Lecture 16

Quantum field theory:

from phonons to photons
Field theory: from phonons to photons

In our survey of single- and few-particle quantum mechanics, it

has been possible to work with individual constituent particles.
However, when the low energy excitations involve coherent
collective motion of many individual particles such as wave-like
vibrations of an elastic solid...
...or where discrete underlying classical particles can not even be
identified such as the electromagnetic field,...
...such a representation is inconvenient or inaccessible.
In such cases, it is profitable to turn to a continuum formulation of
quantum mechanics.
In the following, we will develop these ideas on background of the
simplest continuum theory: lattice vibrations of atomic chain.
Provides platform to investigate the quantum electrodynamics
and paves the way to development of quantum field theory.
Field theory: from phonons to photons

In our survey of single- and few-particle quantum mechanics, it

has been possible to work with individual constituent particles.
However, when the low energy excitations involve coherent
collective motion of many individual particles such as wave-like
vibrations of an elastic solid...
...or where discrete underlying classical particles can not even be
identified such as the electromagnetic field,...
...such a representation is inconvenient or inaccessible.
In such cases, it is profitable to turn to a continuum formulation of
quantum mechanics.
In the following, we will develop these ideas on background of the
simplest continuum theory: lattice vibrations of atomic chain.
Provides platform to investigate the quantum electrodynamics
and paves the way to development of quantum field theory.
Atomic chain

As a simplified model of (one-dimensional) crystal, consider chain of

point particles, each of mass m (atoms), elastically connected by
springs with spring constant ks (chemical bonds).

Although our target will be to construct a quantum theory of

vibrational excitations, it is helpful to first review classical system.

Once again, to provide a bridge to the literature, we will follow the

route of a Lagrangian formulation but the connection to the
Hamiltonian formulation is always near at hand!
Atomic chain

As a simplified model of (one-dimensional) crystal, consider chain of

point particles, each of mass m (atoms), elastically connected by
springs with spring constant ks (chemical bonds).

Although our target will be to construct a quantum theory of

vibrational excitations, it is helpful to first review classical system.

Once again, to provide a bridge to the literature, we will follow the

route of a Lagrangian formulation but the connection to the
Hamiltonian formulation is always near at hand!
Classical chain

For an N-atom chain, with periodic boundary conditions:

xN+1 = Na + x1 , the Lagrangian is given by,
!N " #
m 2 ks
L=T V = xn (xn+1 xn a)2
n=1
2 2

In real solids, inter-atomic potential is, of course, more complex

but at low energy (will see that) harmonic contribution dominates.
Taking equilibrium position, xn na, assume that |xn (t) xn | # a.
With xn (t) = xn + n (t), where n is displacement from equlibrium,

N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
Classical chain

For an N-atom chain, with periodic boundary conditions:

xN+1 = Na + x1 , the Lagrangian is given by,
!N " #
m 2 ks
L=T V = xn (xn+1 xn a)2
n=1
2 2

In real solids, inter-atomic potential is, of course, more complex

but at low energy (will see that) harmonic contribution dominates.
Taking equilibrium position, xn na, assume that |xn (t) xn | # a.
With xn (t) = xn + n (t), where n is displacement from equlibrium,

N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
Classical chain: equations of motion

N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2

To obtain classical equations of motion from L, we can make use of

Hamiltons extremal principle:
For a point particle with coordinate x(t), the (Euler-Lagrange)
equations of motion obtained from minimizing action
$
d
S[x] = dt L(x, x) ! (x L) x L = 0
dt
e.g. for a free particle in a harmonic oscillator potential
V (x) = 21 kx 2 ,
1 2 1
L(x, x) = mx m 2 x 2
2 2
and Euler-Lagrange equations translate to familiar equation of
motion, mx = kx.
Classical chain: equations of motion
N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
%
Minimization of the classical action for the chain, S = dt L[n , n ]
leads to family of coupled Euler-Lagrange equations,
d
(n L) n L = 0
dt
With n L = mn and n L = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ), we
obtain the discrete classical equations of motion,
mn = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ) for each n
These equations describe the normal vibrational modes of the
system. Setting n (t) = e it n , they can be written as

(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
Classical chain: equations of motion
N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
%
Minimization of the classical action for the chain, S = dt L[n , n ]
leads to family of coupled Euler-Lagrange equations,
d
(n L) n L = 0
dt
With n L = mn and n L = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ), we
obtain the discrete classical equations of motion,
mn = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ) for each n
These equations describe the normal vibrational modes of the
system. Setting n (t) = e it n , they can be written as

(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
Classical chain: equations of motion
N "
! #
m ks 2
L= 2n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
%
Minimization of the classical action for the chain, S = dt L[n , n ]
leads to family of coupled Euler-Lagrange equations,
d
(n L) n L = 0
dt
With n L = mn and n L = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ), we
obtain the discrete classical equations of motion,
mn = ks (n n+1 ) ks (n n1 ) for each n
These equations describe the normal vibrational modes of the
system. Setting n (t) = e it n , they can be written as

(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0
Classical chain: normal modes

(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0

These equations have wave-like solutions (normal modes) of the

form n = 1N e ikna .
With periodic boundary conditions, n+N = n , we have
e ikNa = 1 = e 2mi . As a result, the wavenumber k = 2m
Na takes N
discrete values set by integers N/2 m < N/2.
Substituted into the equations of motion, we obtain
1 1
(m 2 + 2ks ) e ikna = ks (e ika + e ika ) e ikna
N N
We therefore find that
& &
2ks ks
= k = (1 cos(ka)) = 2 | sin(ka/2)|
m m
Classical chain: normal modes

(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0

These equations have wave-like solutions (normal modes) of the

form n = 1N e ikna .
With periodic boundary conditions, n+N = n , we have
e ikNa = 1 = e 2mi . As a result, the wavenumber k = 2m
Na takes N
discrete values set by integers N/2 m < N/2.
Substituted into the equations of motion, we obtain
1 1
(m 2 + 2ks ) e ikna = ks (e ika + e ika ) e ikna
N N
We therefore find that
& &
2ks ks
= k = (1 cos(ka)) = 2 | sin(ka/2)|
m m
Classical chain: normal modes

(m 2 + 2ks )n ks (n+1 + n1 ) = 0

These equations have wave-like solutions (normal modes) of the

form n = 1N e ikna .
With periodic boundary conditions, n+N = n , we have
e ikNa = 1 = e 2mi . As a result, the wavenumber k = 2m
Na takes N
discrete values set by integers N/2 m < N/2.
Substituted into the equations of motion, we obtain

(m 2 + 2ks ) = 2ks cos(ka)

We therefore find that

& &
2ks ks
= k = (1 cos(ka)) = 2 | sin(ka/2)|
m m
Classical chain: normal modes

&
ks
k = 2 | sin(ka/2)|
m

At low energies, k 0, (i.e. long wavelengths) the linear dispersion

relation,

k ' v |k|
'
where v = a kms denotes the sound wave velocity, describes
collective wave-like excitations of the harmonic chain.
Before exploring quantization of these modes, let us consider how we
can present the low-energy properties through a continuum theory.
Classical chain: normal modes

&
ks
k = 2 | sin(ka/2)|
m

At low energies, k 0, (i.e. long wavelengths) the linear dispersion

relation,

k ' v |k|
'
where v = a kms denotes the sound wave velocity, describes
collective wave-like excitations of the harmonic chain.
Before exploring quantization of these modes, let us consider how we
can present the low-energy properties through a continuum theory.
Classical chain: continuum limit

For low energy dynamics, relative displacement of neighbours is

small, |n+1 n | # a, and we can transfer to a continuum limit:
!N $ L=Na
1
n (x)|x=na , n+1 n ax (x)|x=na , dx
n=1
a 0
%L
Lagrangian L[] = 0
dx L(, ), where Lagrangian density

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

= m/a is mass per unit length and s = ks /a.

