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99
description of soil behaviour is twofold: dation and time dependent behaviour of the
firstly, as a simple quantitative framework soil skeleton)
against which soil behaviour may be asses 7 . Anisotropy
sed and, secondly, as a complete quali 8. Certain well-established empirical
tative model for analysis and design. In relationships which should be reproduced
its first role the model is of use both in by the model, e.g. the ratio of undrained
judging the quality and consistency of shear strength Cu to effective overburden
data, and in predicting the character and pressure 0v' may be expressed as a function
trends of behaviour of a soil under a of overconsolidation ratio.
variety of circumstances. For this purpose All the above features are included in
the model must represent the essential the model described below, except that:
features of soil behaviour in as simple a t. Only the time effects due to primary
manner as possiOle. consolidation are considered (i.e. those
A simple model is also desirable for the which arise through the flow of water
second role; this is because, in a debUled within the soil skeleton) , whereas creep,
numerical calculation (such as one carried secondary consolidation, aging and cemen
out by means of the finite element method), tation are excluded; thus the behaviour of
an excessively complex model may be diffi the soil skeleton is rate and time inde
cult to impement and expensive to use. pendent;
Very often the quality of the available 2 . The model is isotropiC, so that cer
data about the actual soil from the field tain effects due to the reversal or rota
will not warrant the additional precision tion of the principal stress axes are not
of calculation achieved using a complex included.
model. If, however, the model is to be The Roscoe-Hvorslev model was chosen for
used for mathematical calculations, it is use in the prediction workshop since it is
important that it should be properly a development of a well-established and
founded in the theory of continuum mechan understood model (the Modified Cam-Clay
ics and should be internally consistent. model) which satisfies the general require
A simple model will require few para ments of simplicity and completeness, which
meters for the description of a soil, and are essential for the economic solution of
each of these should have a definite phys real problems. The new model is suitable
ical significance so that an assessment can for the analysis of tests on both normally
easily be made of its importance and the consolidated and highly overconsolidated
likely results of any changes in its value. clays, but is not thought to be suitable
The parameters should be measurable for sands.
directly in a small number of simple tests.
Both the purpose and the limitations of
the model should be well understood. The 3 THE ROSCOE-HVORSLEV MODEL
extensive use of one model should lead to
an understanding of its range of applica The name of the model is taken from the
bility and of the types of problem for two separate surfaces, the Roscoe surface
which it may be useful. The trends of and the Hvorslev surface in (q,p' ,V) space
behaviour predicted by the model under as described by Atkinson & Bransby (1978) .
extreme conditions should be explored and The Roscoe-Hvorslev model (referred to
their importance assessed. hereafter as RHM) consists of the Modified
Some essential features of soil beha Cam-Clay model (MCCM) (Roscoe & Burland
viour under conditions of monotonic loading 1968) with the additional feature of the
which should be included in a model are Hvorslev failure criterion. The latter is
listed below. The importance lies not in a special case of the better-known Mohr
the fact that these features should be Coulomb failure criterion in which the
included but that the model should repro cohesive component of strength is not con
duce well-established experimentally stant, but is an exponential function of
determined behaviour. the current water content of the clay.
1 . A two (or more) phase material The RHM has three separate and distinct
(material properties must be expressed in ingredients: (i) the Modified Cam-Clay
terms of effective stresses) model, (ii) the Hvorslev failure criterion
2. Both non-linear response and irre and (iii) the simulation of partial satura
coverable strains tion. It is described in this sequence in
3 . Plastic dilation or compression the three following sections of the paper.
4. Failure conditions (e.g. Mohr
Coulomb or Hvorslev)
3 . 1 The Modified cam-Clay model
5. The influence of consolidation history
6. Time effects (both primary consoli- The theory of perfect plasticity is fOunded
100
on the hypothesis that, during plastic Fig.l(a). If the speCimen is loaded along
deformation of a material, the strain the path OA and then unloaded along ABC,
increments are functions of the absolute the path ABC can be approximated as elas
stresses. The theory evolved from careful tic behaviour, with the strain represented
observations of the behaviour of ductile by OC being a permanent, irrecoverable
metals whose response to loading is typi plastic strain denoted by P. On reloading,
fied by an initial phase of elastic, the speCimen behaves essentially elastic
recoverable deformation until a yield ally along CDE (displaying a small amount
condition is reached; after yield, a of hysteresis) until at point E it experi
second phase of behaviour occurs which is ences the previous maximum deviator stress;
a combination of elastic and plastic it yields and undergoes further plastic
irrecoverable deformation. In general, the strain. Point F denotes failure (a unique
plastic deformations are greater by an condition for this particular test) ;
order of magnitude than the accompanying failUre must be distinguished from yield
elastic ones. which is a progressive phenomenon and
The study of a typical stress-strain which may occur at any point along the
curve for a soil in which the stress is primary loading curve OAEF,depending upon
cycled one or more times, for example, a the exact loading sequence followed in the
one-dimensional consolidation test on a test.
