Performance Prediction in Gas
Condensate Reservoirs
Gokhan Co~kuner is a staff engineer
with Husky Oil Operations Limited. He
works as a reservoir engineering advisor
involved in projects ranging from gas
storage to offshore field delineation and
development. Prior to joining Husky Oil
he worked for Agip as reservoir
engineering advisor; Scientific Software
Intercomp as senior consulting associate;
Imperial Oil, Shell Canada, and the
Petroleum Recovery Institute in various
research capacities. He holds a B.Sc. degree from the Middle
East Technical University, Turkey; M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees
from the University of Alberta, Canada, all in petroleum
engineering.
Abstract
Gas condensate reservoirs constitute a significant portion of
hydrocarbon reserves worldwide. The prediction of reservoir per-
formance and its economic impact requires the accurate modelling
of the flow and phase behaviour in such reservoirs. The liquid
drop out may lead to recovery problems such as near wellbore
permeability impairment and uncertainty in the actual location of
the target condensate. In addition, the produced gas becomes
lighter and less marketable with time. Such issues can be
addressed through improved understanding of the formation of
condensate and the multiphase flow of gas and condensate in the
reservoir as characterized by relative permeability curves. The
appropriate relative permeability curves in turn can be used in
reservoir simulators to assist in optimization of field development.
Gas Condensate Reservoirs
Various types of reservoirs can be classified by the location of
their initial reservoir pressure and temperature with respect to the
two phase gas/liquid region. This is commonly shown on pres-
sure-temperature diagrams such as the one schematically shown
in Figure 1 for a multicomponent hydrocarbon mixture of constant
composition. The area inside the envelope formed by the bubble
point curve, the critical point (C), and the dew point curve is the
the region where both the gas and the liquid phases will exist in
equilibrium. The curves within the two phase region show the per-
centage of the total hydrocarbon volume which is liquid. Fluids
initially at locations marked I through V would be classified as
black oil, volatile oil, gas condensate, wet gas, and dry gas,
respectively.
Gas condensate reservoirs are separated from others by two
characteristics. First, a liquid phase condenses at reservoir condi-
tions during isothermal depletion. Second, this liquid revapourizes
(retrograde behaviour) with further pressure depletion. The con-
32
G.CO$KUNER
Husky Oil Operations Limited
densation starts at the dew point pressure (DPP) shown as point D
in Figure 1. The volume of liquid increases to approximately 10%
at point R where the retrograde condensation starts. After this
point, the liquid volume decreases with continued reduction in
pressure. The fluid type should be determined on the basis of lab-
oratory experiments which requires reliable values of reservoir
temperature, initial pressure, and a representative fluid sample. In
general, .gas condensate reservoirs may be approximately defined
as those which produce light coloured to colourless stock tank liq-
uids with API gravities above 45API at gas oil ratios in the range
of 5,000 to 100,000 scf/stb.
The laboratory experiments are the basis for determining the
properties of gas condensate fluid properties. However, such
experiments cannot be performed for all conditions where values
of fluid properties are required for reservoir engineering computa-
tions. The common predictive tool for such properties is an equa-
tion-of-state (EOS) package. A lumped fluid description coupled
with EOS parameters tuned to duplicate the laboratory results can
be used to predict the fluid properties separately or in a composi-
tional simulator.
Reliable predictions of gas reserves and well productivity are
essential to establish a development plan. Overestimating the well
productivities may render fulfilling the contractual obligations
impossible while underestimating them may lead to increased
spending, thus, preventing the development of smaller fields.
There are three essential requirements in the development of gas
condensate fields(l): (i) Accurate values of gas/condensate ratios
(CGR) should be determined during the initial well testing of the
field, (ii) the CGR behaviour of the production wells should be
understood so that the early history matching of the data can be
accurate, and (iii) the general long-term behaviour of the reservoir
and the liquid recovery factors expected in any planned gas injec-
tion process should be realistic.
The profitability of the development of gas condensate fields
depends both on gas and condensate production profiles. The pri-
ority may be given to maximum and early condensate production
and/or to an optimal gas production with condensate as a byprod-
uct depending on the condensate content, the field environment,
technical, and commercial factors. Two major reservoir engineer-
ing problems have to be considered during field development
studies: (i) the possibility of a significant drop in gas productivity
of the wells below the dew point pressure due to the presence of
the condensate, (ii) the loss of condensate formed throughout the
reservoir at the end of exploitation. The answers to these problems
rely on the phase behaviour of the fluid, absolute and relative per-
meability of the formation, and the manner in which the field is
produced(2).
The combined effect of all these parameters can be investigated
through the use of a numerical reservoir simulator which takes
into account the peculiarities of gas condensate reservoirs. A good
geological description and a properly tuned EOS in a composi-
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology
tional simulator would take into account most of these factors
(phase behaviour, absolute permeability, well operation).
However, the appropriate characterization of gas and condensate
relative permeabilities is more challenging. This is because the
balance between capillary, viscous, and gravity forces which
influences the relative permeability curves changes significantly
in a gas condensate reservoir.
Multiphase Flow
As the pressure in a gas condensate reservoir drops below DPP,
a liquid hydrocarbon phase is created. Most gas condensate reser-
voirs have either mobile or connate water present in the pore
space. A liquid such as water will wet clean mineral surfaces in
the presence of gas(3). It has been observed that when one fluid
wets strongly the porous medium, it forms a continuous network
covering the entire solid surface(4). Consequently, when the pres-
sure drops below the DPP and a small amount condensate is
formed in such an environment, it may behave in one of three
ways(5): (i) remain as a lens, Le., a thick layer of finite extent, (ii)
spread as a thin film until it is uniformly distributed over the water