Classical chain: continuum limit

N "
! #
m 2 ks 2
L= n (n+1 n )
n=1
2 2

For low energy dynamics, relative displacement of neighbours is

small, |n+1 n | # a, and we can transfer to a continuum limit:
N
! $ L=Na
1
n (x)|x=na , n+1 n ax (x)|x=na , dx
n=1
a 0

%L
Lagrangian L[] = 0
dx L(, ), where Lagrangian density

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

= m/a is mass per unit length and s = ks /a.

Classical chain: continuum limit

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

By turning to a continuum limit, we have succeeded in abandoning

the N-point particle description in favour of one involving a set of
continuous degrees of freedom, (x) known as a (classical) field.

Dynamics of (x, t) specified by the Lagrangian and action

functional
$ L=Na $
L[] = dx L(, ), S[] = dt L[]
0

To obtain equations of motion, we have to turn again to the

principle of least action.
Classical chain: continuum limit

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

By turning to a continuum limit, we have succeeded in abandoning

the N-point particle description in favour of one involving a set of
continuous degrees of freedom, (x) known as a (classical) field.

Dynamics of (x, t) specified by the Lagrangian and action

functional
$ L=Na $
L[] = dx L(, ), S[] = dt L[]
0

To obtain equations of motion, we have to turn again to the

principle of least action.
Dynamics of harmonic chain

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

For a system with many degrees of freedom, we can still apply the
same variational principle: (x, t) (x, t) + &(x, t)
$ $ L ( )
1 !
lim (S[ + &] S[]) = 0 = dt dx s a2 x x
$0 & 0

Integrating by parts
$ $ L
dt dx( s a2 x2 ) = 0
0

Since this relation must hold for any function (x, t), we must have

s a2 x2 = 0
Dynamics of harmonic chain

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

For a system with many degrees of freedom, we can still apply the
same variational principle: (x, t) (x, t) + &(x, t)
$ $ L ( )
1 !
lim (S[ + &] S[]) = 0 = dt dx s a2 x x
$0 & 0

Integrating by parts
$ $ L
dt dx( s a2 x2 ) = 0
0

Since this relation must hold for any function (x, t), we must have

s a2 x2 = 0
Dynamics of harmonic chain

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
Classical equations of motion associated with Lagrangian density
translate to classical wave equation:

s a2 x2 = 0

Solutions *general form: + (x + vt) + (x vt) where

* have the
v = a s / = a ks /m, and are arbitrary smooth functions.

Low energy elementary excitations are lattice vibrations, sound

waves, propagating to left or right at constant velocity v .
Simple behaviour is consequence of simplistic definition of potential
no dissipation, etc.
Dynamics of harmonic chain

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
Classical equations of motion associated with Lagrangian density
translate to classical wave equation:

s a2 x2 = 0

Solutions *general form: + (x + vt) + (x vt) where

* have the
v = a s / = a ks /m, and are arbitrary smooth functions.

Low energy elementary excitations are lattice vibrations, sound

waves, propagating to left or right at constant velocity v .
Simple behaviour is consequence of simplistic definition of potential
no dissipation, etc.
Quantization of classical chain

Is there a general methodology to quantize models of the form

described by the atomic chain?

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

Recall the canonical quantization procedure for point particle

mechanics:
1 Define canonical momentum: p = x L(x, x)
2 Construct Hamiltonian,

H(x, p) = p x L(x, x)

3 and, finally, promote conjugate coordinates x and p to

operators with canonical commutation relations: [p, x] = i!
Quantization of classical chain
Is there a general methodology to quantize models of the form
described by the atomic chain?

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

Canonical quantization procedure for continuum theory follows

same recipe:
1 Define canonical momentum: = L(, ) =
%
2 Construct Hamiltonian, H[, ] dx H(, ), where
Hamiltonian density

1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2
3 Promote fields (x) and (x) to operators with canonical
commutation relations: [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )
Quantization of classical chain
Is there a general methodology to quantize models of the form
described by the atomic chain?

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

Canonical quantization procedure for continuum theory follows

same recipe:
1 Define canonical momentum: = L(, ) =
%
2 Construct Hamiltonian, H[, ] dx H(, ), where
Hamiltonian density

1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2
3 Promote fields (x) and (x) to operators with canonical
commutation relations: [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )
Quantization of classical chain
Is there a general methodology to quantize models of the form
described by the atomic chain?

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

Canonical quantization procedure for continuum theory follows

same recipe:
1 Define canonical momentum: = L(, ) =
%
2 Construct Hamiltonian, H[, ] dx H(, ), where
Hamiltonian density

1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2
3 Promote fields (x) and (x) to operators with canonical
commutation relations: [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )
Quantization of classical chain

$ L " 2
#
1 2 s a
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2

For those uncomfortable with Lagrangian-based formulation, note

that we could have obtained the Hamiltonian density by taking
continuum limit of discrete Hamiltonian,
N " 2
! #
p 1n
H = + ks (n+1 n )2
n=1
2m 2

and the canonical commutation relations,

[pm , n ] = i!mn ( [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )

Quantum chain
$ L " 2
#
1 2 s a
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2

Operator-valued functions, and , referred to as quantum fields.

Hamiltonian represents a formulation but not yet a solution.
To address solution, helpful to switch to Fourier representation:

+ + + $ +
(x) 1 ! k k 1 L
(x)
= 1/2 e {ikx , dx e {ikx
(x) L k
k k L1/2 0 (x)

wavevectors k = 2m/L, m integer.

Since (x) real, (x) is Hermitian, and k = k (similarly for k )

commutation relations: [k , k ! ] = i!kk ! (exercise)
Quantum chain
$ L " 2
#
1 2 s a
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2

Operator-valued functions, and , referred to as quantum fields.

Hamiltonian represents a formulation but not yet a solution.
To address solution, helpful to switch to Fourier representation:

+ + + $ +
(x) 1 ! k k 1 L
(x)
= 1/2 e {ikx , dx e {ikx
(x) L k
k k L1/2 0 (x)

wavevectors k = 2m/L, m integer.

Since (x) real, (x) is Hermitian, and k = k (similarly for k )

commutation relations: [k , k ! ] = i!kk ! (exercise)
Quantum chain
$ L " 2
#
1 2 s a
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2

Operator-valued functions, and , referred to as quantum fields.

Hamiltonian represents a formulation but not yet a solution.
To address solution, helpful to switch to Fourier representation:

+ + + $ +
(x) 1 ! k k 1 L
(x)
= 1/2 e {ikx , dx e {ikx
(x) L k
k k L1/2 0 (x)

wavevectors k = 2m/L, m integer.

