Employee Performance A Function of Occupational Stress

EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE A FUNCTION OF
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND COPING: A STUDY ON

CENTRAL GOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES
Dissertation Submitted to
Padmashree Dr. D. Y. Patil University,
Department of Business Management
in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the
Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
Submitted by
Mrs. Radha Damle
(Enrolment No. DYP-PhD-076100003)
Research Guide
Dr. Sharad L. Joshi
PADMASHREE DR. D.Y. PATIL UNIVERSITY,
DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT,
Sector 4, Plot No. 10,
CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai 400 614
June 2012
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis titled Employee Performance a Function of
Occupational Stress and Coping: A Study on Central Government Employees
submitted for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management at the
Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University Department of Business Management is my
original work and the thesis has not formed the basis for the award of any degree,
associate ship, fellowship or any other similar titles.
Place: Navi Mumbai
Date :
Signature of the Signature of the Signature of the
Guide Head of the Department Student

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis titled Employee Performance a Function of
Occupational Stress and Coping: A Study on Central Government Employees
submitted by Ms Radha Damle is a bonafide research work for the award of the
Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management at the Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil
University Department of Business Management in partial fulfilment of the
requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business
Management and that the thesis has not formed the basis for the award previously of
any degree, diploma, associate ship, fellowship or any other similar title of any
University or Institution.
Also certified, that the thesis represents an independent work on the part of the
candidate.
Place: Navi Mumbai
Date:
Signature of the Signature of the
Head of the Department Guide

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Looking back, at all those years, there is so much to be grateful for and so many
people to thank, for all those lessons learnt in my life. PhD has been a journey of
learning, constantly shaping me, as I stand today.
I express my sincere thanks to Dr. Sharad Joshi, for guiding me, being patient with
me, supporting and challenging me further on. His insight and wisdom has seen me
through this endeavour. I am also immensely thankful to Dr. R. Gopal, Director,
Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University Department of Business Management for the
invaluable and timely guidance provided to me.
I would like to thank my friends Dr. Sonu Bhargava, Ms. Sukhada Purandare and Dr.
Vandana Gote for constant encouragement and enrichment. I would like to thank Dr.
Suneil Doke and Dr. Narendra Deshmukh for their invaluable help and support. I
would like to express my gratitude to the employees of different departments of
Central government for their contribution in the research.
I extend my special thanks to my parents, husband, children and other family
members, without whose continuous support, realisation of this dream would not
have been possible.
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to all who have directly or indirectly helped
me.
Place: Navi Mumbai
Date: Signature of the student

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Ch. No Title Pg. No.
List of tables I
List of Calculations IV
List of Figures V
List of Abbreviations VI
Executive Summary VII
Ch.1 Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction to Occupational stress 1
1.2 Occupational stress and Performance 2
1.3 Coping with Occupational stress 4
1.4 Introduction to Central Government 6
Ch.2 Review of Literature 11
2.1 Occupational Stress 11
2.1.1 Eustress and Distress 14
2.1.2 Physiological and Psychological reaction to Stress 16
2.1.3 Sources of Stress 19
2.1.4 Stress and disease 24
2.2 Performance 25
2.2.1 Occupational Stress and Performance 26
2.2.2 Parameters of Performance 30
2.3 Coping 31
2.3.1 Coping strategies 33
2.3.2 Coping process 41

2.4 Review of Research Papers 45
2.5 Research Gap 87
Ch.3 An Overview of Central Government 88
Ch.4 Statement of Problem, Objectives, Hypotheses and 100
Research Methodology
4.1 Statement of Problem 100
4.2 Scope of the study 101
4.3 Statement of Objectives 102
4.4 Research Hypotheses 102
4.5 Research design 103
4.6 Operational Definitions 103
4.7 Sampling Design 104
4.8 Instrument used for data gathering 105
4.9 Pilot study 107
4.10 Procedure for data collection 112
Ch. 5 Conceptual aspect of the research variables 114
Ch.6 Data Analysis and Hypotheses Testing 125
6.1 Descriptive Statistics 125
6.2 Inferential Statistics 143
6.3 Hypotheses testing 181
6.4 Data Findings 184
Ch.7 Conclusion, Suggestions and Limitation of the study 188
Annexure A - Bibliography 190
Annexure B- Questionnaire 215

Annexure C- Description of tools used for data 228
gathering
Annexure D- Trends as per Census of central 230
government employees, 2009

LIST OF TABLES
Sr. No. Title Pg. No.
4.1 Sampling frame 105
4.2 Reliability statistics for Occupational stress and its components 108
4.3 Reliability statistics for performance and its components 110
4.4 Reliability statistics for approach coping and avoidance coping 111
6.1 Occupational level, gender and age group wise distribution in 125
sample
6.2 Analysis of different components of occupational stress 128
6.3 Analysis of components of performance 135
6.4 Analysis of components of approach coping 140
6.5 Analysis of components of avoidance coping 142
6.6 a) Bivariate product moment correlation between occupational 144
stress, approach coping, avoidance coping and performance.
6.6 b) Model summary: occupational stress, approach and avoidance 145
coping as independent variables and performance as dependent
variable
6.6 c) ANOVA summary: occupational stress, approach and avoidance 145
coping as independent variables and performance is dependent
variable
6.6 d) Coefficients of occupational stress, approach coping, avoidant 146
coping as independent variable and performance as dependent
variable.
I
6.7 a) Model summary: occupational stress as independent variable and 147
performance as dependent variable
6.7 b) ANOVA summary: occupational stress as independent variable 148
and performance as dependent variable
6.7 c) Coefficient of the occupational stress as independent variable and 148
performance as dependent variable
6.8 t- test for studying difference in occupational level for 150
components of performance
6.9 t- test for studying difference in gender for components of 151
performance
6.10 t-test for studying difference in occupational level for 153
components of occupational stress
6.11 t-test for studying difference in gender for components of 156
occupational stress
6.12 t- test for studying difference in occupational level for 161
components of approach and avoidance coping
6.13 Approach Coping Avoidance coping and gender difference 163
6.14 t- test for studying difference in gender for components of 164
approach and avoidance coping
6.15 Pearson product moment correlation between occupational stress 165
and various components of approach and avoidance coping
6.16 Pearson product moment correlation between occupational stress 166
and various components of performance
6.17 ANOVA for studying impact of age group on performance and 167
II
its components
6.18 ANOVA for studying impact of age group on occupational stress 169
6.18.1 ANOVA for studying impact of age group on components of 169
occupational stress
6.19 ANOVA for studying impact of age group on approach coping 176
approach coping
6.20 ANOVA for studying impact of age group on avoidance coping 179
avoidance coping.
III
LIST OF CALCULATIONS
6.1 Bi- serial correlation to study relation between occupational 149
level (officer and staff) and performance
6.2 Bi- serial correlation to study relation between gender (male 151
and female) and performance
level (officer and staff) and occupational stress
and female) and occupational stress
level(officer and staff) and approach coping
level(officer and staff) and avoidance coping
and female) and approach coping
and female) and avoidance coping
IV
LIST OF FIGURES
Sr. No. Title Pg.No.
6.1 Distribution of employees in terms of occupational stress 127
6.2 Distribution of employees in terms of performance 135
6.3 Distribution of employees in terms of approach coping 139
6.4 Distribution of employees in terms of avoidance coping 141
V
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
DV : Dependent Variable
Estt. : Establishment
GOI : Government of India
IV : Independent Variable
OM : Office memorandum
NGO : Non Government Organization
SMT : Stress Management Techniques
VI
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Tremendous volume of scholarly research has been produced on occupational stress
in a relatively small time. The reason for such interest could be the negative impact
of stress on employees and organizations alike. Cost of stress is seen as high in
organizations assuming it leads to increase in absenteeism, disinterest in work,
higher rate of accidents, increase in turnover and lower performance. Unchecked
levels of stress also lead to burnout, making it a moral responsibility of
organizations to keep stress at manageable levels.
Occupational stress is widely known to affect all professions. The nature and degree
of occupational stress is seen to vary across industry and also in business segments
within an industry.
Of the many outcomes of occupational stress, its effect on mental and physical
health is widely researched. The intricate relationship that occupational stress has
with employee performance has received little attention in the past. The reason
could be that determining job performance is a difficult task. Performance is not just
a uni dimensional concept which can be rated as good, average, bad and get defined
simply by presence or absence of skill in a person. Rather it is a representation, of
multidimensional behaviour that decides the level of effort a person will make
towards usage of those skills. Deciding the level of effort is dependent on various
factors like motivation, commitment, discipline etc. Occupational stress affects these
and hence performance.
This is not to say that employees dont have a sense of responsibility. Most
employees feel some sense of purpose and accomplishment about their jobs. This
helps their performance and can be very rewarding and self satisfying. However,
work can also be a tremendous burden, with deadlines to meet, work overload and
VII
difficult bosses placing considerable pressure and strain on workers. Therefore, jobs
and the work environment commonly produce stress, which if not properly handled,
can result in negative and dysfunctional behaviour at work.
Does this mean that there should be no element of stress at work? Research shows
that stress at certain level is healthy or productive. When both functional and
dysfunctional effects of stress can be realized then the science of stress management
should be to keep stress at a stimulatory level. Keeping this in mind interventions
can be made by both organizations and employees.
Coping is a behaviour by which employees adjust to perceived stress trying to keep
it at a level that little affects their work. There are different strategies, people use,
some are action oriented some provide emotional calm. The effectiveness of
strategies largely depends on the situation at hand. Effective coping would lead to
reducing the ill effect of stress and improving outcomes.
Hence it can be safely concluded that how employees perform is closely linked to
their perceived occupational stress and coping behaviour.
Purpose of the study
Central Government is the largest bureaucratic setup of the country. It is also highly
sought after employment because of inherent benefits and safeguards it provides to
its employees making it the largest employer in our country. It embodies all the
principles of bureaucracy like universalism, standardization, reliability, precision,
most importantly being fair and unbiased employer. Its prime function is to serve
people, as stated by Gluick, L.,(1983), Governments are constituted of human
beings, are run by human beings and have as their main job helping, controlling and
serving human beings.
VIII
There are widespread perceptions about the effectiveness of the government
employee and the occupational stress levels among them. On one side where its
provisions benefit and safeguard its employees, on other side with changing time,
performance pressure on government servant have become multi fold. Ever
increasing workload, high people expectation, high level of public awareness, high
public intolerance, appropriateness in public life (Ali, S., Rao,A.,2000), specially
with the enforcement of Right to Information Act in October, 2005, a government
servant has come under immense public glare and scrutiny.
In view of the perceived role of the central government, the importance of human
role in government and pressures coming from diverse stakeholders- The present
study aims to investigate occupational stress encountered by central government
employees, coping strategies adopted by them and their relation with employee
performance.
Scope of the study
This research study was mainly concerned with an inquiry and investigation about
the human functioning in central government departments. The emphasis is on
human behavioural factors. The objective of the study was to throw light on the
human aspect of the central government employees. The study was conducted on
civilian, white collared employees, group A, B and C, of Central Government
working in Pune.
Statement of Objectives
To study the performance of employees as a function of occupational
stress and coping.
IX
To study occupational stress in relation with coping of central
government employees.
To study performance of central government employees with respect to
occupational level, gender and age group.
To study occupational stress of central government employees with
respect to occupational level, gender and age group.
To study coping of central government employees with respect to
occupational level gender and age group.
Hypothesis to be tested were formed keeping in mind the research objectives. The
research study followed descriptive method of research. The descriptive studies, in
contrast to exploratory, relates to more formalized studies typically structured with
clearly stated hypotheses or investigative questions.
Sampling design:
The sampling technique followed was stratified random sampling based on the
proportion of officers and staff in the population. The required sample size was 206.
The participants for this study were all employees of Central Government. The study
was performed only on those who currently held an officer or staff status. The
sample was randomly selected from the Central Government departments. Collected
sample size was 400.
Methodology
The research study was designed to investigate the relation between employee
performance, occupational stress and coping. These variables were further studied
with reference to occupational level, gender and age. Both primary and secondary
X
data sources were used. Primary data was sourced using research instrument having
two parts; first part was designed to elicit pertinent demographic information of the
respondents. The second part contained three psychometric instruments;
Occupational stress scale, Performance scale and Coping strategies scale. The three
scales were of sufficient reliability. Secondary data sources were journals, books,
reports, e- journals, newspapers. Multiple regression analysis, simple regression,
ANOVA, correlation, t- statistic was conducted to explore different relationships.
Findings
The findings of the study were in support of the objectives.
Analysis of the occupational stress level indicated low to moderate stress at
work. Majority of employees, ninety one percent, perceived moderate stress.
Importantly, not a single employee reported to experience of high stress.
Constraint of rules and regulation, one of the components of occupational stress,
was perceived to be the least stressing factor by central government employees.
Central government employees felt that their job had enhanced their social status
and due significance to their position was given within the organization.
Component of occupational stress which led to the perception of moderate to
high stress was role overload and relationship with subordinates.
Coping of employees comprised of approach coping and avoidance coping.
Higher tendency of approach coping and lower tendency of avoidance coping
was seen.
Performance of employee of central government was found to be function of
occupational stress and coping.
XI
There was significant and positive correlation between employee performance
and occupational stress. Indicating that occupational stress was not distressing.
Employee performance was found to be positively and significantly related to
avoidance coping.
Performance and its components were not found to be correlated to occupational
level (officer and staff) of employees.
Performance of employees was not found to be correlated to gender ( male and
female).However, on further analysis of performance components, significant
difference was found between male and female employees for the component;
relationship with co-workers. Male employees were found to be better in
maintaining relationship with co-workers compared to female employees.
Age had no impact on performance.
Occupational stress of employees was also found having significant and positive
relationship with approach coping and avoidance coping.
Occupational stress in employees was found to be significantly correlated to
occupational level (officers and staff). Overall, officers were found to be more
stressed in comparison to staff.
Occupational stress among officers was found high for the following
components; role overload, powerlessness, under participation, strenuous
working condition, relocation / transfer.
Staff was found to be more stressed due to intrinsic impoverishment.
Male employees were found to be more stressed due to; responsibility for
persons and low status.
XII
Female employees were more stressed due to; relationship with subordinates,
powerlessness and workfamily interface (shouldering responsibility at
workplace as well as home).
Employees below 35 yrs. of age perceived more stress due to role ambiguity,
role conflict, group and political pressure and intrinsic impoverishment.
Employees between 35 to 50 yrs of age were found to be more stressed due to;
powerlessness and workfamily interface. Employees above 50 yrs of age found
themselves more stressed due to relationship with subordinates and constraint of
rules and regulations.
There was no difference between officer and staff in their usage of approach and
avoidance coping strategies.
Gender difference in coping was observed only for cognitive avoidance coping
strategy. Female employees used this strategy more than male employees.
Employees of age group 36- 50 yrs used approach coping maximum and
avoidance coping least.
Conclusion:
This study concludes that performance of central government employees is
influenced by occupational stress and effort expended by them in coping with stress.
Central government employees are not a stress free community. Overall similarity in
coping behaviour of employees is indicative of a possibility that the bureaucratic
structure has an important role to play in deciding the reactions of employees.
XIII
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction to occupational stress
Occupational stress is widely known to affect all professions and category of
workers. It is of great concern to management, employees and other stakeholders of
the organization; every job seems to have a potential stressor. Continuous effort on
research over decades has provided us with an insight on occupational stress.
Research suggests that nature and degree of occupational stress varies across
industry and also in business establishments within an industry. The reasoning could
be as occupational stress is the result of interaction of an individual with the work
environment and as every job has its own typical environment and every person is
different from another, the nature and effect of stress changes from job to job and
person to person.
Occupational stress is the nonspecific response of the body to any demand placed
upon it. It is a mental and physical condition which affects an individuals
productivity, effectiveness, personal health and quality of work
(Vokic,N.,Bogdanic,A.,2007).
Generally speaking, most employees feel some sense of purpose and
accomplishment about their jobs, which can be very rewarding and self-satisfying.
However, work can also be a tremendous burden, with deadlines to meet, work
overload and difficult bosses placing considerable pressure and strain on workers.
Therefore, jobs and the work environment commonly produce stress, which if not
1
properly handled, can result in negative and dysfunctional behaviour at work
(Riggio, 2003).
Researchers commonly agree that stress is a serious problem in many organizations.
The cost, organizations pay for Occupational stress is also seen as high. In terms of
money, reports from International Labour Organization suggest that inefficiencies
arising out of occupational stress may cost up to 10 percent of a countrys GNP
(Punekar, et. al., 2008). At an individual level it becomes a cause of many diseases
even mortality (Cooper, C.L and Dewe, P.,2004), Cooper and Dewe further stated
that Occupational Stress impacts the entire life of a person, affecting their well
being, their quality of life and not just their working life.
Documented evidences show, that as far as work life is concerned extreme stress is
so aversive to employees that they will try to avoid it by withdrawing either
psychologically (through disinterest or lack of involvement in the job etc.),
physically (frequent late coming, absenteeism, lethargy etc.) or by leaving the job
entirely (Schuler, 1980).
Based on employment experience it can probably be agreed upon that there are
many potential stressors at a workplace. Broadly stressors at workplace are
categorized into- Role stressors, stressors through interpersonal relationship within
organization, organizational structure and climate, career development and intrinsic
to job.
1.2 Occupational stress and performance
Research on stress has largely explored the causes and consequences of harmful
stress commonly called as distress. But not all stress is harmful, Tanner,O(1979)
laid emphasis on stress being necessary for wellbeing. According to him the stress
2
that is seen in an athlete before the start of a sprint, or a singer who performs in front
of an audience are fine examples of positive stress or eustress which is motivating,
exhilarating and satisfying. This kind of stress is required for finding solutions to
problems, making decisions, forces individuals to stretch their competencies and tap
unused potential, making a person more capable than what he presently is.
Moreover, Selye, as quoted in (Fevre,M.L., et al.,2003) stated that it is the
individual that determines whether the stress will be eustress or distress based on
how one interprets it and chooses to react to it.
Occupational stress affects employee performance. Empirically researches have
shown a negative relation between stress and performance. High level of stress is
known to bring down job performance (Beehr and Newman, 1978).Interestingly,
very low or no stress is also found to be associated with low performance. The stress
performance relationship is best shown as an inverted U (McGrath, 1976)
wherein moderate level of stress seems to maximize performance. Besides the
degree of stress, performance may also be a function of different kind of stressors
e.g. Job pressures due to time, financial responsibility etc.
Performance of an employee can be stated as all of the behaviour employees engage
in at work. The definition probably is slightly misleading because at times people
might be engaging themselves in work which has no relation to their job
performance (e.g. making personal phone calls). More appropriate way then would
be as suggested by Campbell, (1990), according to which job performance is stated
as a collection of behaviour employees engage in at work, as long as that behaviour
contributes to the attainment of organizational goals.
3
When we try to draw a link between behaviour and performance, the study becomes
a matter of prediction, as to what type of behaviour will lead to what type of
performance e.g. interviewing an employee and predicting his future performance.
Therefore most of performance based research centres around performance
prediction.
Occupational stressors are seen to have both direct and indirect effect on job
performance. Stressors in the form of situational constraint have a direct inhibiting
effect on performance. Stressors affecting antecedents to performance, act indirectly
e.g. level of effort, hence impacting performance (Peters & OConner,1998). Of all
antecedents to performance, stressors are most unlikely to affect the innate ability
e.g. knowledge and skill, thinking style, present with an employee as these are
enduring characteristics of an individual. How stressors than affect job performance
(negatively or positively) therefore must be by influencing the choices employees
make regarding where to direct their efforts, the level of effort to exert, and whether
or not to utilize their innate abilities fully.
Interestingly most of the occupational stress research has treated job performance as
a uni- dimensional concept. It will be more beneficial to our body of knowledge if
job performance is taken as a multidimensional concept wherein every single
dimension of behaviour that constitutes job performance like proficiency in
communication, maintaining discipline, commitment towards work etc. can be
studied independently for examining the stressor- performance relation.
1.3 Coping with occupational stress
Whenever faced with a situation of stress an employee tries to cope with it.
Alternatively, coping is a behaviour by which a person tries to relieve himself of
4
stress; it may or may not lead to solving the problem. According to Lazarus &
Folkman (1984) coping is a process of managing external and internal demands that
are exceeding the resources of the person in order to prevent negative consequences.
People react differently to situations they find stressful e.g. a manger who fails to
find solution to a problem, may seek help of people who have relevant knowledge ,
he may try to push it on to his subordinates expecting them to solve it or he may also
decide to postpone tackling the problem. Just like there are many possibilities of
how one would react to a given stressful situation likewise there are different coping
strategies. It is important for both individuals and organizations to analyze the
strategies they are using to cope as this may create the difference between
effectiveness and ineffectiveness. The effectiveness of a coping strategy is seen to
largely depend upon the nature and severity of the perceived stress and other
situational factors. However it is noted that employees who adopt Approach
Coping Strategies, experience more stress in the short run but the coping mode
results into better morale, performance and health of the employees in the longer run
(Srivastava, 1999).
It has been established earlier in the chapter that occupational stress has an effect on
employee job performance. It is natural for employees to develop their own strategy
of coping with stressful situations, faced on the job. Coping as we already know is a
process by which an employee can reduce the effect of occupational stress. It can be
implied that if an employees coping strategy is effective then the negative effect of
occupational stress on performance will get reduced as compared to when coping is
ineffective.
Studies have been conducted in the private and public sector to study the effects of
occupational stress and coping on employee performance in a work place
5
environment. However there is no direct research study available which has focused
on the employee performance, coping and occupational stress in the Central
government sector.
1.4 Introduction to central government
Employment in organized sector in India can broadly be divided under the heads of
Public Sector and Private Sector. Public Sector includes; Central Government, State
Government, Local Bodies and Quasi Government (Public Sector Undertaking).
Employment records show that central government has always been a major
employer. Census report on Central Government Employees (Annexure- D)
published by Government of India in the year 2009 by Ministry of Labour and
Employment shows a civilian employee status from 1971 to 2006. According to this
report, as on 31st March, 2006, there were 31.16 lac employees. Employees in the
state of Maharashtra were 300800 which were 9.65 % of the total central
Government Employees, thus making the third largest concentration of Central
Government Employees. Pune city had 44313 employees in the civilian post of
Central Government.
As per Rule 6 of Central Civil Services (Classification, Control and Appeal) rules,
1965, the Central Government employees are divided into four categories; namely
Group A, Group B, Group C and Group D. Group A employees are at the
top of the hierarchy whereas Group D employees are at the bottom of the
hierarchy.
According to the above Census report, amongst regular Central Government
employees in the country, 57.80% were holding Group-C posts and 30.62% were
6
in Group-D posts. 8.63% were holding Group- B posts whereas employees
holding Group A posts were only 2.95%.
As the largest employer in the country the government deals with a huge number of
employees. Starting from the secretariat, down to various directorates, then to
district offices, block offices, right up to the village level.
Within the Public Sector, Government is an important employer in India. It is our
statutory law enforcing body. It is embodied with typical features which help to
differentiate government sector from private and other public sector units. Unlike
corporate sector where shareholders are the ultimate owners and to whom everyone
is eventually accountable, government lacks the single locus of accountability
(Rahim, A & Panickar, R., 2007). Technically, all of us are owners as government
runs on money paid by taxpayers. In government sector financial perspective is not
the bottom-line perspective. Working is bureaucratic; rule bound. Decisions are
based on policies that apply to one and all. Career growth is time bound and vacancy
based but mostly not performance based. There is a feeling of permanence in
employment.
The bureaucratic machine functions in a smooth and stable manner, with discipline,
precision, reliability, thoroughness, standardization and universalism. It is the purest
form of rational legal authority. According to Max Weber, bureaucracy is a human
machine made of officers and ancillary staff performing towards assigned tasks, as
cited in Singh,J.,(2000). At the same time bureaucracy in common parlance gets
tainted with red-tapism and delay; incompetence and corruption.
In this typical work environment; does the single most important feature,
permanency of job reduce stress? Or does it compel people to continue with their
jobs even when they do not like it, thereby, becoming an agent of stress in itself.
7
Theodore Roosevelt has emphasized the role of the state as a welfare state for the
well being of its subjects (Theodore Roosevelt's Seventh State of the Union
Address). The concept of a welfare state also envisages the role played by the state
as an employer. Since independence the Indian government has made sincere efforts
to establish its role as a Model employer. A large number of measures have been
taken for the benefit and welfare of its employees e.g. linking pay with inflation,
protection against removal and dismissal, medical assistance to employees and their
family. This becomes imperative that others in the Public sector as well as private
sector look up to the central government as a role model when it comes to the
treatment of the employees at the work place.
Till late 20th century, work and profession were associated and controlled by men.
The work ethos predominantly reflected male nature and temperament. In todays
scenario, presence of women at the place of work cannot be ignored. In fact, the past
three decades have seen an emergence of women as a significant contributor to the
labour force in all sectors (Public, Private). This fact can be attributed to the
development of new economy which opened many job opportunities for women
especially in the organized sector. As per the last Census of Central Government
employees, out of 31.16 lakh regular employees, 3.20 lakh were women (Annexure-
D). The proportion of women in the total employment shows an increasing trend. It
was 10.28% in 2006 against 9.68% in 2004 and 7.53% in 2001, thereby indicating
empowerment of women.
The rise in the work participation rate of women can be attributed to the number of
initiatives taken by Govt. agencies, trade unions and NGO to support and to promote
women education plus an increased need for families to earn.
8
Nature has made women different from men. Though 21st century has put them on
the fore front working shoulder to shoulder with men in offices, there are very few
women at the top, work place is still largely a male domain and there is no denying
the fact that women are still considered chiefly responsible for house work even
when they are working outside home. With responsibilities as the main breadwinner,
males have traditionally been required to allow work to take precedence over family
demands, whereas females have had primary domestic responsibility with family
demands requiring precedence over work (Swanson, V; et.al., 1998). Considering
the nature of women and the traditional roles allotted to them and also knowing the
fact that stress is a result of interaction of individual and environment, agents of
stress may impact male and female employees differently. That is to say, both:
sources creating stress and the degree to which stress is created may vary for male
and female employees.
Central Government has taken an active role in promoting and facilitating women
workforce. Child- care leaves being the latest of provision. It is a special provision
which allows a woman employee to avail of leave up to a total of 2 yrs till her
children turn 18 yrs of age.
Luther Gulick singled out the importance of human dimension in making public
administration effective. According to him, Governments are constituted of human
serving human beings(Gulick, L.,1983) thus singularly underlining the importance
of study of human behaviour.
Moreover, 21st Century is characterized by high level of public awareness, high
peoples expectations, high public intolerance, appropriateness in public life (Ali, S.,
9
Rao,A.,2000), specially the enforcement of Right to Information Act in October,
2005, has brought a government servant under public glare.
There are widespread perceptions about the effectiveness of the government
employees and occupational stress levels among them. But few formal studies have
been conducted to understand the occupational stress amongst the government
employees. The government employees have been considered by sections of the
society including media as a stress free community.
In absence of sufficient research available in public domain, above interpretations by
media and the society at large cannot be said to have any basis. Therefore a need
was felt to carry out a study to understand the stress levels amongst the government
employees. It cannot be denied that over the period performance pressures have
increased on the government employee. This may have lead to higher levels of stress
at work place. In view of the perceived role of the central government, the
importance of human role in government and pressures coming from diverse
stakeholders, it becomes important to study the occupational stress encountered by
the central government employees, coping strategies adopted and their association
with employee performance.
10
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
2.1 Occupational Stress
Occupational stress or job stress is of growing concern as it leads to psychological
and physical problems for the employees. Researchers have argued that occupational
stress, either as a result of its detrimental effect on the health of the individual or
directly, led to low productivity, high absenteeism, tiredness, low enthusiasm for
work, low creativity, and high dissatisfaction with work (Cooper & Marshall, 1978;
Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987).
The concept of stress was first introduced in the life sciences by Hans Selye in 1936.
The word stress got assigned different meaning since then. By the end of nineteenth
century, it got described as force, pressure, strain or strong effort with reference to
an object or person (Pestonjee, 1999). In mechanical sciences, the term implied an
external force or pressure exerted on something with the intension to distort and
being resisted by the person or object on which it was exerted.
The definition of stress has been evolving through time. Researchers and applied
psychologists have had their own interpretation of stress, at times finding it
difficult to agree to a single definition. Some defined stress as a stimulus; for
example, Kahn, et.al(1964) defined stress as an event, or something, that placed
demand on the individual, Caplan, et.al., (1975) defined stress as an environmental
characteristic that posed threat to the individual.
On the other hand, stress according to Selye (1976), was the non-specific
response of the body to any demand.... Selye treated stress as a reaction of an
11
individual to a stressor. Again, Everly (1989) claimed that stress was a
physiological response. Those who defined stress as a response argued that stress
was a response to biological or psychosocial stressors.
The response based model used stress as a dependant variable. Whereas, in the
stimulus based model potential stressor was taken as an independent variable that
affected an individual. In the stimulus based model the stressor present in an
environment was deemed to have uniform effect on all present, this very thought
also became the weakness of the model.
Lazarus & Folkman (1984) held an interactive view in defining stress and suggested
that when people realized that they were unable to cope with the demands placed
upon them by their environment, they became stressed. Thus, according to the
interactive view, stress was the result of cognitive interpretation given to the
stressors. This meant that both perception of stimulus and response to it were
important to the creation of stress and it was the gap between perceived ability and
perceived demand which initiated the coping process and the consequence of coping
strategy used, went as a feedback helping in reinterpreting the situation.
Of the three models briefly described above, the interactive model of stress seemed
to have gained wide acceptance by a great many researchers. This model assumed
that situations were not inherently stressful but had the capability (potential) of
becoming stressful. The model can be briefly summarized in following fashion:
When people are faced with stressors (internal or external environmental stimuli),
they attempt to interpret the demands imposed by the stressors and also attempt to
determine if they have the resources to deal with the demands. If they come to the
(cognitive) realization that they are unable to deal with the demands imposed by the
12
stressors they become stressed. If the level of experienced stress is significant, they
feel strain in the form of psychological problems and/or physical problems, and
long-term negative effects.
Whether stress was taken as a stimulus, a response to stressors, or a result of
cognitive interpretation ascribed to the stressors, researchers agreed that stress
caused a number of negative psychological and physical effects, called strains.
As mentioned above, the strain caused by stress manifested itself in the form of
many psychological and physical problems. For example, researchers found stress to
be associated with anxiety, depression, sadness, hopelessness, helplessness, anger,
and/or worthlessness. Stressed people were also more likely to be psychologically
distressed than those who were not stressed (Dua, 1996). Other psychological
disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder, adjustment disorders, and affective
disorders were also said to be caused by, or associated with, stress (Everly, 1989).
Stress was also linked with many types of physical illness. Illnesses such as heart
disease (e.g., hypertension), gastrointestinal disorders (e.g., peptic ulcer and irritable
bowel syndrome), respiratory disorders (e.g., allergies and bronchial asthma),
muscular problems (e.g., back pain and tension headache), skin problems (e.g.,
eczema and acne), and cancer were found to be associated with/ caused by/ or
accentuated by stress (Everly, 1989; and Matteson & Ivancevich, 1987).
Thus stress was seen as a pattern of specific and nonspecific responses an organism
made to stimulus events that disturbed its equilibrium and taxed or exceeded its
ability to cope (Zimbardo, 1988). The stimulus event thus included a large variety of
external and internal conditions which could be collectively called stressors. A
stressor was then a stimulus event that placed a demand on an organism for some
13
kind of adaptive response. The stress response was composed of a diverse
combination of reactions on several levels, including physiological, behavioural and
cognitive changes.
2.1.1 Eustress and Distress
Hans Selye (1980) described four basic variation of stress. When events had a
harmful effect, stress was correctly labelled as distress. Yet stress was also seen to
have a beneficial effect. Events, which led to a stimulating effect that resulted in
personal growth, were called eustress or good stress. He also described two more
variation of stress, hyper stress and hypo stress. Hyper stress or excessive stress,
according to him usually occurred when events, including positive ones stretched the
limits of our adaptability. Hypo stress, or insufficient stress was apt to occur when
there was an absence of stimulation.
Even Selye, definition of stress, non specific response of the body to any demand
placed upon it included both distress and eustress. He regarded these responses
as distinct and different from each other. Differentiating between distress and
eustress, degree of demand was found fundamental. Thus, if all stress could be
classified into either eustress or distress, and distress was represented by too much
or too little demand, eustress would be the amount of stress between too much or too
little, an optimal level of stress. This differentiation led to the idea that both under-
and over-stimulation might lead to distress while moderate stress resulted in
eustress. This theory was in line with Yerkes Dodson Law that indicated that
increasing stress was beneficial to performance until some optimum level was
reached, after which performance declined.
14
Moreover the distressful or eustressful nature of any particular stimulus was also
found to be governed by how one interpreted it and chose to react to it. When an
individual perceived stress positively than the result was eustress, negative
perception of stress led to distress. The above two concepts suggested that along
with the degree of demand the perception of the stimulus was vital to bring a
difference between eustress and distress (Fevre, M.L.,et.al.,2003). If negotiated
appropriately, stress could be energizing, stimulating and growths producing for the
individual as abilities were extended and new accomplishments made (Quick,
Nelson, & Quick, 1990). Simmons and Nelson (2001) noted that eustress and
distress could be distinguished based on affective state. Hope, meaningfulness and
positive affect were significant indicators of eustress (Simmons, et. al.,
2003). Meaningfulness was the extent to which work appeared to make sense
emotionally and to be worth investing effort in. Hope was the belief in possessing
the will and the way to succeed. State of positive affect reflected a condition of
pleasurable engagement, energy and enthusiasm. Campbell, J.P (1970) associated
eustress with task engagement or absorption. McGowan,J., et.al., 2006 argued that
appraisal of situation and coping processes were the precursors of work-related
distress and eustress. The precursors of eustress were the appraisal of a demand as a
challenge and the use of task-focused coping strategies whereas distress was related
to threat appraisals and emotion-focused coping strategies. Summarizing the above
findings, it could be said that whether the outcome of stress would be eustress or
distress depended upon; degree of demand, perception of stimuli, affective state,
appraisal of the situation and coping processes adopted.
Our overall experience of stress was found to be affected by a variety of personal
and situational factors. According to Zimbardo (1988), cognitive appraisal played a
15
vital role in defining a stressful situation. What was the type of the threat, how big it
was, what were the demands, what strategies have to be adopted or what strategies
would be appropriate, answers to such questions led to defining the stressful
situation. Depending on our overall life situation, the relation of particular demand
to our life goals, individual competencies for dealing with stressful situation also
helped defining a stressor. Cognitive appraisal led to defining of a stressor either as
an exciting new challenge that would be chance to tests ones ability or as a threat.
The important role of cognitive appraisal has been emphasized by Lazarus (1984)
He distinguished between two stages in cognitive appraisal of demands. He used the
term primary appraisal for primary evaluation of the seriousness of the stressful
situation. According to him, in the stage of primary appraisal an individual thought
about the demand or stressor, its relevance to individual, its effects on the individual,
if the answer was stressful then the individual appraised the impact of stressor and
whether the action was called for. If the individual decided something must be done,
the secondary appraisal began. In this stage the person evaluated the personal and
social resources that were available to deal with the stressful situation and the action
was taken.
2.1.2 Physiological and Psychological reaction to stress
Physiological stress reaction: Perception of stress was responsible for starting of
physiological stress reaction. When the situation was appraised as stressful the
sympathetic nervous system, a part of the autonomic nervous system, got activated.
In such a condition breathing became faster and deeper, heart rate increased, blood
vessels constricted, and blood pressure increased. In addition to these internal
changes, muscles opened the passage of throat and nose to allow more air into the
lungs. Messages also went to smooth muscles to stop certain bodily functions such
16
as digestion. Another function of the autonomic nervous system during the stress
situation was to get the adrenaline flow. It signalled adrenal medulla to release two
hormones, called epinephrine and nor epinephrine. These hormones were
responsible for number of other organs which performed specialized functions, e.g.
the liver got stimulated to release more glycogen. The pituitary gland responded to
signals from the hypothalamus by secreting two hormones vital to the stress
reaction. The thyrotrophic hormone (TTH) stimulated the thyroid gland which
increased energy available to the body. The adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)
stimulated the outer part of the adrenal gland, the adrenal cortex, resulting in the
release of group of hormones called steroids, which was important in metabolic
processes and in release of glycogen into the blood from the liver. ACTH also
signalled various organs of the body to release about thirty other hormones, each of
which played a role in the bodys adjustment.
In the stimulus oriented approach, stress was regarded as external force which was
perceived as threatening. According to Selyes (1976) theory of stress, stressors
called for adaptation by organisms to maintain or regain their integrity and well-
being. He stated , in addition to responses that were specific to a particular stressor,
there was a characteristic pattern of nonspecific adaptational physiological
mechanisms that occurred in response to continuing threat by almost any stressors.
He called it General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). He found a characteristic
sequence of three stages in this syndrome, i.e., i) an alarm stage, ii) stage of
resistance, and iii) a stage of exhaustion.
i) The Alarm Stage: This stage was seen as an initial emergency response to stress
provoking agents, wherein the body attempted to restore its normal functioning. The
alarm reaction consisted of complicated body and biochemical changes that
17
produced similar symptoms regardless of the type of stressor. For this reason people
in the beginning stages of different illness often complained of common symptoms
such as fever, headache, aching muscles and joints, loss of appetite, and generally
tired feeling.
ii) Stage of resistance: If the exposure to stressful situations continued, the alarm
reaction was followed by the stage in which the human organism developed an
increased resistance to above normal level to cope with the continued stress. But the
price of this resistance included increased secretions from various glands, lowered
resistance to infections, and the diseases of adaptation.
iii) Stage of exhaustion: If chronic stress continued too long, the stage of
exhaustion was reached. The body was unable to continue secreting its hormones at
the increased rate, so that the organism could no longer adapt to chronic stress. Body
defences broke down, adaptation energy ran out, and the physical symptoms of the
alarm reaction reappeared.
Though the GAS model of stress reaction was much acclaimed, there were some
critics on Selyes approach. Pestonjee (1999) pointed out that Selyes model was
based on researches carried out on infra-human subject. In such experiments, the
stressors were usually physical or environmental, whereas the human organism was
not always confronted by such stressors.
He still recognized as the pioneering explorer of stress reactions, his insights and
research have led to the creation of a whole new field of study.
Psychological Stress Reaction: Our physiological reactions to stress were
automatic and normally we had no conscious control over them. But the
psychological reactions were learned and they were dependent on the individual
18
perception and interpretations of the world and ones capacity to deal with the
stressful situation. They included behavioural, emotional and cognitive aspects.
i) Behavioural Patterns: The mild stress level was seen to activate and intensify
biologically significant behaviours, such as eating, aggression, and sexual
behaviour. Moderate stress made an organism more alert, resulting into improved
performance. Positive behavioural adjustments occurred, such as being better
informed, seeking protection and support from others and learning better attitudes
and coping skills. Severe stress inhibited and suppressed behaviour and led to total
immobility. It was assumed to be a defensive reaction, an attempt by the organism to
reduce or eliminate the harmful effects of stress.
ii) Emotional Aspects: The stress response included a variety of emotional
reactions. In the cases where the stressor was seen as an exciting, manageable
challenge the reactions were exhilarating. In some cases the reactions were negative
like irritation, anger, anxiety, discouragement and depression.
iii) Cognitive Effects: Once the stressor has been interpreted as threatening to ones
well-being or self esteem, a variety of intellectual functions got adversely affected.
Stress situation at times interfered with the flexible thinking, attention, the ability to
problem solving, the ability of judgment and decision making, creativity, etc.
2.1.3 Sources of stress
Pestonjee (1999) suggested three important sectors of life from which stress
originated, i) job and the organization, ii) social sector, and iii) intra-psychic sector.
The job and organizational sector referred to the work environment. The social
sector referred to the social and cultural context of ones life. The intra-psychic
sector encompasses those things which were intimate and personal to an individual.
19
The present study has focused on the job and the organizational sector. Human
behaviour in the organization was found to be influenced by number of factors, such
as physical, social and psychological. The type of relationship one had with the
organization was defined by role. Every individual in the organization had an
assigned role to play. Through the role an individual interacted and got interacted
with the system. Organization were a system of the roles was suggested by
Pareek(1993). He stated role to be a position a person held in the system
(organization) as defined by the expectations of others and self.
Researchers defined occupational stress as the physiological and emotional
response that occurred when workers perceived an imbalance between their work
demands and their capability and /or resources to meet these demands.
Psychological pressure in the work place originated from cultural, organizational
and managerial environment as well as the work/ task that a person was asked to
perform.
As pressure built up, a person was said to be under stress when he or she ran out of
resources to manage them. If the amount of pressure becomes too great to handle
then employees began to show physical or psychological symptoms that not only
impeded their working capabilities but also resulted in physical and / or mental
illness (Brown, Cooper, and Kirkcaldy, 1996).
McGrath, 1976 explained stress as a discrepancy caused because of expected reward
or cost being important to a person. According to him, stress was involved in an
environmental situation that was perceived as presenting demand which threatened
to exceed the persons capabilities and resources for meeting it, under conditions
where he or she expected a substantial differential in the rewards and costs from
meeting the demand versus not meeting it.
20
Cooper and Marshall (1978) classified sources of managerial stress into seven
categories: factors intrinsic to job, career development, role in the organization,
relationship at work, organizational structure and climate, extra- organizational
sources, characteristics of the individual.
Ivancevich and Matteson (1980) identified four categories of work stressors:
physical environment, individual level (a mixer of role and career development
variables), group level (primarily relationship-based) and organizational level (a
mixture of climate, structure, job design and task characteristic)
Quick and Quick (1984) proposed categories of stressors based on; task demands,
physical demands and interpersonal demands.
From the documented evidence, most of which focused on distress, it was clear that
as far as work life was concerned extreme stress was so averse to employees that
they tended to avoid it by withdrawing either psychologically (through disinterest or
lack of involvement in the job etc.), physically (frequent late coming, absenteeism,
lethargy etc.) or by leaving the job entirely (Schuler, 1980)
Stress was seen to predispose the individual to develop several psychosomatic
illnesses; in contrast, the absence of extreme stress was seen resulting in more
satisfied, happy, healthy and effective employees.
The stress one experienced in the job was found to vary from mild to severe.
Difference in the level of perceived stress depended on ones physiological,
psychological and social make up (khan, M.A., Raza,A., & Ali,U. 2007)
Stressors at the individual level were studied more than any other category. Role
conflicts, role ambiguity, role overload and under load, are widely examined
individual stressors (Mc Grath 1976; Keenan and Newton, 1985).
21
Job satisfaction was also widely researched in conjugation with occupational stress.
Many researchers reported low job satisfaction to be associated with high stress
(Hollingworth et al.1988; Abdel Halim, 1982; Keller, 1975; Leigh et al, 1988).
Demographic variables like employees age, sex, status, experience, socio cultural
background, hierarchical levels influence the experience of occupational stress.
Reddy, V. S & Ramamurti, P.V.(1991) exploring the relation between stress
experienced on the job to Age, personality & general ability found that stress as a
dependant variable changed with age, personality and general ability. Beena C &
Poduval, P R (1991) in their paper, Gender difference in work stress of executives,
also reported age to be positively correlated with stress among executives.
Hierarchical levels in connection with occupational stress were also studied. Their
role in moderating the relationship between reported stress and job satisfaction was
seen by Jagdish and Singh, R.P as cited in Pestonjee(1999). In their paper on Job
stress and organizational commitment, Pattanayak, Panda & Mohapatra, cited in
Pestonjee, Pareek & Agrawal (1999) studied people working in a public sector steel
plant and found non executives experiencing greater stress compared to executives.
In another study, Pattanayak, B. & Mishra,P.K.,(1997), found women assistants to
experience greater role related stress than women executives. Likewise, many low-
status jobs were reported to induce elevated stress (Lundberg,Cooper.,2011). In
keeping with this, blue-collar workers showed elevated psycho-physiological stress
levels both during and after work compared with workers in more stimulating and
flexible jobs. The above studies may have a cause in job monotony as a stressor.
Health-related behaviours, such as cigarette smoking and drug abuse, were seen as
ways of coping with a stressful work situation in order to get short-term relief.
Negative emotional states associated with low-status jobs, combined with a lack of
22
economic resources, were also likely to reduce the individual's motivation to seek
proper medical treatment and, thus, increased the risk that transient symptoms
develop into chronic illness.
Exploring the link between gender and stress research has brought into light the
important role gender played in stressstrain relationship. Sang, Dainty and Ison
(2007) in the architectural profession observed a greater need of sensitizing for
gender difference as according to them women working in the architectural
profession are at a greater risk of poorer occupational health and well-being than
their male colleagues. Tytherleigh, M.Y., et al., (2007) studying gender difference in
relation to health and stress, in English university staff, reported to have found men
and women suffering from distinct stressors. Their study found men more vulnerable
to the negative effects of stressors associated with pay and benefits and women more
vulnerable to the negative outcomes of health, and not by differential exposure to
them. However, in a longitudinal study on workload, health and well-being among
male and female urban bus drivers, Rydstedt, et al. (1998), did not find any
difference in interactions of gender with occupational stressors. Whereas,(Lim &
Teo,1996) in their paper examining, gender differences in occupational stress and
coping strategies among information technology (IT) personnel in Singapore found
female IT personnel reported significantly higher scores on sources of stress
originating from factors intrinsic to the job, managerial role, career and
achievement, organizational structure and climate, and relationships with others
compared to men. Contrary to initial prediction, they observed no significant gender
difference for stress originating from home-work interface. Literature on effect of
gender on stress offers mixed opinion. Contrary to the popular belief that gender
would affect stress felt, some researchers observed no differences in experience of
23
stress because of gender. As male and female employees together formed the
workforce of any organization, it was of utmost importance for organizations to
maintain an environment conducive to both. The present research work endorses the
importance of studying the effect of gender on occupational stress.
Summation of findings from various research studies showed stress reactions to vary
by characteristics of the personality, social support structure, life experiences, years
of service, level of education, use of coping strategies, the intensity of the stressful
situation and any unique features of the organization.
The work environment stressors have been listed and discussed in the
comprehensive reviews of the occupational stress literature by researchers (Beehr
and Newman, 1978; Ivancevich and Matteson,1980; Swanson,V.,et.al 1998;
Ongori,H and Agolla, J.E., 2008).
2.1.4 Stress and Disease
Stressors became the causal factors in illness in three ways. First, long continued
severe stress or chronic arousal resulting from perceived threat led to physiological
malfunctioning and illness. Physiological arousal was automatic and kept occurring
anyway whenever people were anxious, felt threatened, or felt pressured. It was
subjective appraisal. Psychosomatic disorders were physical disorders in which
emotions and thought processes played central role. These disorders were often
called diseases of adaptation due to their roots in attempt to adapt to stressors. Stress
induced blood pressure or the peptic ulcer was the classic examples of diseases of
adaptation.
Stressors could also cause illness when the complex physiological mechanisms of
general adaptation syndrome failed to function appropriately and themselves
24
produce diseases. Some time body failed to judge which invaders were potentially
harmful. In such a situation body made an error and responded to stimuli that were
actually not harmful. Allergic reactions were the examples of these responses. For
instance, the pollen has no direct harmful effects on the body, however, it was found
to set off an allergic response involving inflammation of nasal tissues and often total
body general adaptation syndrome. Allergies were true examples of diseases of
adaptation.
There was a third way in which stress was implicated in illness. The continuing
process of adaptation, reducing quantity of individuals store of adaptation energy
and cumulatively damaging organ systems, could result in eventual illness. Every
individual had a limited reserve of energy which was used to adapt to stressors.
When it was exhausted, a person could no longer fight stressors and was overcome
by disease.
2.2 Performance
Performance made for an important construct when dealing with employee
management. Employee performance has been described in many ways; ability to
achieve targets, realize goals, attain benchmarks. Most commonly people
immediately talked of job performance as what a person did at work. Different
stages of job as well the complexity of a job also affected the overall performance of
the jobholder. This could mean that job performance as a construct could be defined
in different ways depending on the different stages and complexities of the job
(June,S.,2011). Sarmiento and Beale, as cited in June (2011) noted job performance
resulted from two elements, abilities and skills (natural or acquired) that an
employee possessed, and motivation to use them in order to perform a better job.
25
If performance was simply defined as all of the behaviour employee engaged in at
work, the definition would be slightly misleading because at times people might be
engaging themselves in work which had no relation to their job performance (e.g.
making personal phone calls). More appropriate way then was as suggested by
Campbell, 1990; according to which job performance was stated as a collection of
behaviour employees engaged in at work, as long as that behaviour contributed to
the attainment of organizational goals.
It was intuitive to draw a link between behaviour and performance. Linking
behaviour and performance meant, trying to predict as to what type of behaviour led
to what type of performance e.g. creativity in an employee and relating it to future
performance. Therefore most of performance based research centred around
performance prediction.
2.2.1 Occupational Stress and Performance
As previously mentioned, stress was a mental and physical condition, which affected
an individuals productivity, effectiveness, personal health and quality of work. Job
stress victims experienced lowered quality of work life and job satisfaction. The
harmful and costly consequences of stress demonstrated the need for strategies to
limit stressors within the organization. Organizations that did not adopt strategies to
alleviate stress found their employees looking elsewhere for better opportunities.
The impact of stress from overwork, long hours at work and work intensification
was found to have a major and often devastating effect on organizations. In
developed nations like Japan, Karoshi death by overwork was officially
recognized as a fatal illness. America, Australia and United Kingdom reported to
cost of occupational stress in hundreds of billion dollars. This was the cost from
26
compensation claims, reduced productivity, absenteeism, added health insurance and
direct medical expenses from stress related illnesses (Savery and Luks, 2000).
A recent American Management Association survey of 292 member firms revealed
that per capita disability claims tends to increase when positions were eliminated.
The survey, which dealt with layoffs between 1990 and 1995, found that the
illnesses workers sought treatment for like gastrointestinal problems, mental
disorders and substance abuse, hypertension, were stress related (Rees, 1997).
It was seen that the process of restructuring, downsizing and reengineering which
had helped companies to become lean, had not done it without great costs.
Employees were experiencing more stress and uncertainty because companies got
leaner without building their muscle. Just like going on a diet without exercising.
The organization weighed less but the percentage of fat which manifested as high
stress, low morale and less than optimal productivity had actually increased( Harvey
and Brown 2006).
A study by North Western National Life Insurance Co. concluded that job stress was
generally a consequence of two ingredients: high level of job demands and little
control over ones work. Many of todays workers found their jobs more stressful
than they actually were, simply because they were working too many hours. In their
study they found that employees felt empowered where they had more control over
how they performed their work. Their empowerment reduced the risk of stress and
burnout considerably (Froiland, 1993). This supported work by Umiker (1992)
which showed that individuals who felt that they were in control of their jobs and
their futures were better able to handle stress. Also that these empowered workers
became more productive because of being in control.
27
A study conducted by Bushe et al. (1996), reported increased productivity and
efficiencies from being empowered (measured by reported increased customer
satisfaction and innovation). Further, stress was reduced when a person did no
longer have to report to someone daily. By empowering, employees took control
over their work giving them a higher sense of accomplishment, and this was found
regardless of occupational grouping. The purpose of empowered work teams was to;
reduce costs through fewer overheads and to speed up problem resolution. The
organizational outcomes were found to be increased productivity and efficiencies.
This was mainly due to quicker response rates through empowerment and, due to the
removal of organizational barriers, often brought about by increased motivation
from a greater sense of ownership and responsibility. Automation was also reported
as a potential stressor. Automation left workers virtually on call 24 hours a day, as
well as shortened the turnaround time from project conception to completion. The
ten hour business day became routine for many workers. Corporate restructuring had
left employees anxious about the security of their job. Symptoms of these stressed
workers included drop in productivity, change in work attitude, low morale and
increased absenteeism.
Jex, Steve M. (1998) provided a comprehensive, research-based examination of the
relationship between occupational stress and job performance. The author presented
an overview of the field, an explanation of terms and concepts, and a summary of
relevant theoretical models of the stress process. Jex examined the relationship
between major job-related stressors (such as workload, interpersonal conflict, and
lack of control) and a variety of performance indices. In addition, he explored a
number of other factors that may have affected the relationship between
28
occupational stress and job performance, including gender differences, age,
personality, and job experience.
Although much of the research on the relationship between stress and functioning
focused on the negative performance effects of stress, not all stress was bad. In fact,
Selye (1976) emphasized that stress was a necessary part of life and that it did not
always involve negative consequences for the organism involved.
In fact, at certain moderate level, stress could actually improve individual
performance. There was substantial research supporting the concept of good
stress. Yerkes and Dodson (1908) were the first to stumble upon the inverted-U
relationship between stress and performance.
Their work focused on the effects of stress on the learning response of rats. Using
three trials with low, moderate, and high levels of stimulus, the authors found a
weak but curvilinear relationship, with performance on the task, improving as the
stressor stimulus reached a moderate level and decreasing as stimulus strength
increased beyond this point.
Research since Yerkes and Dodson, has supported the inverted-U relationship
between stress and performance. Scott (1966) found that individual performance
increased with stress came to an optimal point and then decreased as stress and
stimulation increased beyond this optimum.
Furthermore, Srivastava and Krishna (1997), found evidence that an inverted-U
relationship did exist for job performance in the industrial context. Selye (1975) and
McGrath (1976) also suggested an inverted-U relationship between stress and
performance.
Finally, research on arousal theory supported the inverted-U hypothesis, assuming
that external stressors produced a stress response that was similar physiologically to
29
arousal. Sanders (1983) and Gaillard and Steyvers cited in Salami (2010) also found
performance to be optimal when arousal was at moderate levels. When arousal was
either too high or too low, performance declined.
There were many critics of the inverted-U hypothesis who argued that the
relationship between stress and performance did not have a U-shape. One alternative
model was a negative linear relationship. For example, Jamal (1984) argued that
stress at any level reduced task performance by draining an individuals energy,
concentration, and time. Vroom (1964) offered a similar explanation, suggesting that
physiological response caused by stressors impaired performance.
In another study, Jamal (2007) reported four types of stress performance
relationship; negative linear, positive linear, inverted u and no quantifiable
relationship. Meglino (1977) found a linear positive relationship between stress and
performance. He argued that at low levels of stress, challenge was absent and
performance was poor. Optimal performance in his model came at the highest level
of stress. There have been other studies also in support of this hypothesis, including
Arsenault and Dolan (1983) and Hatton et al. (1995).
Despite the empirical evidence supporting these alternative theories, the inverted-U
hypothesis was still the most intuitively appealing and the most used explanation for
how stress and performance are related (Muse, et al, 2003).
2.2.2 Parameters of Performance
In order to study the effect of occupational stressors on performance behavioural
dimensions were clubbed to model performance by researchers. Campbells,1990, ,
identified eight such dimensions; Job- specific task proficiency, non -job specific
task proficiency, written and oral communication task proficiency, demonstrating
30
effort, maintaining personnel discipline, facilitating peer and team performance,
supervision/ leadership, management/ administration.
Murphy (1990) model included four performance dimensions; task oriented
behaviour, interpersonally oriented behaviour, down- time behaviour, destructive/
hazardous behaviour. Murphys model has been criticized over Campbells as
having broader dimensions, thus making it difficult to predict about various job
related stressors impacting performance.
Stressors were seen to have both direct and indirect effect on job performance.
According to Peters & OConner (1988), stressors in the form of situational
constraint had a direct inhibiting effect on performance. They also acted indirectly,
affecting antecedents to performance e.g. level of effort, hence impacting
performance. Of all antecedents to performance, stressors were most unlikely to
affect the innate ability e.g. knowledge and skill, thinking style, present with an
employee as these were enduring characteristics of an individual. How stressors than
affected job performance (negatively or positively) therefore must be by influencing
the choices employees made regarding where to direct their efforts, the level of
effort to exert, and whether or not to utilize their innate abilities fully.
2.3 Coping
Individuals as well as organizations cannot remain in a continuous state of tension.
The way they adapt to stress is called coping. The word coping had two
connotations in stress literature. It was either used to denote the way of dealing with
stress, or the effort to 'master' conditions of harm, threat, or challenge when a routine
or automatic response was not readily available (Lazarus, 1984).
31
Coping referred to efforts to master conditions that taxed or exceeded adaptive
resources (Monat and Lazarus, 1977) or to meet environmental demands in order to
prevent negative consequences, Lazarus and Folkman in Shrivastav (1999)
Different approaches to study of coping were pursued by various investigators.
Some researchers (Goldstein,M.J., 1973) emphasized general coping styles, while
others like (Cohen and Lazarus., 1973)considered coping as an active ongoing
strategies, by learning and relearning, in a particular stress situation.
Coping style was argued to be guided by trait like thought, beliefs that influenced
the disposition to respond in a specific way in situations that were stressful. Style
was thus a stable characteristic of a person which transcended all stressful situations.
Style referred to a characteristic way of handling situations, it was a stable tendency
on the basis of which inferences were drawn about how an individual would cope in
some or all types of stressful situations. A person's coping style or disposition was
typically assessed by personality tests, not by actual observation of what the person
said or did in a particular stress situation.
The learning approach on the other hand laid emphasis on the process of learning
during coping. This distinguished it from approaches that were trait-oriented.
Coping was seen to have three fold effects on outcome- psychological, social and
physiological. From a psychological perspective, coping effected the person's
morale (that is, the way one felt about oneself and one's life), emotional reaction,
e.g., level of depression or anxiety, or the balance between positive and negative
feelings (Bradburn, 1969), the incidence of psychiatric disorders and even
performance. From a social perspective, it had impact on functional effectiveness,
such as employability, community involvement, and sociability (Renne, 1974), the
32
effectiveness of interpersonal relationships, or the degree to which useful social
roles were filled (and acting out anti-social behaviour, etc., are avoided). From a
physiological perspective, outcome included short term consequences, such as the
development and progression of a particular disease.
2.3.1 Coping strategies
Psychologists identified major ways in which people cope with stress. They
classified them into groups based on similarity in coping approach. (Pareek,
U.,1993) suggested two distinct approaches; according to the first approach, a
person decided to suffer or denied the experience of stress; this was the passive
approach. Contrarily, a person when decided to face the realities of experienced
stress and clarified the problem through negotiations with other members; was the
active approach.
According to (Zimbardo,1988) coping strategies could be grouped into two main
types; problem focused coping and emotion focused coping. The first main
approach included strategies which directly dealt with the stressor through overt
action or through realistic problem solving mental activities. In these strategies, the
focus was on the problem to be dealt with and on the agent that had induced stress.
A person acknowledged the call to action, and appraised the situation and
resources for dealing with it, and then undertook a response that was appropriate for
removing or lessening the threat. In second approach, a person did not look for ways
of changing the stressful situation; instead tried to change personal feelings and
thoughts about it. This strategy was called emotion regulation.
Emotion regulation was found remedial, when compared to problem-solving
strategy, because it aimed at relieving the emotional impact of stress and made one
33
feel better, even though the threatening or harmful stressor was not changed.
Relying on this approach, people were seen to take alcohol, smoke cigarettes,
tobacco or depend on tranquilizers. Such approach towards stress obviously had its
drawbacks.
As per the psychoanalytic approach, the ego defence mechanism was emotion-
regulation approach. This approach was used unconsciously by any individual to
protect him/ her from the pain of inner anxieties. Defence mechanism enabled the
individual to appraise situation in less self-threatening ways. Defence mechanisms
lead to coping strategies that essentially aimed at self-protection rather than at
solving problems. This mechanism worked by distorting reality and when overused,
led to maladaptive coping.
Although there are many ways to classify the coping responses (Moos and Billings,
1982), most approaches distinguished between strategies that were active in nature
and oriented toward confronting the problem, and strategies that entailed an effort to
reduce tension by avoiding dealing with the problem. Moos and Billings (ibid)
organized the dimensions of appraisal and coping included in measurement
procedures into three domains:
i) Appraisal-focused coping: It involved attempts to define the meaning of a
situation and included such strategies as logical analysis and cognitive redefinition.
ii) Problem-focused coping: This sought to modify or eliminate the source of stress
to deal with the tangible consequences of a problem or actively change the self and
develop a more satisfying situation.
34
iii) Emotion-focused coping: This includes responses whose primary function was to
manage the emotions aroused by stressors and thereby maintain effective
equilibrium.
These categories, however, were not mutually exclusive. Their primary focus was on
appraising and reappraising a situation, dealing with the reality of the situation, and
handling the emotions aroused by the situation.
Maddi and Kobasa (1984) talked about two forms of coping: (a) Transformational,
and (b) Regressive. Transformational coping involved altering the events so that
they were less stressful. Accordingly, one had to interact with the events, think about
them optimistically and act towards them decisively, thus changing them in a less
stressful direction. Regressive approach, on the other hand, included a strategy
wherein one thought about the events pessimistically and acted evasively to avoid
contact with them.
Certain resistance resources were suggested that increased the likelihood of meeting
stressful events with transformational rather than regressive coping. The most
important of these were 'personality hardiness' (Kobasa, 1979). Kobasa noted that
personality hardiness combined three tendencies, namely, toward 'commitment'
rather than alienation, toward 'control' rather than powerlessness, and toward 'chal-
lenge' rather than threat. When stressful events occurred, hardy did people
experience them as stressful, but also as somewhat interesting and important
(commitment), at least somewhat influence able (control), and of potential value for
personal development (challenge).
There was evidence gathered by Maddi and Kobasa (1984), through their study on
executives, that constitutional strength, social support, exercise, and personality
35
hardiness were useful in protecting health. Also, the more of these resources one
had, greater was the buffering effect against stress.
Lazarus (1991) suggested a classification of coping processes which emphasized
two major categories, namely, direct actions and palliative modes. Direct action
included behaviour or action which when performed by the organism in face of a
stressful situation was expected to bring about a change in stress causing
environment. The palliative mode of coping refers to those thoughts or actions
whose purpose was to relieve the organism of any emotional impact of stress. There
was, however, no clear consensus as to which coping strategies or modes of coping
are most effective.
Research has shown that social and emotional support available to the person helped
him/her to effectively cope with stress. Persons maintaining close interpersonal
relationships with friends and families were able to use more approach strategies.
Social support included both material support (providing resources) and emotional
support (listening to the person and encouraging him/her). However, studies have
also shown that unsolicited support may have negative consequences.
Approach or effective strategies of coping include efforts to increase physical and
mental preparedness for coping (through physical exercises, yoga and meditation,
diet management), creative diversions for emotional enrichment (music, art, theatre,
etc.) and strategies of dealing with the basic problems.
Coping either took the form of avoiding the situation (reactive strategy), i.e.,
dysfunctional style, or confronting and approaching the problem (proactive
strategy), i.e., functional style. One category consisted of persons who decide to
suffered from, accepted, or denied the experienced stress, or put the blame on
36
somebody (self or others) or something for being in that stressful situation. These
were passive or avoidance strategies and were termed as 'dysfunctional' styles of
coping with stress situations. The other category consisted of persons who faced the
realities of stress consciously and took some action to solve the problems themselves
or with the help of other people. These were active approaches and were termed as
'functional' styles of dealing with stressful situations and were more approved by
social scientists as these were supposed to be more effective and healthy when
compared to the 'dysfunctional' styles (Pareek, 1993).
The above classification was not intended to suggest that people used one kind of
coping process or another exclusively. Rather, different persons employed varied
combinations of different strategies to deal with the same kind of stress. An issue
that could be raised while discussing the effectiveness of various coping styles was
whether some ways of coping with stress were more effective than others. Any
answer to this problem would depend upon the particular situation, the points of
time (short or long-run) in which stress was being felt, i.e., what may be considered
an optimal or a beneficial response in one situation at a particular point of time may
be damaging (or, ineffective) in some other situation or at a different point of time.
A variety of coping strategies have been suggested by various stress researchers
which range from most casual manoeuvres to complicated form of problem solving.
These strategies range from most rational to most irrational efforts.
Based on the level of operation of coping process ( i.e. cognitive or behavioural
coping strategies) and orientation or mode of coping effort ( i.e. approach and
avoidance coping strategies), five major categories of coping strategies have been
suggested which broadly fell under two heads, Approach Coping and Avoidance
Coping by Srivastava A.K., (1999).
37
The effectiveness of a coping strategy was seen to largely depend upon the nature
and severity of the perceived stress and other situational factors. However, it was
seen that those who adopted Approach coping Strategy, initially experienced more
stress but in the long run this strategy resulted into better morale, performance and
health of the employees.
For both individuals and organizations it was found useful to examine the strategy
that they were using to cope with stress. The absence of a coping strategy leads to
ineffectiveness (Hall, 1972). Coping was also related to the quality and intensity of
emotional reactions (Lazarus, 1984).
There was impressive anecdotal and research evidence pointing to the fact that
people are constantly "self-regulating" their emotional reactions, e.g., excepting or
postponing unpleasant situations (Monat and Lazarus, 1977) actively changing
threatening conditions, deceiving ourselves about the implications of certain facts, or
simply leaning to detach ourselves from unpleasant situations. Emphasis therefore
must be put on the individual (i.e., the self) actively appraising the situation and
what he could do, rather than on the environmental contingencies presumably
manipulating the individual's behaviour. This style or strategy of coping seemed to
require some physical efforts. The macho model in which aggressive coping by an
individual was emphasized, may lead to serious health problems wasnoted by
Friedman and Rosenman (1974).
Coping styles or strategies could either be seen as a disposition applicable to most
situations, or as a disposition applicable to specific stress situations. A distinction
was made between strategies which brought about a change in the stress situations
38
and those which relieved the symptoms of stress. There have not been very many
studies on how a person dealt with the stress.
In general, dysfunctional modes of coping were damaging when they prevented
essential direct action, but were extremely useful in helping a person maintain a
sense of well being, integration, or hope under conditions otherwise likely to
encourage psychological disintegration.
Two contrasting sets of strategies can be conceived: avoidance and approach.
Avoidance mode is characterized by anyone of the following: (i) aggression and
blame, (ii) denying the presence of stress, or finding an explanation for it. Such
behaviour helped a person in not doing anything in relation to the stress.
The avoidance mode was termed 'punitive' while the approach mode was referred to
as 'persistive'. These expressions, i.e., punitive and persistive, have been borrowed
from Rosenzweig (1975).
Folkman et at. (1986) proposed eight coping strategies based on factor analysis of an
instrument: confrontive coping, distancing, self-control, seeking social support,
accepting responsibility, escape avoidance, planned problem solving and positive
reappraisal.
The approach mode of coping was characterized by (i) hope that things will
improve, (ii) effort made by the subject to solve the situation, (iii) expectation from
others that they will help, or asking for help in relation to stress, and (iv) jointly
doing something about the problem.
39
Pareek (1993) proposed the following eight coping strategies and styles (four
dysfunctional and four functional). These could be scored from responses to an
instrument, called Role PICS. (Projective Instrument for Measuring Coping Styles)
i) Impunitive (M) had a combination of low internality, low externality and
avoidance. This was a fatalistic attitude and was similar to what Rosenzweig called
"impunitive" (blame for the frustration is evaded altogether, the situation being
regarded as unavoidable). Some elements of Rosenzweig's "impeditive" category
were also included (accepting the stress without any reaction). Statements indicating
either simple admission of the stress, or indicating that the stress was unavoidable
and nothing could be done about it were scored under this style.
ii) Intropunitive (I) was characterized by high internality, low externality and
avoidance. Blame and aggressionwas directed by the respondent against themselves.
Responses showing self-blame, remorse or guilt were scored.
iii) Extrapunitive (E) was characterized by high internality, low externality and
avoidance. Both of Rosenzweig' s "extrapeditive" (this presence of the frustrating
obstacle was insistently pointed out) and "extrapunitive" (blame hostility, etc., were
turned against some person or object in the environment) styles were included here.
Irritation with the situation and aggression and blame for the outside factors and
persons were scored.
iv) Defensive (D) was characterized by high internality, high externality and
avoidance. With involvement of both the self and others, but by using the avoidance
mode, the respondent avoided aggression or blame with the help of defence
mechanisms. Rosenzweig used defensive responses as variants of the "intropunitive"
category. The assumption here was that with high involvement of the self and others
40
in the stress, the superego became more active, and therefore defensive behaviour
was stimulated. The denial of stress, the rationalization of a stressful situation, and
benefits from the stress were all scored.
v) Impersistive (M) was characterized by low internality, low externality and
approach Rosenzweig's "impersistive" category related to the expression given to the
hope that time or normally expected circumstances would bring about the solution of
a problem; patience and conformity were its characteristics.
vi) Intropersistive (i) was characterized by high internality, low externality and
approach. Statements showing that the respondent would himself take action in
relation to stress.
vii) Extrapersistive (e) was characterized by low internality, high externality and
approach. Statements of request made to someone for solving the problem or
indicating expectations that the solution will come from the other peoplewere
marked under this style.
viii) Interpersistive (n) was characterized by high internality, high externality and
approach. It is the opposite of defensive (D) style. This style was indicated in
statements suggesting joint effort by the respondent and the others to deal with the
stress.
2.3.2 Coping Process
When individuals experienced stress, they adopted ways of dealing with it. Dealing
with stress primarily involved appraising the environmental situation. This was
termed as primary appraisal. The appraisal either led to defining the situation as
threat / challenge or as benign / irrelevant. For the latter action was not called for. If
41
the situation was perceived as threat / challenge, secondary appraisal took place,
wherein the appraiser weighed resources available, options available and their
combined effectiveness in dealing. This was secondary appraisal and determined the
nature and magnitude of psychological response accompanied with physiological
adjustment (Agrawal, R., 2001)
Coping processes took account of individual differences and resulted into overt or
covert responses or both, depending on the situation. The coping process hence led
to deciding of coping strategy. The evaluation during coping process decided the
effectiveness of coping strategy. Generally approach coping was considered to be
better strategy of coping when compared with avoidance. Even when it came to
handling role stress approach coping was preferred. Studies of various coping
strategies or styles used in role stress revealed that approach styles had a strong
relationship with internality, optimism, role efficacy, job satisfaction and effective
role behaviour in organizations. Two contrasting strategies (avoidance or
dysfunctional and approach or functional) for some role stresses are explained
below.
Take self-role distance, many individuals, who found a conflict between their self-
concept and the role they occupied in an organization might play that role in a
routine way to earn their living. Their having no interest in their organizational role
was indicative of self-role distance, i.e., they had rejected the organizational role. On
the other hand, some other individuals who seriously occupied their roles, in due
course of time, completely forgot their self-concept and played that role effectively
but rejected their self. Both these approaches were avoidance approaches and were
dysfunctional. If an individual rejected the role, he was likely to be ineffective in the
42
organization. However, if he rejected the self, he was likely to lose his effectiveness
as an individual which in turn would adversely affect mental health.
An approach or functional strategy of dealing with this stress would bring role
integration. In this direction analysis of the various aspects of the roles which caused
self-role distance, and acquiring skills which would help bridge this gap, or carried
his own self into the role by defining some aspects of the role according to his own
strength. In other words, an attempt both to grow into the role and make the role
grow to use the special capabilities of the person would have resulted in role
integration, where the individual got the satisfaction of occupying a role which was
nearer to his self-concept. Such integration was not easy to achieve, but with
systematic effort, it was also not very difficult to attain.
In summary, the amount of role stress was not as important for an individual's
mental and physical health as the way he decided to cope with stress. Coping styles
or strategies were either oriented towards avoiding stress or towards dealing with
stress. The former were dysfunctional while the latter were functional. Action
strategy to deal with experienced stress and known coping styles resulted in
reducing distress, making coping style more effective, and creating external
organizational conditions more conducive for functional coping. Recognizing the
particular role stress and its sources helped in reducing the stress.
Wilder and Plutchik (1982) suggested a preventive strategy for burnout through
NAC (Need Assessment and Coping Assessment) training method. The following
steps were suggested:
i) The individuals were to be sensitized to their own needs (eight needs related to
personality characteristics, viz., recognition, stimulation, family and social life,
43
achievement, competence, autonomy, advancement and collegiality; and eight needs
closely related to job characteristics, viz., ambience and working conditions, variety
and change, security, workload, emotional demands, participation in decisions, time
pressures and deadlines, and interpersonal relations).
ii) The individuals were required to assess the need-fulfilling characteristics of a
potential job.
iii) The probability of an appropriate match between an individual and a job was
needed to be enhanced.
iv) Individuals attention was required to be focused on the areas which would
provide maximum satisfaction on the job.
Phutchick also proposed eight basic coping styles to reduce stress: suppression
(avoid the stressor), help seeking, replacement (engage in direct stress-reducing
activities), blame (others and system), substitution (engage in indirect stress-
reducing activities), mapping (collect more information), reversal (act opposite to
the way one feels), and minimization (minimize the importance of the stressful
situation).
This type of framework presented here depicted stress as a natural phenomenon,
necessary for pursuit of excellence, but having potential for harmful effect on the
individual employees. Coping strategies played a key role in converting stress from
possibility of burnout to glow up. Avoidance strategies contribute to possible
burnout, and approach strategies (mainly interpersistive) to glow up. Modification in
the strategies could be made through special programs and interventions.
44
2.4 Review of research papers
Research papers listing their contributions are arranged chronologically as under:
It was observed in the study by Jennings, J., Richard, Rose, R. M., Kreuz, Leo
(1974) who studied a company of 69 candidates early in training, just prior to
graduation, and after 6 month duty as officers. Military performance during and after
Officer Candidate School (OCS) was noted with the help of interview and
questionnaire methods; containing measures of stress and personality. It was found
that psychiatric interview ratings of stress and change in coping style related only to
class standing in OCS but not to subsequent military performance Whereas
personality and maturational variables were related to performance after OCS.
Motivational distortion by candidates and initial impression formation by superior
officers appeared to be factors in determining OCS class standing.
Anderson, Carl R. (1976) examined relationships among stress, coping behaviors,
and performance for 93 owner-managers of small businesses damaged by hurricane
floods. It was hypothesized that (a) stress and performance displayed an inverted-U
relationship, and (b) emotional coping mechanisms increased under higher stress.
Ss( subjects) were interviewed regarding their handling of critical incidents under
stress and completed a subjective stress scale by H. H. Kerle and H. M. Bialek
(1958). Type of recovery effort following the flood was recorded, organizational
performance was rated on a 5-point scale, and final loss data were acquired.
Perceived stress and organization performance displayed a curvilinear, nearly
inverted-U relationship. Actual financial loss (or stress level) did not account for
performance differences. Problem-solving coping behaviours revealed an inverted-U
45
relationship with perceived stress, while emotional coping behaviours displayed a
positive linear relationship.
Levinson, Harry (1980) discussed power, leadership and management of stress in
terms of the psychology of humans. Stress was found to increase with increase in the
distance between the ego ideal (a picture, only partly conscious, of oneself at one's
future best) and the self-image (a picture of oneself in the present). The emphasis
was on personality dynamics in relation to group dynamics and organizational
factors. The function of leadership was found central to the anticipation, alleviation,
and amelioration of stress. It was found that leaders, like parents, should not
abdicate power, for when they do, they were no longer in leadership roles. Leaders
must understand and deal with ministration, maturation, and mastery.
Casas, Jess M., Furlong, Michael J., Castillo, Sylvia (1980) selected 78 university
and college ethnic minority counsellors. Using a questionnaire they tried to find the
types of on-the-job stress these counsellors encountered and the availability of self-
help networks and/or other mechanisms to help them cope with such stressors. The
responses from Ss who indicated they had an adequate self-help network were
compared with responses from Ss who felt that their self-help network was
inadequate. Ss with inadequate self-help networks indicated they were experiencing
more on-the-job stress and perceived the university as less supportive of their role as
a "minority" counsellor. They identified more conflict of role definition between
themselves and their supervisors than Ss with adequate self-help networks. Both
groups of Ss indicated that they preferred to rely primarily on themselves for support
when experiencing stress but that they would also turn to a professional associate,
family member, or work associate to help them cope with job-related stress.
Implications for the training of minority persons as counsellors were also discussed,
46
and strategies were suggested for facilitating the development of viable self-help
networks.
Sayeed, et.al (1980) suggested that a low degree of authority to carry out the
responsibilities, opportunity for advancement and promotion, work overload, lack of
needed information and awareness of the supervisors evaluation were major tension
areas.
Farber, Barry A., Heifetz, Louis J., (1981) examined job satisfaction, sources of
stress, and stress-inducing patient behaviour. For that purpose 60 psychotherapists
were administered 3 Likert-type rating scales. Findings revealed that the most
satisfying aspects of therapeutic work included promoting growth and change,
achieving intimate involvement in the lives of patients, and feeling professionally
respected. The most stressful aspects included feeling personally depleted by
therapeutic work, coping with pressures inherent in the therapeutic relationship, and
dealing with difficult working conditions. Patterns of satisfactions and stresses were
also found to be related to certain therapist background variables such as gender,
profession, case load, setting, and experience level.
Golembiewski (1982) suggested that organizational development (OD) would be
helpful in reducing and managing stress. According to him, OD ameliorates and
prevents burnout of interveners. Most of OD philosophy and methods ameliorate the
conditions that could lead to burnout. OD could be of specific help in dealing with
burnout as a phased phenomenon (eight phases or stages were proposed). The phase
model of burnout could help in developing ameliorative designs for specific
individuals; it could make OD interventions more sensitive to client characteristics.
The phase model could also help in timely identification of cases of early burnout.
47
The phase-model of burnout also challenged some established "good practice" and
tried to make them more situation or person relevant.
Surti, K. (1982) conducted a study on the topic Some Psychological Correlates of
Role Stress and Coping Styles in Working Women in Gujrat. 360 working women