surface, or (iii) spread as a monolayer, the remaining excess col-
lecting in a lens. The condensate spreads over the water surface
completely and flow as a film at this surface when the spreading
coefficient is equal to or greater than zero. The spreading coeffi-
cient, S, is defined as
S = a wg - (awe + age) (1)
The multiphase flow behaviour of gas and condensate phases
can be described by relative permeability characteristics of the
rock. To this end, the force balance which controls the flow in the
porous media can change drastically in a gas condensate reservoir
as fluids move closer to the wellbore and as the reservoir pressure
decreases. The capillary forces which cause trapping or resist the
mobilization of the residual phase can be overcome by viscous
pressure drop or buoyancy forces. The dimensionless group which
gives the ratio of viscous to capillary forces is known as the capil-
lary number and is given by
N = V f.1
C a ........................................................................(2)
The ratio of gravity to capillary forces is termed the Bond num-
ber which is given by
N = kg IIp
B a .....................................................................(3)
The location, the velocity, and pressure level at any location
determines the magnitude of aforementioned forces in a gas con-
densate reservoir. The residual and critical saturations as well as
the shape of relative permeability curves are affected by the mag-
nitude of these forces. A schematic drawing of pressure and
velocity profiles are shown in Figure 2.
The characteristics of multiphase flow in regions of high Nc
and high N B are different than those at low N c and N B . For
instance, at high Bond numbers, the condensate collects into pen-
dant drops on the underside of grains which may restrict the flow
of gas(6.7). In contrast, at high capillary numbers, where gravity
effects are insignificant, the flow of gas is not impeded signifi-
cantly by the presence of condensate in the pores(7-9) as evidenced
by the straightening of relative permeability curves(IO). Thus, one
should expect to use different relative permeability curves to
describe the flow in regions of high Nc and high NB In the parts
of the reservoir where viscous and capillary forces are in balance,
and gravity forces are small compared to both, then the standard
relative permeability curves can be used. Consequently, a family
of relative permeability curves (instead of a single curve) are
needed to appropriately describe the flow at the macroscopic
August 1999, Volume 38, No.8
level. Such relative permeability curves can then be incorporated
in the numerical simulation of the field performance for more reli-
able predictions.
One common feature of gas condensate systems especially near
the critical point is described as follows. Both the density contrast
and the 1FT between the phases become finite as the dew point is
crossed towards the two phase region (from A to B in Figure 2).
In the vicinity of the DPP, the density contrast increases more
rapidly than the 1FT with a decline in pressure(ll). The result is
that, in the absence of viscous forces (or when they are negligi-
ble), phases tend to segregate due to the domination of gravity
forces over the interfacial forces. This force balance is character-
ized by the Bond number which is the ratio of gravity to interfa-
cial forces.
The condensate will drain in the parts of the reservoir where NB
is greater than I x 10-5 in general(12) and segregated flow will take
place especially if the permeability is high and the fluid is rich(13).
This is indicated as region B in Figure 2. A schematic drawing of
the relative permeability curves which would apply in this region
is shown in Figure 3. This type of behaviour is thought to happen
just below the DPP far away from the wellbore where the flow
rates are very low.
Admittedly, the condensate saturation and the corresponding
relative permeability will be low in these regions initially.
However, as in the case of any gravity segregation process, these
low values of condensate relative permeability control the
drainage of condensate and impact eventually the distribution of
phases(l4). The understanding and prediction of reservoir perfor-
mance in terms of condensate recovery requires taking into
account the phenomena occuring in the heart of the reservoir
where the capillary and gravity forces control the condensate
flow(13).
If the viscous forces are also influential in the regions of very
low IFTs just below the DPP the flow of gas and condensate will
take place under high capillary number conditions. The flow of
either phase will not be affected to a great extent by the presence
of the second phase(7-9). For example, in a part of the reservoir
where the condensate saturation is high, such as a condensate
bank, the gas can flow very easily at these pressures. The gas/con-
densate interface can easily be deformed due to low 1FT such that
the bubble can be pushed through pore throats by the available
viscous pressure gradient which does not have to be high.
If the flow rate is high near the DPP, condensate can flow as a
thin filament through the gas phase as well as a film along the
gas/water interface(7,8). As the drag on the flowing condensate
phase would be much reduced, its mobility is expected to be high
under such flow conditions. This type of high capillary number
flow is distinctly different than that described above.
As the fluids travel towards wellbore and the pressure decreas-
es further the 1FT and hence the capillary forces become signifi-
cant and gravity segregation is prevented. A region (indicated as
C in Figure 2) will be encountered where the viscous and capillary
forces will be in balance. This is the region where the convention-
ally measured gas/oil relative permeabilities apply as shown in
Figure 3.
Fluids continue to approach the wellbore, the pressure drops
further and velocity increases. The regions indicated as D and E in
Figure 2 are encountered. The viscous forces now become impor-
tant and can dominate over the capillary forces resulting in large
capillary numbers. The residual non-wetting phase saturation
decreases gradually at capillary numbers greater than I x 10-5 in
general(l2) due to viscous stripping in the regions around the well-
bore. The practical consequence of this effect is that it permits the
residual condensate saturation to be reduced hence increasing the
gas relative permeability. Thus, the relative permeability curves
undergo a gradual change as schematically indicated in Figure 3
in region D. Finally, the residual saturation would probably reach
a constant value again, determined by the pore structure, beyond a
certain value of capillary number. This is region E in Figure 2 and
once more a single relative permeability curve applies in this
region as shown in Figure 3.
In region D mentioned above, the gas/condensate interface has
33