clay, reveals qualitatively similar Analogous behaviour will be displayed by
behaviour. However, there is one essential a soil specimen if tested in a consolido
difference and that is that soils, as meter, as shown in Fig.1{b), which is an
opposed to metals, experience irrecoverable unconventio'nal plot of effective pressure
volumetric as well as irrecoverable shear against specific volume (V) (V: 1 +e, wher.e
strains. The classical theory of plasticity e is the voids ratio). If this diagram is
developed for describing the large strain rotated clockwise through 900 to give
response of ductile metals, has had to be Fig.l(c), the more usual plot of consoli
extended to account for plastic volumetric dation is obtained.
strains in order to become applicable to It should be realised that for a speci
soils. men that is in the overconsolidated state,
Making use of this analogy with metal represented by point C in Fig.i(cl, its
behaviour, and coupled with the experimen preconsolidation pressure p, given by
tal evidence for a critical state for point A, is the current yield stress for
deforming soil, a family of elasto-plastiC further consolidation; it is the pressure
stress-strain models has been developed at at which further plastic volumetric strains
Cambridge. One such model, known as Modi begin to occur,
fied Cam-Clay, initially proposed by Now consider a soil specimen that has
Burland (1967) has been used extensively been isotropically normally consolidated
in finite element computations. A qualita (with 0i: O2 = o;l to point A in Fig.2(a),
tive description of this model follows, and then allowed to swell isotropically to
and the mathematical details are provided some state along the unloading curve ABC.
in Appendix A. If the specimen were then subjected to a
In detail, the typical behaviour of a variety of different effective stress
soil specimen in a triaxial compression paths, it is assumed that there would be a
test can be characterised by the curve of well-defined region of stress states for
p' v
F
DB
C
E -v p'
p;
(0) I b) Ie)
Beh'aviour in shear Behaviour in consolidation
101
which the specimen would remain elastic.
v
(The stress variables used for representing
i(O'i+o;+o;)
the data of triaxial tests are the mean
normal effective stress p ' = and
deviator stress q" oi-3, The corresponding
1+2+3
strain variables are the volumetric strain
(1-3)')
v,. and the deviatoric strain [: =
strain
shape as that for the first specimen.
q,f:P incre..ent The sizes of the yield curves are dicta
vector ted by the points A and G, which lie on the
0 .p
v.,
normal isotropic consolidation curve. The
choice of yield curve appropriate for any
specimen depends on the maximum consoli
dation pressure (i.e. the pre-consolidatmn
J pressure, pc)'
The shape of the yield curve, Fig.3(a),
Elastic is assumed to be elliptical; this choice is
based on considerations of energy dissi
, 'p
pated plastically within the specimen
c B A G p,V (Roscoe & Burland 1968; Soulsby 1981). One
V,r
x,
Yield
/1 surface
/ ,
/ 1
Gradient-X
/ I
/
102
As shown in Fig. 3(b), both consolidation elastic incremental bulk modulus, derived
and swelling lines are considered as from the local gradient of the swelling
straight in tn V - tn p' space. This repre line, can be written
sents a very minor alteration of the model
K "" p'/K*. . (1)
from previously published descriptions of
Modified Cam-Clay, for which the lines The elastic shear response is specified by
were taken as straight in V - tn p' space. assuming a constant shear modulus, G, since
Consequences of the changes are: any assumption of variation of G with
1 . The numerical values of the parameters pressure can result in a model which is
A* and K* (see below) are reduced by a thermodynamically unacceptable.
factor approximately equal to V from the Now" suppose the state of stress experi
original parameters A and K; enced by tHe specimen is at point J in
2. The bulk modulus becomes truly pro Fig.2(b) close to the relevant yield curve.
portional to pressure rather than depending If the stress increment JKL is applied to
also upon specific volume (see Appendix A); the spe Cimen, the increment JK will cause
3. Evidence in support of this change is elastic strain increments only, whereas
given by Butterfield (1979), and a further the increment KL will cause both elastic
advantage is a slight simplification of the and plastic strain increments. As the
mathematics of the model. For a specimen specimen yields at K, the yield curve is
undergoing small strains the new version expanded as the specimen undergoes consoli
of the model is identical to the old one. dation. The plastic volumetric strain
The complete description of the model increment that occurs from K to L is given
requires five parameters to specify the by a hardening law,
shape and size of the yield locus for a
soil specimen at a given pressure and p'c
; ;
(;\* - K*) (2)
specific volume, as well as the elastic P'
c
properties of the material. The parameters
are:
1. A*, the gradient of the consolidation
line in tn V - tn p' space. This is related
v
directly to the conventional compression
index Cd for a remoulded material by
A* Cc'/(2.303V);
2. K*, the gradient of the swelling line,
similarly related to the swelling index
CS' by K*=Cs/(2. 303V);
3. M, the gradient of the critical state
line in q - p' space. This is related to the
angle of shearing resistance ,' CV of a
normally consolidated clay by
M" 6 sin ,' cv /() - sin .' CV);
4. G, the elastic shear modulus, taken
to be constant;
p'
(a)
5. r.
