Biogas in developing rural areas

David Wargert

2009-05-25

LTH, Lund University

Department: Environmental and Energy Systems Studies

Tutors: Per Svenningsson, Lorenzo Di Lucia

Course: FMI 070 International environmental issues

1
Abstract
Ruralareasofdevelopingcountriesareverydependentonbiomassfuelssuchasfirewoodanddried
dungfortheirenergyconsumption.Thisuseofenergyisoftencoupledwithmanyproblemssuchas
deforestation,landdegrade,varioushealthandsocialproblemsaswellasgivingraisetoemissions
ofgreenhousegases.Inmanyareasbiogascanbeusedasareplacementforthesefuelsandcanhelp
solvemanyoftheproblemsthatareassociatedwithbiomassfuels.Thisreportassessestheuseof
biogasindevelopingruralareasandlooksintoproblemsandchallengesaswellasbenefitsand
successfactors.AcasestudyofNepalhasbeenmade.

Table of Contents

Introduction..........................................................................................................................................3
Aim.......................................................................................................................................................3
Method..................................................................................................................................................3
Energyusage.........................................................................................................................................4
Problemswithbiomassfuels................................................................................................................4
Deforestation,landdegradeandgreenhousegases.....................................................................4
Socialandhealtheffects.............................................................................................................5
Education....................................................................................................................................5
Biogas...................................................................................................................................................6
Betterefficiency..........................................................................................................................6
Technology..................................................................................................................................6
Fixeddomedigesters...................................................................................................................7
PyrolysisGasificationBiogasplants...........................................................................................8
Positiveeffects......................................................................................................................................9
Problemsandchallenges.....................................................................................................................10
Financing............................................................................................................................................11
Nepal...................................................................................................................................................13
DiscussionandConclusions...............................................................................................................15
References...........................................................................................................................................17

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Introduction
Theenergyusageinmostdevelopingcountriesmainlyconstitutesofbioenergy,mainlyintheform
offirewoodbutalsoasstrawandcattlemanureetc.Anothersignificanceofespeciallytheleast
developedcountries(LDC)isthatmostoftheenergyconsumptioncomesfromhouseholduseas
opposedtoalargerpartindustrialusageinthedevelopedcountries.(Lietal2005)Theuseoffirewood
havemanynegativeeffects,bothsocialandenvironmental.Mostlywomenandchildrencollectthe
firewoodandthiscantakeseveralhoursperdayleavingthisgroupwithlesstimeforeducation,
employmentandrecreation.Theuseoffirewoodandotherformsofbiomassasacookingfuelis
alsodirectlyrelatedtoexposuresofthehazardousparticlesfromthesmokethatthesefuelsproduce
whenburned.(Gautametal2009)
Theuseoffirewoodisalsoanimportantfactorinthedeclinementofforestsintheworldand
therebyanimportantfactortoclimatechange.Othernegativeeffectsfromexcessivebiomassusage
are erosion, degrading soils and water resources. Converting from today's use of biomass into
cleaner greener technologies in rural developing areas would increase the standardof living,
health andlocalenvironmentandatthesametimehelpreduceclimatechange.Furthermoreit
wouldgiveanimprovedchanceofeconomicaldevelopment.(Bajgainetal2005)
Theuseofbiogasasanenergysourcehasprovenitselftobeanimportantstrategyinsolvingthe
problemsofenergyusageinruralareasofdevelopingcountries.Byusingexistingsubstrateslike
dungandotherwasteproductstoproducebiogas,singlehouseholdsandcommunitiescanbecome
moreorlessselfsufficientintermsofenergy.Thebiogascanbeusedasacleancookingfuel
withouttheeffectsofhazardousparticlestypicallyassociatedwithfirewoodandcanalsobeusedto
generateelectricityorforheating.(Bajgainetal2005)

Aim
Theaimofthisreportistoassesstheuseofbiogasinruralareasofdevelopingcountries.The
developingcountriesthathavebeeninvestigatedare LDCs andthelesserdevelopeddistrictsof
countries such as India and China. The biogas technology will be presented and benefits and
problemswillbeanalysed.Runningexamplesfromdifferentcountriesanddistrictsthatfitintothe
investigationcritereaswillbeusedthroughoutthereportaswellasadeepercasestudyofNepalto
getamorepracticalviewontheeffectsofbiogasusageandfindimportantkeyfactorsforsuccessful
disseminationofbiogastechnology.

Method
Thisreporthasbeenundertakenasaliteraturestudyofscientificarticlesthatdealwithbiogasand
energyutilisationinruralareasofLDCsandlesserdevelopedprovincesinfastgrowingeconomies
such as China and India. Some articles also deal with related issues such as deforestation.
Thefirstpartofthereportdealswithenergyusageandproblemswithtraditionalenergysources.
Thenbiogasispresentedtogetherwithit'sbenefitsaswellasproblemsandchallenges.Financingof
biogasplantsisdiscussedbeforeacasestudyofNepalisconducted.Thefinalsectionconsistsofa
discussionandconclusionsection.