BLACK VOL
OIL OIL CONDENSATE
I n m l
C~t""c:::::--o;;-,..... I D It is important to measure the dependence of relative perme-
W
1', , abilities on various forces under experimental conditions which
IX
::l
en
en
C'1I
w R Ii'
IX
Q.
I Cit % Liquid
I"
I
I tion without being imbibed from outside. The process of conden-
TEMPERATURE
FIGURE 1: Classification of hydrocarbon systems.
high IFf and thus increased resistance to deformation by the vis-
cous pressure gradient. Under these conditions the bubbles of gas
start moving erratically and sometimes become trapped by capil-
lary forces behind smaller pore throats(7,8), This is another type of
high capillary number flow which exhibits markedly different
flow behaviour than that which happens near DPP at either high
or low flow rates as discussed above.
It is thought that the relative permeability curves describing
these three flow regimes would be different as well. Therefore, the
capillary number alone would .not be sufficient to explain the dif-
ferences observed in the flow of gas and the condensate at high
and low IFfs. Thus, additional parameters are needed to charac-
terize relative permeabilities. One possible alternative is to use the
magnitude of the flow rate and the IFf for this purpose in addition
to the capillary and Bond numbers(l5,16). Alternatively it may be
possible to extend the definition of the capillary number to include
some of the effects<?) which have been observed. Furthermore, a
modified capillary number(14) and a generalized trapping num-
ber(I7) which combines the effects of capillary and bond numbers
were suggested as parameters which could be used to characterize
the gas and condensate relative permeability.
The dependence of flow properties on capillary number does
not allow for a complete solution to the problem near the well-
bore. Very high flow rates encountered in this region in gas wells
may lead to non-Darcy flow behaviour. Therefore, the dependence
of gas condensate relative permeabilities on flow conditions must
also account for inertial effects(13,14). The net effect of the various
phenomena occuring in the near wellbore region is a balance of
those effects that reduce well productivity (inertial effects, perme-
- - - Pressure .. .. . Velocity
\E D c
,.
........... .. ..
FIGURE 2: Flow regions in a gas condensate reservoir.
34
ability reduction) and those effects that increase well productivity
(capillary desaturation, mist and filament flow, viscous strip-
WET DRY ping)(l). The relative permeability effects are expected to be more
GAS GAS important in low permeability systems and non-Darcy effects in
IV V high permeability systems(l8).
\~ are representative of the processes occuring in the field. The dis-
, ,0 tribution of the phases (wettability and spreading) in the laborato-
ry should be the same as those in gas condensate reservoirs(8,9).
,,"
,,,
Three phases need to be present in the laboratory core even if one
of the phases such as brine is always at residual saturation. This is
,I
because the condensate distribution as well as the multiphase flow
of gas and condensate could be different. In the case of condens-
I
ing fluid, the wetting fluid saturation increases from within the
pore space by the process of condensation during pressure reduc-
sation generates oil films throughout the porous media. Therefore,
the relative permeabilities must be measured with increasing liq-
uid saturation and drainage relative permeabilities would not be
relevant except in the regions of the reservoir where the conden-
sate bank is displaced by gas(14,19).
Performance Prediction
The near wellbore phenomena occuring in a gas condensate
reservoir requires detailed representation. The magnitude and,
hence, the impact of capillary number and non-Darcy flow on
condensate and gas relative permeabilities change significantly
over relatively small distances. Furthermore, the complex phase
behaviour effects such as condensation and revapourization in the
near wellbore region requires the use of a properly tuned EOS
model within a compositional simulator.
Hence, accurate simulation of well productivity losses due to
condensate build up generally require a fine grid radial model
which uses either fully implicit or adaptive implicit formulation.
The amount of detail which is required in a compositional simula-
tor to capture the near wellbore effects would make the simulation
of field wide processes very costly and time consuming. The local
grid refinement and adaptive implicit capabilities may help allevi-
ate some of the problems but the computing costs for a full field
simulation are still likely to be high.
One option is to use a detailed single well EOS radial model
conditioned to reproduce well test results. Such a model should
take into account the dependence of relative permeabilities on
gravity, viscous and capillary forces as well as non-Darcy flow
rather than using a single relative permeability curve otherwise
results are likely to be unrealistic. For instance, it has been shown
that the well impairment may be overestimated if the dependence
of relative permeability on capillary number is ignored(13,17,20).
The condensate saturation decreases monotonically away from the
DeN Pci'lIPressue
B A
Distance From weI/bore
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology
 1 j
i! ill