Since (x) real, (x) is Hermitian, and k = k (similarly for k )

commutation relations: [k , k ! ] = i!kk ! (exercise)
Quantum chain
$ L " 2
#
1 2 s a
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2

1
,
In Fourier representation, (x) = L1/2 k e ikx k ,
k+k ! ,0
- ./ 0
$ L ! $ L !
2 $ 1 i(k+k ! )x
dx ( ) = (ik k )(ik k ! ) dx e = k 2 k k
0 !
L 0
k,k k
%L
Together with parallel relation for 0
dx 2 ,

!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k

k = v |k|, and v = a(s /)1/2 is classical sound wave velocity.

Quantum chain
$ L " 2
#
1 2 s a
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2

1
,
In Fourier representation, (x) = L1/2 k e ikx k ,
k+k ! ,0
- ./ 0
$ L ! $ L !
2 $ 1 i(k+k ! )x
dx ( ) = (ik k )(ik k ! ) dx e = k 2 k k
0 !
L 0
k,k k
%L
Together with parallel relation for 0
dx 2 ,

!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k

k = v |k|, and v = a(s /)1/2 is classical sound wave velocity.

Quantum chain

!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k

Hamiltonian describes set of independent quantum harmonic

oscillators (existence of indicies k and k is not crucial).
Interpretation: classically, chain supports discrete set of wave-like
excitations, each indexed by wavenumber k = 2m/L.
In quantum picture, each of these excitations described by an
oscillator Hamiltonian operator with a k-dependent frequency.
Each oscillator mode involves all N microscropic degrees of
freedom it is a collective excitation of the system.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited

p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2

The quantum harmonic oscillator describes motion of a single

particle in a harmonic confining potential. Eigenvalues form a ladder
of equally spaced levels, !(n + 1/2).

Although we can find a coordinate representation of the states,

*x|n+, ladder operator formalism offers a second interpretation, and
one that is useful to us now!

Quantum harmonic oscillator can be viewed as a simple system

involving many featureless fictitious particles, each of energy !,
created and annihilated by operators, a and a.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited

p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2

The quantum harmonic oscillator describes motion of a single

particle in a harmonic confining potential. Eigenvalues form a ladder
of equally spaced levels, !(n + 1/2).

Although we can find a coordinate representation of the states,

*x|n+, ladder operator formalism offers a second interpretation, and
one that is useful to us now!

Quantum harmonic oscillator can be viewed as a simple system

involving many featureless fictitious particles, each of energy !,
created and annihilated by operators, a and a.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited

p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2

The quantum harmonic oscillator describes motion of a single

particle in a harmonic confining potential. Eigenvalues form a ladder
of equally spaced levels, !(n + 1/2).

Although we can find a coordinate representation of the states,

*x|n+, ladder operator formalism offers a second interpretation, and
one that is useful to us now!

Quantum harmonic oscillator can be viewed as a simple system

involving many featureless fictitious particles, each of energy !,
created and annihilated by operators, a and a.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited

p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
Specifically, introducing the operators,
& 1 2 & 1 2
m p m p
a= x +i , a = x i
2! m 2! m
which fulfil the commutation relations [a, a ] = 1, we have,
1 2
1
H = ! a a +
2

The ground state (or vacuum), |0+ has energy E0 = !/2 and is
defined by the condition a|0+ = 0.
Excitations |n+ have energy En = !(n + 1/2) and are defined by
(a )n
action of the raising operator, |n+ = n! |0+, i.e. the creation of n
fictitious particles.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited

p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
Specifically, introducing the operators,
& 1 2 & 1 2
m p m p
a= x +i , a = x i
2! m 2! m
which fulfil the commutation relations [a, a ] = 1, we have,
1 2
1
H = ! a a +
2

The ground state (or vacuum), |0+ has energy E0 = !/2 and is
defined by the condition a|0+ = 0.
Excitations |n+ have energy En = !(n + 1/2) and are defined by
(a )n
action of the raising operator, |n+ = n! |0+, i.e. the creation of n
fictitious particles.
Quantum harmonic oscillator: revisited

p 2 1
H = + m 2 x 2
2m 2
Specifically, introducing the operators,
& 1 2 & 1 2
m p m p
a= x +i , a = x i
2! m 2! m
which fulfil the commutation relations [a, a ] = 1, we have,
1 2
1
H = ! a a +
2

The ground state (or vacuum), |0+ has energy E0 = !/2 and is
defined by the condition a|0+ = 0.
Excitations |n+ have energy En = !(n + 1/2) and are defined by
(a )n
action of the raising operator, |n+ = n! |0+, i.e. the creation of n
fictitious particles.
Quantum chain

!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k

Inspired by ladder operator formalism for harmonic oscillator, set

& 1 2 & 1 2
mk i mk i
ak k + k , ak k k .
2! mk 2! mk
Ladder operators obey the commutation relations:
mk i
[ak , ak ! ] = ([k , k ] [k , k ])
2! mk
Hamiltonian assumes the diagonal form
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
Quantum chain

!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k

Inspired by ladder operator formalism for harmonic oscillator, set

& 1 2 & 1 2
mk i mk i
ak k + k , ak k k .
2! mk 2! mk
Ladder operators obey the commutation relations:
mk i
[ak , ak ! ] = ([k , k ] [k , k ])
2! mk
Hamiltonian assumes the diagonal form
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
Quantum chain

!" 1 1 2
#
H = k k + k k k
2 2
k

Inspired by ladder operator formalism for harmonic oscillator, set

& 1 2 & 1 2
mk i mk i
ak k + k , ak k k .
2! mk 2! mk
Ladder operators obey the commutation relations:
[ak , ak ! ] = kk ! , [ak , ak ! ] = [ak , ak ! ] = 0
Hamiltonian assumes the diagonal form
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
Quantum chain: phonons

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

Low energy excitations of discrete atomic chain behave as discrete

particles (even though they describe the collective motion of an
infinite number of fundamental degrees of freedom) describing
oscillator wave-like modes.
These particle-like excitations, known as phonons, are characterised
by wavevector k and have a linear dispersion, k = v |k|.
A generic state of the system is then given by

1
*
|{nk }+ = 3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantum chain: phonons

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

Low energy excitations of discrete atomic chain behave as discrete

particles (even though they describe the collective motion of an
infinite number of fundamental degrees of freedom) describing
oscillator wave-like modes.
These particle-like excitations, known as phonons, are characterised
by wavevector k and have a linear dispersion, k = v |k|.
A generic state of the system is then given by

1
*
|{nk }+ = 3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantum chain: phonons

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

Low energy excitations of discrete atomic chain behave as discrete

particles (even though they describe the collective motion of an
infinite number of fundamental degrees of freedom) describing
oscillator wave-like modes.
These particle-like excitations, known as phonons, are characterised
by wavevector k and have a linear dispersion, k = v |k|.
A generic state of the system is then given by

1
*
|{nk }+ = 3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantum chain: remarks

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

In principle, we could now retrace our steps and express the

elementary excitations, ak |0+, in terms of the continuum fields, (x)
(or even the discrete degrees of freedom n ). But why should we?
Phonon excitations represent perfectly legitimate (bosonic) particles
which have physical manifestations which can be measured directly.
We can regard phonons are fundamental and abandon microscopic
degrees of freedom as being irrelevant on low energy scales!
This heirarchy is generic, applying equally to high and low energy
physics, e.g. electrons can be regarded as elementary collective
excitation of a microscopic theory involving quarks, etc.
for a discussion, see Andersons article More is different
Quantum chain: remarks