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Energy usage
Today'suseofenergyinthedevelopingcountriesisheavilyrepresentedbytheuseofbiomass.
Firewood, straw,dungandcropresidueconstitutes foralargepartoftheenergyconsumption.
EspeciallyintheLDCsthelargestenergypostcomesfromhouseholdconsumptioninruralareas.
Aninvestigationhasshownthatin15LDCs3095%ofthetotalenergyusageisfromhousehold
consumption.Thiscouldbecomparedtodevelopedcountrieswherethecorrespondingnumbersare
2530%. (Z.Li,R.Tang,C.Xia,H.Luo,H.Zhong,2005) Ofthecommontasksthatrequireenergyin
LDCscookingisthemostenergyintensiveactivity.Othercommonareasofuseareforwaterand
spaceheating,lighting,animalbreedingetc.(Bhatt,Sachan,2004)
InIndiahalfofalltheenergyconsumptionisusedforcookingandthiscorrespondstoalmost
doubletheenergyusedintheindustrialsector.Ofthecookingfuelabout87%comesfromnon
commercialfuelsandthesemainlyconsistoffirewood.(Bhatt,Sachan,2004)
InthelessdevelopedprovinceYunnanofChinahouseholdenergyaccountsfor64%ofthetotal
energyconsumption.Ofthis55%isfromtraditionalbiomassfuelssuchasfirewoodandstraw.Even
intheindustrialsector27%oftheenergycomesfromfirewood.(Tangetal2005)
InCambodia95%ofthepopulationdependonfirewoodfuelforcooking.(Topaetal2004)
InPakistananaveragehouseholdthatusesbiomassforit'senergyneedsperyearuses2325kgof
firewood,1480kgofdungor1160kgofcropresidue.(Mirzaetal2008)
Forpeopleusingfirewoodtheamountusedpercapitavariesalotindifferentregions.Thereasons
forthiscanbeavailabilityofwood,ifwoodisusedformorethancooking(suchasspaceheating),
efficiencyofstovesetc.Someexamplesare:1.2kg/capita/dayinHimalayanNepalandalmost6kg/
capita/dayinnortheasternHimalayanIndia.(Bhatt,Sachan,2004)
Ofthecommercialfuels,coalandkerosenearetwoofthemostcommon.Theyarebothfossilfuels
contributingtoclimatechangeandcanbeexpensivetouse.(Gautametal2009;Lietal2005)

Problems with biomass fuels

Energyfrombiomasscanbeverygoodifusedinasustainableway,somethingthatarguablycan
helpreplacefossilfuels.Thebigprobleminmanydevelopingcountriesisthattheenergyresources
areusedinanunsustainableway.Thedemandforenergyisfargreaterthantheavailability.Thiscan
leadtomanyproblemssuchasdeforestation,healthimpactsandincreasingclimatechange.

Deforestation, land degrade and greenhouse gases

Theusingoffirewoodforenergyneedshasasevereimpactontheworldsforests.Oneestimate
claimsthatitaccountsfor54%oftheworldsdeforestationindevelopingcountries.(Osei,1993) In
many areas the demand for firewood has grown far faster than the supply leading to severe
deforestation.AnexampleisthetribalcommunitiesofthenortheasternHimalayanregionofIndia.
Here the deforestation as a result of firewood use have left more than 50% of the regions as
wastelands.(Bhatt,Sachan,2004)

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Inregionssuchasthis,ifnoalternativesaretobedeployed,itwillbeaquestionofsurvivalforthe
regionalpopulation.
Collectingofdungfromgrazinganimalsmeansthatnutrientsthatwouldnormallygointothesoilis
insteadburnedasfuel.Thisleadstosoildegradation.(Dendukurit,Mittal,1993)InTaktseprovincein
Tibet41.6%ofthedungfromgrazinganimalsiscollectedandthisputsaheavyloadonthealready
overgrazedfields.(Liuaetal2008)
Deforestationisamajorsourceofgreenhousegases.Worldwideitisresponsiblefor1725%ofall
anthropogenicgreenhousegases (GHG) emissions. (Strassburg et al 2009) Since,especiallyin the
developingcountries,alargepartofthedeforestationisaneffectofoverconsumptionoffirewood,
thishasapivotalroleinclimatechangeandneedstobeadressed.Deforestationisalsoanimportant
factorinsoilerosionandlanddegrade.(Gautametal2009)

Social and health effects

The burning of firewood, dung cakes, straw and agricultural residue creates many hazardous
particles. Since cooking is usually done indoors this can lead to severe health problems. The
particlesfromthesmokecangiverisetoacuterespiratoryinfectionsamongthepeoplewhoarein
contact with the smoke.These people are mainly women,children andinfants. The dangerous
particleshavebeenidentifiedasanimportantfactorofincreasedchildmortality.Anothercommon
particlerelatedproblemiseyeailments.(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)
The gender specific problems are not bound to cooking. The firewood and dung is generally
collectedbywomenandchildren.Thistaskisverytimeconsumingandoftentakesseveralhours
everyday.Thelabourishardwhichcanleadtobackandneckaswellasotherproblems. (R.
Gautama,S.Baralb,S.Herat;2009)Onebundleoffirewoodcanweigh2530kg.Insomeareaswherethe
climateisdryorheavydeforestationhastakenplace,thedistancetraveledtocollectfirewoodcan
bemorethan5km.(Topaetal2004)
InTaktseprovinceofTibetithasbeenestimatedthatwomenspend6hoursperdaycollecting
biomassandpreparingforandexecutingcooking.(Liuaetal2008)

Education
Today'suseofbiomassintheLDCsdoesn'tprovideanyuseofsufficientlightingduringthedark
hoursresultinginanimpossibilityforchildrentostudyduringthedarkhours.Thetimeconsuming
collectingoffirewoodandotherbiofuelscarriedoutbywomenandchildrenresultsinlesstime
availableforeducation.(Gautametal2009)

