methane capacity results at ambient temperatures and 500 psig
for vehicular natural gas storage for various microporous adsorbents from previous
literature. The methane storage was compared using the gravimetric methane adsorption
capacity scale and compared to the volumetric method. Microporous adsorbents including
coals, carbons, zeolites, silica gel and an MCM-41 type material were studied [16].

3. Thermal effects of heat of adsorption

One of the main problems with ANG systems is the management of the thermal effects. The
heat of adsorption greatly affects the ANG storage capability [3]. The heating and cooling
250

200
Methane Storage (v/v)

150

100

50

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000
Area (m2/g)

Figure 6. Relationship between methane storage capacity and surface area of various microporous carbons
reported in the literature at ambient temperatures and 500 psig.
 Adsorbed natural gas storage technologies 9

effect on the system degrades the storage capability; hence increasing heat transfer within the
ANG reservoirs is very important [34]. Much research has been conducted into this question,
to improve the performance and heat management of an ANG storage system.
A computational model was designed to study the inuence of diffusional resistance on
charge dynamics by Mota et al. [3] to get better understanding of the thermal effects and
hydrodynamics of the ow through the carbon bed. The model shows a temperature drop
during discharge, which can be reduced by increasing the heat transfer rate from the
surroundings. This model demonstrates that ANG storage is not isothermal. Mota et al.
concluded that the temperature drop could be eliminated. The gas can be cooled before it
enters the reservoir and any non-adsorbed gas recirculates back into the refrigeration unit
using a compressor [35].
Chang and Talu [13] devised a solution to help improve the performance and heat man-
agement of an ANG system. The impact of heat of adsorption on ANG performances was
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observed during discharge under realistic conditions. Experimental data were collected
from a custom ANG test system and analysed. Results from the experiments showed that
it was not possible to operate an ANG system under isothermal conditions. When the tem-
perature drops to 5o C, there is an 8% loss in the capacity of the system. For realistic vehi-
cle applications, the dynamic loss is expected be 1520% at moderate discharge rates.
Results from experimentation and the model showed that the thermal capacity of the cylin-
der wall is an important energy source and external heat transfer can supply a signicant
amount of energy. The main difculty is the poor conductivity of the packed carbon. The
ow direction during discharge was also studied. Experiments showed that changing the
ow direction from axial to radial helped increase the energy transfer to the central region
of the ANG cylinders [13].
Yang et al. [36] studied the thermal effect of the heat of adsorption on the discharge per-
formance of an ANG storage system and discovered a novel way to handle the tempera-
ture uctuations. A storage vessel with U-shaped heat exchange pipe around the central
region was designed to help manage the temperature eld of an absorbent bed. The vessel
held a capacity of 1L, similar to the ANG storage tank. Results from nite element analy-
sis showed that the central region of the adsorbent bed suffers from the greatest tempera-
ture uctuation because of its poor thermal conductivity. The results also showed that the
introduction of hot water, like cooling water in a vehicular engine, can moderate the severe
temperature change of the adsorbent bed [36].
Thermal proles are highly dependent on several parameters including adsorbent charac-
teristics, properties and composition, charging rate, vessel design and geometry, material of
construction, and room temperature [20]. Ridha and his colleagues at the University of
Technology Malaysia [31] analysed the thermal behaviour of ANG storages at dynamic
discharge condition. An ANG vessel was built and continuously pressured with light
hydrocarbon gases and their mixtures at 27 C. This was analysed using two activated car-
bons: (AC-D) supplied by Aldrich Chemical Company and (AC-L) which is made from
coconut shell, activated by steam and supplied by Pacic Activated-Carbon Sdn. Bhd. The
hydrocarbon gases used were methane, ethane, and high purity propane, along with their
ternary mixture of C13 [37].
AC-L showed better isothermal storage capacity owing to its porous structure. AC-D
showed more extreme thermal uctuations by a temperature of 99.2 C at the centre of the
region of the adsorbent bed when charged at 1 L min1 up to 4 MPa. AC-L in the methane
system also created a thermal uctuation (116 C), when the charge rate was increased to
(5 L min1). This extreme temperature change caused a reduction of 26.9% in the dynamic
 10 S. Alhasan et al.