were selected for the study. Variables Measured in the study- role stress, coping
styles, dimensions of role efficacy, personality, job satisfaction, organizational
climate, and fear of success. Main Findings of the study -
i) Self-role distance was experienced mostly by bankers and least by university and
college teachers.
ii) Doctors experienced maximum inter-role distance while it was minimum among
gazetted officers, researchers, university and college teachers.
iii) Role stagnation was highest among nurses, followed by bank employees and
researchers.
iv) Role overload was experienced in more or less the same intensity by all
professional groups except university and college teachers.
v) Role isolation was experienced more by bank employees, nurses, doctors and
gazetted officers.
vi) Nurses and bank employees experienced role erosion to higher extent than the
other groups.
vii) Role inadequacy stress was experienced most by nurses, bank employees and
researchers.
48
viii) Total role stress was experienced most by nurses, followed by bank employees.
University and college teachers experienced least role stress.
Jamal, (1984 a) conducted a study on Job stress and job performance controversy:
An empirical assessment. This study examined the relationship between job stress
and employees' performance and withdrawal behaviour among nurses (N = 440) in
two hospitals in a metropolitan Canadian city on the east coast. Job stressors
assessed included role ambiguity, role overload, role conflict, and resource
inadequacy. Employees' performance was studied in terms of job performance,
motivation, and patient care skill. Withdrawal behaviours assessed were
absenteeism, tardiness, and anticipated turnover. Multiple regressions, curvilinear
correlation coefficients, and canonical correlations were computed to test
the nature of the relationship between stressors and the criterion variables of the
study. In general, data were more supportive of the negative linear relationship
between stress and performance than for positive linear or curvilinear relationship.
However, the stressor- role ambiguity did exhibit a monotonic nonlinear
relationship with a number of criterion variables. Employees' professional and
organizational commitment were proposed to moderate the stressperformance
relationship. However, the data only partially supported the role of the moderators.
Shinn, Marybeth., Rosario, Margaret., Mrch, Hanne., Chestnut, Dennis E. (1984)
Conducted a mail survey of 141 human service workers (aged 2565 yrs) to
investigate the effects of coping on psychological strain and burnout produced by
job stress. The survey assessed job stressors and coping strategies with open-ended
questions and measured strain using closed-ended alienation, satisfaction, and
symptom scales. Because previous research suggested that individual coping
responses do not alleviate strain produced by job stress, the survey elicited
49
information on group coping (social support) and on coping strategies initiated by
agencies. Job stress was associated with high levels of strain, and group coping with
low levels, but individual responses had little effect. Although Ss identified many
strategies that agencies could use to reduce stress and strain, actual use of such
strategies was slight. Because men and women worked in the same jobs, no sex
differences in individual coping were predicted and none were found; women,
however, reported more social support than men. There was no evidence for
moderating (interaction) effects of coping on stressstrain. Results suggest that
social service agencies should take actions to reduce stress among employees.
West, Daniel J., Horan, John J., Games, Paul A. (1984) conducted a study on the
stress inoculation (SI) paradigm, which consisted of education (ED), coping skills
training (CST), and exposure to simulated stressors (EX).This was applied to the
occupational stress experienced by nurses. Occupational stress was operationally
defined in terms of 13 dependent measures reflecting problem areas summarized by
the acronym ReACT (retrograde complaints, assertiveness deficits, competency
concerns, and time stress). ReACT also stood for the ingredients of the CST
component (relaxation training, assertive skill building, cognitive restructuring, and
time management instruction). To determine which SI components produce a
treatment effect, 60 White female acute-care registered nurses (mean age 33.8 yrs)
were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 active treatment cells: CST, EX, ED, or no
treatment (NT). Ss were administered a battery of tests that included the StateTrait
Anxiety Inventory and Rathus Assertiveness Schedule. A MANOVA at posttest, and
subsequent univariate analyses simultaneously considering 4 treatment cell. Follow-
up data, demonstrated that SI was an effective treatment with durable benefits and
that CST was its principal ingredient.
50
Ahmad, S., and Narula, S. (1985) conducted a study of Stress among Executives.
They selected 30 executives from public sector and 30 executives from private sec-
tor. For their study they used the tool Role stress scale of Udai Pareek. Their main
findings were: 1) Out of 10 dimensions of role stress, significant differences were
obtained in three dimensions, namely, role isolation, role ambiguity and self-role
distance. 2) Public sector executives experience slightly more stress than their
counterparts in the private sector. 3) Age, education, income, marital status and
experience of the executives were found to be unrelated with role stress in both the
groups.
Sayeed (1985) conducted a study to examine the concept of work related stress and
role efficacy in multivariate framework to find out whether increased role efficacy
reduced job or work related stress. Further, he attempted to relate personal attributes
such as age, education, tenure, pay and management level of the respondents with
job related tension and role efficacy in simple and multivariate framework. The
findings of the study revealed that an individuals role making or proactive
behaviour was greatly affected by the degree of experienced tension on the job. In
this process, personal attributes and job demographics such as age, education, pay,
tenure and management level tended to influence the role making behaviour of
individuals more than work related tension.
Kaur and Murthy (1986) also studied the coping strategies of the managerial
personnel at different organizational levels in a public sector. The results indicated a
significant difference in the coping strategies adopted by individuals working at
different organizational levels. Avoidance strategies were predominant at the junior
level and approach strategies were predominant at the senior level. The defensive
style was used to the maximum by the junior management personnel, impunitive by
51
the middle management personnel, and intropersistive by the senior/top
management. There was a positive and significant relationship between role stress
and avoidance strategies, between role stress and externality, and between
externality and avoidance strategies. Organizational role stress was negatively and
significantly associated with approach strategies.
Motowidlo, S.J., et al (1986) examined occupational stress and its relation with
individual characteristics, job conditions, stressful events, affect, and job
performance. Study 1, in which 104 nurses participated in group discussions and 96
nurses (mean age 36 yrs) completed a questionnaire, identified 45 stressful events
(appended) for nurses. In Study 2, 171 nurses (mean age 34.6 yrs) completed
another questionnaire and were rated by a supervisor and/or a coworker. Findings
show that ratings of interpersonal aspects of job performance (i.e., sensitivity,
warmth, consideration, tolerance) and cognitive/motivational aspects (i.e.,
concentration, composure, perseverance, adaptability) correlated significantly with
self-reported perceptions of stressful events, subjective stress, depression, and
hostility. Models developed through path analysis suggest that the frequency and
subjective intensity of the 45 events identified in Study 1 caused feelings of stress,
leading to depression and causing decrements in interpersonal and
cognitive/motivational aspects of job performance.
Gupta, N.K. (1988) conducted a study on organizational role stress and coping
Strategies of public sector executives. They had selected 50 executives from
Irrigation Design Organization, Roorkee. They have found that Role erosion was
experienced by a higher number of executives (80 per cent), followed by role
inadequacy (78 per cent), role stagnation (74 per cent), self-role distance (60 per
52
cent), personal inadequacy (65.8 per cent), role isolation (62.2 per cent) and role
expectation conflict (44 per cent).
Rajagopalan, M. and Khandelwal, P. (1988) conducted a study on the topic Role
Stress and Coping Styles of Public Sector Managers. They selected 120 engineering
executives for the study. They used Role stress and coping style inventories and
found that- total role stress had positive correlation (0.28) with avoidance and
negative correlation (-0.29) with approach coping style, both significant at .001
level.
Singh, S. (1988) in their study examined relationship between perceived role stress
and mental health. The sample comprised 300 employees of supervisory cadre of the
Life Insurance Corporation (LIC) of India. The results indicated that employees'
experienced stress arising from various inadequacies in their job role had an adverse
effect on their mental health. Employees who experienced high role stress
manifested more symptoms of free floating anxiety, obsessive neurosis, neurotic
depression, hysterical neurosis, phobic anxiety and somatic concomitants of anxiety.
Spector, Paul E., Dwyer, Daniel J., Jex, Steve M. (1988) reported that job conditions
were a causal factor in stress outcomes for employees. This conclusion, however,
was based almost entirely on single data source, self-report studies, which
demonstrate correlations between environmental perceptions and stress outcomes.
This study collected stressor data from two sources, the job incumbent and her
supervisor. Convergent and discriminant validities were found for four stressors
(autonomy, workload, number of hours worked, and number of people worked for)
but not for three others (role ambiguity, constraints, and interpersonal conflict).
Correlations were found between perception of stressors and outcomes, the latter
53
including both affective and symptoms. Smaller correlations were found between
supervisor reports of stressors and outcomes, the latter including both affective and
symptoms. Alternative causal models relevant to these results were discussed. The
need for causal research including experimental designs, longitudinal designs, and
multiple data sources were also discussed.
Gupta, P. (1989) conducted a study under the topic Role Stress, Locus of Control,
Coping Style and Role Efficacy: A Study of First Generation Entrepreneurs. They
have selected 60 first generation entrepreneurs. They used following variables: role
stress, locus of control, coping style and role efficacy. Their main findings were:
i) Maximum role stress was experienced in the dimension of result inadequacy.
ii) Negative relationship was seen between approach mode of coping and total role
stress.
iii) Internals experienced maximum stress on resource inadequacy. Possible
entrepreneurs experienced maximum stress on role overload.
iv) Trained entrepreneurs experienced maximum stress in inter-role distance and
non-trained in role inadequacy.
v) Significant difference was observed between internals and potential entrepreneurs
on the dimensions of inter-role distance, role isolation, challenge and total role
stress.
vi) Significant difference was observed between trained and non-trained on the
dimensions of self-role distance, inter-role distance, challenge, result inadequacy,
role inadequacy, and total role stress.
54
vii) Significant interaction was noted between training and locus of control on
dimensions of self-role distance, role over-load, role irrelevance, challenge and total
role stress.
viii) Age did not have significant effect on the role stress of entrepreneurs.
ix) Age of the establishment was significantly related to role stress.
x) Married entrepreneurs experienced significantly more role stress.
xi) Nuclear family entrepreneurs experienced more role stress compared to joint
family entrepreneurs.
xii) Entrepreneurs who employed less than 20 people experienced significantly more
role stress.
Parkes, Katharine R. (1990) tested the hypothesis that direct coping would moderate
relations between work stress and mental health outcome, whereas suppression (a
form of emotion-focused coping) would show an overall effect on outcome. Data on
coping, perceived work demand and support, and affective symptoms were obtained
from trainee teachers (N157). The results supported the hypothesis that direct coping
moderated relation between work stress and mental health. Gender differences also
were observed; men reported more use of suppression than did women. In addition,
negative affectivity (NA) was examined as a confounding variable and as an index
of reactivity in stressoutcome relations. NA acted to inflate associations between
work perceptions and affective symptoms, but it was also a significant moderator
variable; high NA subjects showed greater reactivity to work demand than did low
NA subjects.
55
Ahmad, S. et.al. (1990) studied stress and coping strategies among executive
technocrats and collected data to examine whether there is any difference in the
coping styles of male and female technocrats on Role PICS. The sample consisted of
100 executive technocrats-60 males and 40 females. The results indicated that the
total sample scores were higher for the approach style than for the avoidance style.
The executive technocrats used intropersistive style as the dominant style for coping,
followed by defensive and extrapersistive styles. A significant difference was
observed in the coping styles of male and female technocrats. While men used
defensive style more often than women, females largely used the approach style for
coping. It was also found that none of, the demographic variables-age, number of
dependents, income, drinking/smoking habits, health of the individual-had a
significant bearing on the strategies used for coping with stress.
Srivastava, A.K. (1991) also examined the effects of avoidance and approach modes
of coping in relation to organizational role stress and mental health. A sample of 300
supervisory personnel (aged 38-51years) was taken.The main findings of the study
were as follows:
i) Role stress was positively related to mental illness. Stress from role ambiguity and
role stagnation correlated intensively with mental illness.
ii) Total role stress was correlated with the somatic concomitants of anxiety.
iii) The approach group experienced more role stress than the avoidance group, but
scored lower on the mental health questionnaire than the avoidance group.
On the basis of these findings, the author suggested that the approach coping
strategy contributed to immediate perceived stress, but in the long run reduced
56
tension and anxiety. On the other hand, avoidance strategies may reduce immediate
stress, but in the long run contributed to greater tension and anxiety.
Sharma and Acharya (1991) investigated the dominant coping strategies used by 150
male electrical engineers (aged 30-44 years) working in a state electricity board to
deal with their job hierarchy and job anxiety. Results indicated that job hierarchy did
not significantly determine the nature of the dominant mode of coping. Irrespective
of job hierarchy, subjects with higher job anxiety exhibited a greater tendency to use
avoidance coping strategy relative to total coping efforts.
Long, Bonita C., Kahn, Sharon E., Schutz, Robert W. (1992) developed a model of
managerial women's stress and it was tested (N=249) with structural equation
modelling. The model was developed from R. S. Lazarus theoretical framework of
stress/coping and incorporated 3 causal antecedent constructs (Demographics, Sex
Role Attitudes, and Agentic Traits), 4 mediating constructs (Environment,
Appraisals, Engagement Coping, and Disengagement Coping), and 3 outcomes
(Work Performance, Distress, and Satisfaction). The final model, found to be most
plausible in the sample population, accounted for 56% of the total variance among
the constructs. Lazarus's theory of psychological stress, which postulates a central
role for cognitive appraisals and coping, was supported. In addition, agentic traits
and sex role attitudes had both direct and indirect effects on outcome variables.
Mittal, Uma (1992) examined in her study as coping styles as related to role stress,
locus of control and personality type in Jaipur, Rajsthan. She selected 147 doctors
from private and government hospital settings. Main Findings of her study were:
i) The major stress experienced by doctors was role erosion, followed by inter-role
distance.
57
ii) Private Doctors experienced more role overload and self-role distance in
comparison to government doctors.
iii) Male doctors experienced more role erosion and self-role distance than female
doctors.
iv) Male private doctors experienced more self-role distance and role ambiguity in
comparison to male government doctors.
v) Female private doctors experienced more role overload than the female
government doctors, whereas female government doctors experienced more self-
role distance and role ambiguity than female private doctors.
vi) Role stagnation was found to be significantly positively related to impunitive
style of coping and negatively to total approach style of coping.
vii) Role erosion was found to be significantly negatively related to intropunitive
style of coping.
viii) Role overload was found to be significantly positively related to avoidance style
of coping and negatively related to total approach style of coping.
ix) Role ambiguity was found to be significantly positively related to interpersistive
style of coping.
x) Personality type' A' was found significantly positively related to total role stress.
xi) Locus of control was found to be significantly positively associated to the
dimensions of self-role distance, role ambiguity and role expectations conflict.
xii) Personality type 'A' led to a positive relationship between the total role stress and
total approach styles of coping.
xiii) Total role stress was contributing significantly positively to all the dimensions of
approach styles of coping and significantly negative to impunitive, extrapunitive
and total avoidance styles of coping.
58
Decker, Patricia J., Borgen, Fred H. (1993) conducted a study in which Stress,
strain, and coping were measured by S. H. Osipow and A. R. Spokane's (1987)
Occupational Stress Inventory with 249 adults in 75 occupations; results supported
the validity of the inventory. Higher stress predicted higher strain and lower job
satisfaction; the converse was true for coping, although the copingsatisfaction link
was weak. In hierarchical regression analyses, predictor variables were gender, age,
education, job tenure, negative affectivity, 6 stress measures, and 4 coping measures.
Outcome variables were 4 measures of occupational strain (vocational,
psychological, interpersonal, and physical) and 3 measures of job satisfaction
(intrinsic, extrinsic, and general). The 7 hierarchical regression revealed strong
stressstrain and stressjob satisfaction relationships; negative affectivity had
variable impacts on strain but little influence on job satisfaction.
Srivastav, Avinash (1993) conducted a study under the topic A Study of
Organizational Climate, Role Stress and Coping Strategy amongst Public Sector
Executives at the Bangalore. For this study he selected 453 executives from
Bangalore city. With the help of Role stress (ORS Scale), coping strategy (Role
Pics) and organizational climate (MAO-C) he found that. Main Findings - Role
stress experienced was the general stress and the overload stress, role erosion was
the dominant stressor, followed by role isolation, resource inadequacy and personal
inadequacy, three curvilinear correlations, viz., (1) self-role distance with
qualifications, (2) personal inadequacy with expert influence, and (3) role overload
with extension, were detected, role stress was positively correlated with
dysfunctional climate and avoidance coping strategy, whereas negatively with
functional climate, role expectation conflict and personal inadequacy were positively
correlated with age, role erosion was negatively correlated to dependency but posi-
59
tively to extension, role expectation and role ambiguity were negatively correlated to
affiliation, role ambiguity was positively correlated to expert influence, whereas role
overload has positive correlation with extension.
Pandey, S. (1994) conducted a study on Role Stress, Coping Strategies and Psycho-
social Correlates of executives and supervisors. He selected 450 sample executives.
In it 150 were middle management executives, 150 lower management executives
and 150 supervisors. Main Findings of the study are: The three levels of job
hierarchy differ significantly in terms of role stagnation and role overload stresses,
impunitive, intropersistive and extrapersistive coping styles, role erosion was found
as dominant role stress in all the three job hierarchy levels, psychoticism-reality and
neuroticism-stability dimensions of personality were found to be positively and
significantly associated with all the organizational role stresses factors, extroversion-
introversion and lie dimensions were found negatively associated with most of role
stresses, achievement, expert influence, and extension motivational climates were
found negatively and significantly associated with organizational role stress factors
whereas control, dependency and affiliation motivational climates were found
positively associated with ORS factors.
Raju and Madhu (1994) examined the influence of organizational level on role stress
of 154 lower level, 202 middle level and 101 higher level employees of a public
sector organization. Role conflict and role ambiguity, the two dimensions of role
stress, were measured by Rizzo et al., (1970) scale. Results revealed that higher
level employees experienced lesser role conflict and role ambiguity than their
middle and lower level counterparts who obtained comparable scores.
60
Bowman, Glen D., Stern, Marilyn (1995) reported that a sample of 187 medical
centre nurses described 2 stressful occupational episodes varying in perceived
controllability and provided information regarding the coping strategies used.
Outcome measures assessed effectiveness of coping across 3 dimensions: perceived
coping effectiveness, job affect, and psychological adjustment. Negative affectivity
was measured to control for its tendency to inflate stress-adjustment relationships.
Use of problem-solving strategies was related to perceived coping effectiveness only
for high-control episodes. However, differential use of coping across levels of
controllability was not related to job affect or psychological adjustment. Avoidant
coping was strongly associated with negative affect at work. In contrast, problem-
reappraisal and problem-solving strategies were related to positive affect at work.
Dwivedi, R.K. (1995) studied on organizational culture and performance. They
conducted a study and selected 55 managers of public sector and 62 from private
sector. This type of sampling was a random sampling. Their main findings were:
i) All measures of organizational role stress (ORS) signified that in high
performance (private sector) organization, stress levels were low and in low
performance (public sector) organization stress levels were higher.
ii) All ORS and distrust elements had negative impact on organizational
performance.
Long, Bonita C., Schutz, Robert W. (1995) tested for Stability and replicability of a
stress-coping model with data collected from 230 managerial women 8 times over a
1-yr period. One year later, 135 women who remained in the study completed 3
additional assessments. Tests of mean stability, stability of individual differences,
and factorial invariance revealed that virtually all constructs exhibited strong mean
61
stability and that all multi-indicator constructs possessed stable factor loadings. The
women were consistent in the way they described themselves over time on all
constructs except Appraisals. Disengagement Coping, Appraisals, and Distress were
affected more by an underlying trait not accounted for in the model than was
Engagement Coping. Replicability indicated that the model reliably represented the
relationships among the measures over a 2-yr interval.
Bogg and Cooper (1995) studied job satisfaction, mental health and occupational
stress among senior civil servants in United Kingdom. The study revealed that
senior civil servants in U.K. were significantly more job dissatisfied and displayed
more mental and physical ill health than their private sector counterparts. The main
source of stress were Factors intrinsic to job, such as poorer comparative pay and
working condition and a strong feeling of possessing little control over their job and
their organization.
Mathur, P (1995)in a study on perception of police stress observed that police
personnel reported career development uncertainties, death of colleagues, threat of
personal injury, unofficial work as directed by the boss, poor personnel policies,
dangerous work duties as factors contributing to high stress levels.
Verma et al. (1995) conducted a study to examine the coping strategies among
college students. Two groups of 120 male and 85 female students (aged 19-20 years)
from different colleges of Punjab University, Chandigarh were administered the
Reaction to Hassles/Coping Strategies Questionnaire to find out their typical coping
strategies. Results were discussed under four major coping styles: seeking help,
cognitive appraisal, emotional defusing, and withdrawal. The main findings were as
follows:
62
i) College students coped with difficult situations in a mature manner, yet they
tended to withdraw from problems they faced in life.
ii) Gender differences were observed: males occasionally sought refuge in
alcohol or drugs to escape from their problems and females resorted to
prayer and hoped for the better.
iii) Females became more emotionally upset as compared to males who
confronted the problem and made an attempt to solve it.
Srivastava and Krishna (1997) examined the relationship between approach and
avoidance modes of coping and mental health of the supervisors. It was
hypothesized, in general, that approach coping strategies relate positively with the
mental health of the employees whereas avoidance coping strategies correlate
negatively with it. A sample of 300 LIC employees (aged 32-54 years) of the first-
line supervisory cadre was randomly selected from two of its regional offices in
Uttar Pradesh. Standardised tests were administered to the sample population to
obtain information pertaining to approach and avoidance coping strategies and
mental health. The data were analyzed so as to reveal the patterns of relationship
between coping strategies and mental health, and to test the differences between
approach and avoidance coping groups with regard to their mental health. The
following conclusions were obtained:
i) Employees who predominantly adopted avoidance mode of coping manifested
more severe symptoms of neuroticism in comparison to those who frequently used
approach coping strategies.
ii) Employees predominantly using avoidance coping strategies showed signs of the
most severe symptoms of somatic concomitant of anxiety followed by neurotic
depression.
63
iii) Avoidance mode of coping was correlated positively and significantly with all
the six dimensions of mental ill-health, whereas approach mode of coping was
correlated negatively and significantly with the symptoms of mental ill-health.
iv) The two locus of stress, i.e., internal and external, in combination with avoidance
mode of coping did not differ significantly in their effect on mental health of the
supervisors.
v) The perceived internality and externality of stress were found to have markedly
different effects on the mental health of supervisors when they were combined with
the approach mode of coping. The supervisors predominantly using approach
externality coping strategies manifested more severe symptoms of mental ill-health
as compared to those who frequently used approach-internality coping strategies.
On the basis of these findings, the authors argued that the major issue which needed
to be addressed in understanding the link between individual coping efforts and
mental health was the effect of perceived coping efficacy on the relations between
coping strategies and psychological symptoms.
Long Bonita C. (1998) conducted a study cross-validated and refined a causal model
of workplace stress (B. C. Long, S. E. Kahn, & R. W. Schutz, 1992). Multivariate
analysis of variance and multiple-group structural equation modeling were used to
contrast female clerical workers (N=214) with the original sample of managerial
women (N=249). Consistent with the effects of social roles, clerical workers had
fewer coping resources, appraised the stress event as less controllable, experienced
more work demands and less support, used relatively less engagement coping, and
were more distressed and less satisfied than managers. Moreover, the personality
64
disposition of agentic traits had a stronger influence on coping strategies for clerical
workers than for managers.
Brown, Chris., O'Brien, K.M.(1998) reported that crisis intervention workers and
other front-line mental health workers often faced excessive stress and seek
psychotherapy and support from professional psychologists. The authors sought
information on job-related stressors, coping mechanisms, and burnout levels and
found that shelter workers who reported high job-related stress and low social
support might be most vulnerable to experiencing burnout symptoms. Psychologists
providing clinical or consultation services to domestic violence shelter staff should
emphasize the importance of creating a supportive work environment, developing a
sense of personal accomplishment related to one's work, and teaching and modelling
helpful coping strategies.
Narayanan,L., Menon, S., Spector,P.,(1999)in a cross cultural comparison of job
stressors and reaction among employees argued that lack of structure and clarity of
task were major stress factors especially among Indian clerks.
Pestonjee (1999) noted, role based stresses not only affected the work environment
adversely and increased general fatigue but also reduced ones potential to perform
effectively. They tend to prevent the person for using the available resources
effectively. Pareek (1993) had proposed the concept of role efficacy and advocated
that if organizations assisted individuals in defining their roles and if individuals are
willing to share their concerns through strategies, such as, proactivity, confrontation,
developing helping relationship and creativity, then it might be possible to reduce
role based stress.
65
Siu,O.,et al(1999) in their paper, Managerial stress in Hong Kong and Taiwan: a
comparative study, observed gender differences in managerial stress among
managers in Hong Kong. Female managers scored higher in sources of stress and
quitting intention; but had lower job satisfaction, worse mental and physical well-
being than male managers. These differences could not be found in Taiwanese
managers, yet Taiwanese female managers did report more stress related to the
managerial role than their male counterparts.
Sears, Samuel F., Jr., Urizar, Guido G., Jr., Evans, Garret D. (2000) examined
occupational stressors, coping strategies, and burnout and depression in extension
agents. Results indicated that a significant proportion of extension agents 9.8%51%
reported burnout symptoms above established cut-off scores range for the burnout
subscales, but fewer than 3% of the sample reported significant symptoms on all 3
dimensions of burnout. Depressive symptoms based on established cut-off scores
were noted in approximately 26% of the sample. Stepwise multiple regression
indicated that extension agents who used an emotion-oriented coping strategy were
more likely to (a) display high levels of depression, emotional exhaustion, and
depersonalization and (b) exhibit low levels of personal accomplishment.
Furthermore, task-oriented coping strategies were found to be negatively associated
with dimensions of burnout. Implications for interventional programming to reduce
the symptoms of burnout were discussed.
Zani,B & Pietrantoni,L., (2001) while researching on, Gender differences in
burnout, empowerment and somatic symptoms among health professionals:
Moderators and mediators, found significant gender differences on the burnout,
empowerment and somatic symptoms measures For burnout, men scored higher than
women for depersonalization and for lack of personal accomplishment. Considering
66
empowerment, women scored higher than men in meaningfulness and competence.
However, women as expected reported higher frequency of somatic symptoms then
men. Considering work tools, women were more likely than men to believe that
supervision (t = -4.05, p<.001), team meetings (t = -2.12, p<.05) and training session
(t = -3.80, p<.001) were useful to improve the quality of their job.
Desai, H & Daftuar, CN (2002) found perception of performance appraisal as an
important contributing factor to occupational stress. They stated that managers and
supervisors who perceived performance appraisal as unfair and inappropriate were
greatly stressed.
Fay, Doris & Sonnentag, Sabine (2002) examined the relationship between stressors
at work and personal initiative (PI), proactive concept of extra-role performance.
Using a control theory framework to describe the stress process, the authors
hypothesized that stressors should be positively related to PI. This departed from
findings of negative relationships between stressors and other types of performance.
Furthermore, curvilinear relationships were tested. The analyses with 172 to 193
participants, showed that stressors were positively related to subsequent changes in
PI; there was no support for a curvilinear relationship.
Bernin, Peggy et al. (2003) conducted a study which was a part of the Collaborative
International Study of Managerial Stress. Swedish managers (N=288) from the 3
highest levels in the organizations were included. Swedish results were compared
with managerial coping data from 4 other nations. Cross-national differences in
support coping were found. Covert coping seemed to be a predominantly female
strategy. In general, however, female and male managers were more alike with
regard to coping patterns. Some of the coping behavior of managers was associated
67
with health risks. The data implied that coping strategies should be improved in
organizational settings, particularly for females.
Brotheridge, Celeste M (2003) reported that organizational change could become a
source of resistance and stress if it was implemented without attention to the needs
of organizational members. The participants in the present study, 604 government
employees, worked in a climate of ongoing change and, thus, were at particular risk
for experiencing high levels of stress and other deleterious consequences. This study
examined and found support for the central role played by procedural and
distributive fairness in mediating the effects of change justification and voice on the
extent to which employees experience stress, which, in turn, predicts their levels of
work effort, intention to leave, and a host of physiological and affective symptoms.
Torkelson and Muhonen (2004) investigated the relationship between coping and
health problems in the context of gender and level in the organization. Data was
collected from 279 men and women ( 100 managers and 179 non- managers)
working at a sales department at similar levels in a Swedish Telecom Company. The
study examined two things: If gender and level in the organization were controlled
for, the use of problem focused strategies would be associated with fewer health
problems and the use of emotional focused strategies with greater health problem. It
was also predicted that men and women at a similar organizational level would not
differ in their use of problem focused coping strategies. The results were contrary
to expectations. When level and gender were controlled for, no relation between
problem focused strategies and health was obtained. Instead, the emotion- focused
strategy of seeking emotional support was associated with fewer health problems.
Coping was atleast partly related to level. At a managerial level the men and women
68
used basically the same strategies whereas at a non managerial level traditionally
conceived coping patterns were evident.
Iwasaki, Yoshi., MacKay, Kelly J., Ristock, Janice (2004) wanted to explore the
experiences of stress among both female and male managers, using a series of
single-sex and mixed focus groups. In addition to substantial similarities between
female and male participants' descriptions about their experiences of stress (e.g.,
negative and positive aspects of stress, different levels of stress, lack of sleep,
pressure, financial stressors, being a manager), a number of important gender
differences emerged from their descriptions. These differences could be explained
by the way, in which gender continued to be socially constructed in society;
specifically, there were differing gender role expectations and responsibilities for
women and men. Female managers experienced emotional stress, primarily because
of the pressure to meet expectations of being responsible and caring for people both
inside and outside of their home. In contrast, male managers tended to focus on
themselves and regard other things as beyond their control or responsibility.
Kesimci, Asli., Gral, F. Sevin and Genz,Tlin (2005) aimed to investigate the
determinants of stress-related growth. For this aim the associations of gender,
stressfulness of the event, and three coping strategies (problem-oriented, fatalistic,
and helplessness) with stress-related growth were tested by multiple regression
analysis. Participants were 132 undergraduate students. Results revealed that
females reported higher levels of stress-related growth than males, and as expected,
higher levels of the stressfulness of the event associated with more stress-related
growth. Furthermore, frequent utilization of problem-oriented and fatalistic coping
strategies was associated with higher stress-related growth. These findings were
discussed in the light of relevant literature and culture-specific features.
69
Brown, Steven P., Jones, Eli., Leigh, T. W. (2005) reported research examined the
moderating effects of role overload on the antecedents and consequences of self-
efficacy and personal goal level in a longitudinal study conducted in an industrial
selling context. The results indicated that role overload moderated the antecedent
effect of perceived organizational resources on self-efficacy beliefs. They also
showed that role overload moderated the direct effects of both self-efficacy and goal
level on performance, such that these relationships were positive when role overload
was low but not significant when role overload was high. Further, the results
revealed a pattern of moderated mediation, in which goal level mediated the indirect
effect of self-efficacy on performance when role overload was low but not when it
was high.
De Jonge, Jan; Dormann, Christian (2006) conducted two longitudinal studies and
investigated the issue of match between job stressors and job resources in the
prediction of job-related strain. On the basis of the triple-match principle (TMP), it
was hypothesized that resources were most likely to moderate the relation between
stressors and strains if resources, stressors, and strains all match. Resources were
less likely to moderate the relation between stressors and strains if (a) only resources
and stressors match, (b) only resources and strains match, or (c) only stressors and
strains match. Resources were least likely to moderate the relation between stressors
and strains if there is no match among stressors, resources, and strains. The TMP
was tested among 280 and 267 health care workers in 2 longitudinal surveys. The
likelihood of finding moderating effects was linearly related to the degree of match,
with 33.3% of all tested interactions becoming significant when there was a triple
match, 16.7% when there was a double match, and 0.0% when there was no match.
Findings were most consistent if there was an emotional match or a physical match.
70
McGowan, J., et.al.,( 2006) studied one hundred and forty four employees from
three organizations of New Zealand, who completed a survey that assessed cognitive
appraisals and coping processes used to deal with a stressful work-related event. A
model was posited that proposed that appraisal and coping processes would be the
precursors of work-related distress and eustress. The precursors of eustress were the
appraisal of a demand as a challenge and the use of task-focused coping strategies.
Distress was related to threat appraisals and emotion-focused coping strategies.
Results suggested that the model fit was reasonable and the hypothesised paths were
all statistically significant and in the correct direction.
Grant, Sharon and Langan-Fox, Janice (2006) reported that past research on
personality and the occupational stressorstrain relationship had examined traits
independently rather than interactively.Their research examined the combined/
interactive effect of the Big Five traits in predicting tress, coping, and strain among
211 managers. Low Neuroticism with high Extraversion and high Conscientiousness
predicted lower stressor exposure, physical ill health and job dissatisfaction, whereas
high Neuroticism-low Conscientiousness predicted higher stressor exposure,
dysfunctional coping, physical ill health and job dissatisfaction, and lower problem-
focused coping. In addition, there was some evidence for a high Neuroticism-low
Agreeableness interaction in the prediction of job dissatisfaction. They suggested
that independent and interactive approaches should be integrated in future research
to advance a more complete understanding of the role of personality in occupational
stress and strain.
Chang, Te-Yi & Chang, Yu-Lien (2007) investigated the relationship between role
stress, service capability, and job performance in 318 salespeople employed by
travel agents in Taiwan. They found a negative relationship between role ambiguity
71
and job performance, and a positive relationship between role conflict and
performance outcomes. Moreover, the relation between role stress and job
performance varied with the service capability of the salesperson. Service capability
moderated the relationship between role ambiguity, performance behaviour, and
performance outcomes. This sent an important message to the Taiwan travel-agent
industry: that resource should be directed at improving the service skills of
salespeople. The results of this study gave useful reference information for
optimizing the application of organizational management and human resources.
Jamal (2007) conducted a study and examined the relationship between the
measures of job stress and job performance among employees working in a large
North American-based multinational corporation in Malaysia (N = 305) and
Pakistan (N = 325). Data was collected by means of a structured questionnaire, from
employees, on job stress and turnover intention. Job performance and absenteeism
data were obtained from the company's records. In both countries, data were more
supportive of the negative linear relationship between stress and performance than
other types of relationships. Overall, 90% of comparisons supported the negative
linear relationship, whereas a u-shaped/curvilinear relationship was supported in
10% of instances.
Jacobs, Pamela A., et al (2007) conducted a study and used university-based
statistics of performance and self-rated employee productivity to examine the
relationship between stress levels, organizational commitment, health, and
performance. The authors conducted a secondary analysis of data from staff in 13
higher education institutions. In common with earlier research, the authors found
that stressors had a negative linear relationship with all the performance measures
used. However, this relationship was also influenced by physical health,
72
psychological well-being, and organizational commitment, and by the measure of
performance used. In addition, the authors found variations in the relationship
between performance and stress by category of staff, which suggests the influence of
job factors. These findings were discussed in relation to previous research and their
implications for English academic institutions.
Baker, John P. and Berenbaum, Howard (2007) examined for whom and under what
circumstances emotional-approach coping and problem-focused coping were
differentially more effective. Eighty-nine participants identified a current stressful
situation and then were randomly assigned to either: (a) write for 15 minutes about
their feelings (emotional-approach coping); or (b) write about how to solve their
problem (problem-focused coping). Participants also completed a self-report
measure that assessed how they coped during the two weeks after the exercise.
Coping effectiveness was assessed by measuring positive affect, negative affect, and
physical symptoms. Dimensions of emotional processing (e.g., clarity and attention
to emotions) were assessed using self-report. Gender, type of stressful event
(interpersonal vs. achievement), and individual differences in emotional processing
moderated the effect of type of coping on positive affect.
Jessica,Lang., et.al (2007) set twofold aim of their study. They were: First, in
differentiating between specific job characteristics, the authors examined the
moderating influence of role clarity on the relationship between job demands and
psychological and physical strain. Second, in providing a more comprehensive link
between job demands and job performance, the authors examined strain as a
mediator of that relationship. Participants were 1,418 Army cadets attending a 35-
day assessment center. Survey data were collected on Day 26 of the assessment
center and performance ratings were assessed throughout the assessment center
73
period by expert evaluators. Role clarity was found to moderate the job demands-
strain relationship. Specifically, cadets experiencing high demands reported less
physical and psychological strain when they reported high role clarity. Moreover,
psychological strain significantly mediated the demands-performance relationship.
Fried, Yitzhak, Shirom, Arie. Gilboa., Simona., Cooper, Cary L. (2008) examined
mediating effects of job satisfaction and propensity to leave on role stress-job
performance relationships. This article combined meta-analysis with structural
equation modelling to compare alternative models of the relationships among work
stress, psychological mediators, and job performance. Specifically, the authors
examined the mediating effects of job satisfaction and propensity to leave and their
effect on the relationships between role ambiguity, role conflict, and job
performance. The meta-analysis included both published and unpublished studies
conducted over a period of 25 years, resulting in 113 independent samples with
more than 22,000 individuals. As hypothesized, the structural model that best fit the
meta-analytic estimates was the partial mediation model, in which stress was related
to job performance both directly and indirectly through job satisfaction and
propensity to leave and in which all path coefficients were reliably different from
zero. The results were discussed in terms of theoretical contributions and
implications for future stress-performance research.
Dolcos, Sanda M., Daley, Dennis (2009) stated that although research had
extensively examined workfamily issues in the private sector but little was known
about sector-related differences. They used data to compare the levels and
mechanisms through which work pressure and 3 workplace social resources (i.e.,
workfamily culture, supervisor support, and co worker support) were related to
workfamily conflict in the public and private sectors. First, workfamily culture
74
affected workfamily conflict directly in the private sector and indirectly, through
reduced work pressure, in the public sector. Moreover, workfamily culture had a
much stronger impact on supervisor support in the private sector. Second, public
sector employees perceived higher levels of supervisor and co worker support while
experiencing higher levels of work pressure. The study illustrated the necessity of
differentiating between the 2 sectors of employment when studying workfamily
relationships.
Ruyter, Ko de., Wetzels, Martin and Feinberg, Richard (2009) stated that the Call
centres had become an important customer access channel as well as an important
source of customer-related information. Frequently, call centre employees
experienced role stress as a result of the conflicting demands of the company,
supervisors, and customers. In this article, antecedents and consequences of
role stress in a call centre setting were examined. Specifically, it was investigated
how empowerment and leadership styles decreased role stress and how this
subsequently effected job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, performance, and turnover intentions. It was found that the autonomy
dimension of empowerment had a role-stress reducing effect. Interesting substantive
direct positive effects of empowerment, competence and leadership on job
satisfaction were found. Job satisfaction was found to be conducive to
job performance. Furthermore, it was found that job satisfaction reduced turnover
intentions, directly and indirectly via organizational commitment.
Leung, Sharron S. K., et.al.(2009) examined occupational stress and mental health
among secondary school teachers in Hong Kong, and tried to identify differences
between those actively engaged in stress management behaviours and those who
were not. Survey design was adopted using validated instruments
75
including Occupational Stress Inventory, Depression Anxiety Stress Scale (DASS),
and Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile (HPLP). The sample was 89 secondary
school teachers who attended a professional development course offered by the
University of Hong Kong in Hong Kong, People's Republic of China. All 99
students who attended the professional development course were invited and 89
consented to participate and returned the completed questionnaires. Results showed
that the majority of participants (75.3 percent) reported fair to very low satisfaction
with the teaching career, and 82 percent of them felt unaccountably tired or
exhausted. Results of OSI-R showed that 38.6 percent had experienced strong
maladaptive stress due to vocational strain but coping resource was limited with
most deficits on rational and cognitive coping. Analysis of DASS indicated that 30.3
percent had severe to extremely severe anxiety and 12.3 percent had severe to
extremely severe depression. HPLP revealed that participants paid little attention to
their own health and the management of stress. Those who exhibited more stress
management behaviours showed significantly less physical symptoms, higher
satisfaction with teaching, and lower occupational stress. It was concluded that
secondary teachers in Hong Kong have high occupational stress but
insufficient stress coping resources. Cognitive-behavioral programs to enhance
teachers' stress management resources were recommended.
Tuckey, Michelle R., Dollard, Maureen F., Hosking, Patrick J., Winefield, Anthony
H. (2009) examined the role of psychosocial work environment factors in workplace
bullying, focusing on the moderating effects of control and support resources against
job demands. Their sample was 716 Australian frontline police officers who
completed an anonymous mail survey. In a direct test of Job Demand-Control-
Support theory, the authors found that increased levels of bullying (as assessed by
76
targets and observers) were associated with potentially high stress situations: as job
demands increased and as support and control resources decreased. Also, consistent
with previous research, most perpetrators were ranked higher than the target,
reflecting the role of power in facilitating bullying. Their research was unique in
finding evidence for moderating factors within the psychosocial environment and
suggests risk assessment of the work environment as an avenue for bullying
prevention. They strongly recommend that the future research should examine more
closely the mechanisms underlying bullying within stressful work environments and
the reciprocal effect of witnessing and experiencing bullying on psychosocial
working conditions.
Wallace, J. Craig., et al (2009) proposed differential relationships between challenge
stressors and hindrance stressors and role-based performance for a test of the 2-
dimensional model of work stressors, which were expected to be moderated by
organizational support. In a sample of 215 employees across 61 offices of a state
agency, the authors obtained a positive relationship between challenge stressors and
role-based performance and a negative relationship between hindrance stressors and
role-based performance. In addition, organizational support moderated the
relationship between challenge stressors and role-based performance but did not
moderate the relationship between hindrance stressors and role-based performance.
This suggests that organizations would benefit from increasing challenges in the
workplace as long as they are supportive of employees and removing hindrances.
Further implications for organizational theory and practice are discussed.
Jimmieson, Nerina L., et al. (2010) explored how the social context influenced the
stress-buffering effects of social support on employee adjustment. It was anticipated
that the positive relationship between support from colleagues and employee
77
adjustment would be more marked for those strongly identifying with their work
team. Furthermore, as part of a three-way interactive effect, it was predicted that
high identification would increase the efficacy of co-worker support as a buffer of
two role stressors (role overload and role ambiguity). One hundred and 55
employees recruited from first-year psychology courses enrolled at two Australian
universities were surveyed. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses revealed that
the negative main effect of role ambiguity on job satisfaction was significant for
those employees with low levels of team identification, whereas high team
identifiers were buffered from the deleterious effect of role ambiguity on job
satisfaction. There also was a significant interaction between co worker support and
team identification. The positive effect of co-worker support on job satisfaction was
significant for high team identifiers, whereas co-worker support was not a source of
satisfaction for those employees with low levels of team identification. A three-way
interaction emerged among the focal variables in the prediction of psychological
well-being, suggesting that the combined benefits of co-worker support and team
identification under conditions of high demand may be limited and are more likely
to be observed when demands are low.
Flaxman, Paul E., and Bond, Frank W. (2010) revealed that psychologically healthy
participants diluted the observed effects of worksite stress management training
(SMT) programs, therefore hiding the true effectiveness of these interventions for
more distressed workers. To examine this issue, 311 local government employees
were randomly assigned to SMT based on acceptance and commitment therapy
(SMT, n = 177) or to a waitlist control group (n = 134). The SMT program consisted
of three half-day training sessions, and imparted a mixture of mindfulness and
values-based action skills. Across a 6-month assessment period, SMT resulted in a
78
significant reduction in employee distress. As predicted, the impact of SMT was
significantly moderated by baseline distress, such that meaningful effects were
found only among a subgroup of initially distressed workers. Furthermore, a
majority (69%) of these initially distressed SMT participants improved to a
clinically significant degree. The study highlights the importance of accounting for
sample heterogeneity when evaluating and classifying worksite SMT programs.
Catano, Vic (2010) conducted stress surveys in U.K. and Australian universities and
found that high occupational stress levels among faculty. This study investigated
whether the same occupational stressors and stress outcomes applied at Canadian
universities. Randomly selected staff (n = 1440) from 56 universities completed a
Web-based questionnaire. The response rate 27% , was similar to those in the U.K.
and Australian studies, as were most of the results. With respect to strain, 13% of the
respondents reported high psychological distress and 22% reported elevated physical
health symptoms. Less secure employment status and work-life imbalance strongly
predicted job dissatisfaction; work-life imbalance strongly predicted increased
psychological distress. Overall study participants were satisfied with their jobs and
emotionally committed to their institutions. These results warranted consideration of
contemporary academic work by both academic staff associations and university
administrations with respect to the implementation of changes in policies and
procedures that would lead to reductions in work-related stress and strain.
Klassen, Robert M.; Chiu, Ming Ming (2010) sought to examine the relationships
among teachers' years of experience, teacher characteristics (gender and teaching
level), three domains of self-efficacy (instructional strategies, classroom
management, and student engagement), two types of job stress (workload and
classroom stress), and job satisfaction with a sample of 1,430 practicing teachers
79
using factor analysis, item response modeling, systems of equations, and a structural
equation model. Teachers' years of experience showed nonlinear relationships with
all three self-efficacy factors, increasing from early career to mid-career and then
falling afterwards. Female teachers had greater workload stress, greater classroom
stress from student behaviors, and lower classroom management self-efficacy.
Teachers with greater workload stress had greater classroom management self-
efficacy, whereas teachers with greater classroom stress had lower self-efficacy and
lower job satisfaction. Those teaching young children (in elementary grades and
kindergarten) had higher levels of self-efficacy for classroom management and
student engagement. Lastly, teachers with greater classroom management self-
efficacy or greater instructional strategies self-efficacy had greater job satisfaction.
Biron, Caroline., Gatrell, Caroline., and Cooper, Cary L. (2010) reported that the
difficulties associated with the evaluation of organizational-level work stress
interventions were notorious, yet little attention had been paid to the reasons why
they failed. This case study took place in a department of 205 employees from a
private company where an intervention was developed but poorly implemented. This
paper scrutinizes the intervention to understand why it was poorly implemented and
examine its effects on employees. Qualitative data (field notes and interviews with
managers) was used to evaluate the intervention. Questionnaires were used to
evaluate the level of implementation and its effects. Results suggest partial
implementation might have a detrimental effect on commitment. Poor
implementation could be accounted for by the changing organizational context, low
ownership of stakeholders, and flaws in the intervention design. Considering the
process and context of interventions was essential to understand their effects.
80
Mohr, Gisela.,& Wolfram, Hans-Joachim (2010) examined the importance of
dynamic tasks as stressors faced by managers. Predictability of a task and social
support by managers supervisors were considered as potential moderators of the
interrelation between stressors and stress effects. A total of 142 managers (64
women, 78 men) from 46 German companies took part in our study. As expected,
the more tasks were perceived as dynamic, the higher was the irritation level. This
correlation was significant but low, as could be expected when choosing a single
predictor to explain the level of irritation. Dynamic tasks and predictability were
unrelated features of the work task. Predictability of a task had a moderating effect
in that the interrelation between dynamic tasks and irritation was stronger when
predictability was low. When managers perceived low support from their
supervisors, the interrelation between dynamic tasks and irritation was stronger as
well. They were able to evaluate the specific demands of managers in a rapidly
changing environment. Their results demonstrated that dynamic tasks did not
necessarily lead to impaired health. Managers supervisors could play an important
role by reflecting on how to impose change for the managers.
Oliver, Joseph E., Mansell, A., and Jose, Paul E. (2010) reported that a significant
proportion of previous research in the occupational stress area had tended to treat the
personality variable negative affectivity (NA) as a nuisance variable. This
perspective has led researchers to routinely control for the effects of NA. However,
P. E. Spector, D. Zapf, P. Y. Chen, and M. Frese (2000) had proposed a number of
different mechanisms by which NA could have substantive effects. The current
research used a longitudinal framework to test several competing mechanisms
proposed by Spector et al. (specifically, the perception, hyperresponsivity, and
causality mechanisms) on the relationship between work stressors and psychological
81
well-being. Customs workers and dentists constituted the longitudinal sample (N =
345). Results provided strong support for the perception mechanism, indicating that
the effects of NA on psychological health were partially mediated by work stressors.
The authors discuss the theoretical and practical relevance of the perception
mechanism to occupational health.
Salami, A.O., Ojokuku, R.M., Ilesanmi, O.A. (2010) assessed empirically the impact
of job stress on Nigerian Managers Performance. In carrying out the study, random
sampling technique was used to select 135 managers who had worked at least 5
years in a managerial position. Relevant data was collected using structured
questionnaire. The Z-score was used to test the study hypothesis. The findings
showed that job stress brought about subjective effects such as fear, anger and
anxiety among Nigerian managers resulting in poor concentration, mental block and
poor decision making skills. Based on these findings, it was recommended that
organizations in Nigeria should reduce psychological strain, work overload and role
ambiguity through adoption of job redesign techniques. Organizational support
activities such as counselling and stress reduction workshops should also be
increased.
Prati, Gabriele., Pietrantoni, Luca., Cicognani, Elvira (2011) examined the
mediation role of coping strategies and collective efficacy in the relationship
between stress appraisal and quality of life (compassion satisfaction, compassion
fatigue, and burnout) in a correlation study. Fire-fighters, paramedics, and
emergency medical technicians routinely confront potentially traumatic events in the
course of their jobs. Participants were 463 Italian rescue workers (fire fighters and
different categories of emergency health care professionals). Participants filled out
measures of stress appraisal, collective efficacy, coping strategies, and quality of
82
life. The results showed that emotion and support coping, self-blame coping, and
self-distraction mediated the relationship between stress appraisal and compassion
fatigue. Moreover, collective efficacy, self-blame coping, and religious coping
mediated the relationship between stress appraisal and burnout. Finally, it was found
that collective efficacy, self-blame coping, and problem-focused coping mediated
the relationship between stress appraisal and compassion satisfaction. Cognitive
restructuring and denial did not mediate the relation between stress appraisal and
any of the quality of life dimensions.
Taverniers, John., Smeets, Tom., Van Ruysseveldt, Joris., Syroit, Jef., von
Grumbkow, Jasper (2011) conducted a field experiment during a handgun shooting
workshop for armed officers (N = 36). In-depth stress analyses involved anticipatory
distress, subjective stress, and salivary cortisol reactivity triggered by reality-based
handgun shooting practice and, more specifically, by being in an uncontrollable
situation with the risk of being shot at. Subsequently, the study examined to what
extent exposure to reality-based stress affected working memory performances and
self-perceived active learning. As expected, the risk of being shot at caused more
anticipatory distress, subjective stress, and increasingly triggered cortisol secretion.
Further results showed that, although stress endurance deteriorated working memory
performance, participants in the high-realism group simultaneously self-perceivably
learned more (i.e., acquired task-relevant skills and competencies). The dual stress
effect may result from the professional appreciation of reality-based practice and
increased self-efficacy toward hazardous real-life situations. Balancing the
intersection between occupational psychology, cognitive psychology, and psycho-
neuro -endocrinology, this study performed stress research in an important and
rarely accessible professional setting.
83
Hahn, Verena C., Binnewies, Carmen, Sonnentag, Sabine., Mojza, Eva J. (2011)
conducted a experimental study on learning strategies of job stress. This quasi-
experimental study evaluated the effects of a recovery training program on recovery
experiences (psychological detachment from work, relaxation, mastery experiences,
and control during off-job time), recovery-related self-efficacy, and well-being
outcomes. The training comprised two sessions held one week apart. Recovery
experiences, recovery-related self-efficacy, and well-being outcomes were measured
before the training (T1) and one week (T2) and three weeks (T3) after the training.
A training group consisting of 48 individuals and a waitlist control group of 47
individuals were compared. Analyses of covariance revealed an increase in recovery
experiences at T2 and T3 (for mastery only at T2). Recovery-related self-efficacy
and sleep quality increased at T2 and T3, perceived stress and negative affect
decreased at T3. No training effects were found for emotional exhaustion.
Hawk, Nita & Martin Barbara (2011) examined the ways and to what degree, if any,
school superintendents perceived stress and what, if any, coping mechanisms were
engaged. Study findings revealed that there was a statistical difference between the
types of coping mechanisms utilized and effectiveness between male and female
superintendents. While no significant difference existed between the
overall occupational stressors experienced by gender, the data identified high levels
of stress among over 50 percent of the superintendents. Qualitative findings
established the board of education provided no known support to superintendents in
developing stress management skills and coping strategies. Implications of this
research study were identified in the areas of leadership preparatory programs, as
well as education in stress-management skills reform at the district level.
84
Ellis, Aleksander P. J., & Pearsall, Matthew J. (2011) examined the utilization of the
job demands-resources model to the direct and interactive effects of job demands
and cross-training on cognitive, behavioural, and affective outcomes in teams.
Results from 54 teams indicated that an increase in job demands reduced mental
model accuracy and information allocation and increased tension among team
members. Cross-training, on the other hand, increased mental model accuracy and
decreased tension among team members. More importantly, the direct effects of
cross-training were qualified by the interaction. When job demands were high,
cross-trained teams evidenced higher mental model accuracy, more information
allocation, and less tension than teams that were not cross-trained. Cross-training
was less influential when job demands were low, indicating that cross-training acted
as a resource to buffer the negative impact of job demands in teams.
Yagil, Dana; Ben-Zur, Hasida; Tamir, Inbal (2011) revealed that the abusive
supervision was a major organizational stressor yet little was known about how
employees coped with such stress. The purpose of the present study was twofold: (a)
to develop a new scale assessing how employees coped with abusive supervision,
and (b) to investigate the effectiveness of coping with abusive supervision in terms
of negative and positive affective outcomes. The study was conducted in two parts:
Two samples of 108 and 101 student employees completed the initial versions of the
new coping with abusive supervision scale; and another sample of 225 employees
completed the final, 25-item coping scale, which consisted of five subscales:
ingratiation, direct communication, avoidance of contact, support-seeking, and
reframing. Additional measures used were abusive supervision, influence tactics
scale, abuse-related negative and positive affect scales, and social desirability. The
internal and testretest reliability levels of the subscales of the newly developed
85
questionnaire were high and it was validated by its subscales associations with
influence tactics subscales. High levels of abusive supervision were related to
coping strategies of avoiding contact, support seeking, ingratiation, and reframing.
The first two strategies were also related positively to negative affect and mediated
the effects of abusive supervision on affect. The results suggested that most coping
strategies were invoked in response to abusive supervision. They were, however,
found to be mostly ineffective with regards to their relationship with employees'
affective reactions.
Watson, Sarah B., Goh, Yong Wah., Sawang, S. (2011) stated that the increasing
incidence of occupational stress was recognized as a global phenomenon that was
having a detrimental impact on both individuals and organizations. This study aimed
to identify whether men and women adopted different stress and coping processes
when subjected to stress in a work context. A total of 258 workers of various
professions (males = 106, females = 152) participated in the study. Results indicated
that men and women differed in their stress and coping processes, forming two very
distinct groups and adopting specific process models when encountering a stressful
situation at work.
On the basis of the findings with the above reviews, the following conclusions were
drawn:
1. A large percentage of human being suffer from stress, especially in the work
place setting.
2. Researchers and applied psychologists have found that stress induces many
psychological and physiological problems.
86
3. Occupational Stress and performance are related variables. The workplace stress
affects performance of the individual.
4: Various stressful situations demands coping strategies. People use approach or
avoidance coping strategies according to their abilities and situation.
5: It was observed that more than one coping style may be used in any stressful
situation.
2.5 Research gap
The review of literature indicates that there is hardly any meaningful research using
these three constructs; performance, occupational stress and coping, in the civilian
departments of Central Government in India. Given the importance of this sector in
terms of employability and functioning researcher has taken up this subject i.e.
examining employee performance as a function of occupational stress and coping: A
study on Central Government employees.
87
CHAPTER 3
AN OVERVIEW OF CENTRAL GOVERNMENT
3.1 Central Government
The Government of India comprises of three branches: the executive, the legislative
and the judiciary. The executive branch is headed by the President, who is the Head
of State and exercises his or her power directly or through officers subordinate to
him. The Legislative branch or the Parliament consists of the lower house, the Lok
Sabha, and the upper house, the Rajya Sabha, as well as the president. The Judicial
branch has the Supreme Court at its apex, 21 High Courts, and numerous civil,
criminal and family courts at the district level.
The executive branch of government is the part of government that has sole
authority and responsibility for the daily administration of the state
bureaucracy. The executive decisions are implemented by the civil servants. Civil
servants are employees of the Government of India and not Parliament of India. The
civil service of India is the permanent bureaucracy of the Government of India, with
cabinet secretary as the head of all executive officers after President of India. The
Cabinet Secretary is under the direct charge of the Prime Minister.
3.2 Concept of Bureaucracy and Civil Service
Etymologically speaking, the term Bureaucracy may be traced to the French
word bureau, meaning; a writing table or desk. Bureaucracy, thus simply
speaking means a desk government. Marx, F.M. (1969) indicated four senses
in which the term could be used. Weber, Pffiner & Presthus and Laski as cited in
Avasthi & Maheshwari(2011) explained bureaucracy in the following ways;
88
according to Max Weber, the famous German sociologist and the first thinker to
attempt a detailed analysis of bureaucracy, bureaucratic organization displayed
the following characteristics:
i) Assignment of specific duties to every member to discharge the assigned
duties;
ii) Methodical provision for regular performance of these duties;
iii) The building up of organization on hierarchical principles.
iv) Reliance on written documents or records;
v) Formulation of rules to govern the transaction of business; and
vi) Recruitment and special training of functionaries;
According to Laski, the characteristics of bureaucracy were: a passion for
routine in administration, the sacrifice of flexibility to rules, delay in making of
decision and a refusal to embark upon experiment. Bureaucracy was thus
identified with rigid, mechanical formal and soulless approach; according to
Pffiner & Presthus Size alone perhaps was the basic cause of bureaucracy.
Where large scale enterprise existed, there bureaucracy would be found.
The significance of civil service in the modern government has been succinctly
summed up by Ogg. The work of government would never be done if there
were only the secretaries of state and other heads of the departments, the
presidents of the boards, parliamentary under-secretaries, junior lords and civil
lords, in other words, the ministers to do it. These people cannot be expected
to collect taxes, audit accounts, inspect factories, take censuses, to say nothing
of keeping accounts, delivering mail, and carrying messages. Such manifold
89
tasks fall, rather, to the body of officials and employees known as the permanent
civil service It is this great body of men and women that translates law into
action from one end of the Country to the other and brings the national
government into its daily contacts with the rank and file in the country--- less in
the public eye than the ministry; this army of functionaries is not a whit less
necessary to the realization of the purposes for which the government exists.
The term Civil Service coined by the East India Company, has come to signify
non-combatant branches of the administrative service of the state. The credit for
coining the term Civil Service thus goes to India. Those servants who were
working on the civil side in contrast to the military side were called Civil
Servants. The term was formally adopted in 1785. The Oxford English
Dictionary defines the term as The permanent professional branches of the state
administration excluding military and judicial branches and elected politicians.
3.3 Development of civil service in India:
Shri R.K. Mishra, Professor, in a paper titled National Civil services system in
India: a Critical View as cited in Burns & Bowornwathana (2001) gave the
following account of the development of civil services in India.
According to him, role of civil servants changed through ages, in ancient India,
the civil servants acted as personal servants of the rulers, in the medieval age,
they became state servants as they were in the state employment, and in British
India the civil servants acquired the complexion of public servants. During this
period, the civil service also became a protected service, as in 1861 the first
Indian Civil Service Act in India was passed which gave many privileges to the
then civil servants, including their recruitment, promotion, termination, pension,
payment of salaries, etc. The ethos of the civil service in independent-India
90
changed from welfare-orientation in the late 1940s to development-orientation
between the 1960s and 1980s, and finally to the facilitator's role in the 1990s, as
dictated by the environmental challenges and the challenge of meeting the
democratic needs of the teeming millions.
At the time of independence, besides the Indian civil service there were nine
central civil services in the country. The independence of the country posed new
challenges to the civil servants. They were no more expected to perform the role
of a police state. The welfare of the Indian subjects was viewed as the central
task to be performed by the Indian state, and hence they were to be an
instrument of carrying out welfare functions which, among other things,
included the settlement of refugees and providing minimum conditions for their
day-to-day living, safeguarding the national borders from external aggression,
and promoting conditions responsible for internal peace. The civil service
system in post-independent India was reorganized. At the central level, the civil
services included the All-India services, such as the Indian Administrative
Service, the Indian Foreign Service, and the Indian Police Service, and 29
central services.
3.4 Employment Growth in Central Government:
The number of civilian employees in the central government has grown from
26.99 lacs in 1971 to 31.16 lacs in 2006. The strength of women in central
government employment has also shown a marked increase from 2.51 lacs in
1971 to 10.28 lacs in 2006(Census of central government employees, 2009)
91
3.5 Recruitment to Government Service
The two Organizations through which the Department ensures recruitment of
personnel for the Government are the Union Public Service Commission
(UPSC) and the Staff Selection Commission (SSC). The former is constituted
under a provision of the Constitution and is responsible for conducting
examinations for appointment to the higher civil services and civil posts under
the Union Government, including recruitment to the All India Services. There is
a mandatory provision for consulting the commission on all matters relating to
methods of recruitment, principals to be followed in making promotions and
transfers from one service to another and on all disciplinary matters. The SSC is
responsible for making recruitment to subordinate staff such as Assistants,
Stenographers etc. (Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievance and Pensions)
3.6 Organisational Structure of Government of India
The work of Government of India is distributed into different
Ministries/Departments. As per the General Financial Rules (GFR) a department
is responsible for formulation of policies of the government in relation to
business allocated to it and also for the execution and review of those policies.
The secretary is the administrative head of a Department and is assisted by
special secretaries, Additional secretaries, Joint secretaries, Directors, Deputy
Secretaries, under secretaries and section Officers.
Each Department may have one or more attached or subordinate offices which
generally function as field establishments or as agencies responsible for the
detailed execution of the policies of government. These offices are responsible
for decentralisation of executive action and/or direction, for providing executive
92
direction required in the implementation of the policies laid down by the
respective department. They also serve as repository of technical information
and advise the department on technical aspects of question dealt with by them
(Central secretariats Manual of Office Procedures, 2010)
Besides, the attached and subordinate offices there are a large number of
organizations which carry out different functions assigned to them. These may
be categorized as follows:
i) Constitutional Bodies: Such bodies which are constituted under the provisions
of the Constitution of India.
ii) Statutory Bodies: Such bodies which are established under the statute or an
Act of Parliament.
iii) Autonomous Bodies: Such bodies which are established by the government
to discharge the activities which are related to governmental functions. Although
such bodies are given autonomy to discharge their functions in accordance with
the Memorandum of Associations etc., but the Governments control exists since
these are funded by the Government of India.
iv) Public Sector Undertakings: Public Sector Undertaking is that part of the
industry which is controlled fully or partly by the Government. These
undertakings have been set up in the form of companies or corporations in which
the shares are held by the President or his nominees and which are managed by
Board of Directors which includes officials and non-officials (Second
Administrative Reforms Commission - Thirteenth Report, 2008)
93
3.7 Government as a Model Employer
Over the period the Central Government has turned out to be one of the biggest
employers in India. Being the Government, there is naturally an obligation that the
government must also be a model employer. A large number of employee friendly
measures exist in the government set-up, which promote the employees comfort
and also provide a sense of permanence. To begin with the constitution of India
itself provides vital safe guards to the employees against the arbitrariness and
vindictiveness by the employer. The constitution even provides for the recruitment
procedure to be followed and deals with the structure and conditions for the
recruiting bodies as well.
The provisions relating to the service conditions of the Central Government servants
are contained in Part XIV of Constitution, Chapter I, Articles 308 to 313. The
provisions relating to the service commissions to be constituted for recruitment of
the Government servants are contained in the Constitution. (Part XIV of
Constitution, Chapter II, Articles 315 to 323). More particularly, Articles 310 and
311 directly deal with the appointment and removal and are reproduced herein
under:
310. (1) Except as expressly provided by this Constitution, every person who
is a member of a defence service or of a civil service of the Union or of an
all-India service or holds any post connected with defence or any civil post
under the Union holds office during the pleasure of the President, and every
person who is a member of a civil service of a State or holds any civil post
under a State holds office during the pleasure of the Governor of the State.
(2) Notwithstanding that a person holding a civil post under the Union or a
State holds office during the 181 pleasure of the President or, as the case
94
may be, of the Governor of the State, any contract under which a person, not
being a member of a defence service or of an all-India service or of a civil
service of the Union or a State, is appointed under this Constitution to hold
such a post may, if the President or the Governor, as the case may be, deems
it necessary in order to secure the services of a person having special
qualifications, provide for the payment to him of compensation, if before the
expiration of an agreed period that post is abolished or he is, for reasons not
connected with any misconduct on his part, required to vacate that post.
311. (1) No person who is a member of a civil service of the Union or an all-
India service or a civil service of a State or holds a civil post under the
Union or a State shall be dismissed or removed by an authority subordinate
to that by which he was appointed.
(2) No such person as aforesaid shall be dismissed or removed or reduced in
rank except after an inquiry in which he has been informed of the charges
against him and given a reasonable opportunity of being heard in respect of
those charges : [Provided that where it is proposed after such inquiry, to
impose upon him any such penalty, such penalty may be imposed on the
basis of the evidence adduced during such inquiry and it shall not be
necessary to give such person any opportunity of making representation on
the penalty proposed:
Provided further that this clause shall not apply
(a) where a person is dismissed or removed or reduced in rank on the
ground of conduct which has led to his conviction on a criminal charge; or
Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil
capacities under the Union or a State.
95
(b) where the authority empowered to dismiss or remove a person or to
reduce him in rank is satisfied that for some reason, to be recorded by that
authority in writing, it is not reasonably practicable to hold such inquiry; or
(c) where the President or the Governor, as the case may be, is satisfied that
in the interest of the security of the State it is not expedient to hold such
inquiry.
(3) If, in respect of any such person as aforesaid, a question arises whether it
is reasonably practicable to hold such inquiry as is referred to in clause (2),
the decision thereon of the authority empowered to dismiss or remove such
person or to reduce him in rank shall be final.]
It can be seen from the above provisions that the government servants enjoy
special protection against arbitrary action by the state or the superior authorities
except in exceptional circumstances. This is one of the main stay of Indian
Bureaucracy and has attracted the citizens to the government service. Further,
sufficient safeguards have been put in place to ensure fairness and merit based
recruitment system in place.
There are several other benefits offered by the Central Government which are
not commonly found in other employment options. These conditions/ benefits
make the services more attractive. Some of the benefits offered by Central
Government are:
i) Linking pay with the inflation (Notification No.1(3)/2008-E-II(B) dt. 29-08-2008)
ii) Five working days per week
96
iii) Protection against the work done lawfully in bonafide manner (Indian Penal
Code)
iv) Protection against removal / dismissal from service except in cases of
endangering the national interests (Constitution of India Article 311)
v) Housing at cheaper rates (GOI order No.I-17011111(4)/2008-H.III House
Building Advance)
vi) Cheaper loans (GOI order NO.12 (1)/E.II/(A)/2008)
vii) Assured career progression schemes (GOI order No.35034/3/2008-Estt (D) dt.
19-05-2009)
viii) Full medical assistance to the employee and the family and also to retired
employees (CGHS)
ix) Forums for speedy redress of grievances (SEVOTTAM - Central Public
Grievances Redress Mechanism)
x) Employment to the spouse / children on Compassionate ground on death (GOI
orderO.M.No.14014/2/2009-Estt. (D))
xi) Sports and other recreational facilities
II. For promoting and facilitating women workforce
i) Exemption of the women candidates from payment of fees from competitive
examinations
97
ii) Representation of women on selection boards/committees
iii) Maternity Leave, Child Care Leave and Child Adoption Leave (RULE 43-
Maternity Leave, RULE 43B-Child Adoption Leave, RULE 43C-Child care Leave
DOP&Ts Circular No. No.13018/1/2010)
iv) Special Allowance to women with disability
v) Guidelines for provision of crche facility
vi) Posting of husband and wife at the same station (F.NO.28034//9/2009-Estt.(A)
vii) Special priority for working women in allotment of residential accommodation
viii) Provision of protection of women against sexual harassment at work place
(Department of Personnel and Trainings O.M. No. 11013/10/97-Estt. (A) dated
13.02.1998 and 13.07.1999, O.M. No. 11013/11/2001-Estt. (A) dated 12.12.2002
and 04.08.2005 and O.M. No. 11013/3/2009-Estt. (A) dated 02.02.2009 )
ix) Age relaxation for appointment
x) Age-relaxation for Widows, divorced Women and Women judicially separated
from their husband ( http://upsc.gov.in/recruitment/additional_infor.htm )
xi) Special dispensation for women officers of North East Cadre
Conclusion:
In view of the employee welfare provisions and job security provided by the
Constitution, the government employment has always been lucrative option for all
98
the job seekers and unemployed. This also gets support from the large number of
aspirants for small number of vacancies for any government job. The UPSC and
Staff Selection Commissions invariably get tremendous response to the recruitment
process.The large number of employee friendly measures that exist in the
government set-up promote the employees comfort, protect the employee from
employers arbitrariness and vindictiveness and also provide a sense of permanence.
99
CHAPTER 4
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, OBJECTIVES,
HYPOTHESIS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Statement of the problem
Central Government is the largest bureaucratic setup of the country. It is also highly
sought after employment because of inherent benefits and safeguards it provides to
its employees making it the largest employer in our country. It embodies all the
principles of bureaucracy like universalism, standardization, reliability, precision,
most importantly being fair and unbiased employer. Its prime function is to serve
people, as stated by Gluick, L.,(1983), Governments are constituted of human
serving human beings.
For any organization performance of its employees is of prime important as it results
into organizational performance. By itself performance as a factor depends upon
presence of competency in its employees and their inclination to use that
competency. This is where the role of occupational stress comes in. Occupational
stress whether perceived as a challenge or a threat, affects employee performance.
Stress at work is known to bring out physiological and psychological changes in an
employee. Though employees try to cope with stress in their own way, the level of
perceived stress and the effectiveness of their coping mechanism together decide
their performance. This complex construct is a prevalent workplace feature. Central
government sector is no exception in this respect. There are widespread perceptions
about the effectiveness of the government employee and the occupational stress
100
levels among them. On one side where its provisions benefit and safeguard its
employees, on other side with changing time, performance pressure on government
servant have become multi fold. Ever increasing workload, high people expectation,
high level of public awareness, high public intolerance, appropriateness in public
life (Ali, S., Rao,A.,2000), specially with the enforcement of Right to Information
Act in October, 2005, a government servant has come under immense public glare
and scrutiny.
In view of the perceived role of the central government, the importance of human
role in government and pressures coming from diverse stakeholders- The present
study aims to investigate occupational stress encountered by central government
employees, coping strategies adopted by them and their relation with employee
performance.
4.2 Scope of the study
This research study is mainly concerned with an inquiry and investigation about the
human functioning in central government departments. The emphasis is on human
behavioural factors. The objective of the study is to throw light on the human aspect
of the central government employees. The study is conducted on civilian, white
collared employees, group A, B and C, of Central Government working in Pune.
The research study has been designed to known the occupational stress levels of
central government employees, to identify the employees coping style and
importantly how occupational stress and coping are linked to employee
performance. The study also works towards establishing the relationship of gender
variable, occupational level and age groups with occupational stress, coping and
performance.
101
4.3 Statement of Objectives
1. To study the performance of employees as a function of occupational stress and
coping.
2. To study occupational stress in relation with coping of central government
employees.
3. To study performance of central government employees with respect to
4. To study occupational stress of central government employees with respect to
5. To study coping of central government employees with respect to occupational
level gender and age group.
4.4 Research Hypotheses
H01 - Performance of the employees of central government is not a function of
H11 - Performance of the employees of central government is a function of
H02- Occupational stress of central government employees is not significantly
related to coping.
H12 - Occupational stress of central government employees is significantly related
to coping.
H03- Performance of central government employees is not significantly related to
their occupational level, gender and age group.
102
H13- Performance of central government employees is significantly related to
their occupational level, gender and age group.
H04 - Occupational stress of central government employees is not significantly
related to their occupational level, gender and age group.
H14 - Occupational stress of central government employees is significantly related
to their occupational level, gender and age group.
H05 - Coping is not significantly related to occupational level, gender and age
group of central government employees.
H15 - Coping is significantly related to occupational level, gender and age group of
central government employees.
4.5 Research design
This research study follows the descriptive method of research. The descriptive
studies, in contrast to exploratory, relates to more formalized studies typically
structured with clearly stated hypotheses or investigative questions. Formal studies
of this nature serve a variety of research objectives such as; description of
phenomena, characteristics associated with a subject population (who, what, when
and how of a topic) and discovery of association among different variables.
4.6 Operational Definition
Occupational level: In the research study occupational level refers to the position
(rank) of the employee. There are two positions incorporated in the study. One is
officer category and second is staff. Employees of Central Government belonging to
Group A and Group B together make the officer category; employees of Central
government belonging to Group C make the staff category.
103
Occupational stress: occupational stress is a stress related to work. There are
eighteen components of occupational stress. The mean score of occupational stress
scale is called as occupational stress.
Performance: Performance is taken as a multidimensional concept. There are eight
dimensions / components of performance scale. Here the mean score of the
performance scale is called as performance.
Coping: Coping refers to attempts to meet environmental demands in order to
prevent negative consequences (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984). Here, coping is
studied as Approach Coping and Avoidance Coping. There are three components of
approach coping and two components of avoidance coping. Mean score of approach
coping strategies is called approach coping and mean score of avoidance coping
strategies is called avoidance coping.
Central Government Employee: Employees currently working with the central
government departments.
4.7 Sampling design
The sampling technique followed was stratified random sampling. The sample size
was decided using the following mathematical formula;
2
Z X pq
N = -------------------
e2
Where, z is confidence level desired (at 95% the value of z is 1.96), p is the ratio of
officers to the total population (0.16), q is the ratio of staff to the total population
104
(0.84) and e is the tolerance error of the estimate (5% which is 0.05). Based on the
above, the sample required is 206.
Sampling Technique: The sample was randomly selected from among 10
government departments. The data about the sample frame is tabulated below.
Table 4.1: Sampling frame:
Officers (A) Staff (B)
Total Required Targeted Collected Required Targeted Collected
Employees sample sample sample sample sample sample
4673 38 354 229 168 354 171
(Total) Required Sample 206; Targeted sample 708; Collected sample - 400
4.8 Instrument used for data gathering
The instrument has two parts: (Annexure- B)
A) Contains questions of demographic value: Name (Optional), Department,
Designation, Group /Occupational level, Gender, Age,
B) Contains three tools: I- Occupational Stress Scale, II- Performance scale, III-
Coping Strategies Scale.
I - Occupational Stress Scale:
Occupational stressors faced by central government employees and the extent of
stress which employees perceived arising from various components of job was
measured using this scale. It has 67 statements covering 18 components (explanation
of components in chapter -5). It is based on Occupational Stress Index (OSI),