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Biogas
Therearemanytechnologiesavailabletodaytodealwiththeproblemofexcessiveuseofbiomass
forhouseholdenergyconsumptioninruralareasofdevelopingcountries.Thesecanincludesolar,
wind,hydropoweretc.Manyofthesetechnologiesarewellsuitedinspecificareasbasedonthe
natural resources available there. However, a common problem for the majority of these
technologiesarethattheyareoftenassociatedwithveryhighinitialcapitalcostsandadependency
onforeignfinancingandexpertise.Onesolutionthathasprovenitselftobeveryusefulinmostrural
areasindevelopingcountriesistheuseofbiogas.
AlreadytodaytherearemillionsofbiogasplantsindevelopingcountriessuchasChina,India,
Nepaletc.Thebiogasplantscanbemadeforindividualhouseholdsorforsmallcommunities.They
are relatively cheap to build, can useexisting waste products suchas household waste, human
excretasandcattlemanure.Theproducedbiogascanbeusedasacleancookingfuelandalso
providelightingduringthedarkhours.
SmallbiogasplantsstartedtoemergeinIndiainthebeginningofthe1950sandhavesincethen
spreadtomanyothercountries.Theanaerobicfermentationofwasteproducts,humanexcretaand
cattlemanureetc.wasacheapwayofgettingenergyandatthesametimehandlingwasteproducts.
(Gautametal2009)

Better efficiency
Whendiscussingdifferentsolutionstounsustainableuseofbiomassasenergyonethingtolookat
istoraisetheefficiencyofthefuelusage.Thiscanbedoneinmanyways.Burningofbiomassina
traditionalstovehasaheatingefficiencyofabout1015%.Byusingastovedesignedforbetter
efficiencythiscanberaisedtoabout2530%.Sousingbetterdesignedstovescansavealotoffuel.
(Lietal2005)

Anotherwayofraisingtheefficiencyintheburningofbiomassfuelsisbyconvertingitorreplacing
itwithbiogas.Burningof drieddunghasaheatefficiencyofabout10%whenburned.Butif
biogasisfirstproducedfromthedungthenusedtheheatingefficiencywouldberaisedto60%.
(Mirzaetal2008)

Technology
Biogasisproducedwhenorganicmaterialisdigestedinananaerobicenvironment.Theorganic
materials,substrates,typicallyconsistofkitchenwaste,humanexcreta,cattlemanure,wastewater,
agriculturalresiduesetc.
Themostcommonbiogasplantsusedindevelopingcountries aresmallhouseholdbasedfixed
domemodels.Theyarecheaptobuildandcanbeconstructedbyusingmaterialsavailablelocally.
Householdbiogasplantscommonlyusekitchen,toiletwasteandcattlemanure.

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Fixed dome digesters
Figure1showsatypicalfixeddomebiogasdigester.Theproducedgaswillstayinthedigesteruntil
itisusedormovedintoanexternalstoragetank.Whilemoreandmoregasisbeingproducedthe
pressureinsidethedigesterwillrise.Thiswillforcethedigestedslurrytobeextractedfromthe
digesterintotheremovaltank.Becausethepressurewillkeeprisingifthegasisnotdisplaceditis
notadvisabletobuildfixeddomebiogasplantslargerthan20m3.(Sasse1988)
The size of a fixed dome household scale biogas digester can vary according to how big the
householdis,howmuchsubstratesareavailable,howmuchbiogasisneededandalsotheeconomic
investment capabilities. Usually it's the available substrates that decides the size. Generally a
householdthathastwocattlecanoperatea4m3digester,fourcattlea6m3digester,sixcattlea8m3
digesterandsoon.(Bajgain,Shakya,2005;Sasse,1988)
Thesizeisalsodependentontheretentiontimeoftheslurryandtheretentiontimeusuallydepends
oneconomicconsideration.Aformulatocalculatethevolumeforadigestercanbeseenin(1).
Here,Vdisthevolumeofthedigester,Sdistheamountofslurrythatisaddedtothefermentation
processeverydayandRTistheretentiontime.(Sasse;1988)
3 3
V d [d m ]=S d [d m / d a y]R T [d a y s ] (1)
AnexamplefromNigeria:Anaveragehousehold(includingvisitors)inNigeriais9persons.This
householdwouldrequire2.4m3ofbiogaseverydayforcookingwhichisdone2.8timesperday.
Thatmeans0.26m3 biogaspercapitaandday(seetable1).Tosatisfythisenergyneedabiogas
digesterof6m3wouldbeappropriate.Itwouldproducearound2.7m3everydayleavingroomfora
slightincreaseinfutureenergyconsumationduringthebiogasdigesterslifespan.(Ilorietal2000)
Averagehouseholdsize/day(incl.Visitors) 9.0
Averagecookingenergydemand(biogasequivalent) 2.4m3
Averagenumberofcookingtimes/household/day 2.8times
Averagecookingenergydemand/capita/day 0.26m3
Table1.AveragecookingenergydemandsforNigerianhousehold(Ilorietal2000)
Mostofthedigesterisbelowground.Tobuildabiogasplantwithasizeof6m 3about15m2ofland
isneededandalabourinvestmentofabout56manhours.(Ilorietal2000)

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 Figure1.Typicalhouseholdfixeddomebiogasplant(Gautametal2009)

Thereareseveralothertypeofsmallbiogasplantdesignbutthefixeddomemodelisthemost
commonlyused.Ithasadvantagesofbeingcheaptobuild,ithasnomovingpartsoranymetalparts
thatcanrust.Thiswillmakethebiogasdigesterslastforalongtime,typicallyover20years.Itis
constructed undergroundwhichsavesspaceandmakesitlesssensitivetoseasonaltemperature
change.(Sasse,1988)