Table 2. Activated carbon [37].

Company Activated carbon Bet (m2/g)

Aldrich Chemical Company AC-D 1378

Pacic Activated-Carbon Sdn. Bhd. AC-L 1691

storage capacity with respect to the isothermal storage capacity. This reduction also created
a working pressure of 2.5 MPa of the storage system rather than the desired pressure of
4 MPa. Results showed the temperatures were highest at the central region of the adsor-
bent bed because of the systems poor thermal conductivity leading to limited heat transfer
for both activated carbons. Their research also demonstrated that high ethane and propane
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portions of NG may create a thermal uctuation of the storage system as the heats of
adsorption are higher than that of methane [37]. Table 2 shows the characteristics of the
adsorbents used by Ridha et al.

4. Desorption process

Adsorption is an exothermic process and substantial heat is generated when an adsorption

system is charged. Desorption is an endothermic process and substantial heat is required
when the adsorbed gas is discharged [16]. The desorption temperature prole strongly
depends on the adsorption pressure, material used as an adsorbent, and the ow rate during
the desorption process [38]. Saez and Toledo [33] studied the thermal effect from the
adsorption heat on both the charge and discharge performance of ANG storage and trans-
portation systems. The experiment was conducted by studying two storage tanks, one hori-
zontally and one vertically, built with temperature and security control. The tanks were
used during the adsorption and desorption process. The tests were run at different pres-
sures at 2, 3 and 4 MPa. Three different activated carbons were used in the system. Tem-
perature, ow rate and discharge data were recorded during experimental runs. Table 3
lists the activated carbon used in the test. The central region of the adsorbent bed showed
the greatest temperature change at charge and discharge processes. The adsorption pres-
sure, activated carbon and ow control of an ANG system greatly affect the adsorption
and desorption prole temperature. Results from the experimentation also showed that ef-
cient heating of the system must be considered to increase the desorption process. The best
discharge pressure was shown to be at pressure of 4 MPa, using the G1220 Extra activated
carbon [39].

Table 3. Activated carbon used in experiment [39].

Company Activated carbon BET (m2/g)

Carbomafra C.A. 119 20 50 US 1050

Sutcliffe Speakman Cell Carb GNG 90 30 70 1594
Norit G1220 Extra 1500
 Adsorbed natural gas storage technologies 11

5. Deliverability of ANG systems

Gas adsorption experiments have been used to characterize the maximum adsorption
capacity of a material, as well as surface area and pore volume. These experiments pro-
vided extensive research on the maximum possible storage capacity, but have not neces-
sarily provided the amount of useable capacity of the materials. Judd et al. [40] noted in
their work that the storage capacity of an ANG system is always greater by 15% than
the delivered capacity. Therefore, storage capacity does not equate to useable capacity
when the gases strongly interact with the adsorbent and in cases when the kinetic effects
mean that some of the adsorbed gas is not easily recoverable. Whether a material has a
high storage capacity varies with the amount deliverable under the conditions in which
the material is to be used. When the system is running, adsorption on the microporous
carbon causes a large extent of the capacity to be lled by atmospheric pressure. This
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gas cannot be discharged from the vessel without inducing triggers by simple variations
of the system conditions. For example, reducing the pressure of a gas in the adsorbents
containing vessel has a large effect on the desorption process of the gas. Raising the
temperature or exposure to to UV light may trigger the gas to be desorbed, as can con-
tact with chemical species that can replace the gas, triggering its release to the environ-
ment [41]. Ideally, the adsorbent material should have a long storage life, and the
delivery of the gas should not change signicantly after storage of the material for days,
months or years.