The last parameter r is required solely
to locate either the critical state line
or the isotropic normal consolidation line
in Fig.)(b); it is the voids ratio on the
critical state line for which p' has unit q
value. It is in some ways analogous to the
liquid limit (see Schofield & Wroth 1968)
and increases markedly with the plasticity
Applied (total)
index of the clay being considered.
The elastic behaviour of the specimen for
stress path
stress states within the current yield
locus is assumed to be isotropic, but with
the bulk modulus directly dependent upon
the current mean stress p'. This latter
feature is a consequence of the volumetric
strains associated with the swelling and p'
recompression lines AXl and GXz in Fig.3(b). (b)
Simple calculation shows that for a Fig.4. Stress paths for conventional
specimen experiencing a pressure p' the undrained triaxial compression test
103
which is derived from the normal consoli 3.2 Hvorslev's failure criterion
dation line,
The classic tests carried out by Hvorslev
(3)
in the mid-1930's consisted of stress con
(The dot notation of plasticity theory has trolled direct shear tests on two recon
been adopted to indicate a small (time stituted clays. His results and findings
independent) increment.) The details of were published in 1937 in his doctoral
this derivation are not given here but can thesis in German, and published in English
be found in Schofield & wroth (196B). The many years later (Hvorslev 1969).
important point is that no additional soil His failure criterion has been confirmed
parameter is required. since for strain controlled triaxial tests
The flow rule governing the ratio of the on clays by other workers, e.g. data
plastic strain increments is given by the presented by Parry (1960), as interpreted
condition of normality. This condition by Schofield & Wroth (196B). The criterion
stipulates that if the associated plastic will be discussed in this paper in terms
strain increments y P and P are plotted on of triaxial test data, and is presented
the same axes as the stresses in Fig.2(b), diagrammatically in Fig.5.
the vector KM of plastic strain increment In Figs 5(a) and 5(b), the conditions at
is normal to the yield curve at K. The failure are plotted in terms of the vari
gradient o the curve at K is known from ables qf, P'f and vf. Hvorslev showed that
its elliptical shape, so that the ratio for a set of speCimens which failed at the
yp/iP can be calculated and, since vP is same value of water content (i.e. the same
already established (from the hardening specific volume for a saturated clay) the
law), iP can be evaluated. locus of failure points was a straight
Consider now a specimen undergoing a line such as AIBICI or A2B2C2 in Fig.5(a).
conventional undrained triaxial compression Further, he showed that the end points of
test, with initial state as shown by point these lines, C1, Cz . . . lay on a straight
A in Fig.4. The condition of the test is line passing through the origin, which is
such that the total volume must stay con now recognised as the Critical State Line.
stant, i.e. that the path in Fig.4(a) He defined the "equivalent pressure" P'e
coincides with a line of constant voids as the pressure on the normal consolidation
ratio, that is, constant specific volume. line corresponding to the current water
The initial response of the specimen must content of the specimen in question
be elastic as the point A lies within the (point E in Fig.5{b) for states AI' Bl
I
current yield curve, Fig.4(b). Thee can and C ). By normalising the results by
I
be no change of p' during elastic defor means of the equivalent pressure he pro
mation as the point A in Fig.4(a) is con duced the simple unique failure criterion
strained to lie on both the elastic swel illustrated in Fig.5(c).
ling line and the constant voids ratio This failure criterion is a special and
line. When the effective stress path subtle version of the widely-used Mohr
reaches the point B, the specimen yields. Coulomb failure criterion. The essential
Beyond this point, both plastic and elas difference is that the cohesive component
tic volumetric strains occur, of equal of strength is seen to be a simple explicit
magnitude but opposite sign so as to main function (exponential) of the current water
tain the total volume constant. The ratio content and not a constant as usually
of the plastic volume change to the assumed.
plastic shear strain is calculated as The elliptical yield loci of the HOCM
before, and the test proceeds to failure are associated with swelling curves as
at point D. The effective stress path ABeD shown in Figs 5(d) and 5(e). For a set of
is as shown in Fig.4{b). The total stress spec!mens which fail so that their speCi
path for a triaxial compression test (with fic volumes V f lie along a swelling curve
constant cell pressure) is given by AE. such as DFG 1n Fig.5(e) the locus of their
The pore pressure at any stage of the test failure states (q f, P'f) will be the curved
is simply the difference in mean stress line shown in Fig.5{d) which lies between
between the two curves, as shown in the critical state line and the elliptical
Fig.4(b) . yield locus. The surface in (q ,p',V) space
This model successfully reproduces the containing the failure states A,B,C,D,F,G
major deformation characteristics of soft is known as the Hvorslev surface, and that
clay, and is expressed in terms of effec formed by the right-hand part of the
tive stress allowing prediction to be made elliptical yield locus GHI is termed the
of pore pressures in undrained tests. Roscoe surface.