Disadvantagesarethattheyoftenleaksomegas.Afixeddomebiogasdigesterof2m3sizecould
annuallyleak2055kgofmethanedependingontheslurrytemperature.(Khoiyangbam,2004)Another
problemisthatthepressureinsidethedigestervariesalotandisoftenhigh.Thedigesteralsoworks
atlowtemperatureswhichmakesitlessefficient.Anadvantageanddisadvantageisthatthe
constructionofafixeddomebiogasplanthastobesupervisedbyexperiencedtechnicians.The
advantagebeingthatitgenerateslocaljobs.(Sasse,1988)

Pyrolysis Gasification Biogas plants

Therearealsomorecomplexbiogasplantdesigns.Theseareoftenusedonalargerscaleona
communallevel.Anexampleisthepyrolysisgasificationbiogasplantsthatweredevelopedtwenty
yearsagoandhavebeenusedinabiogasprogramintheShandongprovinceofChina.Thesebiogas
plantscanusesubstratessuchascropstraw,cornstalk,sawdustandwoodchips.Thegasifiershave
fourmajorcomponents:asystemforfeedingthematerialstothegasifierandthenasteamgenerator
and a gas storage facility. The gasifier can only use dry materials. The substrates undergo an
anaerobiccombustionwithtemperaturesabove800Cwhichproduceswatervapor,carbondioxide
andcharcoal.Thecharcoalthenconvertsthewatervaporandcarbondioxideintocarbonmonoxide,
hydrogenandmethane.Thismixofcarbonmonoxide,hydrogenandmethaneiswhatisthenused
bythevillagersforcookingandheating.InthecaseoftheShandongprovincebiogasplantslike
thesefeedbetween100upto1000families.Thebiogasisstoredlocallyandthendistributedtothe
villagersthroughundergroundpipeswhichareconnectedtospecialstovesinthevillagehouses.
(Hanetal2008)

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ThepyrolysisgasifierbiogasplantsbuiltintheShandongprovincehaveunfortunatelyhadmany
technicalproblems.Severalofthebuiltbiogasplantswerediscontinuedshortlyafterbeingbuilt.
Themostcommontechnicalproblemwastar.Tarisveryhardtogetridofafterithasblockedpipes
andotherequipment.Alotoftimeandmoneywasspentoncleaninguptarandinsomevillages
thishadtobedoneeveryweek.Leakagewasanotherproblemandsincethisgasmixturecontains
verydangerousgases,carbonmonoxideandmethane,theleakageshadtobefixeddirectly.Since
thepipeswereundergroundthiswasnotaneasytask.(Hanetal2008)
Anotherbigproblemswiththesebiogasplantsisthattheydon'tworkwithwetfuels.Hencealotof
thesubstrateshadtobedriedbeforebeingusedandespeciallyduringwetseasonsthiscouldbea
bigproblem.Insomecasesthisresultedinbiogasplantsnotbeingusedatallduringtheseseasons.
(Hanetal2008)

Thequalityofthematerialforthesepyrolysisgasifierplantshavebeenlowinordertosavemoney.
Theywerealsodesignedinaverylabourintensiveway.Itishardtodaytobuildcheappyrolosis
gasifiersforpoorcommunitiesthatcanmeetthetechnologicalrequirementsoftoday.Thereforthis
technologyhasn'tbeensowidelyspreaduptodate.(Hanetal2008)

Positive effects
Replacingbiomassenergywithbiogascouldhelptosolvealotoftheproblemsthataretypically
foundwithbiomassfuels.Indoorclimatewillbedramaticallyimprovedasaresultofusingclean
biogasstovesinsteadofburningfirewood,strawanddungcakes.Thiswouldmeanthatalotofthe
problemswithhazardoussmokeparticleswouldbeavoided.(Lietal2005)
Womenandchildrenwouldhavemoretimeforeducationwhentheydon'thavetospendasmuch
timecollectingfirewoodandotherbiomassfuels.Thedailytimespentinfeedingasmallbiogas
digestercouldbeaslittleas15minutescomparedtoseveralhoursinthecollectingofbiomass.
Timeconsumedcleaningpotsandotherkitchenequipmentcanalsobeloweredsincebiogaswon't
createasmuchsootasbiomassgenerellydoes.Biogascanalsobeusedforlightingwhichmeansit
wouldbepossibletostudyduringthedarkhoursaswell.(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)
Keroseneisafossilfuelthatiswidelyusedinmanydevelopingcountriesforcookingandlighting.
Itisexpensiveandoftenneedstobeimported.Inareaswherebiogashasbeenutilizedtheuseof
kerosenehasdroppedconsiderably.(Gautamaetal2009)
Manylocaljobsarecreatedaroundbiogasprojects.Experiencedpeopleareneededinthebuilding
ofbiogasdigestersandmanylocalcompaniesusuallyemerge.Thebiogassectoroftencreatesspin
offjobsaswell.(Gautamaetal2009;Ilorietal2000)
Theslurrythathasbeendigestedisahighgradefertilizer.Infacttheprocessedsubstratesarea
betterfertilizerthanbeforetheprocedure.Slurryfrom1kgdigesteddungcanyielduptoanextra
0.5kgnitrogencomparedtofreshmanure.(Sasse;1988)Thiscansolveproblemsofsoildegredation
inareaswhereearlierdunghasbeenusedasaburningfuel.Itcanalsomeanthatlessartificial
fertilizerhavetobeboughtwhichbringrevenuetothehousehold.(Lietal2005)