6. Recent advances of ANG systems and future prospects

A successful ANG system must have an adsorbent with a high adsorption capacity, high
adsorption/desorption relations, high packing density, low adsorption heats, suitable proper-
ties for mass transference, strong hydrophobicity, and low cost [42].
Santos et al. documented a newer tank conguration used for ANG storage systems
[38]. A vessel made of several tubes compacted with activated carbon was designed. In
the charge process, the gas goes through the tank, and all the non-adsorbed gas would pass
through an external heat exchanger at the gas source of the refuelling station. A computa-
tional code was developed to solve the equations that describe the dynamics of the
systems charge process. The experiment showed that the charge time of the new system
was 50 to 200 s. This new system also eliminated the use of ns, perforated tube in the
tank centre, and a cooling external jacket [43].
Methods to improve and extend the use of ANG technology for large-scale storage
rather than vehicular applications have been studied. Efcient and reliable natural gas stor-
age for larger scale applications is vital for managing uctuations in gas supply and
demand [44]. Large storage applications face different challenges, particularly with regard
to the conguration and physical properties of the adsorbent. Large-scale ANG storage
focuses on a compromise between cost and performance. Experimental results show that
the ANG storage method can provide enhancements over pressurization of the order 210
times depending on storage pressure. The cost of system depends on the cost of the adsor-
bent. Lower density carbons with low cost and high performance are highly recommended
[40]. The transportation sector is responsible for nearly a quarter of global greenhouse gas
emission and is a major source of smog forming emissions [45]. Alternative fuels are cru-
cial to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Natural gas can diversify transportation fuel
 12 S. Alhasan et al.

usage because of its potential in medium and heavy duty trucks, which can account for
22% of the US transportation sectors oil use, and can also provide fuel cost savings [46].
Many factors impede the commercialization of natural gas vehicles compared to diesel and
gasoline vehicles. Limited driving range, storage capacity, and weight of conventional
tanks are barriers to increasing the use of natural gas as an alternative transportation fuel
[47]. If these and related problems can be solved, ANG storage systems can become
highly competitive.

7. Conclusions

Published research into ANG storage was reviewed. The focus was work on the effect of
adsorbent characteristics including pore size, surface area, and bulk density on storage den-
sity. The review also examined thermal effects of heat of adsorption and new tank congu-
Downloaded by [University of Sussex Library] at 02:25 03 May 2016

rations on the storage density of an ANG system.

The available adsorbent materials present different limitations especially for on-board
storage applications: slow desorption/absorption rates, unstable structures, heavy weight,
irreversibility on cycling and expensive production costs. MOFs have the highest perfor-
mance and have a great potential to lead in the vehicular application of ANG systems
compared to other types of adsorbents. A roughly linear relationship is found between
methane adsorption capacity, and the surface area, bulk density, and micropore size.
The central region of the adsorbent bed suffers from the greatest thermal uctuations
because of poor thermal conductivity. The thermal proles during discharge are highly
dependent on several parameters including adsorbent characteristics, properties and
composition, ow rate, vessel design and geometry, material of construction, and room
temperature.
The heat of adsorption has a great effect on the overall performance of an ANG storage
system. There is a major temperature drop during discharge. The temperature change can
be managed through several methods. Increasing heat transfer from the surroundings can
reduce the temperature change. Changing the ow direction from axial to radial can help
increase the energy transfer to the central region of the ANG cylinders during discharge.
Thermal management of the system can also be improved by introducing hot water to it,
similar to that of cooling water in a vehicular engine, to moderate the severe temperature
change of the adsorbent bed. There appear to be good prospects for applying ANG sys-
tems to large-scale storage of natural gas.
Nearly 17 million vehicles are currently powered by natural gas around the world. The
ANG market is relatively large and could become a leader for numerous reasons, princi-
pally the environmental benets. ANG vehicles may lead in the transportation sector if the
problems can be overcome.

Disclosure statement

No potential conict of interest was reported by the authors.

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