I,
oil I.
O.......-....-:.'------------------.,;::::lIIo...--1 o+-----~::::..---..::::::::~---_l
o o

DRogIcn_~

li! 1d!
Ioil
, 0
1
"
8
oil

0 ~ 0
~~ 0

FIGURE 3: Multiphase flow behaviour in different flow regimes.

well bore when the effect of capillary number is ignored.
However, the condensate saturation goes through a maximum
especially in higher permeability zones when the influence of cap-
illary number is taken into account.
The next step in modelling the reservoir performance is to cali-
brate the full field model using pseudo functions so that the fine
scale single well simulation results are reproduced(1.21). The full
field model should still allow for variations in the relative perme-
ability curves based on the balance between capillary, viscous and
gravity effects to be able to represent gas and condensate flow
faithfully far from the wellbore. It is also preferable to represent
the dependence of the capillary pressure curve on the 1Ff(13l. Such
a functionality would allow one to represent the possibility of con-
densate reimbibition to the higher parts of the reservoir after grav-
ity segregation once the capillary pressure become significant
with continued pressure depletion. Consequently, this process
ensures that both the near wellbore and field wide phenomena are
accounted for.
Summary
As the pressure is depleted in a gas condensate reservoir a liq-
uid condensate phase is generated below the dew point pressure.
The force balance which controls the multiphase flow of gas and
condensate can change drastically when fluids travel towards the
wellbore in the reservoir and with time. Consequently, the gas and
condensate relative permeabilities which are affected by inertial,
viscous, capillary and gravity forces become functions of space
and time. Furthermore, the capillary pressure which influences
fluid distribution in the reservoir also changes with time as pres-
sure is depleted. The correct prediction of reservoir performance
should use an approriately tuned EOS in a compositional simula-
tor which also takes into account the aforementioned variations in
relative permeabilities and capillary pressure. The observations
highlight the need for carefully designed and controlled relative
permeability experiments for input into the numerical simulator.
The degree of detail required to take into account the near well-
bore phenomena necessitates the use of very fine grids near the
production wells. Thus, the full field performance predictions with
such models are likely to be costly and time consuming. One
option is to use single well fine scale numerical simulations to
predict the near wellbore behaviour. The full field model can then
be calibrated to reproduce the fine scale model results using pseu-
do functions.
NOMENCLATURE
g gravitational acceleration
k vertical permeability
NB Bond number
Nc capillary number
S spreading coefficient
V velocity
1.1 displacing phase viscosity
0' interfacial tension
O'wg interfacial tension between water and gas
O'wc interfacial tension between water and condensate
O'gc interfacial tension between gas and condensate
~p density difference between condensate and gas
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August 1999, Volume 38, No.8 35

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36 Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology