Phasors Momentum/Photon/Edge- Classroom program for AIPMT/JEE

Biology (Unity & Diversity of Life) Living World

(a) Founder Effect or Founder Principle:

It is an important example of genetic drift in human population. It is noted when a small group of persons called founders, leave their
homes to find a new settlement, the population in a new settlement may have different genotype frequencies from that of the parent
population. Formation of a different genotype in new settlement is called the founder effect. Sometimes they form a new species.

(b) Bottleneck Effect:

The term was introduced by Stebbibns for annual and binual cycle phenomenon of decrease and increase of a size of a population. When
the population is at decline, the number of individuals may reduce to the extent that the small group of population constituting the
population becomes isolated and restricted in distribution.

These are then exposed to random genetic drift resulting in the fixation of certain genes. Thus the population re-establishes its former
richness. Such reduction in allele frequencies is called a genetic bottleneck effect which often prevents the species from extinction (Fig.
7.51).

Significance of genetic drift:

Genetic drift is an evolutionary force. Most interbreeding animal populations are small. Genetic drift helps the populations to become
different because of the probability that each population fixes different genotypes by chance.

(v) Nonrandom Mating:

Repeated mating between individuals of certain selected traits changes the gene frequency. The selection of more brightly coloured male
bird by a female bird may increase the gene frequency of bright colour in the next generation.

(vi) Hybridization:
It is the crossing of organisms which are genetically different in one or more traits (characters). It helps in intermingling of genes of
different groups of the same variety, species and sometimes different species.

All the above factors produce genetic variation in sexual reproduction.

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Biology (Unity & Diversity of Life) Living World
2. Isolation:
Isolation is the prevention of mating amongst interbreeding groups due to physical (e.g., geographical, ecological) and biotic (e.g.,
physiological, behavioural, mechanical, genetic) barriers. Any factor which prevents interbreeding is known as isolating mechanism.
Isolating mechanism prevents interbreeding through three methods (Mayr, 1963) (i) Restriction to random dispersal, (ii) Restricting to
random mating and, (iii) Restriction to fertility. Reproductive isolation is described here.

Reproductive Isolation:
Reproductive isolation is the prevention of interbreeding between the populations of two different species. According to Mayr reproductive
isolating mechanisms are the biological properties of individuals which prevent the interbreeding of naturally sympatric populations. It
maintains the characters of the species but can lead to the origin of new species. Two main subtypes may be considered under
reproductive isolation: Premating isolation and postmating isolation.

(a) Premating or Prezygotic Isolation:

The principal factors operating under this sub-type are:

Mechanical Isolation:
The morphology of genitalia, or reproductive organs (of male and female) of the two populations may he very complicated and unlike; with
the result, copulation between males of one population and females of another, fails to occur. The mechanical isolation is common among
insect species. In certain plants, the flower structure is very complicated, and this prevents cross-pollination between the related species.

Psychological Isolation:
The behavioural differences restrict random mating of male and female individuals of different species. The behavioural differences have
been observed particularly during courtship, which is an important sexual phenomenon, involving a series of stimuli and responses,
between the mating partners. Songs of birds, courtship behaviour etc. may also play an effective role in mating.

Seasonal Isolation:
This also serves as an effective barrier to gene flow. Here, the breeding period of mating individuals is different for different species.
Several examples can be cited from birds to illustrate seasonal isolation due to difference in the breeding period.

Gametic Isolation:
In free living aquatic forms, where the fertilization is external, the gametes produced by different species usually do not attract each other
and this kind of barrier is known as game tic isolation.

(b) Post-mating or Postzygotic Isolation:

The main factors operating under this sub- type are:

Incompatibility:
In some instances, mating takes place between populations, but fertilization may not take place; or even fertilization may occur, but no
hybrid progeny will be formed. In plants, pollen tube fails to grow and will not reach any ovule.

Hybrid Inviability:
Here, normal fertilization occurs, and hybrid offspring is also formed, but the hybrid has reduced viability. The hybrid inviability may
appear at any stage of development.

Hybrid Sterility:

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Biology (Unity & Diversity of Life) Living World
In many cases, hybrids may be vigorous and live to sexual maturity, but are sterile. Horses and donkeys are two different species; a
hybrid mule is produced from the mating of a male donkey and a mare (female horse). Similarly mating between stallion (male horse) and
female donkey, results in a hybrid called hinny. Both mule and hinny are sterile.

Hybrid Breakdown:
In some instances, not only vigorous F] hybrids are produced, but also, these hybrids produce F2 individuals of backcross progeny.
Unfortunately, hybrid breakdown results in the F2 and backcross generations, as these individuals have reduced vigour of fertility or both.
The achievement of reproductive isolation through the combined effects of isolating mechanisms appears to be an important step in
speciation.

Some animals belonging to different species can produce fertile hybrids in captivity. No barrier to hybridisation between these species has
evolved during their long isolation from each other. Natural selection has not favoured a reduction in hybridisation.

Examples of species that breed in captivity and produce fertile hybrids are (i) African lioness (Panthera leo) and Asian tiger (Panthera
tigris) produce tigons, (ii) the polar bear and the Alaskan brown bear (iii) mallard (a duck) and the pintail duck and (iv) the platy and
swordtail fishes. It is important to note that these species do not interbreed in natural condition.

3. Heredity:
The transmission of characteristics or variations from parent to offspring is called heredity which is an important mechanism of evolution.
Organisms possessing hereditary characteristics that are helpful, either in the animals native environment or in some other environment,
are favoured in the struggle for existence. Thus, the offspring are able to benefit from the advantageous characteristics of their parents.

4. Natural Selection (Selection):

This is the most widely accepted theory concerning the principal causal mechanism of evolutionary change profounded by Charles Darwin
and Alfred Russel Wallace. It results from the differential reproduction (some members of a population produce abundant offspring, some
only a few and still others none), one phenotype as compared with other phenotypes in the same population.

This determines the relative share of different genotypes which individuals possess and propagate in a population. According to
Darwinism survival and fertility mechanism that affect the reproductive success or promote differential reproduction are called selection.
But according to modern views, selection is the consistent differences in the contribution of various genotypes to the next generation.

5. Speciation (Origin of new species):

The populations of a species present in the different environments and are separated by geographical and physiological barriers,
accumulate different genetic differences (variations) due to mutations, recombination, hybridization, genetic drifts and natural selection.
These populations, therefore, become different from each other morphologically and genetically, and they become reproductively isolated,
forming new species.

Evolution

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