105
constructed and standardized by Srivastav, A.K., & Singh, A.P. (1984), and
discussions held by central government employees. Reliability as measured in terms
of cronbach alpha on SPSS 16.0 is 0.856.
This tool is a paper pencil test which has meaningful item statements relevant to
work related situations. It is a five point Likert scale with scores ranging from:
5(strongly agree) to 1(strongly disagree). There are 41 true keyed and 26 reverse
keyed statements. For the reverse keyed statement the scoring pattern is reversed.
(Description of scale is presented as Annexure- C)
II- Performance scale:
Employee performance was studied using this scale. It is based on -Taxonomy of
Higher- Order Performance Dimensions model proposed by Campbell (1990),
discussions held with Central Government employees and the study of performance
appraisal forms used in various central government offices. Reliability as measured
in terms of cronbach alpha on SPSS 16.0 is 0.82. There are 22 statements covering
eight dimensions/components of employee performance (explanation of components
in chapter- 5). This is also a paper pencil test. The tool contains very relevant items
statements drawn in relation to the dimensions of performance. It was a 9 point
Likert scale, with values ranging from +4 to -4. This was converted to a 5 point scale
for ease in calculation; +4 and +3 becoming 5, +2 and +1 becoming 4, 0 becomes 3;
-1 and -2 becomes 2; -3 and -4 becomes 1. The scores range from 5(strongly agree)
to 1(strongly disagree).There are 15 are true keyed and 7 reverse keyed. For the
reverse keyed statement the scoring pattern is reversed. (Description of scale is
presented as Annexure- C)
106
III- Coping Strategies Scale:
The coping mechanism of employees of central government was identified using
this scale. This scale is widely used as a standard measure of coping. It has been
constructed and standardized by Srivastava, A.K. (2001). The scale is of sufficient
reliability and validity. Reliability measured in terms of cronbach alpha on SPSS
16.0 is 0.886 for approach coping and 0.857 for avoidance coping. The Coping
Strategies Scale comprises of 49 statements, describing varieties of coping
behaviour underlying following five major categories of coping strategies based on
the combinations of operation and orientation of the behaviour thus identifying
approach coping and avoidance coping (Explanation of components in chapter -5)
There are 49 statements in the scale that depict natural tendency of a person while
dealing with the situation. These statements describe ways in which a person either
gets actively involved or tries to avoid getting involved in dealing with the situation.
The statements are rated on a five point Likert scale with scores ranging from
4(almost always) to 0(never). (Description of scale is presented as Annexure- C)
4.9 Pilot Study:
Pilot study was conducted as a precursor to the main survey. The aim of conducting
pilot study was to test the tools to be used for research, in terms of comprehension of
questions, validity and reliability of the questionnaire and find the overall feasibility
of conducting the study.
As a result of pilot study few corrections were made in the questionnaire. The tests
contained statements relevant to the field hence were found to be having sufficient
face validity. Questionnaires were distributed to employees, randomly selected. Data
collected from employees showed a reliability coefficient measure of 0.856 (N= 62)
107
for occupational stress scale, 0.82 (N=62) for the performance scale, 0.860 (N= 54)
for approach coping and 0.857 (N= 54) for avoidance coping. The reliability table
for the various variables is as follows:
Table 4.2 Reliability statistics for Occupational stress and its components
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's
Alpha Based
on
Cronbach's Standardized
Alpha Items N of Items
.856 .858 67
108
Cronbach
Sr.
Variables n for variables alpha
no.
coefficient
1. Role ambiguity 4 0.761
2. Role conflict 7 0.716
3. Role overload 5 0.738
4. Responsibility for persons 3 0.822
5. Poor peer relation 4 0.724
6. Lack of supervisory support 3 0.719
7. Relationship with subordinates 2 0.751
8. Group and political pressure 4 0.683
9. Powerlessness 5 0.835
10. Under participation 4 0.750
11. Constraint of rule and regulation 2 0.730
12. Intrinsic impoverishment 6 0.701
13. Low status 3 0.786
14. Unprofitability 2 0.722
15. Strenuous working condition 4 0.727
16. Relocation/transfer 2 0.707
17. Work family interface 5 0.705
18. Present ability at work 2 0.765
109
Table 4.3 Reliability statistics for performance and its components
Cronbach's
Alpha Based
on
.821 .823 22
Sr. no. Variable n for variable Cronbach alpha