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

In principle, we could now retrace our steps and express the

elementary excitations, ak |0+, in terms of the continuum fields, (x)
(or even the discrete degrees of freedom n ). But why should we?
Phonon excitations represent perfectly legitimate (bosonic) particles
which have physical manifestations which can be measured directly.
We can regard phonons are fundamental and abandon microscopic
degrees of freedom as being irrelevant on low energy scales!
This heirarchy is generic, applying equally to high and low energy
physics, e.g. electrons can be regarded as elementary collective
excitation of a microscopic theory involving quarks, etc.
for a discussion, see Andersons article More is different
Quantum chain: remarks

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

In principle, we could now retrace our steps and express the

elementary excitations, ak |0+, in terms of the continuum fields, (x)
(or even the discrete degrees of freedom n ). But why should we?
Phonon excitations represent perfectly legitimate (bosonic) particles
which have physical manifestations which can be measured directly.
We can regard phonons are fundamental and abandon microscopic
degrees of freedom as being irrelevant on low energy scales!
This heirarchy is generic, applying equally to high and low energy
physics, e.g. electrons can be regarded as elementary collective
excitation of a microscopic theory involving quarks, etc.
for a discussion, see Andersons article More is different
Quantum chain: remarks

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

In principle, we could now retrace our steps and express the

elementary excitations, ak |0+, in terms of the continuum fields, (x)
(or even the discrete degrees of freedom n ). But why should we?
Phonon excitations represent perfectly legitimate (bosonic) particles
which have physical manifestations which can be measured directly.
We can regard phonons are fundamental and abandon microscopic
degrees of freedom as being irrelevant on low energy scales!
This heirarchy is generic, applying equally to high and low energy
physics, e.g. electrons can be regarded as elementary collective
excitation of a microscopic theory involving quarks, etc.
for a discussion, see Andersons article More is different
Quantum chain: further remarks

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k

Universality: At low energies, when

phonon excitations involve long
wavelengths (k 0), modes become
insensitive to details at atomic scale
justifying our crude modelling scheme.
As k 0, phonon excitations incur
vanishingly small energy the
spectrum is said to be massless.
Such behaviour is in fact generic: the
breaking of a continuous symmetry (in
this case, translation) always leads to
massless collective excitations known
as Goldstone modes.
Quantum chain: further remarks

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k

Universality: At low energies, when

phonon excitations involve long
wavelengths (k 0), modes become
insensitive to details at atomic scale
justifying our crude modelling scheme.
As k 0, phonon excitations incur
vanishingly small energy the
spectrum is said to be massless.
Such behaviour is in fact generic: the
breaking of a continuous symmetry (in
this case, translation) always leads to
massless collective excitations known
as Goldstone modes.
Quantization of the harmonic chain: recap

Starting with the classical Lagrangian for a harmonic chain,

!N " #
m 2 ks 2
L= n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
we showed that the normal mode spectrum was characterised
* by a
linear low energy dispersion, k = v |k|, where v = a ks /m
denotes the classical sound wave velocity.
To prepare for our study of the quantization of the EM field, we
then turned from the discrete to the% continuum formulation of the
L
classical Lagrangian setting L[] = 0 dx L(, ), where

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
= m/a is mass per unit length and s = ks /a.
Quantization of the harmonic chain: recap

Starting with the classical Lagrangian for a harmonic chain,

!N " #
m 2 ks 2
L= n (n+1 n ) , N+1 = 1
n=1
2 2
we showed that the normal mode spectrum was characterised
* by a
linear low energy dispersion, k = v |k|, where v = a ks /m
denotes the classical sound wave velocity.
To prepare for our study of the quantization of the EM field, we
then turned from the discrete to the% continuum formulation of the
L
classical Lagrangian setting L[] = 0 dx L(, ), where

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
= m/a is mass per unit length and s = ks /a.
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2
%
From the minimisation of the classical action, S[] = dt L[], the
Euler-Lagrange equations recovered the classical wave equation,

= s a2 x2

with the solutions: + (x + vt) + (x vt)

As expected from the discrete formulation, the low energy

excitations of the chain are lattice vibrations, sound waves,
propagating to left or right at constant velocity v .
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

To quantize the classical theory, we developed the canonical

quantization procedure:

2 s a 2
L(, ) = (x )2
2 2

1 Define canonical momentum: = L(, ) =

%
2 Construct Hamiltonian, H[, ] dx H(, ), where
Hamiltonian density

1 2 s a 2
H(, ) = L(, ) = + (x )2
2 2

3 Promote fields (x) and (x) to operators with canonical

commutation relations: [(x), (x $ )] = i!(x x $ )
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

$ L " #
1 2 s a 2
H = dx + (x )2
0 2 2

To find the eigenmodes of the quantum chain, we then turned to

the Fourier representation:
+ ! +
(x) 1 k
= 1/2 e {ikx
(x) L k
k

with k = 2m/L, m integer, whereupon the Hamiltonian takes the

near-diagonal form,

!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k

H describes set of independent oscillators with k-dependent

frequency. Each mode involves all N microscropic degrees of
freedom it is a collective excitation.
Inspired by ladder operator formalism, setting
& 1 2 & 1 2
mk i mk i
ak k + k , ak k k .
2! mk 2! mk
where [ak , ak ! ] = kk ! , Hamiltonian takes diagonal form,

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

!" 1 1
#
H = k k + k2 k k
2 2
k

H describes set of independent oscillators with k-dependent

frequency. Each mode involves all N microscropic degrees of
freedom it is a collective excitation.
Inspired by ladder operator formalism, setting
& 1 2 & 1 2
mk i mk i
ak k + k , ak k k .
2! mk 2! mk
where [ak , ak ! ] = kk ! , Hamiltonian takes diagonal form,

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

Low energy excitations of discrete atomic chain behave as discrete

particles (even though they describe collective motion of an infinite
number of fundamental degrees of freedom).
These particle-like excitations, known as phonons, are characterised
by wavevector k and have a linear dispersion, k = v |k|.
A generic state of the system is then given by

1
|{nk }+ = *3 (ak1 )n1 (ak2 )n2 |0+
i ni !
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

In theory, we could now retrace our steps and express the

elementary excitations, ak |0+, in terms of continuum fields, (x) (or
even the discrete degrees of freedom n ). But why should we?
Phonon excitations represent perfectly legitimate particles which
have physical manifestations which can be measured directly we
can regard phonons are fundamental and abandon microscopic
degrees of freedom as being irrelevant on low energy scales!
If fact, such a heirarchy is quite generic in physics: Fundamental
particles are always found to be collective excitations of some yet
more fundamental theory!
see Andersons article More is different (now on website!)
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

In theory, we could now retrace our steps and express the

elementary excitations, ak |0+, in terms of continuum fields, (x) (or
even the discrete degrees of freedom n ). But why should we?
Phonon excitations represent perfectly legitimate particles which
have physical manifestations which can be measured directly we
can regard phonons are fundamental and abandon microscopic
degrees of freedom as being irrelevant on low energy scales!
If fact, such a heirarchy is quite generic in physics: Fundamental
particles are always found to be collective excitations of some yet
more fundamental theory!
see Andersons article More is different (now on website!)
Quantization of harmonic chain: recap

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

In theory, we could now retrace our steps and express the

elementary excitations, ak |0+, in terms of continuum fields, (x) (or
even the discrete degrees of freedom n ). But why should we?
Phonon excitations represent perfectly legitimate particles which
have physical manifestations which can be measured directly we
can regard phonons are fundamental and abandon microscopic
degrees of freedom as being irrelevant on low energy scales!
If fact, such a heirarchy is quite generic in physics: Fundamental
particles are always found to be collective excitations of some yet
more fundamental theory!
see Andersons article More is different (now on website!)
Quantization of harmonic chain: second quantization

But when we studied identical quantum particles we declared that all

fundamental particles can be classified as bosons or fermions so what
about the quantum statistics of phonons?

In fact, commutation relations tell us that phonons are bosons:

Using the relation [ak , ak ! ] = 0, we can see that the many-body
wavefunction is symmetric under particle exchange,
|k1 , k2 + = ak1 ak2 |0+ = ak2 ak1 |0+ = |k2 , k1 +

In fact, the commutation relations of the operators circumvent need

to explicitly symmetrize the many-body wavefunction,
1(
)
|k1 , k2 + = ak1 ak2 |0+ = ak1 ak2 + ak2 ak1 |0+
2
is already symmetrized!
Again, this property is generic and known as second quantization.
Quantization of harmonic chain: second quantization

But when we studied identical quantum particles we declared that all

fundamental particles can be classified as bosons or fermions so what
about the quantum statistics of phonons?

In fact, commutation relations tell us that phonons are bosons:

Using the relation [ak , ak ! ] = 0, we can see that the many-body
wavefunction is symmetric under particle exchange,
|k1 , k2 + = ak1 ak2 |0+ = ak2 ak1 |0+ = |k2 , k1 +

In fact, the commutation relations of the operators circumvent need

to explicitly symmetrize the many-body wavefunction,
1(
)
|k1 , k2 + = ak1 ak2 |0+ = ak1 ak2 + ak2 ak1 |0+
2
is already symmetrized!
Again, this property is generic and known as second quantization.
Quantization of harmonic chain: second quantization

But when we studied identical quantum particles we declared that all

fundamental particles can be classified as bosons or fermions so what
about the quantum statistics of phonons?

In fact, commutation relations tell us that phonons are bosons:

Using the relation [ak , ak ! ] = 0, we can see that the many-body
wavefunction is symmetric under particle exchange,
|k1 , k2 + = ak1 ak2 |0+ = ak2 ak1 |0+ = |k2 , k1 +

In fact, the commutation relations of the operators circumvent need

to explicitly symmetrize the many-body wavefunction,
1(
)
|k1 , k2 + = ak1 ak2 |0+ = ak1 ak2 + ak2 ak1 |0+
2
is already symmetrized!
Again, this property is generic and known as second quantization.
Quantization of harmonic chain: further lessons

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k

Universality: At low energies, when phonon

excitations involve long wavelengths (k 0),
modes become insensitive to details at atomic
scale justifying crude modelling scheme.
As k 0, phonon excitations incur
vanishingly small energy the spectrum is
said to be massless.
Again, such behaviour is generic: the breaking
of a continuous symmetry (in this case,
translation) always leads to massless collective
excitations known as Goldstone modes.
Quantization of harmonic chain: further lessons

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak + , k = v |k|
2
k

Universality: At low energies, when phonon

excitations involve long wavelengths (k 0),
modes become insensitive to details at atomic
scale justifying crude modelling scheme.
As k 0, phonon excitations incur
vanishingly small energy the spectrum is
said to be massless.
Again, such behaviour is generic: the breaking
of a continuous symmetry (in this case,
translation) always leads to massless collective
excitations known as Goldstone modes.
Three-dimensional lattices

Our analysis focussed on longitudinal vibrations of one-dimensional

chain. In three-dimensions, each mode associated with three
possible polarizations, : two transverse and one longitudinal.
Taking into account all polarizations
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak, ak, +
2
k

where k = v |k| and v are respective sound wave velocities.

Let us apply this result to obtain internal energy and specific heat
due to phonons.
Three-dimensional lattices

Our analysis focussed on longitudinal vibrations of one-dimensional

chain. In three-dimensions, each mode associated with three
possible polarizations, : two transverse and one longitudinal.
Taking into account all polarizations
! 1 2
1
H = !k ak, ak, +
2
k

where k = v |k| and v are respective sound wave velocities.

Let us apply this result to obtain internal energy and specific heat
due to phonons.
Example: Debye theory of solids

For equilibrium distribution, average phonon occupancy of state

(k, ) given by Bose-Einstein distribution, nB (!k ) e !k /k1B T 1 .
The internal energy therefore given by
! " #
1 1
E= !k ! /k T +
e k B 1 2
k

, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k d
(2)3
0
k = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E a 3
2 !vk
=3 2 k dk
N 2 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids

For equilibrium distribution, average phonon occupancy of state

(k, ) given by Bose-Einstein distribution, nB (!k ) e !k /k1B T 1 .
The internal energy therefore given by
! " #
1 1
E= !k ! /k T +
e k B 1 2
k

, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k d
(2)3
0
k = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E a 3
2 !vk
=3 2 k dk
N 2 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids

For equilibrium distribution, average phonon occupancy of state

(k, ) given by Bose-Einstein distribution, nB (!k ) e !k /k1B T 1 .
The internal energy therefore given by
! " #
1 1
E= !k ! /k T +
e k B 1 2
k

, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k d
(2)3
0
k = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E a 3
2 !vk
=3 2 k dk
N 2 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids

For equilibrium distribution, average phonon occupancy of state

(k, ) given by Bose-Einstein distribution, nB (!k ) e !k /k1B T 1 .
The internal energy therefore given by
! " #
1 1
E= !k ! /k T +
e k B 1 2
k

, L3
% kD 3 2 L3
% kD
In thermodynamic limit, k 0
d k
(2)3 = 0
k dk, with
2 2
cut-off kD fixed by ensuring that total number of modes matches
1 4 3 L3 3 6 2
degrees of freedom, (2/L)3 3 kD = N a3 , i.e. kD = a3
Dropping zero point fluctuations, if v = v (independent of ),
internal energy/particle given by
$ kD
E 9 !vk
= 3 k 2 dk
N kD 0 e !vk/kB T 1
Example: Debye theory of solids

$ kD
E 9 2 !vk
= 3 k dk .
N kD 0 e !vk/kB T 1

Defining Debye temperature, kB TD = !vkD ,

1 23 $ TD /T
T z 3 dz
= 9kB T
TD 0 ez 1

Leads to specific heat per particle,

1 23 $ TD /T 4
+
T z dz 3kB T - TD
cV = T = 9kB =
TD 0 (e z 1)2 AT 3 T # TD
Example: Debye theory of solids
1 23 $ TD /T 4
+
T z dz 3kB T - TD
cV = T = 9kB =
TD 0
z
(e 1)2 AT 3 T # TD
 Lecture 17
Quantization of the
Electromagnetic Field
Quantum electrodynamics

As with harmonic chain, electromagnetic (EM) field satisfies wave

equation in vacua.
1 2 1 2
2
E = E, 2
B = B
c c

Generality of quantization procedure for chain suggests that

quantization of EM field should proceed in analogous manner.