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Abigprobleminpoorregionsisthathumanexcretasandunmanagedwastewaterareasourceof
diseasespreading.Diseaseslikediarrhea,cholera,tubercolosisanddysenteriaarenotuncommonin
developingruralareas.Biogasdigesterswithattachedlatrinesisaveryeffectivewayofdealing
withthisproblem.Improvinghygieneandtherebyreducingdiseasesalsohasaneconomicvalue.If
peoplecanavoiddiseasesitalsomeanstheirworkingtimewon'tbereducedasaresult.(Gautametal
2009;Sasse,1988)

Replacingfirewoodwithbiogaswouldhaveapositiveeffectondeforestation.Thatwouldimprove
thelocalenvironments,ecosystems,problemswitherosionandmitigateGHG.(Bajgain,Shakya,
2005)

Managementofanimaldungandhumanexcretasalsopreventsmethanegasemissions.Whendung
isnaturallydigestedmethanegasisproducedandreleasedintotheatmosphere.Ifinsteadthese
substratesaredigestedinabiogasplantthemethanegas(biogas)iscollectedandthusavoiding
releaseintotheatmosphere.WhenthebiogasisthencombustedmostofitisconvertedintoCO2.
Methanegasisa21timesmoreagressiveGHGthanCO2inahundredyearperspectivesobiogas
plantscanbeeffectivemeansofmitigation.(Yuaetal2008)ThenetsavingofGHGforanaverage
sizedbiogasplanthasbeenestimatedto4.6tonnesofCO2equivalentsperyear.(Bajgain,Shakya,
2005)

Biogascanbeusedtogenerateelectricity.Thisisespeciallyusefulinremoteareasthatarenot
connectedtothepowergrid.(Urmeeetal2009)

Problems and challenges

Lackoffinancialcapabilitiestoinvestinbiogasplantsamongpoorfarmersinruralareasremain
oneofthebiggestchallenges.Possiblesolutionstothisisdescribedinthe'Financing'section.
Thereareseveraltechnicalproblemsthatcanarise.Ifthereareheavyrainsbiogasdigestersthatare
belowgroundcangetfloodedandasaresulthavetobedrainedwhichaddstothemaintanancetime
andcosts.Thiscaneasilybeavoidedwithbettersitedesignplanningwhenthebiogasplantisbuilt.
Othertechnicalissuesaremostlyrelatedtobadmaintanence.Acommonproblemisthatpipesget
blockedduetolackofservice.Leakageisalsoaproblemthatisnotunusualwithfixeddomebiogas
plants.Methane(biogas)isapoisenessgasaswellasanagressiveGHG.(Woods etal 2006;Bajgain,
Shakya,2005;Hanetal2005)

Itcanbehardtocollectanimaldungfromgrazinganimals,especiallyiftheycoveralargearea.In
severalculturesdungisseenaslowvalueandafuelonlytobeusedwhennootherfuelsare
available.Inotherculturesitisthehandlingofhumanexcretasthatisseenasaproblemandthatthe
producedbiogaswouldbe"unclean"asaneffectofthehumanremnants.Ifthisisthecaseitis
importanttospreadknowledgeandeducationaboutthetechnologytothepeople. (Bajgain,Shakya,
2005)

Publicsupportisveryimportantinthepromotionofbiogas.Iftheruralcommunitiesdon'thave
confidenceininvestinginbiogastheywillcontinuetousefirewoodandotherbiomassthatare
alreadyavailable.Spreadinginformationaboutbiogasandit'spositiveeffectsisimportant.One
approachisforthegovernmenttoimplementpilotbiogasprojectsinruralagriculturalareasto
showcasethebenefitsofbiogastechnology.(Ilorietal2000)

10
Itisimportanttobuildupalocalknowledgebasetoensurethatthereislongtermcompetencein
thebuildingandmaintainingofbiogasplants.Thisisalsoimportantincreatingjobsandexpanding
thebiogassector.(Ruralwomenmakemoneyfrombiogasslurry,2007)
Smokeisoftenusedtokeepinsectsaway.Althoughtherearehugehealthbenefitsbyreducing
smokeinsideroomstherehavebeencomplaintsfromsomeusersaboutanincreaseofespecially
mosquitos.Therehavealsobeenreportsaboutmosquitosbreedingintheslurryouttake. (Bajgain,
Shakya,2005)

Coldtemperaturesisaproblemswithbiogasdigesters.Someareashavebadprerequisitesinthis
sence,especiallymountainousregions.Thetemperatureinsidethedigesterneedstostaywithin
10Cto35Cforthebacteriatodigesttheslurry.Coldertemperatureswillmakethebiogasplants
moreinefficientandifthetemperaturedropsbelow10Cthewholeprocesswillstop.Biogasplants
builtinareaswheretemperaturesdropsbelow10Cwillneedextrainsulationandpossiblywater
heatingtomaintainoperation.Thiswilladdtotheconstructioncosts.(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)
Thelackofeffectiveand clearpoliciesareamajorhurdletoovercomeinthedisseminationof
biogas technology. Governments need to actively set policies that promote biogas usage and
encouragecollaborationwithgovernmentalorganisations(GO)andnongovernmentalorganisations
(NGO).Ifthecountry'sgovernmenthavelittlecapacityoffinancingbiogasprojectscollaboration
with GO:s and NGO:s canincreasechancesofforeignfundingandtechnologicalimport.Ifthe
localgovernmentdoesn'thaveanypoliciestoaidbiogaspromotion,eg.subsidiesandloans,itwill
bemuchharderforlocalentrepreneursandorganisationstobuildbiogasdigestersforpoorrural
households.(Hanetal2008;Bajgain,Shakya,2005)
Manycommunitiesindevelopingruralcountriesaresituatedinremoteareas.Typicallytheseareas
arealsopoorerthantheeasieraccessibleones.Thistogetherwithinadequateinfrastructureinterms
ofroadsandtransportationmeansthatitwillbeharderandmoreexpensivetobuildbiogasplants
andthatthepeopleinthedistrictshavelessabilitytoinvestinthebuildingcosts.Withoutstrong
policiesandsubsidyprogramsitishardtospreadbiogastechnologytoremoteareaslikethese.
(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)

Financing
Evenifsmallbiogasplantsareconsideredtobeacheapsourceofenergytheyarestillcoupledwith
aninitialinvestmentthatcanbehardtoaffordforpoorcommunitiesandhouseholds.Calculations
haveshownthatwithoutanysubsidiesthepaybacktimeforafarmerscalechinesetypefixdome
biogasdigesterwouldbearound3.6to5.8years.Thisdependsonhowthebiogasdigesterisused,
whatsubstrates,size,priceonfirewoodetc.(Woodsetal2006)
Asmallhouseholdbasedbiogasplantwithavolume68m 3costsaround300includingrebuilding
of an animal farm, a toilet and a kitchen. These figures are from China where the Chinese
government also have subsidies making the investment even lower. Half of the investment is
subsidisedandtheyieldsfromthepowerplantwillgiveanestimatedyearlyrevenueofaround100
whentakingintoaccountsavingsfrombuyingfirewoodandelectricity,producedfertilizeretc.This
makes the paybacktimeless thantwoyears inthis example.This is affordable formost rural
households,eveninpoorareas.(Lietal2005)

11
Subsidiesisaneffectivewayofacceleratingbiogasgrowthandisoftennecessarytomakethe
technologyaffordable.Subsidiesdoesn'talwayshavetocomefromtheowncountry'sgovernment.
TherearemanyGO:sandNGO:sworldwidethathavebeeninvolvedwithmanydifferentbiogas
projects.Agoodexampleistheindependentnonprofitorganisation"TheNepalBiogasSupport
Program"whicharefundedbytheNetherlands.Theyhavebeenverysuccessfulinthedeployment
ofbiogastechnologyinNepal.(Gautametal2009)
Loansareanimportanttoolinpromotingbiogas.Evenifgeneroussubsidiesareavailableloansare
oftenneededforpoorruralhouseholdstobeabletoinvestinsomethingthathasseveralyearspay
backtime.Loanscanbegrantedfromthegovernment,banksandotherfinancialinstitutionsorfrom
NGO:s.(Biswasetal2001;Nancy,Elaine,2007)
TheCleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM)oftheUNFCCCcanbeusedforbiogasprojects.This
flexiblemechanismmakesitpossibleforAnnex1(developed)countriestodisplaceemission
reductionstodevelopingcountries.TheavoidedGHGemissionsfromtheCDMprojectswill
generateCERs(CertifiedEmissionReductions)thatcanbeboughtbyAnnex1countries.Thiscan
helpfinancefurtherbiogasgrowthindevelopingcountries.(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)

12
Nepal
NepalislocatedinbetweenIndiaandChinaandhasapopulationof23millionpeople.Around80
85%maketheirlivingthroughagricultureinruralareasandtheagriculturalsectoraccountsfor
39%ofNepal'sGDP.Thereareapproximately4.25millionhouseholdswhichcontainonaverage
5.44 persons. 38% of the population live below the poverty line of $1USD/day and the
infrastructureinthemanyremoteruralareasisverybad.Thismeanslackofroads,runningwater,
electricity,health,educationetc.(Gautametal2009)
OftheenergyusedinNepal88%comesfrombiomasssuchasfirewoodandagriculturalresidues.
Thehouseholdusageofenergyaccountsfor90%ofthecountriestotal.Nepalisacountrywhich
reallysuffersfromthetypicalproblemsmentionedinthe'Problemswithbiomassfules'section.The
resultingdeforestationhasleadtomoretimebeingspentonfirewoodcollectingastheforestshave
receededfurtherandfurtherawayfromthecommunities.(Gautametal2009)
ThebiogastechnologyinNepalhasreachedthecountryfromIndiawherebiogasdigestershave
been used since the 1950s. Nepal and India share many geographical and socioeconomic
characteristicswhitheachotherwhichhasmadethisconnectionnatural.Themostcommontypeof
biogasdigesterusedinNepalisasmallhouseholdscalefixeddomedigesterandcanbeseenin
Figure1.Itisfurtherdescribedinthe'Technology'section.ThisdesignisamodificationofIndian
andChinesefixeddomemodels.(Gautametal2009)
ThepotentialforbiogasplantsinNepalisestimatedto1.3million.Thisiscalculatedfromthecattle
population of the country. Today more than 111 000 biogas plants have been installed which
correspondstoabout9%oftheestimatedpotential.(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)
SomeofthemainreasonsthathavecontributedtothewidespreaduseofbiogasinNepalarethe
problemsassociatedwithtraditionaluseofbiomassandlackofalternativessuchasfossilfuels.
Awarenessaboutthebiogastechnologyandofwhatitcanachievehasbeenwidelyspreadamongst
thepopulation.BecausesuchlargepartofNepalisagriculturallybasedtherearemanyalready
availablewasteproductsthatcanbeusedinthebiogasreactors.Thematerialsneededtobuildthe
biogasplantscanbefoundlocallyandthetechnologyisn'tlockedtoanyintellectualpropertyrights
holders.(Gautamaetal2009)
Financinghasalsobeenanimportantfactorinthebuildingofbiogasdigesters.InNepalithasbeen
possible to be granted loans from the government to build biogas plants. There has also been
subsidiesavailable.Animportantfinancialfactorhavebeenanindependentnonprofitorganization,
TheNepalBiogasSupportProgram(BSP)whichhavebeenfinancedmainlybytheNetherlands.
BSPhasbeenactiveinNepalsince1992andthroughthisprogramover111000biogasplantshave
beeninstalled.Ofthese97%areoperational.TherearesomeimportantfactortowhytheBSPhas
beensoeffectiveinNepal.Ofmajorimportancehasbeenthepublicsupportandclientsatisfaction.
Therehavebeenhighdemandsontheprivatecompaniesthatbuildthebiogasplantstoinsureahigh
overallqualitywhichisimportantforalongtermsatisfactionrate.Informationandeducationhas
beenspreadsothereislocalknowledgeandcompetenceamongstpeopleandlocalcompaniesabout
thebiogastechnologywhichmakessurethatserviceandmaintananceisworkingcorrectly.Good
cooperationwithothergovernmentalandnongovernmentalorganisationsaswellaswiththe