coefficient
1. Task proficiency 4 0.751
2. Motivation 2 0.849
3. Commitment 2 0.701
4. Personal discipline 6 0.713
5. Communication 2 0.873
6. Relationship with co workers 2 0.765
7. Relationship with external 2 0.717

customer
8. Non job specific activities 2 0.722
110
Table 4.4 Reliability statistics for Approach coping, Avoidance coping and their
respective components
The tool is well standardized and validated by Srivastav, A.K. and was used in the
present study to investigate and understand the coping strategy of employees.
Reliability Statistics for Approach
Coping Strategies
Cronbach's
Alpha Based on
.860 .862 29
Sr. Variable n for variable Cronbach
no. alpha
coefficient
1. Behavioural Approach coping 15 0.635
2. Cognitive approach Coping 6 0.722
3. Cognitive- Behavioural Approach 8 0.728
111
Reliability Statistics for Avoidance
Coping Strategies
Cronbach's
Alpha Based on
.857 .859 20
Sr. Variable n for variable Cronbach alpha
no. coefficient
1. Behavioural Avoidance coping 13 0.744
2. Cognitive Avoidance Coping 7 0.712
4.10 Procedure of data collection:
The participants were approached at their work place. The forms containing various
tests were circulated randomly and respondents were asked to fill in demographic as
well as other information.
Data Analysis:
The data was analyzed giving thought to the main hypothesis: to find relationships
between, performance, occupational stress and coping. Each assessment was looked
at individually and descriptive statistics were computed for each. Frequency reports
on the specific questions were run to determine agreement within the measures. All
112
assessments were also correlated with one another to find existence of any
relationships between the variables. Questionnaires contained some positive
questions and some negative question. If the scale used was from 1 to 5, 5 being the
maximum score for each question, for example if there are four questions on role
ambiguity then the maximum score for role ambiguity will be 20. For negative
questions the score was reversed. Total scores for each area of occupational stress,
performance and coping were calculated and the total score was tabulated. Multiple
regression analysis, simple regression, ANOVA, correlation, t- statistic was
conducted to explore different relationships. Findings of the research study and
suggestions are covered in later chapters.
113
CHAPTER 5
CONCEPTUAL ASPECT OF THE RESEARCH VARIABLES
The research variables studied here were both demographic and psychographic in
nature. The demographic variables were:
i) Occupational Level: It was studied as the position held by an employee
either as an officer or as staff.
ii) Gender: It was studied as a binary construct male or female
iii) Age: It was studied as chronological age categorized as; Below 30 yrs., From
30 to 50 yrs., and Above 50 yrs. of age.
The psychographic variables studied were; Occupational Stress, Performance and
Coping (studied as Approach Coping and Avoidance Coping).
Occupational Stress: It was taken as resulting from of an individuals interaction
with stressors in work environment. The parameters of occupational stress studied
were:
1. Role ambiguity: A role is defined as a set of behaviour expected of a person
occupying a particular position. In an organization a role related information is
required to be clearly communicated to the employees. When role related
information is unclear, it leads to a stressor known as role ambiguity. Which means
a person when unclear about the work procedures or objectives or uncertain about
the scope and responsibilities of the position held would find himself/herself in a
state of internal confusion regarding what others expect of him/ her, how precisely
he/ she fits into the organizations scheme of work, lines of accountability, how time
needs to be prioritized and how and on what basis work will be evaluated. With no
114
clear sense of what is required to get ahead, absence of feedback results into
significant stress reaction.
2. Role conflict: Sometimes the role related information provided by one member of
the role set (The various sources that communicate role related information to the
employee) conflicts with the information provided by the other. The stressor that
results is role conflict. This simply means an employee receiving conflicting
messages pertaining to one role, is coming from two role senders. E.g. a salesperson
may be told by one manager to spend more time prospecting for new customers
whereas another manager may feel that more time should be spent providing service
to existing customers. Most often role conflict is due to poor communication and
coordination among role senders (Schaubroeck, Ganster, Sime, & Ditman, 1993). At
times role conflict is unavoidable especially for people who occupy boundary
spanning role in the organization.
3. Role overload: Role overload may occurs when an employer demands more of an
employee than he or she can reasonably accomplish in a given time, or simply, the
employee may perceive the demand of work as excessive. Role overload can be
quantitative or qualitative role overload. Quantitative role overload is experienced
when employee is fully capable of meeting role demands. Problem is that there are
too many role demands. If the increase in load is only because of amount of work, it
can be called as increased workload. On the other hand, if a qualitatively
overloaded, the demands of the role exceed the employees skill and ability. There
are several factors that may contribute to quantitative and qualitative role overload.
e.g. downsizing in organizations may lead to understaffing (Jick, T. D. cited in
Beehr (1985)) which may increase the quantitative overload of those who remain in
the organization. Organizations with job designs catering to maximizing profitability
115
may have overloaded employees .Most of the qualitative overload occurs when there
a misfit between person and environment. Sometimes the misfit is because of lack of
ability e.g. An architectural student lacking spatial ability. At times it also happens
that requisites abilities are not developed because of poorly designed training
programs (Goldstein,I.L.,1993). Role overload be it qualitative or quantitative may
act as a stressor.
4. Responsibility for people: Being responsible for other peoples work and
performance demands that more time be spent in interacting with others. This has
been identified as a significant source of stress. French and Caplan (1970)
acknowledged that it is responsibility for people that is more likely to lead to
cardiovascular disease.
5. Poor peer relations: Peer group of an employee provides invaluable social
support. Colleagues often help when required, give advice and provide emotional
support. Good relationship with colleagues which can prove to be very helpful to
ease job strain. On the contrary a person having poor peer relationship may feel
isolated and unwanted at times making a person more competitive than cooperative.
According to Swap and Rubin, (1983) excess of competitiveness may give rise to
negativity despite favourable situational factors.
6. Lack of supervisory support: A proper balance between task orientation and
relationship orientation is required of supervisors. Subordinates not only look up to
their bosses for technical guidance but also need encouragement from time to time.
Lack of supervisory support may prove detrimental to the working efficiency of both
the parties. Recent research has found that most job stress is attributed to employees
manager or boss (Savic & Pagon, 2008). Whether the boss is the actual cause of the
116
stress is irrelevant. Subordinates perceive that supervisors and managers have
greater control over stressful events than they do. Lack of support on the part of the
supervisor may to contribute significantly to feelings of job pressure.
7. Relationship with subordinates: Having cordial working relations with
subordinates has become important especially with jobs where job security is
perceived. A subordinates refusal to participate fully may bring down the working
efficiency as whole. Great amount of research focusing on superior subordinate
relationship justifies the inclusion of this stressor as a potential source of stress.
8. Group and political pressure: Benefits of work group are well documented (Smith
et al.,1982).Individual need for affiliation are satisfied within a group .A group
offers social support to the worker which is a source of strength. However both
formal and informal group put considerable pressure on an individual to conform to
group norms, which may concern performance rate, status and style of relationship.
A stressor situation develops when, beliefs and behaviour of the individual is
suppressed (Quick and Quick, 1984).Group and political pressures can affect
performance rates, attitude towards work which can be detrimental to both the
individual and the organization.
9. Powerlessness: Powerlessness another source of job stress refers to the perception
that an individual cannot control outcomes. e.g. having too much responsibility and
too little authority, unfair labour practices, and inadequate job descriptions. When
one feels powerless the feeling of hopelessness is so strong that a person does
nothing to alter the situation. Powerlessness has been linked to anxiety.
10. Under participation: Participation in the decision making process increases
involvement in the organization, helping to create a sense of belongingness.
117
Involvement can be at three levels; Physical (related to presence), cognitive (related
to mental involvement), emotional (related to psychological involvement).Increased
involvement gives a sense of high worth which is linked to greater commitment
towards work. Caplan et al.,1975., found that lack of participation in work activity
was associated with negative psychological mood and behavioral responses,
including escapist drinking and heavy smoking
11. Constraint of rule and regulation: Rules and regulation serve to guide work
processes. At times, policies and regulations limit the alternative solution available
to employees. A person may feel handicapped in the presence of extra rules and
regulation as they may curb autonomy at work thus becoming a potential stressor.
12. Intrinsic Impoverishment: Intrinsic impoverishment is felt when skill and
competencies present with a person exceed requirement .If an individual feels that
he/she is not getting anywhere, and is unable to show perceived and actual skills at
work. Repetitive jobs are potentially stressful. As early as in 1965, Kornhauser
found that work that is dull, repetitive and monotonous is detrimental to the
individuals mental and physical well being.
13. Low status: Status and social esteem varies greatly and is related to skill level,
educational background and professional position. Within every organization status
congruence exists by virtue of ones job category. When an individual feels that
status expectations are not met it may lead to stress (Lundberg, Cooper.,2011).
Incongruence between actual status at work and what the worker believes it should
be can be frustrating, especially when status is lower than expected.
14. Unprofitability: Lack of appreciation of work or expected reward (extrinsic or
intrinsic) can also become a potential source of stress. Every employee works
118
toward an expected outcome, required by the work environment. Acknowledgement
on achieving the output expected of a person boosts morale, on the other hand lack
of appreciation of the same leads to de-motivation which over a prolonged period of
time may lead to stress.
15. Strenuous working condition: If an employee feels that job has made his / her
life cumbersome than it may become a potential source of stress. Risky and
complicated requirement of the job increase the potential of job stress the other
conditions could be necessity to work fast, to expend a lot of physical and mental
effort working excessive and inconvenient hours etc.
16. Relocation /transfer: Some individuals need to remain geographically mobile in
order to stay in employment. This may require relocation of the family or the need to
work away from home (in case the family cannot shift) for extended periods of time.
Although some employees thrive and cope with this way of life easily, for many
others the experience is stressful and traumatic.
17. Relationship between work and family: Various factors may affect the
relationship between work and family. The stress and strain of a job may spill over
into family life. Job structure may place constraints on the amount of time spent
with the family. Child rearing are responsibilities more acutely felt when both
partners are working or it is done by a single parent (as in case of a divorced
couple), for example , finding good child care facility is vital, school holidays and
child illness are difficult problems that must be overcome. Since these issues affect
an increasingly larger percentage of workers, it would seem that organizations might
be more realistic in understanding the spill over problems that exists because of
employees having dual responsibility.
119
18. Present ability at work: In todays time looking presentable at workplace has
become more of a requirement than choice. Employees are increasingly becoming
aware of the importance of being well dressed at work and have become more self
conscious. Dressing is closely related to self concept and a way of non verbal
communication. Henley (1979) had stated that feminine stereotype depict women to
be more concerned with their clothing and appearance. The grooming that goes
behind making oneself presentable at workplace is not just time consuming but also
comes at a cost thus may come across as a potential source of stress.
Performance: Performance is treated as a multidimensional concept. Elements like
motivation, commitment, and discipline get reflected in a persons behaviour and are
believed to define performance along with the presence of skill and talent.
Parameters on which performance is based are given below:
1. Task proficiency: The behaviour involves performance of duties and
responsibilities as per an employees given job description. This represents the
degree to which an individual can perform the core task associated with their jobs.
This is related to ones knowledge of skills and their usage at work and will affect
performance effectiveness at work. Quality of work and quantity can be direct
measures of job related task proficiency.
2. Motivation: The behaviour represents the willingness to perform. A motivated
person shows high level of involvement in performing his duty. According to Dubin,
R. (1970) motivation is a complex of forces starting and keeping a person at work
in an organization. The purpose of motivation is to create behaviour in which
people are willing to work with zeal, initiative, interest so that the goals of
organization are achieved effectively.
120
3. Commitment: It represents the behaviour to persist even when the task becomes
trying, a strong belief in and acceptance of the organizations goals, a willingness to
exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization, and a definite desire to
maintain organizational membership. Building employee commitment to the
workplace is one important goal of human resource policies and practices. Research
shows commitment is closely and positively linked to productivity. Studies
examining different types of work sectors have found that government employees
have higher levels of continuance commitment then other sectors (Meyer & Allen,
1997).
4. Personal discipline: It represents an employees tendency to exercise personal
control in the purview of organizational rules and regulations. It involves restrain in
behaviour from doing things that could be destructive to attaining overall goals and
objectives. It means working and behaving in an orderly way as is expected of an
employee. According to Dr Spreigel as cited in Mamoria, C.B.(1990)Discipline is
the force that prompts an individual or a group to observe rules regulations and
procedures which are deemed to be necessary to the attainment of an objective.
5. Communication: It takes care of the writing and oral ability required for every
job. It may be taken to mean the transferring of a mental concept from the brain of
one individual to the brain of another. Effective communication may cement an
organization whereas non- effective communication may disrupt it. Since managers
work through others, all their acts, policies, rules, orders and procedures must pass
through some sort of communication channel. In the words of Drucker, the tool that
guides, organizes, employees is information, whether spoken or written and decides
their effectiveness.
121
6. Relationship with coworkers: It represents the relationship shared by superior,
subordinate and colleagues. Good relations generate better understanding of
members. It promotes healthy working conditions and a better work culture. In
Government functioning formal groups are a required system through which
objectives and goals could be achieved. The relationships are defined by the
structural design and responsibility authority and accountability concepts are
implemented. Thus employees positioned within the formal structure coordinate and
cooperate to attain common goals and objectives defining performance.
7. Relationship with external customer: The aim of government organizations is to
serve people. Directly or indirectly the benefit of work has to pass to a common man
who is the ultimate client or customer. Public is the king and an ultimate judge of
government working thus making public relation important part of every
government employees job.
8. Non job specific task: represents other than formally expected behaviour. As a
government servant every employee is supposed to work in any capacity, within the
purview of his/her capability, even residual. Protocol, arbitrary committee
membership, forming quality circles, training circles etc. are important activities that
contribute to performance.
Coping: Here coping is measured as approach coping and avoidance coping. Based
on the level of operation of coping process ( i.e. cognitive or behavioural coping
strategies) and orientation or mode of coping effort ( i.e. approach and avoidance
coping strategies), five major categories of coping strategies have been suggested
which broadly fall under two heads, Approach Coping and Avoidance Coping.
122
I. Approach Coping: Approach coping strategies are characterized by direct
attempts to deal with the situation through overt action or realistic problem
solving mental activity e.g. discussing with experts, brainstorming, and thinking
about alternative solutions etc. In these strategies, our focus is on the problem to
be dealt with and on the agent that has induced stress. These have been
categorized into three:
i. Behavioral Approach Coping Strategy: The characteristic feature of this
coping strategy is confronting, planning, taking impulsive decisions, negotiating
etc. Common to all is the tendency to do /act in a way of directly doing
something about the problem situation. E.g. devote more time and energy to
meet the demand of situation.
ii. Cognitive Approach Coping: The characteristic features are intellectualization,
positive reinterpretation, cognitive reappraisal etc. The coping strategy is by
getting mentally involved in dealing with the problem situation. e. g. coming up
with a couple of alternative solution to the problem.
iii. Cognitive Behavioral Approach Coping Strategy: This is a combination of
above two strategies, exhibiting characteristic features of both. This involves
along with appraising the problem situation also scheduling action to deal with
it. e.g. Console myself with the thought that the situation is not so bad as it could
have been and deal with positive effect.
II. Avoidance Coping: Avoidance coping strategies are those wherein a person
tries to get emotional solace and comfort e. g. Going off to sleep, take leave,
drinking alcohol, smoking, excessive eating etc . These have been further
categorized into two types:
123
i. Behavioral Avoidance Coping Strategy: The characteristic features are inhibition
of action, turning towards religion, escaping, behavioral disengagement,
withdrawal etc. The tendency of the person is to seek immediate relief by simply
avoiding the situation e.g. smoking, drinking alcohol, praying to God, etc.
ii. Cognitive Avoidance Coping Strategy: This is characterized by rationalization,
mentally distancing, resignation etc. The person facing the problem situation
instead of thinking ways of solving the problem blames himself for the present
situation feeling guilty and depressed.
124
CHAPTER 6
DATA ANALYSIS AND HYPOTHESIS TESTING
6.1 Descriptive Statistics
Data screening and assessing normality and linearity:
A computer data file was prepared from the master chart, for this process extreme
care was taken with respect to accuracy in the input of data. In the screening process
no outliers were found. The data file was completely checked till the errorless trials.
Thus, the data in each group and variable were carefully scrutinized by employing
normality tests. The sample available for the present analysis consisted of 400
subjects. Three categorical variables were used in the study- Occupational level,
gender and Age group. The distribution of the sample across the categorical
variables indicates as under:
Table 6.1 Occupational level, gender and age group wise distribution in sample
a) Occupational level
Occupational level Frequency Percent
A and B
229 57.3
Officer Level
C-
171 42.8
Staff
Total 400 100.0
125
b) Gender
Gender Frequency Percent
Male 239 59.8
Female 161 40.2
Total 400 100.0
c) Age group
Age group Frequency Percent
Below 35 67 16.75
35 to 50 204 51.0
Above 50 129 32.25
Total 400 100.00
Above tables a, b and c indicate the description of the categorical variables
occupational level and gender and age group. The occupational level variable is a
combination of officers and staff. Officer strength is 229 (57.3%) and staff strength
is 171 (42.8%). The gender variable is a combination of male and female
employees. Male employee number is 239 (59.8%) and female employee number is
161 (40.2%). Age group variable represents three employee groups; below 35 are
67(16.75%) 35 to 50 yrs are 204(51%) and above 50 are 129 (32.25%).
Assessing normality of data:
Occupational stress, Performance and Coping(Approach and Avoidance) were the
continuous variables. Analysis of continuous variables indicated that gathered data
126
was fulfilling the criteria of normality and there were no extreme cases(outliers) in
the data.
Analysis of Occupational stress levels of the present sample
Range of occupational stress Scale:
Minimum Maximum Range 33 Percent
67 335 268 89.33
According to manual of occupational stress, 1 is minimum score for each statement
and 5 is maximum score. As there are 67 statements in the test, hence minimum
score is 67, maximum score 335 and range is 268. There are three levels of
occupational stress i.e. low stress, moderate stress and high stress. On the basis of
this description, following analysis was carried out.
Figure 6.1- Distribution of employees in terms of occupational stress.
Occupational Stress
35
Low Stress
Moderate
365 ( 91%) High Stress
127
Interpretation: From the figure depicted above, the distribution of the sample under
study is evident. Of the 400 respondents who answered the questionnaire, 365 (91%)
indicate that their stress level is moderate and 35(9%) indicate towards having low
stress.
Table 6.2 Analysis of different components of occupational stress
(Number of statements is denoted as n)
a) Role ambiguity ( n= 4)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 9
75 11
Interpretation: 75% of employees have scores as 11 or under, meaning that they
perceive low to moderate stress due to role ambiguity.
b) Role conflict (n = 7)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 16
50 18
75 21
Interpretation: 75% of employees have scores under 21, indicating low to moderate
stress due to role conflict. It also reveals a greater concentration of response towards
moderate level of stress, making it a more potent stressor than role ambiguity.
128
c) Role overload (n = 5)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 13
50 16
75 19
Interpretation: 75% of the employees perceive high stress due to role overload.
d) Responsibility for persons (n= 3)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 9
75 11
Interpretation: 75% of the population unanimously agree to moderate level of stress
because of responsibility for persons.
e) Poor peer relation ( n=4)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 10
50 11
75 12
Interpretation: Moderate stress is prominently seen because of poor peer relation.
129
f) Lack of supervisory support (n= 3)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 6
50 8
75 9
Interpretation: Low to moderate stress is seen because of lack of supervisory support
among 75% of the employees.
g) Relationship with subordinates (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 7
50 8
75 9
Interpretation: 75% of people consider relationship with subordinates as a source of
moderate to high stress.
h) Group and political pressure (n= 4)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 10
75 12
Interpretation: Low to moderate stress levels are observed among 75% of employees
due to group and political pressure.
130
i) Powerlessness ( n=5)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 12
50 14
75 16
Interpretation: 75% employees perceive moderate stress due to powerlessness.
j) Under participation ( n= 4)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 10
50 12
75 14
Interpretation: 75% of employees have moderate stress due to under participation.
k) Constraint of rules and regulation ( n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 4
50 5
75 6
Interpretation: 75% people report low stress because of constraint of rules and
regulations.
131
l) Intrinsic impoverishment (n= 6)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 12
50 14
75 17
Interpretation: Low to moderate stress is reported by 75% of employees.
m) Low status( n=3)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 6
50 6
75 7
Interpretation: 75% employees perceive low stress because of low status.
n)Unprofitability(n= 2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 4
50 6
75 6
Interpretation: Low to moderate stress is reported by 75% people. Greater
concentration of responses is towards moderate stress.
132
O) Strenuous working condition (n= 4)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 10
75 12
Interpretation: Low to moderate stress is observed due to strenuous working
condition.
p) Relocation / Transfer (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 5
50 6
75 6
Interpretation: 75% of employees perceive moderate stress due to relocation /
transfer.
q) Work family interface (n= 5)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 13
50 16
75 18
Interpretation: 75% employees find themselves moderately stressed because of
shouldering dual responsibility at work and home.
133
r) Present ability at work (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 6
50 7
75 7
Interpretation: 75% of the people reporte moderate stress for present ability at work.
Analysis of performance level in the present sample
Range of Performance scale
22 110 88 29
1 is the minimum score for each statement and 5 is maximum score. As there are 22
statements in the test, hence minimum score is 22, maximum score is 110, range is
88. There are three levels of performance i.e. low performance, moderate
performance and high performance for the employee. On the basis of this
description, following analysis was carried out.
134
Figure 6.2 Distribution of employees in terms of performance
1% l
m
35%
64% h
Interpretation: From the figure depicted above, the distribution of the sample in
terms of performance is evident. Of the 400 respondents who answered the
questionnaire, 254 (64%) indicate that their performance level is high, 141 (35%)
indicate that their performance level is moderate, 5 (1%) indicate that their
performance level is low.
Table 6.3 Analysis of components of performance
a) Task proficiency ( n= 4)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 13
50 15
75 17
Interpretation: 50% of employees indicate towards moderate task proficiency &
25% of the employee sample indicates high task proficiency.
135
b) Motivation (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 9
75 10
Interpretation: 50% employees are moderately motivated & 25% of the employee
are highly motivated.
c) Commitment (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 9
75 10
Interpretation: 50% employees reveal moderate commitment & 25% of the
employees find themselves highly committed.
d) Personal discipline
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 16
50 18
75 22
Interpretation: 25% of employees reveal low personal discipline. 50% of the
employees are moderate on personal discipline.
136
e) Communication (n= 2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 9
75 10
Interpretation: 50% of the employees find moderate effectiveness of their
communication but 25% find it high.
f) Relationship with co-workers (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 8
50 9
75 10
Interpretation: 50% of the employees find working relationship with co- workers
moderate but 25% find it good.
g) Relationship with external customer (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 6
50 7
75 10
Interpretation: 50% of the employees show moderate level but 25% found
themselves good in their services towards external customer, client or public at
large.
137
h) Non job specific activities (n=2)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 5
50 8
75 9
Interpretation: 25% employees find performance on non job specific activities low
and for the 50% it is moderate.
Analysis of Approach coping level in the present sample
Range of Approach coping scale
0 116 116 38
0 is the minimum score for each statement and 4 is maximum score. There are 29
statements in the test, hence minimum score is 0, maximum score is 116 and range
is 116. There are three levels of approach coping i.e. low, moderate and high for the
employee. On the basis of this description, following analysis was carried out.
138
Figure 6.3 Distribution of employees in terms of Approach Coping.
3% l
m
87%
10% h
Interpretation: From the figure depicted above, of the 400 respondents who
answered the questionnaire, 42 (11%) indicated that their approach coping level is
high, 347 (87%) indicated that their approach coping level is moderate only 11 (3%)
indicated that their approach coping level is low.
Approach coping (n=29)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 57
50 66
75 73
Interpretation: The scores of approach coping is the sum of, behavioural approach,
cognitive approach and cognitive behavioural approach coping strategies.75% of
people show moderate approach coping.
139
Table 6.4 Analysis of components of approach coping
a) Behavioural Approach Coping ( n= 15)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 26
50 31
75 34
Interpretation: 75% employees show low to moderate usage. 50% showed moderate
usage.
b) Cognitive approach (n=6)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 11
50 13
75 16
Interpretation: 75% employees indicate low to moderate cognitive approach
coping.50% employees use it moderately.
c) Cognitive- Behavioural approach (n=8)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 19
50 21
75 24
Interpretation: 75% of employees use cognitivebehavioural approach coping
moderately.
140
Analysis of Avoidance coping level in the present sample
Range of Avoidance coping scale
0 80 80 26
0 is the minimum score for each statement and 4 is maximum score as there are 20
statements in the test, minimum score is 0, maximum score is 80, hence range is 80.
There are three levels of avoidance coping i.e. low, moderate and high for the
employee. On the basis of this description, following analysis is carried out.
Figure 6.4: Distribution of employees in terms of avoidance coping
51% l
m
48%
1% h
Interpretation:
From the figure depicted above, of the 400 respondents who answered the
questionnaire, 205 (51%) indicate low scores on avoidance coping, 193 (48%)
141
indicate moderate scores on avoidance coping only 2 (1%) indicate high scores on
avoidance coping.
Avoidance coping
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 21
50 26
75 31
Interpretation: 75% employees exhibit moderate to low tendency of which 50%
exhibit low tendency towards using avoidance coping.
Table 6.5 Analysis of components of avoidance coping
a) Behavioural avoidance ( n=13)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 13
50 17
75 23
Interpretation: 75% of employees show moderate to low scores on behavioural
avoidance coping. 50% are in low usage category.
142
e) Cognitive avoidance (n= 7)
N Valid 400
Missing 0
Percentiles 25 6
50 9
75 11
Interpretation: 75% employees show moderate to low scores on cognitive avoidance,
50% show low usage.
6.2 Inferential statistics
Multiple Regression Analysis: for studying employee performance is a function
of occupational stress and coping
Multiple Regressions analysis was carried out to examine whether, performance of
central government employees is a function of occupational stress and coping. Here
coping is studied in terms of approach coping and avoidance coping. As per norms,
occupational stress, approach coping and avoidance coping are the independent
variables (IV) and performance of the employee is dependent variable (DV).
The Bivariate product moment correlation between occupational stress, approach
coping and avoidance coping and performance is shown in following table-
143
Table 6.6- a) : Bivariate product moment correlation between occupational
stress, approach coping, avoidance coping and performance.
Occupational Approach Avoidance