However, gauge freedom of vector potential introduces redundant

degrees of freedom whose removal on quantum level is not
completely straightforward.

Therefore, to keep discussion simple, we will focus on a simple

one-dimensional waveguide geometry to illustrate main principles.
Quantum electrodynamics

As with harmonic chain, electromagnetic (EM) field satisfies wave

equation in vacua.
1 2 1 2
2
E = E, 2
B = B
c c

Generality of quantization procedure for chain suggests that

quantization of EM field should proceed in analogous manner.

However, gauge freedom of vector potential introduces redundant

degrees of freedom whose removal on quantum level is not
completely straightforward.

Therefore, to keep discussion simple, we will focus on a simple

one-dimensional waveguide geometry to illustrate main principles.
Classical theory of electromagnetic field

In vacuum, Lagrangian density of EM field given by

1
L= F F
40

where F = A A denotes EM field tensor, E = A is

electric field, and B = A is magnetic field.
In absence of current/charge sources, it is convenient to adopt
Coulomb gauge, A = 0, with the scalar component = 0, when
$ $ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x L = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2

Corresponding classical equations of motion lead to wave equation

1 2
2
A = A F = 0
c
Classical theory of electromagnetic field

In vacuum, Lagrangian density of EM field given by

1
L= F F
40

where F = A A denotes EM field tensor, E = A is

electric field, and B = A is magnetic field.
In absence of current/charge sources, it is convenient to adopt
Coulomb gauge, A = 0, with the scalar component = 0, when
$ $ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x L = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2

Corresponding classical equations of motion lead to wave equation

1 2
2
A = A F = 0
c
Classical theory of electromagnetic field

In vacuum, Lagrangian density of EM field given by

1
L= F F
40

where F = A A denotes EM field tensor, E = A is

electric field, and B = A is magnetic field.
In absence of current/charge sources, it is convenient to adopt
Coulomb gauge, A = 0, with the scalar component = 0, when
$ $ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x L = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2

Corresponding classical equations of motion lead to wave equation

1 2
2
A = A F = 0
c
Classical theory of electromagnetic field

$ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2

Structure of Lagrangian mirrors that of harmonic chain:

$ " #
2 s a 2
L[, ] = dx (x )2
2 2

By analogy with chain, to quantize classical field, we should elevate

fields to operators and switch to Fourier representation.

However, in contrast to chain, we are now dealing with

(i) a full three-dimensional Laplacian acting upon...
(ii) the vector field A that is...
(iii) subject to the constraint A = 0.
Classical theory of electromagnetic field

$ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2

Structure of Lagrangian mirrors that of harmonic chain:

$ " #
2 s a 2
L[, ] = dx (x )2
2 2

By analogy with chain, to quantize classical field, we should elevate

fields to operators and switch to Fourier representation.

However, in contrast to chain, we are now dealing with

(i) a full three-dimensional Laplacian acting upon...
(ii) the vector field A that is...
(iii) subject to the constraint A = 0.
Classical theory of EM field: waveguide
$ " #
1 1 2
L[A, A] = d 3x A ( A)2
20 c2

We can circumvent difficulties by considering simplifed geometry

which reduces complexity of eigenvalue problem.

In a strongly anisotropic waveguide, the low frequency modes

become quasi one-dimensional, specified by a single wavevector, k.
For a classical EM field, the modes of the cavity must satisfy
boundary conditions commensurate with perfectly conducting walls,
en E E& |boundary = 0 and en B B |boundary = 0.
Classical theory of EM field: waveguide

For waveguide, general vector potential configuration may be

expanded in eigenmodes of classical wave equation,

2 uk (x) = k uk (x)
%
where uk are real and orthonormal, d 3 x uk uk ! = kk ! (cf. Fourier
mode expansion of (x) and (x)).
With boundary conditions u& |boundary = 0 (cf. E& |boundary = 0), for
anisotropic waveguide with Lz < Ly # Lx , smallest k are those
with kz = 0, ky = /Ly , and kx k # L1
z,y ,
1 22
2
uk = sin(y /Ly ) sin(kx) ez , k = k 2 +
V Ly
Classical theory of EM field: waveguide

$ " #
1 3 1 2 2
L[A, A] = d x A ( A)
20 c2
,
Setting A(x, t) = k k (t)uk (x), with k = n/L and n integer,
and using orthonormality of functions uk (x),
" #
1 ! 1 2 2
L[, ] = k k k
20 c2
k

i.e. system described in terms of independent dynamical degrees of

freedom, with coordinates k (cf. atomic chain),
$ " 2
#
2 s a
L[, ] = dx (x )2
2 2
Quantization of classical EM field

! " #
1 1 2 2
L[, ] = k
20 c2 k k
k

1
1 Define canonical momenta k = k L = &0 k , where &0 = 0 c 2 is
vacuum permittivity
! !1 1 1
2
H= k k L = k2 + &0 c 2 k k2
2&0 2
k k

2 Quantize operators: k k and k k .

3 Declare commutation relations: [k , k ! ] = i!kk ! :

! " 2 1
#
H = k
+ &0 k2 k2 , k2 = c 2 k
2&0 2
k
Quantization of classical EM field

! " #
1 1 2 2
L[, ] = k
20 c2 k k
k

1
1 Define canonical momenta k = k L = &0 k , where &0 = 0 c 2 is
vacuum permittivity
! !1 1 1
2
H= k k L = k2 + &0 c 2 k k2
2&0 2
k k

2 Quantize operators: k k and k k .

3 Declare commutation relations: [k , k ! ] = i!kk ! :

! " 2 1
#
H = k
+ &0 k2 k2 , k2 = c 2 k
2&0 2
k
Quantization of classical EM field

! " 2 1
#
H = k
+ &0 k2 k2 , k2 = c 2 k
2&0 2
k

Following analysis of atomic chain, if we introduce ladder operators,

& 1 2 & 1 2
&0 k i &0 k i
ak = k + k , ak = k k
2! &0 k 2! &0 k

with [ak , ak ! ] = kk ! , Hamiltonian takes familiar form,

! 1 2
1
H = !k ak ak +
2
k

For waveguide of width Ly , !k = c[k 2 + (/Ly )2 ]1/2 .

Quantization of EM field: remarks
! 1 2
1 1
H = !k ak ak + , |nk + = (ak )nk |+
2 nk !
k

Elementary particle-like excitations of EM field, known as photons,

are created an annihilated by operators ak and ak .

ak |nk + = nk + 1|nk + 1+, ak |nk + = nk |nk 1+

Unfamiliar dispersion relation

k = c[k 2 + (/Ly )2 ]1/2

is manifestation of waveguide geometry

for k - L1
y , recover expected linear
dispersion,

k ' c|k|
Quantization of EM field: generalization

So far, we have considered EM field quantization for a waveguide what

happens in a three-dimensional cavity or free space?