13
Nepalesegovernmenthavehadaneffectivejointeffortinfinancingandpromotingbiogas.(Bajgain,
Shakya,2005;Gautametal2009)

ThebiogassectorinNepalhavegeneratedmanyjobs.Approximately11000peopleworkdirectlyin
the biogas sectorandabout 65000jobs havebeengeneratedfromoffshoots from thesector.
(Gautamaetal2009)

Healthhasbeenimprovedasaresultoflessparticlesintheindoorair.Ithasbeenreportedthat
acuterespitoryinfectionshavebeenreducedforallagesandchildmortalityhasbeenlowered.Eye
problems have decreased as well as indoor concentrations of dangerous substances like carbon
monoxide. Toilets inaround77000households havebeeninstalledinconjunctionwithbiogas
plants.Thiscanhelpreducemanycommondiseases.(Gautamaetal2009)
Women and female children who traditionally are the group that collects firewood have been
estimatedtosaveuptothreehourseverydaywhenbiogashasbeenusedinstead.Thetimethatis
spentdailyonfeedingthebiogasreactorwithanimaldungetc.isnormallyaround15minutes.
Timeandwaterisalsosavedbecausepotsandothercookingequipmentareeasiertoclean.This
alsomeansthatchildrenhavetimetogotoschool.Othereducationalbenefitsarethatbiogashas
givenlightingtomorethan20000householdsmakingitpossibletostudyinthedarkhours.(Bajgain,
Shakya,2005)

Themostapparenteconomicbenefithavebeensavingsofexpenditureoffuelusedforcookingand
lighting.However,itismostlycattleowningfarmerswhohavebenefitedfrombiogas.Theflatrate
subsidieshaveespeciallybenefitedsmallscalefarmerstobuildsmallscalebiogasdigesters.The
poorestpeoplewhodon'townanycattlehavenotbenefitedfrombiogasotherthanindirectly.For
themthebenefitshavecomefromthegreaterjobopportunitiesthatthebiogassectorhasprovided
andfrombetteravailabilityoffirewood.(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)
Biogashashelpedtoreducedeforestationinseveralways.Lowerusageoffirewoodhashadan
impactbutalsothefactthatslurryfertilizerhavebeenreturnedtothefieldswhichhaveraisedthe
soilquality,givingbetterharvestsandtherebyreducedtheneedforexploitionofnewagricultural
landwhichalsohashadapositiveimpactondeforestationrates.Onaverageeachbiogasplantin
Nepalreplaces2tonnesoffirewoodannually.Withover111000biogasplantsthismeansaround
222thousandtonnesoffirewoodisreplacedbythe55millionm3ofbiogasproducedannually.The
slurrygives189thousandtonnesoffertilizerwhichreplacesartificialfertilizer,3.6millionlitresof
fossilkeroseneisalsoreplacedbythebiogas.Ithasbeenestimatedthatthe111thousandbiogas
plantssavearound6800haofforestwhichcorrespondstoaround9milliontrees.(Bajgain,Shakya,
2005)

In a climate sense the replacement of kerosene and fuelwood as well as manure management
mitigateGHG.OnaverageeachbiogasplantreducesCO2emissionswith4.6tonnesannuallyand
together the111thousandbiogasplantsreduces GHG with510600CO2 equivalents eachyear.
(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)

EventhoughthebiogasprogramInNepaloverallhasbeenverysuccessfulindealingwithcommon
problemssuchasfinancing,publicsupport,localknowledge,policiesetc.therehavebeenproblems
andchallengesjustlikeinotherplaces.Someofthemorepersistantproblemshavebeenspreading
biogastechnologytoremoteareasanddealingwithcoldertemperaturesinthemorehillyareas.
(Bajgain,Shakya,2005)