Performance
Stress coping coping
Pearson
1
Correlation
Performance Sig. (2-tailed) .
N 400
Pearson
.157(**) 1
Correlation
Occupational
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .
Stress
N 400 400
Occupational Approach Avoidance

Performance
Stress coping coping
Pearson
.063 .143(**) 1
Correlation
Approach
Sig. (2-tailed) .212 .004 .
coping
N 400 400 400
Pearson
.102(*) .216(**) - 1
Correlation
Avoidance
Sig. (2-tailed) .041 .000 - .
coping
N 400 400 - 400
** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level; * Correlation significant at 0.05 (2-
tailed).
144
In the regression model occupational stress, approach coping and avoidance coping
are the independent variables and are entered simultaneously for the analysis using
the enter method.
Table 6.6 b): Model summary - occupational stress, approach coping, avoidance
as independent variables and performance as dependent variable.
R Adjusted Std. Error of the

Model R
Square R Square Estimate
1 .172(a) .030 .022 11.851
(a) Predictors: Occupational stress, Approach coping and Avoidance coping
The above model summary table gives us the R values for assessing the overall fit of
the model. The adjusted R square value in this case is .02 , this indicates that the
three IVs in our model account for 2.2 % variance in the DV (performance of the
employees of central government).
Table -6.6 c) : ANOVA summary of the occupational stress, approach coping,
avoidance coping as independent variables and performance as
dependent variable.
Source of Sum of Mean

Model Df F Sig.
variance Squares Square
Regression 1697.197 3 565.732 4.028 0.01 a
1 Residual 55618.48 396 140.451
Total 57315.68 399
Df (3,396), Sig.: 0.05 = 2.63, 0.01 = 3.83
a Predictors: (Constant), Occupational Stress, Approach coping, Avoidance coping
145
Dependent Variable: Performance
Column six shows the F Value as 4.028. This value is significant at 0.01 and
interprets significant results.
Table -6.6 d): Coefficients of the occupational stress, approach coping, avoidance
coping as independent variable and performance as dependent
variable.
Model Un-standardized Standardized

Coefficients Coefficients
T Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
1 (Constant) 66.744 5.296 12.603 .000
Occupational Stress .072 .026 .141 2.781 .006
Approach coping .010 .054 .010 .184 .854
Avoidance coping .086 .074 .067 1.164 .245
Dependent Variable: Performance
Using the regression coefficients for IVs the ordinary least square equation (OLS)
equation for predicting performance of the central government employees can be
written as:
Performance = 66.74 + .072 (Occupational stress) + .010 (Approach coping) + .086
(Avoidance coping)
Interpretation:
The adjusted R2 value reveals that independent variables (occupational stress,
approach coping and avoidance coping) in the multiple regression analysis model
accounts for 2.2% variance in the dependent variable (performance). The value of F
found significant proves that this regression model is significant. This helps us to
146
reject the null hypothesis and accept that employee performance is a function of
occupational stress and coping. At this stage, we find Approach coping and
Avoidance coping as weak predictors and occupational stress as strong predictor for
performance.
Simple Regression Analysis for studying effect of occupational stress on
performance:
Regression analysis was carried out to examine the effect of occupational stress on
the performance of the central government employee. As per norms, occupational
stress is independent variable and performance of the employee is dependent
variable.
The Bivariate product moment correlation between occupational stress and
performance is significant as shown in table no. - 6.6. a).
The relationship between occupational stress and performance is investigated by
using Pearson product moment correlation coefficient. The obtained coefficient r =
.157 is significant at 0.01 level and reveals positive relationship between
occupational stress and performance.
Table -6.7 a) : Model summary of the occupational stress as independent variable
and performance as dependent variable.
R Adjusted Std. Error of

Model R
Square R Square the Estimate
1 .157(a) .025 .022 11.852
a Predictors: Occupational Stress
In the present analysis R value (.157) indicates correlation between the observed
values and the predicted values of the DV. This R value is a square root of the R2
147
value. R2 (.025) gives the proportion of variance in the dependent variable caused by
the set of IV s chosen for the model. An adjusted R Square value of 0.02 means that
the IV (occupational stress) in the model can predict 2% of the variance in the DV
(performance).
Table -6.7 b) : ANOVA summary of the occupational stress as independent variable
and performance is dependent variable.
Source of Sum of Mean

Model Df F Sig.
Variance Squares Square
Regressio
1412.91 1 1412.91 10.06 0.01
n
1
Residual 55902.77 398 140.46
Total 57315.68 399
The F value 10.06 is significant at 0.01 and interprets significant results.
Table -6.7 c) : Coefficients of the occupational stress as independent variable and
performance as dependent variable.
Un-standardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficients T Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 68.16 4.70 14.50 .01
1 Occupational
.08 .025 .157 3.17 .01
Stress
The regression equation can be written as:
Performance = 68.16 + 0.08 (Occupational stress)
Interpretation:
Significant value of F indicates that the regression model is significant and that the
value of R2 is not by chance. This also interprets that occupational stress has effect
148
on employee performance. At this stage, occupational stress is found to be a
predictor for employee performance.
Calculation 6.1 Bi-serial correlation to study relation between occupational
level (officers and staff) and Performance:
Descriptive of the groups: Officers and Staff
Std.
Occupational level N Mean
Deviation
A and B - Officer
229 83.21 11.66
Level
Performance
C-Staff 171 82.58 12.43
Total 400 82.94 11.98
Analysis:
rbis=
rbis= 0.03 (Table value for 0.05 = .098 and for 0.01 = .118)
Interpretation:
The obtained rbis value is .03 which is smaller than table value and interprets that
there is no significant correlation between performance and occupational level as
officers and staff.
149
Table 6.8: t test for studying difference in occupational level for components
of performance
Component Group N df t Sig.

Task Officer Level 229
398 1.287 NS
proficiency Staff 171
Officer Level 229
Motivation 398 1.810 NS
Staff 171
Commitment Officer Level 229
398 0.506 NS
Staff 171
Personal Officer Level 229
398 0.769 NS
Discipline Staff 171
Officer Level 229
Communication 398 0.436 NS
Staff 171
Relationship Officer Level 229
398 0.69 NS
with co worker Staff 171
Relationship
Officer Level 229
with external 398 0.969 NS
customer Staff 171
Non job specific Officer Level 229

398 0.213 NS
task proficiency Staff 171
Interpretation: The results of t-test indicate that there is no significant difference
between occupational level and various components of performance.
150
Calculation 6.2 Bi-serial correlation to study relation between gender (male and
female) and Performance:
Descriptive of the groups: Males and females
Std.
Group N Mean
Deviation
Males 239 83.55 12.23
Performance Females 161 82.04 11.59
Total 400 82.94 11.98
Analysis:
rbis=
Interpretation:
The obtained rbis value .07, is smaller than table value and interprets that there is no
significant relationship between performance and gender.
Table 6.9: t test for studying difference in gender for components of
performance
Component Gender N Df T Sig.
Male 239 0.631

Task proficiency 398 NS
Female 161
Male 239
Motivation 398 .1.175 NS
Female 161
Commitment Male 239 0.680

398 NS
Female 161
151
Personal Male 239
398 1.352 NS
Discipline Female 161
Communication Male 239 1.763

398 NS
Female 161
Relationship Male 239 2.193

398 0.05
with co worker Female 161
Relationship Male 239

with external 398 0.156 NS
Female 161
customer
Male 239
Non job specific
1.250
task proficiency Female 161 398 NS
Female 161
Interpretation: There is significant difference in gender for relationship with
coworkers at 0.05 level of significance. Comparing means (value of mean for male
employees is 8.6862 and value of mean for female employees is 8.2857) it is found
that male employees have better working relation with co workers.
level (officers and staff) and occupational stress:
Occupational Std.
N Mean
level Deviation
A and B - Officer 229 189.35 20.92
Occupational
C-Staff 171 180.66 26.07
Stress
Total 400 185.64 23.63
152
Analysis:
rbis=
Interpretation:
The obtained rbis value is .22, which is greater than table value and interprets that
there is a significant and positive correlation between occupational stress and
occupational level as officers and staff. On the basis of mean it is found that officers
perceive greater occupational stress as compared to occupational stress perceived by
staff.
Table 6.10: t- test for studying difference in occupational level for components
of occupational stress
Descriptive of Occupational level
Std.
Component Group N Mean T Sig.
Deviation
Officer Level 229 9.6769 2.76736 1.870

Role Ambiguity NS
Staff 171 9.1813 2.41244
Officer Level 229 18.2533 3.97211 1.369

Role Conflict NS
Staff 171 17.6842 4.29291
Officer Level 229 16.6463 3.38751 4.284

Role Overload 0.01
Staff 171 15.0468 4.06971
Responsibility for Officer Level 229 9.9432 1.90367 7.137

0.01
Persons Staff 171 8.3860 2.45971
153
Poor Peer Officer Level 229 11.1965 1.92873 3.286
0.01
Relation Staff 171 10.4912 2.35988
Lack of Officer Level 229 7.7249 1.91676

Supervisory 1.172 NS
Staff 171 7.4795 2.26310
Support
Relationship with Officer Level 229 8.1092 1.19625 6.402

0.01
Subordinates Staff 171 7.1170 1.89374
Group and Officer Level 229 10.3100 2.50875 .356

NS
Political Pressure Staff 171 10.4035 2.70855
Officer Level 229 14.5240 2.77767 3.673

Powerlessness 0.01
Staff 171 13.1813 4.50319
Under Officer Level 229 11.8472 3.12717 2.219

0.05
participation Staff 171 11.0760 3.81484
Constraint of Officer Level 229 5.4323 1.40831

.823
Rules and NS
Staff 171 5.3099 1.55028
Regulations
Intrinsic Officer Level 229 14.2838 3.24210

2.079 0.05
Impoverishment Staff 171 15.0175 3.80011
Officer Level 229 6.6856 1.69022

Low Status
1.890 NS
Staff 171 7.0526 2.19428
Officer Level 229 5.6157 1.81149

.629 NS
Unprofitability Staff 171 5.7251 1.59426
Strenuous Officer Level 229 10.4410 2.39925

Working 2.797 0.01
Staff 171 9.6959 2.92272
Conditions
154
Relocation / Officer Level 229 5.9520 1.05230 2.837
0.01
Transfer Staff 171 5.6140 1.32959
Work family Officer Level 229 15.4017 3.72347 1.502

NS
interface Staff 171 14.7661 4.74071
Present Ability at Officer Level 229 7.3057 1.32883 .911

NS
Work Staff 171 7.4327 1.44706
189.349
Officer Level 229 20.91567
Occupational 3 3.696
0.01
Stress 180.660
Staff 171 26.07346
8
t-test is used to compare the two occupational levels for various components of
occupational stress, significant differences are found between officer and staff level
for role overload, responsibility for people, poor peer relation, relation with
subordinates, powerlessness, under participation, strenuous working condition,
relocation and transfer, Intrinsic impoverishment. Looking at means, it can be said
that for Role overload( 8% more stress in officers than staff), responsibility for
persons(12.5% more stress in officers ) , poor peer relation (4.3% more stress in
officers than staff ), relation with subordinates (12.3% more stress in officers than
staff), powerlessness (6.5% more stress in officers than staff),under participation
(4.8% more stress in officers than staff), strenuous working condition (4.6% more
stress in officers than staff), relocation and transfer (4.1% more stress in officers
than staff). Mean scores on these show officers to be more stressed than staff.
Intrinsic impoverishment is the only component on which staff shows greater and
significant stress than officers (2.9% more stress in staff than officers).
155
female) and occupational stress:
Std.
Group N Mean
Deviation
Males 239 185.38 21.79

Occupationa
Females 161 186.01 26.18
l Stress
Total 400 185.64 23.63
Analysis:
rbis=
rbis= -0.02 (Table value for 0.05 = .098 and for 0.01 = .118)
Interpretation:
The obtained rbis value 0.02, is smaller than table value and interprets that there is
no significant relationship between occupational stress and gender.
Table 6.11: t- test for studying difference in gender for components of
occupational stress
Std.
Gender N Mean t Sig.
Deviation
Male 239 9.4393 2.47073 .238 NS
Role Ambiguity
Female 161 9.5031 2.85728
Male 239 18.1255 3.76530 NS
Role Conflict .683
Female 161 17.8385 4.59606
Role Overload Male 239 16.0251 3.64948 .404 NS
156
Std.
Deviation
Female 161 15.8696 3.96095
Responsibility Male 239 9.6987 2.14428 4.594 0.01
for Persons Female 161 8.6522 2.36183
Poor Peer Male 239 11.0167 1.87636 1.382 NS
Relation Female 161 10.7143 2.49607
Lack of Male 239 7.4770 1.88495 NS
1.685
Supervisory
Female 161 7.8323 2.31364
Support
Relationship Male 239 7.5397 1.77680 0.05
2.211
with
Female 161 7.9006 1.29521
Subordinates
Group and Male 239 10.3975 2.61640 NS
.446
Political
Female 161 10.2795 2.56469
Pressure
Male 239 13.6151 3.89386 2.233 0.05
Powerlessness
Female 161 14.4472 3.26707
Under Male 239 11.3473 3.54217 1.201 NS
participation Female 161 11.7702 3.31521
Constraint of Male 239 5.3933 1.40979 NS
.220
Rules and
Female 161 5.3602 1.55946
Regulations
Intrinsic Male 239 14.8159 3.42991 1.520 NS
Impoverishment Female 161 14.2733 3.60206
Male 239 7.0000 1.98524 0.05
Low Status 2.032
Female 161 6.6087 1.82062
Male 239 5.7531 1.76858 1.285 NS
Unprofitability
Female 161 5.5280 1.64340
Strenuous Male 239 10.2050 2.56917 NS
.756
Working
Female 161 10.0000 2.78837
Conditions
157
Std.
Deviation
Relocation / Male 239 5.7364 1.26755 1.459 NS
Transfer Female 161 5.9130 1.05707
Work family Male 239 14.1925 3.54985 5.653 0.01
interface Female 161 16.5217 4.67719
Present Ability Male 239 7.6067 1.28833 1.457 NS
at Work Female 161 6.9938 1.43395
Occupational Male 239 185.3849 21.79185 .258 NS
Stress Female 161 186.0062 26.17764
Interpretation: In the present study, overall, no difference in gender for
occupational stress is found, however, t test analysis indicates male and female
employees showing significant difference for certain components of occupational
stress; responsibility for persons, low status, present ability at work, powerlessness,
work - family interface. Comparing mean it can be said that, responsibility for
persons (male employees are 8.3% more stressed than female employees), low status
(male employees are 3.25% more stressed) are occupational stress factors
significantly associated with male employees and relationship with subordinates
(female employees are stressed by 4.5% than male employees at) powerlessness
(female employees4.1% more stressed than male employees),work - family interface
(female employees 11.6% more stressed than male employees) are significant
sources of occupational stress for women employees.
158
level (officers and staff) and approach coping:
Descriptive of the Occupational level: Officers and Staff
Std.
Occupational level N Mean
Deviation
A and B - Officer
229 64.57 12.50
Approach Level
coping C-Staff 171 63.95 12.64
Total 400 64.30 12.55
Analysis:
rbis=
Interpretaion:
The obtained rbis value .03 is smaller than table value and interprets that there is no
significant relationship between approach coping and occupational level as officers
and staff.
159
level (officers and staff) and avoidance coping:
Std.
groups N Mean
Deviation
A and B - Officer
229 26.04 9.42
Avoidance Level
coping C-Staff 171 26.95 9.18
Total 400 26.43 9.31
Analysis:
rbis=
Interpretation:
significant relationship between avoidance coping and occupational level as officers
and staff.
160
Table 6.12: t-test for difference in occupational level for components of
approach and avoidance coping
Component Group N Df T Sig.
Behavioural Officer Level 229

398 1.778 NS
approach Staff 171
Cognitive Officer Level 229

398 0.539 NS
approach Staff 171
cognitive 398 0.614 NS

Staff 171
approach
Officer Level 229

Approach 398 0.489 NS
Staff 171

398 0.570 NS
Avoidance Staff 171
Cognitive Officer Level 229

398 1.373 NS
Avoidance Staff 171
Avoidance Officer Level 229 398 0.960 NS
Interpretation:
There is no significant difference in occupational level for various components of
approach and avoidance coping.
161
female) and approach coping:
Std.
Group N Mean
Deviation
Males 239 64.72 12.26

Approach
Females 161 63.68 12.99
coping
Total 400 64.30 12.55
Analysis:
rbis=
Interpretation:
significant relationship between approach coping and gender.
female) and avoidance coping:
Std.
Group N Mean
Deviation
Males 239 25.81 10.29

Avoidance
Females 161 27.35 7.57
coping
Total 400 26.43 9.31
162
Analysis:
rbis=
Interpretation:
significant relationship between avoidance coping and gender.
Table 6.13: Approach Coping Avoidance Coping and gender difference
Std. Sig.
Gender N Mean t
Deviation
Approach Male 239 64.72 12.26 NS

.818
coping Female 161 63.68 12.99
Avoidance Male 239 25.81 10.29 NS

1.632
coping Female 161 27.35 7.57
Interpretation: According to mean it can be said that male employee of the central
government use approach coping more often and female employees use avoidance
coping more often.
163
Table 6.14: t-test for studying difference in gender for components of approach
and avoidance coping
Component Gender N df t Sig.
Male 239 NS
Behavioural 0.631
398
Approach Female 161
Male 239
Cognitive
398 0.57 NS
Approach Female 161
Cognitive- Male 239

Behavioural 398 0.74 NS
Female 161
Approach
Male 239 NS
Approach
398 0.818
Coping Female 161
Male 239 NS
Behavioural 0.502
398
Avoidance Female 161
Male 239 0.01

Cognitive 3.072
398
Avoidance Female 161
Avoidance
Male 239
Coping 398 1.632 NS
Female 161
Interpretation:
There is significant difference in male and female employees in their usage of
cognitive avoidance. Comparing means (male employees-8.5732; female
employees-9.8075) indicates that female employees use cognitive avoidance more
often than male employees.
164
Pearson Product Moment Correlation between occupational stress and various
components of coping
Table 6.15: Pearson Product moment Correlation between occupational stress
and various components of approach and avoidance coping
Coping strategy Occupational stress Sig. (2-tailed)
Behavioural Approach 0.241 0.01
Cognitive Approach 0.027 NS
Cognitive- Behavioural Approach 0.040 NS
Behavioural Avoidance 0.253 0.01
Cognitive Avoidance 0.116 0.05
Interpretation:
From the above table it is interpreted that of the approach coping strategies;
Behavioural approach is the only strategy with significant relation with occupational
stress. From amongst the avoidance coping strategies both (Behavioural avoidance
and Cognitive Avoidance) are significantly related to occupational stress. Of the
two, approach coping and avoidance coping, as the value of correlation for
avoidance coping is higher than approach coping, stronger relation is interpreted
between avoidance coping and occupational stress.
Pearson product moment correlation between occupational stress and
dimensions of performance
165
Table 6.16: Correlation between occupational stress and components of
performance:
Performance dimension Occupational stress Significance
Task proficiency 0.045 N.S
Motivation 0.089 N.S
Commitment 0.127 0.05
Personal discipline 0.132 0.01
Communication 0.118 0.05
Relationship with co workers 0.056 N.S
Relationship with external 0.114 0.05

customer
Non job specific activities 0.106 0.05
Interpretation: Occupational stress is positively and significantly related to
performance components; commitment, communication, relationship with external
customer, non job specific activities at 0.05 and with personal discipline at 0.01.
166
Table 6.17: ANOVA for impact of age group on performance and its
components
Sum of Mean
Squares Df Square F Sig.
Task Proficiency Between

5.722 2 2.861 .374 NS
Groups
Within
3039.068 397 7.655
Groups
Total 3044.790 399
Motivation Between
.830 2 .415 .126 NS
Groups
Within
1304.760 397 3.287
Groups
Total 1305.590 399
Commitment Between
2.793 2 1.397 .391 NS
Groups
Within
1418.797 397 3.574
Groups
Total 1421.590 399
Personal Descipline Between

30.884 2 15.442 .681 NS
Groups
Within
8999.194 397 22.668
Groups
Total 9030.077 399
Communication Between
16.024 2 8.012 2.235 NS
Groups
Within
1423.166 397 3.585
Groups
Total 1439.190 399
167
Sum of Mean
Squares Df Square F Sig.
Relationship with Peer Between

11.650 2 5.825 1.807 NS
Groups
Within
1280.100 397 3.224
Groups
Total 1291.750 399
Relationship with Between

9.314 2 4.657 1.475 NS
External Customer Groups
Within
1253.684 397 3.158
Groups
Total 1262.997 399
Non Job Specific Between

19.280 2 9.640 2.612 NS
Activities Groups
Within
1465.160 397 3.691
Groups
Total 1484.440 399
Performance Between
308.515 2 154.258 1.074 NS
Groups
Within
57007.162 397 143.595
Groups
Total 57315.678 399

Table values for 0.05 = 3.02 and for 0.01 = 4.66
Interpretation: The relationship is not significant at 0.01 or 0.05, implying that age
has no impact on performance of employees.
168
Table 6.18: ANOVA for studying the impact of age group on occupational
stress
Sum of
Squares Df Mean Square F Sig.
Between
170.794 2 85.397 .152 .859
Groups
Within Groups 222531.916 397 560.534
Total 222702.710 399

The above table indicates that the value of F(2, 397) = 0.152 is not significant.
Table 6.18.1: ANOVA for studying the impact of age group on components of
occupational stress (Significant results mentioned)
a)Descriptive Statistics of role ambiguity
N Mean Std. Deviation
Below 35 67 10.2090 3.14082
35 to 50 204 9.3333 2.55899

Role Ambiguity
Above 50 129 9.3023 2.35387
Total 400 9.4700 2.63749

ANOVA of age group and role ambiguity
Sum of
df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Between Groups 44.023 2 22.011 3.249 0.05
Role Ambiguity Within Groups 2689.617 397 6.775
Total 2733.640 399

169
The above table indicates that the value of F (2,397) = 3.249 as significant at 0.05
level. This means that there is a significant difference in age group of the central
government employee in terms of role ambiguity. On the basis of mean, below 35
yrs age group is having most stress due to role ambiguity.
b) Descriptive statistics role conflict
Below 35 67 19.3731 3.98039
35 to 50 204 18.0245 3.70652

Role Conflict
Above 50 129 17.4031 4.29120
Total 400 18.0100 4.12301
ANOVA of age group and role conflict
Sum of
df Mean Square F Sig.
Squares
Role Conflict Between Groups 171.412 2 85.706 5.495 .01
Within Groups 6191.588 397 15.596
Total 6363.000 399
The above table shows that the value of F (2,397) = 5.495 is significant at 0.01 level
and indicates towards a significant difference in age group of the central
government employee in terms of role ambiguity. Comparing mean, employee group
under 35 yrs of age seems to be having most stress due to role conflict.
170
c) Descriptive statistics Relation with subordinates
Relationship Below 35 67 6.9552 2.09207

with 35 to 50 204 7.7353 1.57209
Subordinates
Above 50 129 7.9690 1.19202
Total 400 7.6800 2.28812
ANOVA of age group and relationship with subordinates
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Relationship Between Groups 46.592 2 23.296 9.511 .000

with Within Groups 972.448 397 2.449
Subordinates
Total 1019.040 399
The above table shows that the value of F (2,397) = 9.511 is significant at 0.01 level
and indicates towards a significant difference in age group of the central
government employee in terms of relationship with subordinates. Comparing mean,
employees above 50 yrs of age reveal more stress due to relationship with
subordinates.
171
d)Descriptive statistics Group and Political Pressure
Group and Below 35 67 11.0746 3.16378

Political 35 to 50 204 10.1373 2.40295
Pressure
Above 50 129 10.3178 2.48742
Total 400 10.3525 2.58650

ANOVA of age group and Group and Political Pressure
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Group and Between Groups 44.545 2 22.272 3.369 .05

Political Within Groups 2624.753 397 6.611
Pressure
Total 2669.298 399
The above table shows that the value of F (2,397) = 3.396 which is significant at
0.05 level and indicates significant difference in age group of the central
government employee in terms of Group and Political Pressure. Comparing mean,
employees below the age of 35 yrs are found to have more stress due to group and
political pressure.
e) Descriptive statistics powerlessness
Powerlessness Below 35 67 12.0896 4.21660
35 to 50 204 14.5588 3.28775
Above 50 129 14.0930 3.23420
Total 400 13.9550 3.67562
172
ANOVA of age group and powerlessness
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Powerlessness Between Groups 309.349 2 154.675 13.047 .000
Within Groups 4706.641 397 11.856
Total 5015.990 399