,
For waveguide geometry, we have seen that A(x) = k k uk where
&
!
k = (ak + ak )
2&0 k

In a three-dimensional cavity, vector potential can be expanded in

plane wave modes as
& 4 5
! ! ikx
A(x) = ek ak e ikx + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2

where V is volume, k = c|k|, and ek denote two sets of (generally

complex) normalized polarization vectors (ek ek = 1).
Quantization of EM field: generalization

So far, we have considered EM field quantization for a waveguide what

happens in a three-dimensional cavity or free space?

,
For waveguide geometry, we have seen that A(x) = k k uk where
&
!
k = (ak + ak )
2&0 k

In a three-dimensional cavity, vector potential can be expanded in

plane wave modes as
& 4 5
! ! ikx
A(x) = ek ak e ikx + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2

where V is volume, k = c|k|, and ek denote two sets of (generally

complex) normalized polarization vectors (ek ek = 1).
Quantization of EM field: generalization

& 4 5
! ! ikx ikx
A(x) = ek ak e + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2

Coulomb gauge condition, A = 0,

requires ek k = ek k = 0.
If vectors ek real (in-phase), polarization
linear, otherwise circular typically
define ek ek = .
Finally, operators obey (bosonic)
commutation relations,

[ak , ak! ! ] = k,k! !

while [ak , ak! ! ] = 0 = [ak , ak! ! ].
Quantization of EM field: generalization

& 4 5
! ! ikx ikx
A(x) = ek ak e + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2

Coulomb gauge condition, A = 0,

requires ek k = ek k = 0.
If vectors ek real (in-phase), polarization
linear, otherwise circular typically
define ek ek = .
Finally, operators obey (bosonic)
commutation relations,

[ak , ak! ! ] = k,k! !

while [ak , ak! ! ] = 0 = [ak , ak! ! ].
Quantization of EM field: generalization

& 4 5
! ! ikx ikx
A(x) = ek ak e + ek ak e
2&0 k V
k=1,2

Coulomb gauge condition, A = 0,

requires ek k = ek k = 0.
If vectors ek real (in-phase), polarization
linear, otherwise circular typically
define ek ek = .
Finally, operators obey (bosonic)
commutation relations,

[ak , ak! ! ] = k,k! !

while [ak , ak! ! ] = 0 = [ak , ak! ! ].
Quantization of EM field: generalization

& 4 5
! !
A(x) = ek ak e ikx + ek ak e ikx
2&0 k V
k=1,2

With these definitions, the photon Hamiltonian then takes the form

! 4 5

H = !k ak ak + 1/2
k

Defining vacuum, |+, eigenstates involve photon number states,

1
|{nk }+ = *3 (ak1 )nk1 (ak2 )nk2 |+
k nk !

N.B. commutation relations of bosonic operators ensures that

many-photon wavefunction symmetrical under exchange.
Momentum carried by photon field

Classical EM field carries linear momentum density, S/c 2 where

S = E B/0 denotes Poynting vector, i.e. total momentum
$ $
1
P = d 3 x 2 S = &0 d 3 x A(x, t) ( A(x, t))
c

After quantization, find (exercise)

!
P = !k ak ak
k

i.e. P|k, + = Pak, |+ = !k|k, + (for both = 1, 2).
Momentum carried by photon field

Classical EM field carries linear momentum density, S/c 2 where

S = E B/0 denotes Poynting vector, i.e. total momentum
$ $
1
P = d 3 x 2 S = &0 d 3 x A(x, t) ( A(x, t))
c

After quantization, find (exercise)

!
P = !k ak ak
k

i.e. P|k, + = Pak, |+ = !k|k, + (for both = 1, 2).
Angular momentum carried by photon field

Angular momentum L = x P includes intrinsic component,

$ ! 4 5

M = d 3 x A A ( M = i! ek ak1 ak2 ak2 ak1
k

Defining creation operators for right/left circular polarization,

1 1
akR = (ak1 + iak2 ), akL = (ak1 iak2 )
2 2
find that
! 4 5

M = !ek akR akR akL akL
k

Therefore, since ek M|k, R/L+ = !|k, R/L+, we conclude that

photons carry intrinsic angular momentum ! (known as helicity),
oriented parallel/antiparallel to direction of momentum propagation.
Angular momentum carried by photon field

Angular momentum L = x P includes intrinsic component,

$ ! 4 5

M = d 3 x A A ( M = i! ek ak1 ak2 ak2 ak1
k

Defining creation operators for right/left circular polarization,

1 1
akR = (ak1 + iak2 ), akL = (ak1 iak2 )
2 2
find that
! 4 5

M = !ek akR akR akL akL
k

Therefore, since ek M|k, R/L+ = !|k, R/L+, we conclude that

photons carry intrinsic angular momentum ! (known as helicity),
oriented parallel/antiparallel to direction of momentum propagation.
Angular momentum carried by photon field

Angular momentum L = x P includes intrinsic component,

$ ! 4 5

M = d 3 x A A ( M = i! ek ak1 ak2 ak2 ak1
k

Defining creation operators for right/left circular polarization,

1 1
akR = (ak1 + iak2 ), akL = (ak1 iak2 )
2 2
find that
! 4 5

M = !ek akR akR akL akL
k

Therefore, since ek M|k, R/L+ = !|k, R/L+, we conclude that

photons carry intrinsic angular momentum ! (known as helicity),
oriented parallel/antiparallel to direction of momentum propagation.
Casimir effect

! 4 5

H = !k ak ak + 1/2
k

As with harmonic chain, quantization of EM field !

zero-point fluctuations with physical manifestations.
Consider two metallic plates, area A, separated by distance d
quantization of EM field leads to vacuum energy/unit area
$ 2
&
*E + d k ! !k n !c
2
(n)2
=2 = 2
, k n = c k +
A 2
(2) n=1 2 720 d 3 d2

Field quantization results in attractive

(Casimir) force/unit area,

FC d *E + 2 !c
= =
A A 240 d 4
Casimir effect

! 4 5

H = !k ak ak + 1/2
k

As with harmonic chain, quantization of EM field !

zero-point fluctuations with physical manifestations.
Consider two metallic plates, area A, separated by distance d
quantization of EM field leads to vacuum energy/unit area
$ 2
&
*E + d k ! !k n !c
2
(n)2
=2 = 2
, k n = c k +
A 2
(2) n=1 2 720 d 3 d2

Field quantization results in attractive

(Casimir) force/unit area,

FC d *E + 2 !c
= =
A A 240 d 4
Quantum field theory: summary

Starting with continuum field theory of the classical harmonic chain,

$ " #
2 s a 2
L[, ] = dx (x )2
2 2
we have developed a general quantization programme.
From this programme, we find that the low-energy elementary
excitations of the chain are described by (bosonic) particle-like
collective excitations known as phonons,
!
H = !k (ak ak + 1/2), !k = v |k|
k

In three-dimensional system, modes acquire polarization index, .

Quantum field theory: summary

Starting with continuum field theory of EM field for waveguide,

!" 1 #
2 2
L[, ] = k k
c2
k

we applied quantization procedure to establish quantum theory.

These studies show that low-energy excitations of EM field
described by (bosonic) particle-like modes known as photons,
!
H = !k (ak ak + 1/2), k = c(k 2 + (/Ly )2 )1/2
k

In three-dimensional system modes acquire polarization index, .