14
Discussion and Conclusions
Biomassisanimportantsourceofenergyindevelopingcountriesandisheavilyused.Thebiggest
postinenergyconsumptioninespeciallyLDC:scomefromcooking.Todaysenergyusecarrywith
itmanyproblems.Theexcessiveuseoffirewoodisamajorcauseofdeforestationindeveloping
countries and contribute to large emissions of GHG. Deforestation also affects the local
environmentandcontributestosoilerosion.Otherproblemsassociatedwithfirewoodisthatitis
timeconsumingtocollectandtogetherwithotherbiomassfuelsareasourceofhazardousparticles
thatarereleasedtotheindoorairwhenthefuelsareusedforcookingandheating.Manyhealth
problems such as acute respitory problems, increased child mortality and eye ailments, are
associatedwithsmokeparticles.
Installing biogas plants can help reduce the use of traditional biomass and solve many of the
problemsthatarecoupledwithtodaysenergyuse.Itisinterestingtoseethewiderangeofbenefits
thatcanbeassociatedwiththeinstallmentofbiogasplants.Social,environmental,economically
and in health perspective.Biogascanhaveanimportantroleinmakingdevelopingruralareas
becomemoregenderequal.Thefactthatwomenandchildren(especiallyfemalechildren)cansave
somuchtimeeachdaysimplyfromconvertingfromtraditionalbiomassusetobiogasisimportant.
Givingwomenandchildrentimeforeducationcanhavebigimpactsinthelongrun.
Thehygenicbenefitsofusingbiogasplantstogetherwithlatrinesisaneasyandeffectivewayof
comingtogripswithmanyofthecommondiseasesindevelopingcountries.Thiscouldhelpbridge
agapbetweenthesecountriesanddevelopednationswherethesediseasesareclosetononexistent.
Usingthedigestedbiogasslurryasfertilizerisagreatwayofbringingbacknutrientstothesoiland
isveryimportantinreducingsoildegredation.Thefactthatdigestedmanureactuallyhasmore
nutrientsthanfreshmanuremakesthisveryworthwhile.Thiscanalsohaveaneffectofreducing
deforestation duetoagriculturalexpansion.Thatinconjunctionwiththeavoidanceofmethane
emissionsthankstomanuremanagementisanimportantmeansofGHGmitigation.
Thefixeddomebiogasdigesteristhemostcommonlyusedmodelindevelopingcountriesandis
widespread throughoutmanyareas.Thetechnologyismatureandwelltested.Thefixeddome
modelisasimpleconstructionthatisrelativelycheaptobuildandhasalonglifespan.Simple
constructionshavehugebenefitsinpoordevelopingruralareassincetheyareeasiertoserviceand
maintainandthattheydon'tdemandthesameamountoftechnicalexpertiseasamorecomplex
construction would. As a contrast the pyrolosis gasifier biogas plants that were built in the
ShandongprovinceofChinahavebeendiscussed.Themorecomplextechnologygaverisetomany
problems.Costsweresavedonmaterialstomakethemmoreaffordableinthepoorregionsbutthat
hadacountereffectsincetheysimplybrokedowntoeasily.Thisclearlyshowsthatit'sbetterto
investintestedandsimpletechnologyinlargerbiogasdisseminationprograms.Thisalsoraisesan
important question about longterm public support. In spreading biogas technology to poor
communitiesitispivotalthatthehouseholdshaveapositiveattitudetowardsbiogas.Ifbiogasplants
areknowntoeasilybrakedownandbeoutofordernotmanypoorhouseholdswillwanttoinvest
their very limited resources into the technology. This conclusion has been emphasized on in
successfulbiogasprogramsliketheoneiNepal.IntheBSPtherehavebeenhighdemandsonthe
installedbiogasplantsassuringahighoverallqualitytomakesurethatclientshavebeensatisfied.

15
Thereareseveralimportantfactorstowhysomebiogasprogramsaremoresuccessfulthanothers.
Collaborationbetweendifferentstakeholderscanbeanimportantkeyfactor.Again,the BSP can
serve as a model with it's collaboration with the Nepalease government, other NGO:s and it's
financial contributors.Subsidies and posibilities ofloans areimportant inthe dissemination of
biogas.Itcanbehard,ifnotimpossible,forasmallfarmertobeabletoinvestinabiogasplant
withoutsomeformoffinancialhelp.Inthatsenceitisclearthatpeoplewholiveincountrieswhere
the government has an active policy in promoting biogas with subsidies, loans and means of
educationforthatmatter,havemuchbetteropportunitiesininstallingabiogasplant.Whereactive
governmental policies aren't implemented NGO:s and GO:s from other countries can serve an
importantrole.
Throughthe UNFCCC thereisthe CDM mechanismthatcanhelpfinancebiogasprojects.The
discussionsaboutclimatechangearegrowinganditispossiblethatmechanismssuchastheCDM
willplayabiggerroleinthefuture.*
Biogas will most certainly play an important role to develop many rural areas in developing
countries.Thebenefitsforfarmerswhoinstallbiogasplantsareobvious.Learninglessonsfrom
successfulandlesssuccessfulbiogasprogramswilldefinitelyhelpinfutureimplementationsof
biogas technology. Some challenges like financing will persist over a foreseeable future but
hopefullythejointeffortofgovernments,GOs,NGOsandotherstakeholderswillhelptorealizethe
greatpotentialofbiogasplants.

*Notdiscussedinthisreportaretheongoingnegotiationsaboutclimatechangeadaptationfundsandotherflexible
mechanismsuchasREDD(ReducingEmissionsfromDeforestationandDegradation)thatcouldpossiblyhelpfinance
biogasprojectsinthefuture(tobedecidedinCopenhagen,Dec.2009)

16
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