104
Hvorslev Roscoe
surface / surface
i
p p'
(0) (d)
o
F
p'
p' p'
(b) (e)
q
pr
,
p. C
c
~ /
/
/
,- I
i
p' p
(c I p' (f) p
The gently curving I1ne DFG has a for convenience, normalisation has been
relatively complex algebraic form, and as done by means of the isotropic preconsoll
a first attempt to incorporate the dation pressure P'e rather than by the
Bvorslev criterion into the family of equivalent (one-dimenalonal) pressure p'e.
Cam-Clay models, it has been assumed for which affects the arithmetic but not the
simplicity to be straight. Furthermore, principle involved. The result of these
105
assumptions iil the reduced form of narrow rupture zone undergoing intense
q q
/
'1/
N
II
i
L p L
(0 ) (b)
p'
(c)
Fig.G. Post-peak behaviour of clay in drained triaxial test
106
Non-associated
q \:wru: q
....,.-- R
y
e:
p p p' p
(a) ( b)
Fig.? Assumed Roscoe-Hvorslev yield surface
being ignored. Should the introduction of until the pore pressure parameter B equals
the Hvorslev failUre surface prove to be a unity. It was evident from careful scrutiny
useful development 1n modelling soil beha of the input test data that some of the
viour, but this deficiency turns out to be specimens of clay were not fully saturated.
important. then it would be possible to In order to model these data, a simple
adopt a different flow-rule which allows method had to be devised to simulate the
dilation with a consequent amount of sof effects of incomplete saturation. The
tening as the specimen approaches the problem only arises in simulating the
critical state. behaviour of soils in conventional undrai
The introduction of the Hvorslev surface ned tests, because the increased compres
(taken as straight in the section shown 1n sibility of the pore fluid will have no
Flg.6(f requires only one additional effect on a fully-drained test .
107
4 SELECTION OF MATERIAL PARAMETERS ship between 1n V and 1n p' is approxi
mately linear for any constant stress ratio
The Roscoe-Hvorslev model used in this path, and that the gradient is independent
prediction exercise involves six material of the stress ratio. The gradient of this
parameters, each of which has a clear line is termed }.* (cf. the use of ). for the
physical meaning. In this section each of gradient in V - 1n p' space).
these parameters is defined, its physical The value of }.* may be obtained from that
significance noted and the means for part of a consolidation test which exceeds
determining it described. the initial preconsolidation pressure. The
most readily available tests are usually
one-dimensional oedometer tests, in which
4.1 The Critical State stress ratio M V and "v are measured. For a normally
consolidated material it is found that Ko
The concept of Critical States is central (the coefficient of earth pressure at rest)
to the model. The critical state is is reasonably constant, so that the gra
approached asymptotically by a normally dient in 1n V - 1n "v space is the same as
consolidated or lightly overconsolidated that in 1n V - 1n p' space.
'
sample as it is sheared monotonically, and Plots of test 2 in 1n V - 2.n 0l space and
represents a state in which the soil can test 3 in 1n V - 1n p' space were therefore
be sheared indefinitely with no further used to determine }.*, with a value of
change of effective stresses or specific 0.1225 being chosen. This value is reason
volume. It is found empirically that, at able for a clay, with values in the range
the critical state, the stress ratio q!p' 0.01-0.2 being common. The lower values
is essentially independent of p', and apply to less compressible, siltier
this critical state stress ratio is deno materials.
ted by M (capital ).
The value of M is sometimes found to
differ between triaxial compression and 4.3 The gradient of swelling lines K*
extension tests, and this effect could be
incorporated within the model by adopting The gradient of swelling and reconsoli
a non-circular generalisation of the yield dation lines is also found to be approxi
locus in the octahedral plane. For sim mately constant in i.n V - 1n p' space for
plicity a circular generalisation (i.e. samples subjected to constant stress ratio
equ al M in compression and extension) is paths, and this gradient is denoted by K*
adopted here. (cf. the use of K for the slope in V - i.n p'
The value of M is most easily deter space).
mined by plotting the stress paths of Since Ko is not constant for overconsoli
shear tests on normally consolidated dated samples, but varies with OCR, it
samples in p'-q space and determining the follows that p' is not a constant multiple
stress ratio at the end of the test (i.e. of "v during rebound and that K* cannot
at very large strain). Adopting this pro be obtained directly from the slope of a
cedure for tests 1.1 and 1.2 yields a i.n V - 1n "v plot from an oedometer test.
value. 0.74 in compression and 0.78 in
of The variation of Ko with OCR is not
extension. The value of 0.74 has been used usually known for any particular clay, so
for all predictions, which is a fairly it is necessary to use the gradient of the
typical value for M, which usually falls 1n V - i.n OJ line to determine K*. The data
in the range 0.7-1.2. The value of M is from test 3 are typical, showing some hys
directly related to an angle of friction teresis, and a value of K* of 0.0165 was
at constant volume ' e,g. for triaxUU chosen.
,'cv
compression Tfle ratio of K*!}.* is therefore 0.135.
This value is occasionally as high as 0.3
6 sin , 'cv
and may be as small as 0.05 for sensitive
M (4)
3 - sin ,'cv clays.
The elastic bulk modulus may be calcu
Thus, M of 0.74 corresponds to "cv of lated as proportional to pressure and equal
19.2. to p'!K*.