!
H = !k (ak ak + 1/2), k = c|k|
k
Spin wave theory

As a final example of field quantization, which revises operator methods

and spin angular momentum, we close this section by considering the
quantum mechanical spin chain.
Spin wave theory

In correlated electron systems Coulomb interaction can result in

electrons becoming localized the Mott transition.
However, in these insulating materials, the spin degrees of freedom
carried by the constituent electrons can remain mobile such
systems are described by quantum magnetic models,
!
H = Jmn Sm Sn
m*=n

where exchange couplings Jmn denote matrix elements coupling

local moments at lattice sites m and n.
Spin wave theory

!
H = Jmn Sm Sn
m*=n

Since matrix elements Jmn decay rapidly with distance, we may

restrict attention to just neighbouring sites, Jmn = Jm,n1 .
Although J typically positive (leading to antiferromagnetic
coupling), here we consider them negative leading to
ferromagnetism i.e. neighbouring spins want to lie parallel.
Consider then the 1d spin S quantum Heisenberg ferromagnet,
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

where J > 0, and spins obey spin algebra, [Sm , Sn ] = i!mn & Sm .
Spin wave theory

!
H = Jmn Sm Sn
m*=n

Since matrix elements Jmn decay rapidly with distance, we may

restrict attention to just neighbouring sites, Jmn = Jm,n1 .
Although J typically positive (leading to antiferromagnetic
coupling), here we consider them negative leading to
ferromagnetism i.e. neighbouring spins want to lie parallel.
Consider then the 1d spin S quantum Heisenberg ferromagnet,
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

where J > 0, and spins obey spin algebra, [Sm , Sn ] = i!mn & Sm .
Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

As a strongly interacting quantum system, for a general spin S, the

quantum magnetic Hamiltonian is not easily addressed. However,
for large spin S, we can develop a semi-classical expansion:
In problem set I, we developed a representation of the quantum spin
algebra, [Sm+ , Sn ] = 2!Smz mn , using raising and lowering (ladder)
operators the Holstein-Primakoff spin representation,

Smz = !(S am am )
1 21/2



am am
Sm = ! 2S am 1 ' ! 2S am + O(S 1/2 )
2S

Sm = (Sm ) ' ! 2S am + O(S 1/2 )
+

where, as usual, [am , an ] = mn ,

Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

As a strongly interacting quantum system, for a general spin S, the

quantum magnetic Hamiltonian is not easily addressed. However,
for large spin S, we can develop a semi-classical expansion:
In problem set I, we developed a representation of the quantum spin
algebra, [Sm+ , Sn ] = 2!Smz mn , using raising and lowering (ladder)
operators the Holstein-Primakoff spin representation,

Smz = !(S am am )
1 21/2



am am
Sm = ! 2S am 1 ' ! 2S am + O(S 1/2 )
2S

Sm = (Sm ) ' ! 2S am + O(S 1/2 )
+

where, as usual, [am , an ] = mn ,

Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

As a strongly interacting quantum system, for a general spin S, the

quantum magnetic Hamiltonian is not easily addressed. However,
for large spin S, we can develop a semi-classical expansion:
In problem set I, we developed a representation of the quantum spin
algebra, [Sm+ , Sn ] = 2!Smz mn , using raising and lowering (ladder)
operators the Holstein-Primakoff spin representation,

Smz = !(S am am )
1 21/2



am am
Sm = ! 2S am 1 ' ! 2S am + O(S 1/2 )
2S

Sm = (Sm ) ' ! 2S am + O(S 1/2 )
+

where, as usual, [am , an ] = mn ,

Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

Defining spin raising and lowering operators, Sm = Smx i Smy ,

!6 y
7
H = J Smx Sm+1
x
+ Smy Sm+1 +Smz Sm+1
z

m
/ 0- .
1 +
(Sm Sm+1 + Sm Sm+1
+
)
2
Using Holstein-Primakoff transformation,
z


Sm = !(S am am ), Sm ' ! 2S am , Sm+ ' ! 2S am
expansion to quadratic order in raising and lowering operators gives,
!
2 2 2
H ' JN! S J! S (am am+1 + am am+1 am am am+1 am+1 )
m
Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

Defining spin raising and lowering operators, Sm = Smx i Smy ,

!6 y
7
H = J Smx Sm+1
x
+ Smy Sm+1 +Smz Sm+1
z

m
/ 0- .
1 +
(Sm Sm+1 + Sm Sm+1
+
)
2
Using Holstein-Primakoff transformation,
z


Sm = !(S am am ), Sm ' ! 2S am , Sm+ ' ! 2S am
expansion to quadratic order in raising and lowering operators gives,
!
2 2 2
H ' JN! S J! S (am am+1 + am am+1 am am am+1 am+1 )
m
Spin wave theory
!
H = J Sm Sm+1
m

Defining spin raising and lowering operators, Sm = Smx i Smy ,

!6 7
x x y y z z
H = J Sm Sm+1 + Sm Sm+1 +Sm Sm+1
m
/ 0- .
1 +
(Sm Sm+1 + Sm Sm+1
+
)
2
Using Holstein-Primakoff transformation,
z


Sm = !(S am am ), Sm ' ! 2S am , Sm+ ' ! 2S am

expansion to quadratic order in raising and lowering operators gives,

!
2 2 2
H = JN! S + J! S (am+1 am )(am+1 am ) + O(S 0 )
m
Spin wave theory
!
2 2 2
H = JN! S + J! S (am+1 am )(am+1 am ) + O(S 0 )
m

Taking continuum limit, am+1 am ' x a(x)|x=m (unit spacing),

$ N
H = JN!2 S 2 + J!2 S dx (x a )(x a) + O(S 0 )
0

As with harmonic chain, Hamiltonian can be diagonalized by Fourier

transformation. With periodic boundary conditions, am+N = am ,
! $ N
1 1
a(x) = ikx
e ak , ak = dx e ikx a(x)
N k N 0

where sum on k = 2n/N, runs over integers n and [ak , ak ! ] = kk ! ,

$ N ! $ N !
1 i(kk ! )x

dx (x a )(x a) = $
(ikak )(ik ak ! ) dx e = k 2 ak ak
0 N 0
kk ! / 0- . k
kk !
Spin wave theory
!
2 2 2
H = JN! S + J! S (am+1 am )(am+1 am ) + O(S 0 )
m

Taking continuum limit, am+1 am ' x a(x)|x=m (unit spacing),

$ N
H = JN!2 S 2 + J!2 S dx (x a )(x a) + O(S 0 )
0

As with harmonic chain, Hamiltonian can be diagonalized by Fourier

transformation. With periodic boundary conditions, am+N = am ,
! $ N
1 1
a(x) = ikx
e ak , ak = dx e ikx a(x)
N k N 0

where sum on k = 2n/N, runs over integers n and [ak , ak ! ] = kk ! ,

$ N ! $ N !
1 i(kk ! )x

dx (x a )(x a) = $
(ikak )(ik ak ! ) dx e = k 2 ak ak
0 N 0
kk ! / 0- . k
kk !
Spin wave theory

As a result, we obtain
!
2 2
H ' JN! S + !k ak ak
k

where k = J!Sk 2 represents the

dispersion of the spin excitations (cf.
linear dispersion of harmonic chain).
As with harmonic chain, magnetic
system defined by massless low-energy
collective excitations known as spin
waves or magnons.
Spin wave spectrum can be recorded
by neutron scattering measurements.