The above table show that the value of F (2,397) = 13.047 is significant at 0.01 level
and indicates that there is a significant difference in age group of the central
government employee in terms of powerlessness. Comparing mean, employees
within the age group of 35 to 50, reveal most stress due to powerlessness.
f) Descriptive statistics of Constraint of rules and regulations
Constraint of Below 35 67 5.0000 1.54724
Rules and 35 to 50 204 5.4020 1.49389
Regulations
Above 50 129 5.5426 1.36363
Total 400 5.3800 1.47003
ANOVA of age group and Constraint of rules and regulations
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Constraint of Between Groups 13.185 2 6.593 3.083 .05
Rules and Within Groups 849.055 397 2.139
Regulations
Total 862.240 399
173
The above table shows that the value of F (2,397) = 3.083 which is significant at
0.05 level and indicates that there is a significant difference in age group of the
central government employee in terms of constraint of rules and regulations.
Comparing mean, employees above the age of 35 are found more stressed.
g) Descriptive of Intrinsic Impoverishment
Intrinsic Below 35 67 15.6269 4.14084
Impoverishment 35 to 50 204 14.3971 3.34313
Above 50 129 14.4264 3.19368
Total 400 14.6025 3.51444
ANOVA of age group and Intrinsic Impoverishment
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Intrinsic Between Groups 82.877 2 41.439 3.496 .05
Impoverishment Within Groups 4706.060 397 11.854
Total 4788.937 399
Interpretation: The above table showed that the value of F (2,397) = 3.496 is
significant at 0.05 level and indicates that there is a significant difference in age
group of the central government employee in terms of intrinsic impoverishment.
Comparing mean, employees below the age of 35 yrs feel unfulfilled.
174
h) Descriptive of Work family Interface
Work- family Below 35 67 13.6418 5.02931
interface 35 to 50 204 15.4951 4.01659
Above 50 129 15.3876 3.65571
Total 400 15.1300 4.19009
ANOVA of age group and work family interface
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Work family Between Groups 183.982 2 91.991 5.488 .01
interface Within Groups 6655.018 397 16.763
Total 6839.000 399
The above table shows that the value of F (2,397) = 5.488 and is significant at 0.01
level .There is a significant difference in age group of the central government
employee in terms of work family interface. Comparing mean, employee group 35
50 yrs of age seem to be affected more.
Age does not have significant impact on components of occupational stress; role
overload, responsibility for people, poor peer relation, lack of supervisory support,
under participation, low status, unprofitability, present ability at work, strenuous
working condition, relocation and transfer.
175
Table 6.19: ANOVA for studying the impact of age group on approach coping
Descriptive of Approach Coping
Approach Below 35 67 64.7612 11.39257
coping strategy 35 to 50 204 66.2353 12.58287
Above 50 129 61.0078 12.48843
Total 400 64.3025 12.55029
ANOVA of age group and Approach Coping
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Approach Between Groups

2176.520 2 1088.260 7.121 .01
coping strategy
Within Groups 60669.877 397 152.821
Total 62846.398 399
The above table show that the value of F (2,397) = 7.121 is significant at 0.01 level
.There is a significant difference in age group of the central government employee
in terms of approach coping. Comparing mean, employees between 35 to 50 yrs of
age mostly use approach coping.
176
approach coping
a)Descriptive of Behavioural Approach
Behavioural Below 35 67 29.3284 6.04626
Approach 35 to 50 204 30.9265 6.46548
Above 50 129 29.1860 5.86671
Total 400 30.1075 6.25105
ANOVA of age group and Behavioural Approach Coping
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Behavioural Between Groups 3.72

286.989 2 143.495 .05
Approach 2
Within Groups 15304.208 397 38.550
Total 15591.198 399
employee in terms of behavioural approach coping. Comparing mean, employees
between 35 to 50 yrs of age are more prone to use behavioural approach.
177
b) Descriptive of Cognitive Approach
Cognitive Below 35 67 13.9701 3.77781

Approach 35 to 50 204 13.5539 3.68087
Above 50 129 11.7907 3.89847
Total 400 13.0650 3.86190
ANOVA of age group and cognitive approach
Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F Sig.
Cognitive Between Groups 313.094 2 156.547 11.024 .000

Approach Within Groups 5637.696 397 14.201
Total 5950.790 399

employee in terms of cognitive approach coping. Comparing mean, it can be said
that this coping behaviour is more common with employees below 35 yrs of age.
c) Descriptive of Cognitive Behavioural Approach
Cognitive- Below 35 67 21.4627 4.36004

Behavioural 35 to 50 204 21.7549 4.47530
Approach
Above 50 129 20.0310 4.92274
Total 400 21.1500 4.66013
178
ANOVA of age group and Cognitive behaviour approach
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Cognitive- Between Groups 242.722 2 121.361 5.721 .01

Behavioural Within Groups 8422.278 397 21.215
Approach
Total 8665.000 399
employee in terms of Cognitive- Behavioural approach coping. Comparing mean,
this strategy is mostly adopted by employees between 35-50 yrs of age.
Table 6.20: ANOVA for studying the impact of age group on avoidance coping
Descriptive of Avoidance Coping
Avoidance Below 35 67 27.9403 8.66704

coping strategy 35 to 50 204 24.4031 9.08214
Above 50 129 27.2157 9.72555
Total 400 26.4300 9.31461
ANOVA of age group and avoidance coping
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Avoidance Between Groups 808.730 2 404.365 4.748 .01

coping strategy Within Groups 33809.310 397 85.162
Total 34618.040 399
179
employee in terms of avoidance coping. Comparing mean, employees of age group
35 to 50 have low mean scores thus indicating greater tendency towards efficient or
functional coping.
avoidance coping
a) Descriptive of Behavioural Avoidance
Behavioural Below 35 67 17.8209 6.29556

Avoidance 35 to 50 204 16.2326 5.96325
Above 50 129 17.9216 6.10137
Total 400 17.3600 6.09905
ANOVA of age group and Behavioural Avoidance
Sum of Mean
df F Sig.
Squares Square
Behavioural Between Groups 242.541 2 121.270 3.298 .05

Avoidance Within Groups 14599.619 397 36.775
Total 14842.160 399

level. There is a significant difference in age group of the central government
employee in terms of behavioural avoidance coping. Comparing mean, employees
from 35 to 50 yrs of age show least tendency on behavioural avoidance coping.
180
Employees below 35 yrs of age and above 50 yrs of age show greater tendency of
behavioural avoidance.
b) Descriptive of Cognitive Avoidance
Cognitive Below 35 67 10.1194 3.42682

Avoidance 35 to 50 204 8.1705 3.89793
Above 50 129 9.2941 4.21886
Total 400 9.0700 3.98180
ANOVA of age group and Cognitive Avoidance
Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.
Cognitive Between Groups 188.394 2 94.197 6.093 .01

Avoidance Within Groups 6137.646 397 15.460
Total 6326.040 399

level.
There is a significant difference in age group of the central government employee in
terms of cognitive avoidance coping. Comparing means it can be said that age group
35 to 50 use cognitive avoidance coping to minimum.
6.3 Hypothesis testing
Testing hypothesis one: Performance of employees of central government is not
a function of occupational stress and coping
Referring to tables 6.6a), b), c) and d), the analysis indicates significant result at
0.01 level of significance and proves that performance of employee of central
181
government is a function of occupational stress and coping( studied as approach
coping and avoidance coping).
Hence we reject null hypothesis as Performance of the employees of central
government is not a function of occupational stress and coping and accept
alternative hypothesis as Performance of the employees of central government is a
function of occupational stress and coping.
Testing hypothesis two: Occupational stress of central government employees is
not significantly related to coping.
Coping is studied as; Approach coping and Avoidance coping.
Referring to table 6.6a), the correlation analysis indicates the relation between
occupational stress and approach coping as significant at 0.01 level of significance.
Referring to table 6.6a), the correlation analysis indicates the relation between
occupational stress and avoidance coping as significant at 0.01 level of significance.
Hence we reject null hypothesis as Occupational stress of central government
employees is not significantly related to coping and accept alternative hypothesis as
Occupational stress of central government employees is significantly related to
coping.
Testing hypothesis three: Performance of central government employees is not
significantly related to their occupational level, gender and age group.
Referring to calculation no. 6.1, the obtained value of rbis 0.03 is smaller than the
table value and indicates that the relation between performance and occupational
level is insignificant. Referring to calculation no. 6.2, the obtained value of rbis 0.07
is smaller than the table value and indicates that the relation between performance
and gender is insignificant. Referring to table 6.17, it is seen that value of ANOVA
182
coefficient is not significant for performance at 0.01 or 0.05 level of significance,
thus implying that age group has no impact on performance.
Hence we accept null hypothesis as Performance of central government employees
is not significantly related to their occupational level, gender and age group and
reject alternate hypothesis as Performance of central government employees is
significantly related to their occupational level, gender and age group.
Testing hypothesis four: Occupational stress of central government employees
is not significantly related to their occupational level, gender and age group
Referring to calculation no. 6.3, the calculated value of rbis being 0.22 is greater than
the table value, the analysis indicates a significant correlation between occupational
stress and occupational level as officers and staff. Referring to calculation no.6.4,
the calculated value of r bis being 0.02 is smaller than the table value and indicates
no significant relationship between occupational stress and gender. Referring to
table 6.18, it is seen that value of ANOVA coefficient is not significant at 0.01 or
0.05 level of significance, thus implying that age group does not impact on
occupational stress.
Hence we partially accept null hypothesis as Occupational stress of central
government employees is not significantly related to their occupational level, gender
and age group as occupational level is found to have significant relationship with
occupational stress and partially reject the alternative hypothesis as Occupational
stress of central government employees is significantly related to their occupational
level, gender and age group.
Testing hypothesis five: Coping is not significantly related to occupational level,
gender and age group of central government employees.
Coping is studied as: Approach coping and Avoidance coping.
183
Referring to calculation no. 6.5, the calculated rbis value is 0.03 which is much
smaller than the table value and interprets that there is no significant relation
between approach coping and occupational level. Referring to calculation no. 6.7,
the obtained rbis value is 0.05 , it is much smaller than the table value and interprets
that there is no significant relation between approach coping and gender. Referring
to table no. 6.19, it can be seen that age group has significant impact on approach
coping at 0.01 level of significance.
Referring to calculation no. 6.6, the obtained rbis is 0.03, which is much smaller than
the table value and interprets that there is no significant relation between avoidance
coping and occupational level. Referring to calculation no. 6.8, the obtained rbis is
0.05, which is much smaller than the table value and interprets that there is no
significant relation between avoidance coping and gender. Referring to table
no.6.20, significant impact of age group is seen on avoidance coping at 0.01 level of
significance.
Hence we partially accept the null hypothesis as Coping is not significantly related
to occupational level, gender and age group of central government employees as
coping is found to be significantly related to age group and partially reject the
alternative hypothesis as Coping is significantly related to occupational level,
gender and age group of central government employees.
6.4 Data Findings
The present study was an attempt to examine the relationship between performance,
occupational stress and coping of the central government employees. For this a
sample of 400 Central Government employees was randomly taken from ten
different departments of central government in Pune city. The data hence collected
184
was put through descriptive and inferential analysis, findings of which are listed
below.
Analysis of the occupational stress level indicated low to moderate stress at
work. Majority of employees, ninety one percent, perceived moderate stress.
Importantly, not a single employee reported to experience of high stress.
Constraint of rules and regulation, one of the components of occupational stress,
was perceived to be the least stressing factor by central government employees.
Central government employees felt that their job had enhanced their social status
and due significance to their position was given within the organization.
Component of occupational stress which led to the perception of moderate to
high stress was role overload and relationship with subordinates.
Coping of employees comprised of approach coping and avoidance coping.
Higher tendency of approach coping and lower tendency of avoidance coping
was seen.
Performance of employee of central government was found to be function of
There was significant and positive correlation between employee performance
and occupational stress. Indicating that occupational stress was not distressing.
Employee performance was found to be positively and significantly related to
avoidance coping.
Performance and its components were not found to be correlated to occupational
level (officer and staff) of employees.
Performance of employees was not found to be correlated to gender ( male and
female).However, on further analysis of performance components, significant
185
difference was found between male and female employees for the component;
relationship with co-workers. Male employees were found to be better in
maintaining relationship with co-workers compared to female employees.
Age had no impact on performance.
Occupational stress of employees was also found having significant and positive
relationship with approach coping and avoidance coping.
Occupational stress in employees was found to be significantly correlated to
occupational level (officers and staff). Overall, officers were found to be more
stressed in comparison to staff.
Occupational stress among officers was found high for the following
components; role overload, powerlessness, under participation, strenuous
working condition, relocation / transfer.
Staff was found to be more stressed due to intrinsic impoverishment.
Male employees were found to be more stressed due to; responsibility for
persons and low status.
Female employees were more stressed due to; relationship with subordinates,
powerlessness and workfamily interface (shouldering responsibility at
workplace as well as home).
Employees below 35 yrs. of age perceived more stress due to role ambiguity,
role conflict, group and political pressure and intrinsic impoverishment.
Employees between 35 to 50 yrs of age were found to be more stressed due to;
powerlessness and workfamily interface. Employees above 50 yrs of age found
themselves more stressed due to relationship with subordinates and constraint of
186
There was no difference between officer and staff in their usage of approach and
avoidance coping strategies.
Gender difference in coping was observed only for cognitive avoidance coping
strategy. Female employees used this strategy more than male employees.
Employees of age group 36- 50 yrs used approach coping maximum and
avoidance coping least.
187
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND LIMITATION OF THE
STUDY
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study and the literature surveyed, certain conclusions
are drawn:
Performance of central government employees is influenced by occupational
stress and effort expended by them in coping with stress.
Overall similarity in coping behaviour of employees is indicative of a
possibility that the bureaucratic structure has an important role to play in
deciding the reactions of employees.
Central government employees are not a stress free community. At the same
time, overall moderate level of stress at work indicates that government as an
employer is playing its role properly.
Suggestions
Occupational stress is a response of a person to a situation which is either
perceived as challenging or threatening. Stress generating negative
consequences represents distress whereas stress that helps stimulate activity
represents eustress. Where on one side organizations are primarily concerned
about performance of their employees, at the same time on other side they
have a moral responsibility of keeping stress at manageable level. The
occupational stress and performance relationship suggests that when both
positive and negative effects of stress are realized then organizations should
188
try to minimize the distressing effects of stress. Rather studies should be
carried out to understand how stress should be used effectively in order to
enhance the performance of employees.
It is clear that perception of stimuli is vital to differentiate between eustress
and distress. Further studies should be carried out to learn about antecedents
to the creation of a particular perception.
It is important for organizations to identify factors that affect performance.
Besides organizational factors individual factors like, marital status, family
structure, social support etc. should be studied for their impact on employee
performance.
For any organization superior- subordinate relationship forms the basic unit
of formal organizational relationship. In government organizations where job
security is perceived and disciplinary procedures are long and tedious,
handling subordinates requires tact. This can be resolved by conducting
special training programmes on leadership and managerial skills.
Many a times it has been seen that relocation can be traumatic for employees
concerned and their families. Relocation/ transfer is a service condition for
central government employees. A training program that deals with how to
handle transfers and various issues related to it can be conducted.
Limitation of the study
The findings of this study are related only to select occupational stressors and
their effect on Central Government employees.
189
Annexure- A
Bibliography
Abdel-Halim, A. A.,Social support and Managerial affective responses to Job stress.
Journal of Occupational Behaviour, (1982), 3(4), pp. 281- 295.
Ahmad, S., and Narula, S., A Study of Stress among Executives, Journal of
Personality and Clinical Studies, (1985), 1(2) 47-50.
Ahmad, S., Bhatt, D. and Ahmad, H., Stress and coping strategies among executive
technocrats,Unpublished manuscript.(1990).
Ali, S. & Rao, A.,Reinventing Public Administration for 21st Century, The Indian
Journal of Public Administration,(2000), April June, Vol. XLVI, No. 2.
Anderson, C. R., Coping behaviours as intervening mechanisms in the inverted U-
stress performance relationship. Journal of Applied Psychology,(1976) Vol 61(1),
Feb, 30-34.
Arsenault, A., and Dolan S., The role of personality, occupation and organization in
understanding the relationship between job stress, performance and absenteeism,
Journal of Occupational Psychology,(1983): vol. 56, pp.227-240
Beena, C. & Poduval, P. R.,Gender Difference in Work Stress of Executives,
Psychological Studies, (1991),37 (2 3), pp.109- 113.
Beehr, T.A., & Newman, J.E., Job stress, employee health, and organizational
effectiveness: A facet analysis, mode, and literature review. Personal Psychology,
(1978), 31, 665-699.
Bernin, P., Theorell, T., Cooper, C.L., Sparks, K., Spector, P.E., Radhakrishnan, P.,
Russinova, V., Coping Strategies among Swedish Female and Male Managers in an
190
International Context. International Journal of Stress Management,(2003) Vol
10(4), Nov, 376-391.
Biron, C., Gatrell, C., Cooper, C.L., Autopsy of a failure: Evaluating process and
contextual issues in an organizational-level work stress intervention. International
Journal of Stress Management, (2010)Vol 17(2), May, 135-158.
Bowman, G.D., Stern, M., Adjustment to occupational stress: the relationship of
perceived control to effectiveness of coping strategies. Journal of Counseling
Psychology,(1995) Vol 42(3), Jul, 294-303.
Bogg, J., and Cooper, C., Job Satisfaction, Mental Health and Occupational Stress
Among Senior Civil Servants, Human Relations,(1995) March,Vol. 48, Issue, 3, pp
327- 341
Brotheridge, Celeste M., The Role of Fairness in Mediating the Effects of Voice and
Justification on Stress and Other Outcomes in a Climate of Organizational Change.
International Journal of Stress Management, (2003)Vol 10(3), Aug, 253-268.
Brown. J. M., Cooper, C, & Kiriccaldy, B., Occupational stress among senior police
officers. British Journal of Psychology, (1996) 87(1), 31-41.
Brown, Chris; O'Brien, Karen M., Understanding stress and burnout in shelter
workers. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice,(1998) Vol 29(4), Aug,
383-385.
Brown, Steven P.; Jones, Eli; Leigh, Thomas W., The attenuating effect of role
overload on relationship linking self-efficacy and goal level to work performance.
Journal of Applied Psychology, (2005) Vol 90(5), Sep, 972-979.
Bushe, G.R, Havlovic, S.J, Coetzer G., Exploring empowerment from the inside out,
Journal for Quality and Participation,(1996)Vol. 19 No.2, pp.36-45.
191
Caplan, R.D., Cobb, S., French, J.R.P., Relationships of cessation of smoking and
job stress, personality, and social support, Journal of applied psychology, (1975), 60
(2) 211-9.
Casas, J.M., Furlong,M.J., Castillo,S., Stress and coping among university
counselors: A minority perspective. Journal of Counseling Psychology, (1980) Vol
27(4), Jul, 364-373.
Catano, V., Francis, L.,Haines, T., Kirpalani, H., Shannon, H., Stringer, B.,
Lozanzki, L., Occupational stress in Canadian universities: A national survey.
International Journal of Stress Management,(2010) Vol 17(3), Aug, 232-258.
Chang, Te-Yi., Chang,Yu-Lien., Relationship between role stress and job
performance in salespeople employed by travel agents in Taiwan. International
Journal of Stress Management, (2007), Vol 14(2), May, 211-223.
Cohen, J. and Lazarus, R.S., Active coping processes, coping dispositions, and
recovery from surgery. Psychosomatic medicine, (1973) 35, 375-389
Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and internal structure of tests.
Psychometrika 16, 297-334.
Daftur, C.N. & Nair, P., Impact of organizational culture on occupational stress,
Journal of Psychological Researchs, (2000) Vol.44,No.2.
De Jonge,J., Dormann, C., Stressors, resources and strain at work: A longitudinal
test of the triple-match principal. Journal of Applied Psychology, (2006) Vol 91(6),
Nov 2006, 1359-1374.
192
Decker, P. J., Borgen, F. H., Dimensions of work appraisal: Stress, strain, coping,
job satisfaction and negative affectivity. Journal of Counselling Psychology, (1993)
Vol 40(4), Oct 1993, 470-478.
Desai, H and Daftur, C.N., Performance Appraisal and Occupational stress,
Abhigyan, (2002) Vol.18(2), pp41-44
Dolcos, S.M., Daley, D., Work pressure, workplace social resources, and work
family conflict: The tale of two sectors. International Journal of Stress
Management, (2009) Vol 16(4), Nov 2009, 291-311.
Donald,I., Taylor, P., Johnson, S., Cooper, C., Cartwright, S., Robertson, S., Work
environment, stress and productivity: An examination using ASSET. International
Journal of Stress Management, (2005) Vol 12(4), Nov 2005, 409-423.
Dua, J., Development of a scale to assess occupational stress in Rural General
Practitioners, International Journal of Stress Management, (1996), Vol.3, No.2,
117-28.
Ellis, Aleksander P. J., Pearsall, M. J., Reducing the negative effects of stress in
teams through cross-training: A job demands-resources model. Group Dynamics:
Theory, Research, and Practice, (2011) Vol. 15(1), Mar 2011, 16-31.
Farber, B.A., Heifetz, L. J.,The satisfactions and stresses of psychotherapeutic work:
A factor analytic study. Professional Psychology, (1981)Vol 12(5), Oct 1981, 621-
630.
Fay, D.,Sonnentag, S., Rethinking the effects of stressors: A longitudinal study on
personal initiative. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, (2002) Vol 7(3), Jul
2002, 221-234.
193
Fevre, M.L., Matheny, J., Kolt, G.S., Eustress, distress, and interpretation in
occupational stress, Journal of managerial psychology, (2003) Vol. 18, No. 7, pp.
726- 744.
Flaxman, P.E., Bond, F.W., Worksite stress management training: Moderated effects
and clinical significance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, (2010) Vol
15(4), Oct 2010, 347-358.
Folkman,S., Lazarus, R.S., Greene, R.J., and Delongis, A., Appraisal, coping, health
status, and pstchological symptoms. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.
(1986) 50 : 571-79.
Fotinatos-Ventouratos, R., & Cooper, C.,The role of gender and social class in work
stress. Journal of managerial psychology,(2005) 20, 14-23.
French, J.R.P. and Caplan, R.D., Psychological factors in Coronary Heart Disease.
Industrial Medicine, (1970) 39, 383 -397.
Fried, Y.; Shirom, A.; Gilboa, S.; Cooper, C. L.,The mediating effects of job
satisfaction and propensity to leave on role stress-job performance relationships:
Combining meta-analysis and structural equation modelling. International Journal
of Stress Management, (2008) Vol 15(4), Nov 2008, 305-328.
Gaur, S.P & Dhawan, N.,Work related stress and adaptation pattern among women
professionals, Psychological studies,(2000) 45(1 & 2), 58-64.
Goldstein, M.J., Individual differences in response to stress. American Journal of
Community Psychology, (1973) 2, 113-137.
Gulick, L., Dynamics of Public Administration Today as Guidelines for Future,
Public Administration Review, (1983) May/ June.
194
Gupta, N.K., Organizational Role Stress and Coping Strategies of Public Sector
Executives, Ph.D. thesis, (1988) Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
University of Roorkee, Roorkee.
Gupta, P.,Role Stress, Locus of Control, Coping Style and Role Efficacy: A Study of
First Generation Entrepreneurs, M. Phil. dissertation, (1989) University of Delhi,
Delhi.
Hahn, V. C., Binnewies, C., Sonnentag, S.,Mojza, E. J., Learning how to recover
from job stress: Effects of a recovery training program on recovery, recovery-related
self-efficacy, and well-being. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, (2011)
Vol 16(2), Apr 2011, 202-216.
Hall,D.T., A Model of Coping with Role Conflict: The Role Behaviour of College
Educated Women. Administrative Science Quaterly,(1972) 17,471-86.
Hamilton, J.A., (1981), Attention, Personality and self regulation of mood:

Absorbing interest and boredom. In B. A. Maher and W.B. Maher (Eds), Progress in
Experimental Personality Research, Vol.10. New York: Academic.
Hart,P.C., & Cotton,P., Occupational well being & performance: A review of
organizational health research , Australian Psychologist , (2003) , 38(2), pp. 118-27.
Hatton, C.P., Steyvers, F.J.M. and Dolans, Stressors, coping strategies, and stress
related outcomes among care staff in staffed houses for people with learning
disabilities, Mental Handicap Research, (1995) Vol. 8, pp 252-271.
Hawk, Nita; Martin Barbara., Understanding and reducing stress in the
superintendency, Educational Management Administration & Leadership, (2011)
Vol. 39, No.3,May, pp364-390
195
Hollingworth, C.; Mathews, G. and Hartnett, O.,Job satisfaction and mood : An
exploratory Study. Work and Stress, (1988) 2 (3), pp. 225- 232.
Ivers, H., Brun, J.P., Biron, C., Extent of sources of stress in University staff, Work
30 (2008), 511-522.
Iwasaki,Y., MacKay, K.J., Ristock, J. ., Gender-based analysis of stress among
professional managers: An exploratory qualitative study. International Journal
of Stress Management, (2004) Vol 11(1), Feb 2004, 56-79.
Jacobs, P.A., Tytherleigh, M.Y., Webb, C., Cooper, C.L., Predictors of work
performance among higher education employees: An examination using the ASSET
Model of stress. International Journal of Stress Management, (2007)Vol 14(2), May
2007, 199-210.
Jamal., M., Job stress and job performance controversy: An empirical assessment.
Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance. (1984) 33, Issues 1, February
1984, Pages 1-21
Jamal., M., Job stress and job performance controversy revisited: An empirical
examination in two countries. International Journal of Stress Management, (2007)
Vol 14(2), May 2007, 175-187.
Jennings, J. R., Rose, R. M., Kreuz, L., Stress and performance during and after
Officer Candidate School. Journal of Applied Psychology, (1974)Vol 59(4), Aug
1974, 500-503.
Jimmieson, N.L., McKimmie, B. M., Hannam, R.L., Gallagher, J., An investigation
of the stress-buffering effects of social support in the occupational stress process as
a function of team identification. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice,
(2010) Vol 14(4), Dec 2010, 350-367.
196
John P. Baker and Howard Berenbaum., Emotional approach and problem-focused
coping: A comparison of potentially adaptive strategies. Cognition and Emotion.
2007, 21 (1), 95-118
June, S., and Mahmood, R., The relationship between role ambiguity, competency
and person job fit with the job performance of employees in the service sector
SMEs in Malaysia, Business Management Dynamics (2011), Vol.1, No. 2, pp 79-98.
Khan,M.A., Raza,A.,& Ali,U., Occupational stress and coping mechanism to
increase job satisfaction among supervisors at Karachi pharmaceuticals, Market
forces,(2007) Vol2, No.4.
Kahn, R.L., Wolfe, D.M., Quinn, R.P., Snoek.,J.D., Rosenthal, R.A.(1964)
Organizational stress: Studies in role conflict and ambiguity, International Journal
Of Stress Management, (1964) ol 1, Issue 4,pp.XII; 470
Katz, J., Weiner, H., Gallagher, T., and Hellman, L., Stress, distress and ego
defences, Archives of General Psychiatry, (1970) 23, 131-142.
Kaur, G. and Murthy, V.N.,Organizational role stress, coping strategies and locus
of control in a major public sector industrial organization, (1986) Unpublished
Manuscript.
Keenan, A. & Newton, T.J., Stressful events, stressors and psychological strain in
professional engineers. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, (1985) 6, 151 156.
Keller, R.T., Role Conflict and ambiguity: Correlates with job satisfaction and
values, personnel Psychology, (1975) 28(1) pp. 57- 64.
Kemsici,Asli .,Goral,F. and Genoz,T., Determinants of Stress-Related Growth:
Gender, Stressfulness of the Event, and Coping Strategies. Current Psychology:
197
Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social Spring ,(2005) Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 68
75.
Kerle, R. H. and Bialek, H. M. (1958). The construction, validation and application
of a subjective stress scale. Presidio of Monterey. CA: US Army Leadership Human
Research Unit. Human Resources Research Office (DTIC No. 489 875)
King, L.A.,& King, D.W., Role conflict and role ambiguity: A critical assessment of
construct validity. Psychological Bulletin, (1990) 107, 48- 64.
Klassen, R.M.,Chiu, M.M., Effects on teachers self-efficacy and job satisfaction:
Teacher gender, years of experience and job stress. Journal of Educational
Psychology, (2010) Vol 102(3), Aug 2010, 741-756.
Kobasa, S.C.,Stressful life event, personality and health: An enquiry into hardiness.
Journal of Personality and social Psychology, (1979) 37, 1-11.
Lang, J., Thomas, J. L., Bliese, P. D., Adler, A.B., Job demands and job
performance: The mediating effect of psychological and physical strain and the
moderating effect of role clarity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology,
(2007) Vol 12(2), Apr 2007, 116-124.
Leigh J.H., Lucas, G.H. and Woodman R.W., Effect of Perceived Organizational
and Factors on role stress Job attitude relationship. Journal of Management, (1988)
14(1) pp. 41- 58.
Leung, Sharron S. K., Mak, Yim Wah., Chui Ying Yu., Chiang Vico C. L., Lee
Angel C. K.,Occupational stress, mental health status and stress management
behaviours among secondary school teachers in Hong Kong. Health Education
Journal, (2009). Vol.68, No.4,pp328-343.
198
Levinson, Harry., Power, leadership and the management of stress. Professional
Psychology, (1980) Vol 11(3), Jun 1980, 497-508.
Lim, V.K.G., and Teo, T.S.H.,Gender difference in occupational stress and coping
strategy among IT personnel, Women in Management Review, (1996) Vol. 11, Iss.
1, pp20- 28.
Long, Bonita C., Kahn, Sharon E., Schutz, Robert W., Causal model of stress and
coping: Women in management. Journal of Counseling Psychology, (1992) Vol
39(2), Apr 1992, 227-239.
Long, Bonita C.; Schutz, Robert W., Temporal stability and replicability of a
workplace stress and coping model for managerial women: A multiwave panel
study. Journal of Counseling Psychology, (1995) Vol 42(3), Jul 1995, 266-278.
Long Bonita C., Coping with workplace stress: A multiple-group comparison of
female managers and clerical workers. Journal of Counseling Psychology, (1998)
Vol 45(1), Jan 1998, 65-78.
Loosemore,M., and Waters, T., Gender differences in occupational stress among
professionals of construction industry, Journal of Management in Engineering,
(2004) 20, 3.
Mathur, P., Perception of police stress: An empirical study of stressors & coping
responses among police personnel in India., Indian Psychological abstract and
reviews, (1995) vol. 10, sage publication
Mc Gowan, J., Gardener,D.,& Fletcher, R., Positive and negative affective outcomes
of occupational stress, New Zealand Journal of Psychology,(2006) Vol.35(2),
199
Meglino, B. M., Organizational behavior and human performance, (1977) Volume
33, Academic Press.
Mittal, Uma Coping Styles as Related to Role Stress, Locus of Control and
Personality Type, Ph.D. thesis,(1992), University of Rajasthan, Jaipur.
Mohan V., Chauhan D., A Comparative study of organisational role stress amongst
managers of government, public and private sectors, Journal of the Indian Academy
of Applied Psychology. 1999 Jan-Jul; 25(1-2): 45-50.
Mohr, G., Wolfram, Hans-Joachim, Stress among managers: the importance of
dynamic tasks, predictability and social support in unpredictable times. Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology, (2010) Vol 15(2), Apr 2010, 167-179.
Moos and Billings (1982), Sociological approach of coping. In Life-span
developmental psychology: perspectives on stress and coping. By E. Mark
Cummings, Anita L. Greene, Katherine. Page 297.
Motowidlo, S.J., Packard, J. S., Manning, M. R., Occupational stress: Its causes and
consequences for job performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, (1986) Vol
71(4), Nov 1986, 618-629.
Muse, L.S., Harris, T. and Field, H. Has the Inverted-U Theory of stress and Job
performance had a fair test?, Human Performance, (2003) Vol. 16, No.4, pp349
364.
Narayanan,L., Menon,S., Spector, P., A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Job Stressors
and Reactions Among Employees Holding Comparable Jobs in two countries,
International Journal of Stress Management, (1999),6(3),197-212,Springer
Netherlands.
200
Nowak, K.M., Coping Style, cognitive hardiness and health status, Journal of
Behavioural Medicine, (1989) 12, 145- 148.
Nowack, K., Occupational stress management: Effective or not? (2000). In P.
Schnall, K. Belkie, P. Landensbergis, & D. Baker (Eds.). Occupational Medicine:
State of the Art Reviews, Hanley and Belfus, Inc., Philadelphia, PA., Vol 15, No. 1,
pp. 231-233.
Oliver, Joseph E.; Mansell, Angela; Jose, Paul E., A longitudinal study of the role of
negative affectivity on the work stressorstrain process. International Journal of
Stress Management, (2010) Vol 17(1), Feb 2010, 56-77.
Ongori, H., & Agolla, J.E., Occupational stress in organizations and its effects on
Organizational Performance, Journal of management research,(2008)Vol. 8,No. 3.
Pandey, S., Role Stress, Coping Strategies and Psycho-social Correlates, Ph.D.
thesis, (1994), Gurukul Kangri Vishwavidhyalaya, Haridwar.
Parkes, Katharine R., Coping, negative affectivity and the work environment:
additive and interactive predictors of mental health. Journal of Applied Psychology,
(1990) Vol 75(4), Aug 1990, 399-409.
Patricia H. and Doyle C., Occupational stress, burnout and job status in female
academics. Gender, work and organization, (1998) Vol. 5 no. 2., April,1998,
Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
Prati, G., Pietrantoni, L., Cicognani, E., Coping strategies and collective efficacy as
mediators between stress appraisal and quality of life among rescue workers.
International Journal of Stress Management, (2011) Vol 18(2), May 2011, 181-195.
Punekar, et. al., Industrial development and commitment of the industrial
worker.The Indian Journal of Social Work, (2008) 39, 61-67.
201
Rajagopalan, M. and Khandelwal, P., A Study of Role Stress and Coping Styles of
Public Sector Managers, Psychological Studies, (1988) 33(3), 200-204.
Raju, M.V.R., and Madhu, K., Organizational Level and Role Stress. Journal of
Indian Psychology, (1994) Vol. 12, pp. 1-2.
Reddy, V. S & Ramamurti, P.V., The relation betweenstress experienced on the job:
Age, personality & general ability., Psychological Studies, (1991) 36(2), 87-95, ;
Department of Psychology, University of Delhi.
Rees, D.W., Managerial stress: dealing with the causes not the symptoms, Industrial
and Commercial Training, (1997) Vol. 29 No.2, pp.35-40.
Renn., Stress in the nurse, American Journal of Nursing, (1974) 80, p.912.
Riggio R.E., Leadership and Organizational Psychology(2003):. In A.O. Salami,
R.M. Ojokuku, & O.A. Ilesanmi, Impact of Job Stress on Managers Performance,
European Journal of Scientific Research (2010), Vol. 45., No. 2.,pp.249- 260.
Ruyter Ko de., Wetzels, M. and Feinberg, R., Role stress in call centers: Its effects
on employee performance and satisfaction, Journal of Interactive Marketing, (2009)
Volume 15, Issue 2. Pages 23-35.
Rydstedt, L.W., Johansson, G., and Evans, G.W., A Longitudinal Study of Health
and Wellbeing Among Male and Female Urban Bus Drivers, Journal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, (1998) March 1998, Vol.71, Iss1,
pp.35- 45.
Sang,K.J.C., Dainty, A.R.J., Ison, S.G.,Gender a risk factor for Occupational Stress
in Architectural Profession, Construction Management & Economics,(2007),
Dec2007, Vol. 25 Issue 12, p1305-1317.
202
Salami, A.O; Ojokuku, R.M; Ilesanmi, O.A., Impact of Job Stress on Managers
Performance, European Journal of Scientific Research, (2010) Vol.45 No.2 (2010),
pp.249-260.
Sanders, A., Towards a Model for Stress And Human Performance, Acta
Psychological, (1983) vol. 53, pp.61 97
Savery, Lawson K. and Luks, J. Alan., The relationship between empowerment, job
satisfaction and reported stress levels: some Australian evidence, Leadership &
Organization Development Journal, (2000). Vol. 22 Iss: 3, pp.97 104
Savic, B. S., & Pagon, M., Individual involvement in healthcare organizations:
Differences between professional groups, leaders and employees. Stress and
Health, (2008) 24, 71-84.
Sayeed, O.B. and Kumar, S.C., Role, work perception & stress in a high reliability
work environment, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, (1980).
Volume: 46 Source Issue: 2
Sayeed, O.B., Job Stress and Role Making Behaviour, Managerial Psychology,
(1985) 6 (182):35-57
Schaubroeck, J., Ganster, D.C., Sime, W.E., & Ditman, D., A field experiment
testing supervisory role clarification, Personnel psychology, (1993) 46 ,1- 25.
Schuler, R.S., Definition and conceptualization of stress in organizations,
Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance, (1980) 24: 115-130.
Scott, W.E., Activation theory and task design. Organizational Behaviour and
Human Performance, (1966) 1, 3-30.
203
Sears, S.F.Jr., Urizar, G.G.Jr., Evans, G.D., Examining a stress-coping model of
burnout and depression in extension agents. Journal of Occupational Health
Psychology, (2000) Vol 5(1), Jan 2000, 56-62.
Selye, H., Stress, aging and retirement, Journal of Mind and Behaviour, (1980) 1,
93 - 110.
Shahu, Rashmi and Gole, S.V., Effect of Job Stress and Job Satisfaction on
Performance: An Empirical Study. AIMS International Journal of Management.
(2008) Volume 2, Number 3, September 2008, pp. 237-246.
Sharma, S. and Acharya, T., Coping strategies and job anxiety. Psychological
studies, (1991) 36 (2), 112-117.
Sharma, Surender Kumar., A Study of the Occupational Stress among Teachers,
International Journal of Educational Administration , (2010) Volume 2, Number 2,
(2010), pp. 421-432
Sharon Grant and Janice Langan-Fox., Occupational stress, coping and strain: The
combined/interactive effect of the Big Five traits. Personality and individual
differences, (2006) Vol. 41, Issue 4, Pages 719-732.
Shinn, Marybeth; Rosario, Margaret; Mrch, Hanne; Chestnut, Dennis E., Coping
with job stress and burnout in the human services. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, (1984) Vol 46(4), Apr 1984, 864-876.
Singh, J., Effectiveness of Bureaucracy, The Indian Journal of Public
Administration, (2000) April June, Vol.XLVI, No. 2.
Singh, S., Executives under stress: Explorations in the structure and dynamics.
Unpublished Ph.D. thesis (1986)., Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur.
204
Simmons, B. L., & Nelson, D. L., Eustress at work: The relationship between hope
and health in hospital nurses. Health Care Management Review, (2001) 26(4), 7-18.
Simmons, B. L., Nelson, D. L., & Quick, J. C., Health for the hopeful: A study of
attachment behaviour in home health care nurses. International Journal of Stress
Management, (2003) 10(4), 361-375.
Siu, O.L., Lu, L. and Cooper, C.L., Managerial Stress in Hong Kong and Taiwan: A
Comparative study, Journal of Managerial Psychology, Bradford, (1999) Vol.14,
Iss.1, pp 6-25.
Smith, M.J., Cohen,B.G., Tasto, D.L., Health and safety consequences of shift work
in the food processing industry. Ergonomics, (1982) 25, 133-44.
Spector, Paul E.; Dwyer, Daniel J.; Jex, Steve M., Relation of job stressors to
affective, health and performance outcomes: A comparison of multiple data sources.
Journal of Applied Psychology, (1988) Vol 73(1), Feb 1988, 11-19.
Srivastava, A.K., A Study of Role-Stress-Mental Health Relationship as a Moderator
by Adopted Coping Strategies, Psychological Studies, (1991) 3, 192-197.
Srivastava,A.K., Coping Strategy Scale, (2001), Rupa Psychological Centre,
Varanasi.
Srivastava, A.K., & Krishna, A., Self management of occupational stress: A
cognitive Behavioural approach, Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, (1997),
32:487-95
Srivastava, A.K. & Singh, A.P., The occupational stress index,(1984),
Manavaigyanic Parikshan Sansthan, Varanasi.
205
Surti, K., Some Psychological Correlates of Role Stress and Coping Styles in
Working Women, Ph.D. thesis(1982), University of Gujarat, Ahmedabad.
Swanson, V., Power, K.G., & Simpson, R. J., Occupational stress and family life: A
comparison of male and female doctors. Journal of Occupational and
Organizational Psychology, (1998) Vol. 71, pp. 237-260.
Swap, W.C., 7 Rubin, J. Z., Measurement of interpersonal orientation. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, (1983) 44, 208 219.
Taverniers, J., Smeets, T., Van Ruysseveldt, J., Syroit, J., Von Grumbkow, J., The
risk of being shot at: Stress, cortisol secretion, and their impact on memory and
perceived learning during reality-based practice for armed officers. International
Journal of Stress Management, (2011) Vol 18(2), May 2011, 113-132.
Tobin,Im., An exploratory study of time stress and its causes among government
employees, Public Administration Review,(2009) Vol.69, Issue 1,pp 104-115.
Torkelson, E. and Muhonen, T., The role of gender and job level in coping with
occupational stress, Work and Stress, (2004) Vol.18, Iss. 3, pp 267-274.
Tuckey, Michelle R.; Dollard, Maureen F.; Hosking, Patrick J.; Winefield, Anthony
H., Workplace bullying: The role of psychosocial work environment factors.
International Journal of Stress Management, (2009)Vol 16(3), Aug 2009, 215-232.
Tytherleigh, M.Y., Jacobs, P.A., Webb, C., Ricketts, C., and Cooper, C., Gender,
Health and Stress in English University staff- Exposure or Vulnerability, Applied
Psychology,(2007) Vol.56(2)., pp.267 288.
Umiker, W., Motivating the Burned Out Employee. The Health Care Supervisor,
(1992) 11 (1), 21- 27.
206
Verma, S., Duggal, S. and Supriya., Effective coping strategies in college students.
Journal of psychological researches, (1995) 39 (1-2), 7-13.
Vokic,N.P., and Bogdanic, A., Individual difference in occupational stress
perceived: A Croatian Study, Woking Paper Series, (2007) Paper No. 07-05
Wallace, J. Craig; Edwards, Bryan D.; Arnold, Todd; Frazier, M. Lance; Finch,
David M., Work stressors, role-based performance and the moderating influence of
organizational support. Journal of Applied Psychology, (2009) Vol 94(1), Jan 2009,
254-262.
Watson, Sarah B., Goh, Yong Wah., Sawang, Sukanlaya., Gender influences on the
work-related stress-coping process. Journal of Individual Differences, (2011) Vol
32(1), 2011, 39-46.
West, Daniel J., Horan, John J.,Games, Paul A., Component analysis of occupational
stress inoculation applied to registered nurses in an acute care hospital setting.
Journal of Counseling Psychology, (1984) Vol 31(2), Apr 1984, 209-218.
Xie, J.L., & Johns, G., Job scope and stress: Can scope be too high? Academy of
Management Journal, .(1995) 38, 1288- 1309.
Yagil, D., Ben-Zur, H., Tamir, I., Do employees cope effectively with abusive
supervision at work? An exploratory study. International Journal of Stress
Management, (2011) Vol 18(1), Feb 2011, 5-23.
Yerkes, R., and Dodson, J., The Relation of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit
Formation, Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, (1908) Vol. 18.
pp.459-482.
207
Zani, B., and Pietrantoni,L., Gender Differences in Empowerment, Burnout and
Somatic Symptoms among Health Proffesionals: Moderators and Mediators, Equal
Opportunity International,Patrington, (2001) Vol. 20,Iss1/2, pp39- 48
Books:
Avasthi, A., & Maheshwari, S.,Public Administration, Lakshmi Narain Agrawal:
Educational Publishers, Agra, (2011).
Beehr, T.A., & Bhagat, R.S., (Eds), Human stress and cognition in organizations
(pp. 3- 19). New York: John Wiley (1985).
Bernadin, H. John., Compensation and managing human resources, HRM an
experiential approach, 3rd international edition, Mc-Graw Hill, 2003, part-IV, 327.
Bradburn, Norman M., The structure of Psychological Wellbeing. Aldine Publishing
Co., 1969.
Burns, J.P., & Bowornwathana,B., Civil Service system in Asia, Edward Elgar
Publishing Limited (2001)
Campbell, J.P., Modellling the performance prediction problem in industrial and
organizational psychology, (1990). In S.M. Jex, Stress and Job Performance Theory,
Research and Implications for Managerial Practice, Sage Publication (1998).
Campbell, J.P., Dunnette, M.D., Lawler, E.E.,& Weick, K.E., Managerial behaviour,
performance, and effectiveness. New York: McGraw Hill (1970).
Cooper, C.L. & Dewe, P.,Stress A brief History, Blackwell Publishing(2004).
Cooper,C.L., and Marshall, J., Understanding Executive Stress, Macmillan,
UK.(1978).
208
Davidson, M.J. and Veno, A., Stress and Policeman. In White Collar and
Professional Stress (Eds CL Cooper & J Marshall). John Wiley, London (1980).
Drucker, Peter., Management- Tasks, Responsibilities and Practices, Harper and
Row Publishers, New York. (1974).
Dubin,R., Human Relation in Administration, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi (
1970).
Dwivedi, R.K., Organizational Culture and Performance, New Delhi: M.D.
Publications (1995).
Everly, G.S.,A Clinical Guide to the Treatment of the Human Stress
Response. Plenum Press : New York (1989).
Friedman, M., and Rosenman, R., Type A Behaviour and Your Heart. New York:
Knoof (1974).
Froiland, P., Training & retraining: a handbook for business, industry, government,
and the military. Macmillan Reference. USA( 1993).
Goldstein, I.L., Training in organizations,3rded.,PacificGrove,CA: Brooks/Cole.
(1993)
Golembienski, Robert T., Organization Development (OD) Interventions in W.S.
Paine (Ed.), Job Stress and Burnout: Research, Theory, and Intervention
Perspectives, Beverley Hill: Sage,(1982)
Golembiewski, R.T., Munzenrider, R.F., and Stevenson, J.G. (1986): Stress in
organizations: Toward a phase model of Burnout, Praeger, New York(1986).
Harvey, D & Brown,D.R., An experimental approach to organizational
development, Prentice Hall (2006), 7th ed.
209
Ivancevich, J.M., & Matteson,M.T., Stress and work: A managerial perspective.
Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman(1980)
Jex, Steve M., Stress and job performance: Theory, research, and implications for
managerial practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd. (1998).
Katz, D., & Kahn, R.L., The social psychology of organization (2nd ed.).New York:
John Wiley(1978).
Kornhauser, A., Mental Health Of The Industrial Worker. Wiley, New York(1965).
Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S., Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer
Verlag (1984).
Lazarus, R. S., Stress and Coping: An Anthology (3rd edn.), New York: Columbia
University Press, 1991.
Lumsden, D.P., Towards a systems model of stress: Feedback from Anthropological
study of the impact of ghanas Volta River project (1975). In I.G.Sarason ans
C.D.Speilberger (Eds). Stress and anxiety, Vol.2. Washington: Hemisphere (1975).
Lundberg, Ulf, Cooper,C.L., In The Science of Occupational Health: Stress,
Psychobiology, and the New World of work, Wiley- Blackwell Publishing
Ltd.(2011)
Maddi, S.R. and Kobasa, S.C., The hardy executive: Health under stress,
Homewood, Illinois: Dow Jones-Irwin(1984).
Mamoria, C.B., Personnel Management, Himalaya publishing House, (1990)
Marx, F.M., The Administrative State: An Introduction to bureaucracy, The
University of Chicago Press (1969).
210
Matteson,M.T., & Ivancevich,J.M., Organisational behaviour and management. 4th
ed. Chicago : Irwin( 1987).
McGrath, J. E., Stress and behavior in organizations (1976). Chap. 31 in Dunnette,
M.(Ed.), Handbook of Industrial Organizational Psychology. Chicago: Rand
McNally Co., Inc. pp. 13511395.
Meyer, J.P. & Allen, N.J.,Commitment in the Workplace: Theory, Research, and
Application. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications(1997).
Monat, R. and Lazarus, R.S., Stress and coping: An analogy. New York: Columbia
University Press (1977).
Murphy, K.R., Job performance and productivity(1990). In S.M.Jex, Stress and Job
Performance Theory, Research and Implications for Managerial Practice, Sage
Publication(1990).
Ogg, F.A., English Government and Politics, The Macmillan Co., New York (1947).
Pallant Julie, SPSS Survival Manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using
SPSS for windows, Open UniversityPress, Buckingham(2001).
Pareek, U., Making Organisational Roles Effective, New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill,
1993.
Parkinson, C.N., Parkinsons Law, John Murrays, London (1959).
Pattanayak, B.,&Mishra,P.K., Life in Organizations, pp 219-223.New
Delhi.Wheeler Publishing(1997).
Pestonjee, D. M., Stress and coping: The Indian experience (2nd edition). Sage
Publications India Pvt. Ltd.(1999) New Delhi,Page 216-229.
211
Pestonjee, D.M., Parreek, U., & Agrawal, R., Studies in stress and its management,
pp 61-71, Oxford and IBH (1999)
Peters, L.H., and OConnor, E.J., Measuring work obstacles: Procedures, issues and
implications. In S.M.Jex, Stress and Job Performance Theory, Research and
Implications for Managerial Practice, Sage Publication (1998).
Punekar, Deodhar, Sankaran, Labor welfare, Trade Unionism and industrial relations,
Himalaya Publishing House,Reprint 2008, pp 415.
Quick, J., Nelson, D., & Quick, J., Stress and Challenge at the Top: The paradox of
the Successful Executive. England: John Wiley and Sons (1990)..
Quick,J.C. and Quick, J.D., Organizational Stress and Preventive management.
McGraw Hill USA(1984).
Rosenzweig, S., Aggresive behaviour and the Rosenzweig Picture Frustration study,
New York, Praeger publisher, (1975)
Selye, H., The Stress of Life (Rev. ed.) McGraw-Hill, New York(1976).
Selye, H., History of the Stress Concept, In L. Goldberger and S. Breznitz, eds., The
Handbook of Stress,( 2nd ed), The Free Press, New York (1993).
Spector, P.E., Job satisfaction: Application , assessment, causes and consequences.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage (1997).
Srivastava, A. K Management of Occupational stress: Theories and Practice, Gyan
Publication House, (1999).
Sutherland, V.J and Cooper, C.L., Understanding stress: A psychological
perspective for health professionals, Chapman and Hall Publication, (1990) Ed.
First.
212
Tanner, O., and the editors of time Life books, Stress, Time Life books, Third
printing revised,(1979) , Alexandria, Virginia.
Tabachnick, B.G.,& Fidell, L.S., Using Multivariate Statistics, 2nd Ed., Harper &
Row, New York, (1989).
Vroom, V.H., Work and Motivation, Wiley Press, New York (1964).
Wilder, J. F. & Plutchik, "Preparing the professional: Building prevention into
training." In W. S. Paine (ed.) Job Stress and Burnout: Research, Theory, and
Intervention Perspectives (pp. 113132). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
(1982).
Zimbardo, Philip G. Psychology and Life. Publisher. Scott Foresman. United States
(1988).
Websites:
Central Civil Services (Classification, Control & Appeal) Rules, 1965,
http://persmin.nic.in/DOPT/EmployeesCorner/Acts_Rules/ccs(cca)/ccstotal1.htm#00
Central secretariats Manual of Office Procedures, Sept, 2010
http://darpg.nic.in/darpgwebsite_cms/Document/file/CSMOP.pdf
Census of Central Government Employees, October, 2009
http://dget.gov.in/publications/ccge/ccge-2006.pdf
CGHS- http://msotransparent.nic.in/cghsnew/index.asp
Development of civil services in India,
http://www.completehost4u.com/~isplindi/wp-content/uploads/2009/05/module-7-
bureaucracy-rev1.pdf
213
Henley (1979)
http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/1029/9/09_chapter%202.pdf
Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievance and Pensions, www.persmin.nic.in
Rahim, A. & Panicker, R., (2007), Making Dinosaurs Dance: Organization Change in
Government, February 2007,
http://www.ipeglobal.com/reports/Making%20Dinosaurs%20Dance%20-
%20Organisational%20Change%20in%20Government.pdf
Second Administrative Reforms Commission Thirteenth Report- November, 2008
http://arc.gov.in/
Sevottam - Central Public Grievances Redress Mechanism- http://pgportal.gov.in/
Theodore Roosevelt., U.S. Office of Personnel Management,
http://www.opm.gov/diversity/guide.PDF
214
Annexure- B
Instrument for data gathering
A) Please fill in the following details:
Name (Optional)..
Department ..
Designation
Group(tick the correct category).. (A / B / C )
Gender (tick the correct category).. (1) Male (2) Female
Age in yrs. (tick the correct category):1. (Below 35) 2. (35 -50).. 3.
(Above 50)..
B) The questionnaire consists of some statements that employees say or feel about
various components and conditions of their job. You are required to select any one
of the following 'five' responses to indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree
with each statement.
Kindly put a tick mark in the correct cell space.
S. Statement Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

No. Disagree Agree
1. I have to do a lot of work in Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
this job. Disagree Agree
2 The available information Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

relating to my job- role and Disagree Agree
outcomes are vague and
insufficient.
3. My different officers often Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
give contradictory Disagree Agree
instructions regarding my
work.
215
4. Sometimes it becomes a Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
complicated problem for me Disagree Agree
to make adjustment
between political/group
pressures and formal rules
and regulations.
5. The responsibility for the Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
efficiency and productivity Disagree Agree
of many employees is thrust
upon me.
6. Most of my suggestions are Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
heeded and implemented Disagree Agree
here.
7. My decisions and Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
instructions concerning Disagree Agree
distribution of assignments
among employees are
properly followed.
8. I get to work with persons Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
of my liking. Disagree Agree
9. My assignments are of Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

monotonous nature. Disagree Agree
10. Higher authorities do care Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

for my self- respect. Disagree Agree
11. I get less salary in Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

comparison to the quantum Disagree Agree
of my labor/ work.
12. I do my work under tense Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
circumstances. Disagree Agree
13. Owing to excessive Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

workload I have to manage Disagree Agree
with insufficient number of
employees and resources.
14. The objectives of my work- Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
role are quite clear and Disagree Agree
adequately planned.
15. Officials do not interfere Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
with my jurisdiction and Disagree Agree
working methods.
16. I have to do some work Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
unwillingly owing to certain Disagree Agree
group/ political pressure.
216
17. I am responsible for the Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
future of a number of Disagree Agree
employees.
18. My cooperation is Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
frequently sought in solving Disagree Agree
the administrative problems
at higher level.
19. My suggestion regarding Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
the training programmes of Disagree Agree
the employees are given due
significance.
20. Some of my colleagues try Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
to defame and malign me as Disagree Agree
unsuccessful.
21. I get ample opportunity to Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
utilize my abilities and Disagree Agree
experience independently.
22. This job has enhanced my Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
social status. Disagree Agree
23. I am seldom rewarded for Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

my hard labor and efficient Disagree Agree
performance.
24. Some of my assignments Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
are quite risky and Disagree Agree
complicated.
25. I have to dispose off my Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
work hurriedly owing to Disagree Agree
excessive workload.
26. I am unable to perform my Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
duties smoothly owing to Disagree Agree
uncertainty and ambiguity
of the scope of my
jurisdiction and authority.
27. I am not provided with clear Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
instructions and sufficient Disagree Agree
facilities regarding the new
assignments trusted to me.
28. In order to maintain group Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
conformity sometimes I Disagree Agree
have to do/ produce more
than the usual.
29. I bear great responsibility Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
for the progress and Disagree Agree
prosperity of this
department/ organization.
217
30. My opinions are sought in Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
framing important policies Disagree Agree
for this department/
organization.
31. Our interests and opinion Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
are duly considered in Disagree Agree
making appointment for
important posts.
32. My colleagues do cooperate Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
with me voluntarily in Disagree Agree
solving administrative/
work related problems.
33. I get ample opportunity to Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
develop my aptitude and Disagree Agree
proficiency properly.
34. My higher authorities do Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
not give due significance to Disagree Agree
my position and work.
35. I often feel that this job has Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
made my life cumbersome. Disagree Agree
36. Being busy with official Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
work I am unable to devote Disagree Agree
sufficient time to domestic
and personal problems.
37. It is unclear what type of Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
work and behavior my Disagree Agree
higher authorities and
colleagues expect of me.
38. Employees attach due Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
importance to the official Disagree Agree
instructions and formal
working procedures.
39. I am compelled to violate Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
the formal and Disagree Agree
administrative procedures
and policies owing to
group/ political pressure.
40. My opinion is sought in Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
changing or modifying the Disagree Agree
working system,
instruments and conditions
here.
218
41. There exists sufficient Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
mutual cooperation and Disagree Agree
team- spirit among the
employees of this
department.
42. My suggestions and Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
cooperation are not sought Disagree Agree
in solving even those
problems for which I am
quiet competent.
43. Working conditions are Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
satisfactory here from the Disagree Agree
point of view of our welfare
and convenience.
44. I have to do such work as Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
ought to be done by others. Disagree Agree
45. It becomes difficult to Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

implement all of a sudden Disagree Agree
the new procedures and
policies in place of those
already in practice.
46. I am unable to carry out my Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
assignments to my Disagree Agree
satisfaction on account of
excessive load of work and
lack of time.
47. Policies and regulations Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
limit the alternative options Disagree Agree
open to me.
48. I am not able to work Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
properly owing to many Disagree Agree
49. My formal authority Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
provides me with adequate Disagree Agree
power over the behavior of
my subordinates.
50. I must do things that are Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
against my better judgment. Disagree Agree
51. Relocating to a different Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

city puts strain on me and Disagree Agree
my family.
52. I shoulder dual Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
responsibility in looking Disagree Agree
after my children.
219
53. I feel overqualified for the Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
work I do. Disagree Agree
54. I share greater Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

responsibility in looking Disagree Agree
after my children.
55. It matters to me to be Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
appropriately dressed at Disagree Agree
workplace.
56. My superior keeps her/ Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
himself informed about the Disagree Agree
way his or her people think
and feel about things
57. I find difficulty in dealing Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
with subordinates. Disagree Agree
58. I have enough power to Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

discipline the people in my Disagree Agree
own work group not
carrying out the instructions
given to them
59. I observe my coworkers Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
doing things that I do not Disagree Agree
approve of.
60 I do not face any problem in Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
relocating my family Disagree Agree
because of my transfers.
61. I am forever in need of time Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
to meet demands at home Disagree Agree
and work.
62. I have too little to do here. Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
Disagree Agree
63. My spouse shoulders bigger Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly

responsibility when it Disagree Agree
comes to looking after
children.
64. I make an extra effort to be Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
suitably dressed at Disagree Agree
workplace.
65. My supervisor/boss stands Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
up to outsiders for the Disagree Agree
people he/she supervises.
66. It is a concern for me to get Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
cooperation of subordinates. Disagree Agree
220
67. My supervisor takes Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly
personal interest in work of Disagree Agree
those he or she supervises.
Kindly encircle your responses to the statements that best represent your work
related behaviour.
The range is from: +4 to -4, where in:
+4 - Indicates strong agreement
0 - Indicates (not sure)
-4 - Indicates strong disagreement
Sr. Statement Please encircle your response

no.
1. I am able to accomplish more +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -

within a given time frame. 4
2. Quality of my work has suffered. +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
3. My focus towards achieving +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

organizational goals has
strengthened.
4. I find myself motivated. +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
5. The interpersonal relationship +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

with my superior, subordinates
and colleagues has improved.
6. The relationship with clients and +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

outsiders has deteriorated.
7. Communication with my work +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

colleagues is effective.
8. I find myself taking liberty with +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

9. Participation in other than +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

specified activities, like Quality
circles, training, organizing
health camps etc. has increased.
221
10. I find myself cooperating more +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
with work colleagues.
11. I work with greater discipline. +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
12. I have become lax with +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

punctuality.
13. I take more leave from work. +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
14. It is easier to achieve targets. +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
15. I find myself more committed +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

towards my job.
16. Punctuality is adversely affected. +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
17. I am more willing to put extra +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

effort in job.
18. I am able to give better services +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

to client, customer and outsiders.
19. I commit lesser mistakes in my +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

work.
20. Quality of communication has +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

improved.
21. I find myself staying away from +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

work.
22. Participation for generating and +4 +3 +2 +1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

practicing innovative ideas and
other activities has increased.
222
In our day to day life almost every one of us confronts a variety of situations at the
place of work and we react/ respond to them in some way or the other. You have to
mention how many times you use these strategies to deal with situation in your life by
choosing one of the following responses.
Kindly put a tick mark in the correct cell space
Sr. Statement Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

No Often Always
1. Accept the situation because Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

there is nothing I can do to Often Always
change it or get rid of it.
2. Devote more time and Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

energy to meet the demand Often Always
of the situation.
3. Discuss with others who Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

could do something Often Always
concrete about the solution
of the problem.
4. Ask people who had similar Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
experiences. What did they Often Always
do?
5. Take the situation as an Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

opportunity to learn, and do Often Always
what is expected of me.
6. Change my priorities and Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

time distribution in order to Often Always
effectively cope with the
situation.
7. Come with a couple of Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
alternative solutions to the Often Always
problem.
8. Bargain or compromise to Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

get something positive from Often Always
the situation.
223
9. Blame myself for the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
present situation and feel Often Always
guilty and depressed
10. Change to leisure task Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

which necessarily brings Often Always
immediate relief.
11. Consider the situation as a Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

part of fate or desire of God Often Always
and try to cope with it
patiently.
12. Instead of misinterpreting or Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
exaggerating the situation, Often Always
appraise it objectively and
take direct action to deal
with it.
13. Consider the stressful Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
situations as inevitable part Often Always
of life and deal with them in
usual manner.
14. Console myself with the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
hope that things would be Often Always
better next time and accept
the situation.
15. Devote more time to prayers Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
and religious thoughts. Often Always
16. Delegate some of the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

responsibilities to others. Often Always
17. Console myself with the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
thought that the situation is Often Always
not that bad as it could have
been, and deal with positive
effect.
18. Try to get sympathy and Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
understanding from others Often Always
without doing much to deal
with the situation.
19. Try to get out of situation Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
gracefully. Often Always
224
20. React aggressively to those Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
who are responsible for the Often Always
situation.
21. Keep the aroused feeling to Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
myself and deal with the Often Always
situation in a depressed
mood.
22. Leave it for others to decide Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
or resolve the problem. Often Always
23. Appraise and deal with the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
situation with reference to Often Always
others who are facing more
severe situations.
24. Leave the situation to God Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
to take care of it. Often Always
25. Try not to make the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
situation worse by acting Often Always
too soon, and wait for the
right time to do something
meaningful.
26. Try for immediate or sooner Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
relief through partial or Often Always
temporary solution to the
problem.
27. Physically withdraw from Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
the situation temporarily. Often Always
28. Postpone taking any Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

decision or action towards Often Always
solution of the problem.
29. Put aside other activities in Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
order to concentrate on the Often Always
problem.
225
30. Give extra attention towards Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
planning and scheduling the Often Always
action, and deal with the
situation accordingly.
31. Deal with the situation Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
believing in the philosophy Often Always
that my right is to make
efforts, not to the fruits
thereof.
32. Leave the situation to take Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
its own course with the Often Always
belief that passage of time
itself is a remedy to many
problems.
33. Request help from the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
persons who have authority Often Always
/resources to do something
to help.
34. Seek company of friends Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
and family leaving the Often Always
situation aside.
35. Try to adjust or deal with Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
the situation constrainedly. Often Always
36. Star worrying too much Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
without doing much to solve Often Always
the problem.
37. Take situation as a Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

challenge and work harder Often Always
to deal with it.
38. Think about unreal things Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
that make me feel better or Often Always
happy.
39. Try to release the emotional Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
distress by talking to Often Always
someone.
226
40. Do not take the situation Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
seriously with the attitude Often Always
that, It is not everything.
41. Adopt some short cut or Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
socially disapproved Often Always
methods to get rid of the
situation.
42. Try to get emotional support Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
from relatives and friends in Often Always
adjusting with the situation.
43. Try to rationalize the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

situation and logically think Often Always
why it should be up setting
and frustrating?
44. Try to ignore and avoid the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
situation to the maximum Often Always
possible extent.
45. Try for long term or lasting Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
solutions to the problem Often Always
even by taking more strain /
pain voluntarily.
46. Do not believe that the Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
situation has really taken Often Always
place.
47. Take immediate action Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost

without thinking much Often Always
about the ultimate
consequences.
48. Accept the reality and work Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
on changing/modifying the Often Always
behaviour or policies which
caused the situation of
stress.
49. Deal with the situation with Never Rarely Sometimes Quite Almost
positive effect keeping in Often Always
mind its positive outcomes.
227
Annexure- C
Description of tools used for data gathering:
Statements related to various components in Occupational Stress Scale:
Stressors Statement no.

Sr. no.
Role ambiguity 2,14,26*,37

1.
Role Conflict 3, 15*, 27, 38*, 45,50,59

2.
Role overload 1, 13, 25, 44,46

3.
Responsibility for persons 5,17,29

4.
Poor peer relation 8*,20*,32*,41*

5.
Lack of supervisory support 56*,65*, 67*

6.
Relationship with subordinates 57,66

7.
Group and political pressure 4,16,28,39

8.
Powerlessness 7*,19*,31*,49*,58*
9.
Under participation 6*,18*,30*,40*

10.
Constraint of rules and regulation 47,48

11.
Intrinsic impoverishment 9,21*,33*,42,53,62

12.
Low status 10*, 22*, 34

13.
Unprofitability 11,23
14.
Strenuous working condition 12,24,35,43*

15.
Relocation/ transfer 51, 60*

16.
Work family interface 36, 52,54,61,63*

17.
Present ability at work 55,64

18.
(*) denotes the statements are reverse keyed.
228
Statements related to dimensions of performance:
Sr. no. Performance dimension Statement no.
1. Task proficiency 1,14,2*,19
2. Motivation 4,17
3. Commitment 3,15
4. Personal discipline 8,11,12*,13*,16*,21*
5. Communication 7,20
6. Relationship with co-workers 5,10
7. Relationship with external customer 6*,18
8. Non job specific activities 9,22
(*) denotes the statements are reverse keyed.
Statements related to components of Coping:
Statement no.
Sr. No. Coping strategies
Behavioural-Approach 2,4,5,6,12,20,21,26,29,33,35,41,45,47,48
1.
Cognitive Approach 3,7,8,25,42,43
2.
CognitiveBehavioural 11,13,17,23,30,31,37,49
3.
Approach
Behavioural-Avoidance 1,10,15,16,18,19,22,27,28,34,36,39, 44
4.
Cognitive-Avoidance 9,14,24,32,38,40,46
5.
229
Annexure- D
Trends as per Census of central government employees, 2009
A) Trend in Central Government civilian employment 1971- 2006
Census data as on 31st March Number (in lakh) % increase/decrease

1971 26.99 -
1972 27.51 1.93
1973 28.58 3.89
1974 29.12 1.89
1975 29.70 1.99
1976 30.45 2.53
1977 - -
1978 31.01 1.84
1979 31.71 2.26
1980 33.21 4.73
1981 34.07 2.59
1982 34.78 2.08
1983 35.42 1.84
1984 36.14 2.03
1985 -87 - -
1988 36.99 2.35
1989 37.48 1.32
1990 37.74 0.69
1991 38.13 1.03
1992 -1994 - -
1995 39.82 4.43
1996 2000 - -
2001 38.76 (-)2.66
2002 -03 - -
2004 31.64 (-)18.37
2005 - -
2006 31.16 (-)1.52
(-) data not available
230
B) Percentage Distribution of Central Government employees by gender
from 1971- 2006
Census data as Total No. of women %age of women to

on 31st March employment employees total employees
(in lakh)
1971 26.99 67369 2.51
1972 27.51 70874 2.58
1973 28.58 72879 2.55
1974 29.12 80371 2.76
1975 29.70 84051 2.83
1976 30.45 99272 3.26
1978 31.01 102321 3.30
1979 31.71 107172 3.38
1980 33.21 117139 3.53
1981 34.07 124032 3.64
1982 34.78 132010 3.80
1983 35.42 136598 3.86
1984 36.14 142011 3.93
1988 36.99 238984 6.46
1989 37.48 247158 6.60
1990 37.74 283380 7.52
1991 38.13 288999 7.58
1995 39.82 295721 7.43
2001 38.76 291800 7.53
2004 31.64 306298 9.68
2006 31.16 320335 10.28
231

Employee Performance A Function of Occupational Stress

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Employee Performance A Function of Occupational Stress

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE A FUNCTION OF

OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND COPING: A STUDY ON

Padmashree Dr. D. Y. Patil University,

Department of Business Management

in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the

Mrs. Radha Damle

(Enrolment No. DYP-PhD-076100003)

Dr. Sharad L. Joshi

PADMASHREE DR. D.Y. PATIL UNIVERSITY,

DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT,

Sector 4, Plot No. 10,

CBD Belapur, Navi Mumbai 400 614

I hereby declare that the thesis titled Employee Performance a Function of

Occupational Stress and Coping: A Study on Central Government Employees

submitted for the Award of Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management at the

Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil University Department of Business Management is my

associate ship, fellowship or any other similar titles.

Place: Navi Mumbai

Signature of the Signature of the Signature of the

Guide Head of the Department Student

This is to certify that the thesis titled Employee Performance a Function of

Occupational Stress and Coping: A Study on Central Government Employees

Doctor of Philosophy in Business Management at the Padmashree Dr. D.Y. Patil

University Department of Business Management in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Business

Place: Navi Mumbai

Signature of the Signature of the

Head of the Department Guide

learning, constantly shaping me, as I stand today.

through this endeavour. I am also immensely thankful to Dr. R. Gopal, Director,

invaluable and timely guidance provided to me.

would like to express my gratitude to the employees of different departments of

Central government for their contribution in the research.

I extend my special thanks to my parents, husband, children and other family

have been possible.

Place: Navi Mumbai

Date: Signature of the student

Executive Summary VII

1.1 Introduction to Occupational stress 1

1.2 Occupational stress and Performance 2

1.3 Coping with Occupational stress 4

1.4 Introduction to Central Government 6

Ch.2 Review of Literature 11

2.1 Occupational Stress 11

2.1.1 Eustress and Distress 14

2.1.2 Physiological and Psychological reaction to Stress 16

2.1.3 Sources of Stress 19

2.1.4 Stress and disease 24

2.2.1 Occupational Stress and Performance 26

2.2.2 Parameters of Performance 30

2.3.1 Coping strategies 33

2.3.2 Coping process 41

2.5 Research Gap 87

Ch.3 An Overview of Central Government 88

Ch.4 Statement of Problem, Objectives, Hypotheses and 100

4.1 Statement of Problem 100

4.2 Scope of the study 101

4.3 Statement of Objectives 102

4.4 Research Hypotheses 102

4.5 Research design 103

4.6 Operational Definitions 103

4.7 Sampling Design 104

4.8 Instrument used for data gathering 105