108
pressure. Introducing a variation of G Substituting the values of p', q, Pc and M
with pressure results, however, in non for the failure points of tests 1.4.2 and
conservative elasticity if the bulk modu 1.4.4 results in a value of a=0.141,
lus does not depend on shear stress. Simi which compares well with data for other
larly, the introduction of G dependent on clays.
Pc means that the model becomes one of
coupled elastic-plastic behaviour, which
is considerably more complicated than 5 EVIDENCE OF INCOMPLETE SATURATION
uncoupled plasticity. A constant shear
modulus is therefore used in the model for At the start of the exercise of fitting
simplicity. the input data to the Roscoe-Hvorslev
The value of the shear modulus was model, the first event was to plot the
chosen from the gradient of the first few results of the consolidation tests in the
loading increments on overconsolidated conventional manner, and the results of
samples. It is obtained by plotting the the triaxial tests in terms of the vari
tests in -q space, with the gradient ables p', q, V and .
being equal to 3 G. A value of 7000 kN/ml The results of input test 1.1, which is
was chosen. This may be compared with the an undrained triaxial compression test on
correlation G; 75 C u suggested by Wroth et an isotropically normally consolidated
al. (1979) ; taking a typical test (input sample, are plotted as individual crosses
test 1.1) with Cu 90 kNfm1 would indi
= in Fig.a. The effective stress path is
cate G of the order of 6750 kN fm' . For the evident in Fig.a{a) . All evidence from
tests at lower pressures, a lower value of other undrained tests on saturated samples
G might be more appropriate, and for very of clay is that the effective stress path
small values of shear strain a higher curves to the left immediately at the
value of G should be used. start of the test at point A. If, however,
the sample behaves initially as though it
were drained, it would have an effective
4.5 Critical specific volume at unit stress path (in a conventional test with
pressure r constant cell pressure) of gradient 3. It
is considered to be most significant that
One parameter is needed to locate the iso the path is initially at gradient 3 from
tropic normal consolidation line, or the A to B, and at B it undergoes a marked
critical state line in v-p' space; this is change to the curved path BCD, as positive
usually chosen to be the specific volume excess pore-pressures develop. It was on
on the critical state line corresponding the basis of this evidence that it was
to unit pressure 1 kN/m1, and denoted by believed that the test could not have been
r (capital gamma) . conducted with back pressure, and that the
It is only required if absolute values sample in question was not fully saturated.
of specific volume (or water content) are Similar evidence from the other input tests
needed. In this exercise the volumetric was observed and two other examples are
strains (related to the differences of shown in Figs 9 and 10. consequently
specific volume) are asked for, so that enquiries were made at that time (March
the value of r is irrelevant and it has 1982) and it was confirmed that back pres
not been determined. sures had not been used in the series of
input tests.
The single set of basic soil properties
4.6 Hvorslev surface intercept a assumed to apply to all the tests was
selected as described in section 4 and
Those samples with an OCR greater than 2
or so (the exact value will depend on the
Table 1. Selected values of soil proper
type of test chosen to bring the sample to
ties for Roscoe-Hvorslev model.
failure) will be expected to fail in a
brittle manner on the Hvorslev surface.
Since the surface is chosen to pass through M Critical state stress ratio 0.74
the point (Pef2, MPe/2) in p ' -q space it " Gradient of normal consoli-
'is only necessary to determine one para dation line 0.1225
meter in order to locate the surface. . ' Gradient of swelling line 0.0165
This is conveniently taken as a (see G Shear modulus 7000 kN/m1
Fig.7(a where the surface is described r Critical specific volume
by: at unit pressure Undetermined
M a Hvorslev surface intercept 0.141
q -- (p' + apc'/2). (5)
1+a
109
q kN/m2 q kN/m2
300 300
200 200 o
o-.....
100
B
listed in Table 1. For each of the input For input test 1.1 (Fig.S) the value of
triaxial tests the value of the partial Vsat was 0.012, i.e. 1.2% compressive
saturation parameter Vsat was chosen on a volumetric strain was allowed to occur
trial and error basis to provide the best before the sample was assumed to become
fit to the data. These values are included effectively saturated and thereafter
in Table 2. behave in an undrained (constant volume)
manner. In Fig.S the continuous line rep
resents the results computed for the test,
Table 2. Initial states of input tests
which provide a very close fit to the
experimental data points. The part AB of
Test 1.1 1.2 1. 4.1 1.4.2 1.4.3 1.4.4
the effective stress path, in Fig.8(a), of
gradient 3 is the drained response of the
PC: kN/m' 400 400 301 68 101 22
sample (which yields at A and is always
Pel kN/m' 400 400 600 600 200 200
behaving plastically); at B a total com
Vsat .012 .03 .0025 .0055 .0017 .006
pressive volumetric strain of 1.2% has
q kN/m' q kN/m2
300 300
H
G G__-- ----------H
----
200 200
100 100
E
o 200 o 10 ,
p'kN/m2
10) Ib)
110
occurred whereupon the sample is modelled The results are displayed in Fig.lO; IJ
by the undrained path BCD, asymptotically represents the elastic drained phase, JK
reaching the critical state 0 after infi the elastic undrained phase, and K repre
nite shear strain. Note that in Fig.B(b) sents the state at which the stresses
the computed result shows a small increase reach the Hvorslev failure surface. There
in stiffness at B when the abrupt change after the sample is assumed to behave
from drained to undrained behaviour is perfectly plastically K to L. It should be
assumed to occur. For a fuller discussion remembered that the Hvorslev surface has
of the problem of unsaturation, see been selected to go through the failure
Appendix B. (i.e. the peak) point, so that the computed
Input test 1.4.1 is an undrained test on result for K in Fig.lO(a) does not repre
a sample with an initial isotropic over sent a match but a fit of the experimental
consolidation ratio of 2, shown in Fig.9. data.
The value of V sat adopted was 0.25\, which
corresponds to the volumetric strain ex
5.1 Summary of input tests
perienced by the sample during the initial
drained phase from E to F. This phase is Each test was analysed as fully saturated
entirely within the yield surface so there throughout, and also as partially satur
is zero plastic volumetric strain, and the ated by an amount to give the best fit.
total volumetric strain consists solely of The optimum values of vsat are listed
the elastic component. in Table 3.
At point F the sample becomes "saturate:j"
and behaves in an undrained manner. The
Table 3. Optimum values of parameter repre
effective stress state is still within the
senting partial saturation in input tests
yield locus, so that the sample is assumed
to behave in an (isotropic) elastic manner
Optimum
with the consequence that p ' remains con Test
Vsat
stant and the effective stress path FG is
parallel to the q-axis. At point G, the
1.1 400 400 0.012 0.16
stress state reaches the Roscoe yield sur
1.2 400 400 0.03 -0.1
face, the sample yields and approaches the
1.3 400 400 0.01 3 cycles
critical state at H. In this case the
0.007 ++ - 0.0064
general character of the stress path is
1.4.1 300 600 0.0025 0.16
well represented, but the stress-strain
1.4.2 68 600 0.0055 0.16
curve EFGH in Fig.9(b) is a poor match to
1.4.3 101 200" 0.0017 0.16
the experimental data.
1.4.4 22 200 0.006 0.16
Input test 1.4.2 was on a heavily over
consolidated sample with OCR"' B.B. The Better fit with Pc s 525 .
value of Vsat was also very small (0.55\). Better fit with Pc' = 175.
2 2
q kN/m q kN/m
100 100
K,L K
J
J . .
50 so
o 50 2 100 o 10 ,
p'kN/m
10) Ib)
111
6 OUTPUT TESTS toct kN/m 2
E,
the two following cases for each output
test, (a) full saturation, and (b) incom
0015
plete saturation, with a value of Vsat B
0.01. This figure was chosen as a round
number close to the average of the optimum
values found for the input tests.
The predictions are given in the form of
plots as specified in the following Figs
11-24.
'
Pc
Test Selected test conditions
!tN/m'
112
E"
00'
002
E,
I I
(){)05 (){)1 0015
0 1\ \ 'og N
'0 100
-002
Fig.!3. Predicted results: test 1.1 Fig.IS. Predicted results: test 1.2.1
unsaturated fully saturated
p' kNlm'
E"
004
0-02
200 0 tc ====
10
'==
=+== +===+===
100
1 logN
E, -(}04
-001 o 0005 001 0015
Fig.14. Predicted results: test 1.1 Fig.16. Predicted results: test 1.2.1
unsaturated unsaturated
113
'"
'"
004
O'+===========-
10 100
logN
-002 -002
- 00L.
Fig.!? Predicted results: test 1.2.2 Flg.19. predicted results: test 1.2.3
fully saturated fully saturated
'OE
'"
004 0-01.
0 f=
======
==
10
=F===F==
KXl
logN
-002
-(}04 - 0-04
Fig.lS. Predicted results: test 1.2.2 Fig.20. Predicted results: test 1.2.3
unsaturated unsaturated
114
,
toct kN/m ,
"rod kN/m
150 150
100 100
50 50
01+---------1_-- ., 0 +---------1_-- .,
005 01 015 005 01 015
Fig.21. Predicted results: test 1.3 Fig.23. Predicted results: test 1.3
fully saturated unsaturated
' '
p kN/m ' 2
p kN/m
1.00
400
200 200
Flg.22. Predicted results: test 1.3 Fig.24. Predicted results: test 1.3
fully saturated unsaturated
115
this region of stress space are difficult The model makes use o f isotropiC harden
to carry out and little information about ing, with the parameter Pc' which estab
t h e general b ehaviour o f clays in this lishes t h e size of the above lo ci being
region is available. linked to the plastiC volumetric strain.
It is certainly not sensible to extra The relationship is most conveniently
polate t h e elliptical yield locus (princi given in incremental form:
pally valid on the " wet" side of critical)
P '
or the Hvorslev surface to points close to c
().*-K*)' (A3)
the origin. There is some evidence that at Pc
very low effective stress l evels t h e
strength o f t h e clay is determined b y ten Plastic potentials may b e defined for
sile cracking, when zero no rmal effective the model. For the Roscoe surface the flow
stress occurs on any plane. rule is associated so that the plastic
If the test do es indeed start at virtu potential i s :
ally zero mean normal stress and precon
solidation pressure then t h e only predic (A4)
tion that can be made is that all stresses
will remain virtually z ero throughout this For t h e Hvorslev surface a non-associated
test. This result would, however, be very flow rule with z ero dilation is used, so
sensitive to the exact ratio between t h e that the plastic potential is given by:
strains,
constant
and any minute variation from
volume could result in any of a
q -q
c :: 0 (A5 )
,
Roscoe surface:
Elastic behaviou r
( )
Hvorslev surface:
M a pe'
q p' (A2) is specified by:
t l +a O.
.
+ -2
- '"'
,,6
p' z
'e
v , lAG)
/unloading on the dry side of critical are
a particular area where a detailed under
standing of the prinCiples of the model
"e
q .. 3G e: (A7) are required. The precise numerical formu
lation used is important as the critical
state is approached if numerical diffi
Behaviour on Roscoe surface culties are to be avoided. The details of
a subroutine depend too strongly on the
The conventional assumption of additive constraints of the calling program to give
elastic and plastic strains is made . Using a suitably general routin e .
the associated flow rule and the conven For isotropic loading the model simpli
tional formulation: fies to the incremental form :
which results in
p'
p '
c v p' pc' . (Al6)
p' > D
"
"
} p'
APPENDIX B
p-"'
vP = P.*-K*)-
p '
. . (AIO)
Any soil test, whether performed in the
c
laboratory or the field, can be considered
is combined with the consistency condition as a miniature boundary value problem. A
obtained by differentiatio? of the yield triaxial test is no exception . An initially
locus : cylindrical sample is subjected to a uni
form overall axial deformation through the
(Al l ) rigid end platens, and to a uniform lateral
total pressure by means of the cell fluid
Compari son with the appropriate term from acting on the encapsulating rubber mem
lAID) , brane. Only in certain circumstances will
q(2P'-P))
the boundary conditions result in the soil
vP = ),,(p' ( 2p ' _p ) 1 + . . (Al2) deforming as a Single homogeneous element
and it will not necessarily be correct to
then yields the value of the hardening assume that conditions of stress and strain
parameter A: within the sample are uniform.. Test pro
cedures can be chosen in order to try and
()"*-K*)
)" = (A13) encourage the development of uniform con
p'p ' (2p' P ')
c c ditions : for example, lubricated end platens
and short samples may be desirable; a slow
rate of testing will give the pore pressures
Behaviour on Hvorslev surface within the sample an opportunity to reach
equilibrium in drained or undrained tests.
Similarly the behaviour on the Hvorslev It is also important to appreciate that
surface may be determined a s : the so-called undrained test, conven
tionally interpreted as a constant volume
test, is really a constant overall mass
. (A14 ) test: the term isomassic might be appro
priate to describe it. Assuming .no leakage
occurs, once the drainage valves are closed,
no mass of sail or pore fluid can move into
where, since perfect plasticity is or out o f the sample, but this does not
assumed , the value of the scalar multi prevent the sample from changing in volume .
plier )" may be determined, for instanc e , If the pore fluid is not incompressible,
by Hill ' s method (Hill 1951). for example , because the soil is not satu
I n writing a FORTRAN subroutine to rated, then a soil sample can change in
implement the above calculations, great volume as it is sheared, even though the
care must be exercised in attention to deformations and stresses within the sample
details in the model. Criteria for loading remain uniform. On the other hand, even if
117
the overall sample does not change in mean effective stress p ' . Plotting q, p '
volume , it is quite possible for local or pore pressure u against strain is
changes in volume to occur within the unlikely to show up problems , particularly
sample, as a consequence of end restraint if the test has been taken to large strains;
or rate of resting, as shown by the analy the significant changes in effective stress
ses of Carter (1982 ) . A true constant occur at small deformations.
volume test path , the so-called isochoric, The effective stress paths for an un
i s best achieved as a drained test in a drained compression test and an undrained
device such as a true triaxial apparatus extension test performed by Kuntsche on
in which a combination of deformations can kaolin at Karlsruhe are shown in Fig . B l .
be imposed on " a sample, such that no For comparison, two pairs of effective
change in the volume occupied by the soil stress paths for undrained compression and
skeleton can occur, always assuming that extension tests performed by Nadarajah
the true triaxial sample can itself be (1973) on kaolin in Cambridge are shown in
treated as a single element of soil. Fig . B 2 . Some points of dissimilarity may
When a new testing procedure is to be be noted:
used to study the undrained behaviour of (i) Nadarajah ' s compression and exten
soil , whether it uses a new pore pressure sion paths are broadly of the same shape ;
probe or merely a new rate of testing, it Kuntsche ' s are very different. For an
is important to check that the results initially isotropiC material the effect of
produced by this new procedure are not a small increase or decrease in deviator
inconsistent with existing knowledge of stress should be essentially identical ,
soil behaviour, or at least not without there can be no theoretical explanation
some good explanation. There are only four for the difference;
pa.rameters to measure in the undrained (ii) Nadarajah finds a lower ratio of q
triaxial test: the total radial stress to p' at failure in extension than in com
(cell pressure ) , the total axial stress pression and lower values of q at failure
(cell pressure plus deviator stress) , the in extension than in compreSSion; Kuntsche
pore pressure and the axial strain. finds a higher strength in extension than
The background of critical state soil in compression and the same value of q/p ' .
mechanics makes it clear that the behaviour The total stress paths for Kuntsche ' s
of soils is best understood in terms of tests have been shown in Fig . B 1 . It is
effective stresse s , and that significant clear that , for the first part of the com
patterna are more likely to emerge when prcosion test and for virtually the whole
soil response is studied in terms of of the extension test, zero pore pressure
effective stresses and volumetric pack was recorded. Kuntsche measures pore pres
ings, which are limited parameters, rather sures by means of a rigid porous probe
than in terms o f stress: strain curves , extending from the base to the centre of
shear strain being an unlimited parameter. the sample. Evidently the average pore
The best way to examine the results of an pressure recorded by this probe is zero.
undrained test i s therefore to plot the perhaps it provides a drainage path for
effective stress path in a convenient positive pore pressures near the centre of
stress space , such as deviator stress q : the sample to compensate for negative pore
Table Bl
118
pressures developing near the base. and this high rate of testing may have led
It is worthwhile to compare the procedures to inaccurate observation of pore pressures .
used by Nadarajah and Kuntsche for their For an isotropic sample deforming uniformly,
tests: these are summarised in Table B t . an excessive rate of testing should, how
The kaolins being tested are rather differ ever, lead at worst to an effective stress
ent. The plasticities are about the same path with no initial change in effective
but the Cambridge kaolin has a much higher mean stress (6p'=O, ou=oq/J) as for the
liquid limit. Nadarajah' s isotropic consol i elastic material but not a path with an
dation procedure was much slower than increase in p ' .
Kuntsche ' s and one may wonder whether the Effective stress paths predicted by Cam
Karlsruhe kaolin is completely consolidated Clay models for undrained tests have the
at the start of the tests. A condition of same shape , independent of consolidation
initial under-consolidation could well give pressure. Using volume change due to'lack of
rise to a tendency for continuing pore pres saturation as an explanation of the results
sure development later in the tests, thus that are shown in Fig . B t , an estimate of the
obscuring the attainment of critical states. lack of saturation can be made by fitting
The final isotropic consolidation , from curved undrained effective stress paths
80 kN/mz to 400 kN/mz in one step , could through as much as possible of the paths
conceivably leave the sample initially non obtained experimentally; these curves are
uniform as a result of the Mandel-cryer also shown in Fig . B t . The compression and
effect. extension paths expected for kaolin con
The rate of testing used by Kuntsche is solidated to 400 kN/ml are shown . Much of
initially typically about 100 times faster the compression path is fitted by using
than that used by Nadarajah (who was con the undrained effective stress path for a
ducting the tests with careful load control) sample consolidated to 440 kN/ml
compression
200 kN/m2
q
100
,
,
,
,
,
,,
100
,
,
--
- ---
;#,;'/
.'
200
extension
Kartsruhe kaolin
300
Fig. B 1 .
119
compression Cambridge kaol in
0
0
200 kN/m2 0 0 0
0 0
q 0 0
0
0 0
100 0 0
0 0
0 0
0 0
a I I I . I 0
100 200 :m
p
' 400 kr;m{l 500
0 0
0
0
100
0
0
0
200 extension
0
Fig. B2
X* .. 0 . 1225
2
v - 1 . 665 at p' K 400 kN/m
10 p '
OV - 0.0194 -0.0637
Fig. B3
1 20
The normal compression of the clay can -Strain in Geotechnical Engineering
be described by the expression (Fig.B3 ) : p . 592-627.
Wroth , C . P . , M . F . Randolph , G . T . Houlsby &
In VIvo ., A* 1n p' /pd
M. Fahey 1979. A study of the engineering
with A* ; 0 . 1225 and V
1 . 665 at p' - = properties of soils with particular
400 kN/m' . A change of p' from 400 to reference to the shear modulus. Univer
440 kN/m' implies a volumetric strain of sity of Cambridge : Technical Report
ov '" 1 . 17\ (cf. 1 . 2\ used in prediction (Soils TR75) .
exercise ) , a change in specific volume
oV ; -0.0194 and a saturation S r ; 0 . 97 .
The last part only of the extension test
is fitted by using the undrained effective
stress path for a sample consolidated to
550 kN/m' . A change of p ' from 400 to
550 kN/mz implies a volumetric strain of
ov ; 3 . 90\ (cf . 3\ used in prediction exer
cise) , a change in specific volume 6V
-0.0637 and a saturation S r 0 . 90 .
REFERENCES
1 21