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1
The importance of site is illustrated in this photo. The land adjacent to the Red River
was viewed as ideal for human occupation because it was flat, fertile, and adjacent
to a major water way. However, it is also prone to flooding. The Red River floods
thousands of acres of farmland as it overflows its banks. The river crested April 6,
1997, but the continued inflow from its tributaries is preventing the water level from
dropping at a regular rate.
29
30
What is the Influence of place and health and specifically posed the following question:
What were the neighbourhood effects (place effects) on health
Place on Human Health? within Montreal? Using data collected through the Canadian
Community Health Survey and the Census of Canada, and apply-
Human health reflects a complex interplay of two general charac- ing computer technology to handle large data sets, they applied
teristics: (i) individuals (e.g., age structure, genetic composition, statistical techniques to answer this research question. They
lifestyles, culture), and (ii) the circumstances in which they live found that neighbourhoods exerted an effect on health status
both environmental (e.g., exposure to pollution) and social (e.g. above and beyond the impact of individual risk factors, includ-
access to social services). There is a considerable body of research ing smoking, obesity, high stress, and a low sense of belonging
that has focused attention on the relationship among individual fac- to a community. This study is of specific interest to geographers
tors, such as smoking, alcohol consumption, obesity, and income because it was conducted at two scalesthe individual and the
levels, on health. There has also been concerted and longstanding neighbourhood. Although the neighbourhood effect was found to
research to establish causal relationships between exposure to be small (about 3%) relative to individual factors (e.g., smoking,
different environmental conditions and health. However, there is obesity), they are significant because we can more easily improve
also growing concern about the nature and the extent of relation- the design of our communities (e.g., providing better spaces for
ships among urban form, people, the environment and health. walking and recreating) than change individual behaviours (e.g.,
The North American population is becoming increasingly obese. adopting and affording healthy lifestyles). Ross et al. also found
There are also increasing rates of asthma and depression. At the that poor health status was also associated with high levels of
same time, North American lifestyles are becoming increasingly self-perceived stress and a low sense of belonging to community.
sedentary, and this may be linked, in part, to the structure and Better community design can increase a persons sense of belong-
form of our communities. However, while there is suspicion about ing to a community. The form and structure of Montreal and
linkages between urban form (or place) and health, there has been many other Canadian cities promotes a high level of car usage,
little conclusive research. which leads to air pollution and a sedentary lifestyle. Achieving
This point is illustrated in the 2002 Annual Report on the healthy cities should be considered as a key goal for public policy
Health of Montrealers by the Rgie Rgionale de la Sant et and urban planning, and is an area where geographers can make a
des Service Sociaux de Montral-Centre. It revealed big gaps meaningful contribution.
in health indicators based on a persons socio-economic status We will return to this study later in this chapter. For now,
and place of residence (Figure 2.1). It found that life expectancy appreciate how research questions can develop from previous
EXPLANATION
FIGURE 2.2 Inductive and deductive reasoning.
agencies also publish substantial amounts of information, as do per square kilometre. In 1931, all incorporated cities, towns, and
other national governments, and international organizations (United villages in Canada, regardless of population size or density, were
Nations, Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development defined as urban. Other problems can also be encountered. A
(OECD)). Information can range from statistics on transportation, social geography project on Aboriginal populations would have to
to public attitudes on topics such as immigration, transportation be sensitive to the changing definition of the term Aboriginal,
preferences, and perceptions of health and environmental manage- and changes to the wording of census questions, and patterns of
ment. Most research projects begin with a search of secondary self-identification. Mtis were not included in the census until
sources in order to find out what is already known about a topic and 1981, and only patrilineal descent (male) was counted until 1981.
what questions remain to be asked/answered. In areas where there is a small population, Statistics Canada will
One must be careful when using secondary data, even those protect the confidentiality of individual responses by applying
that are of high quality such as Canadian Census data, in order random rounding to data (especially socio-economic data). In
to realize their strengths, weaknesses, and idiosyncrasies. For some instances, this means that some of these census tracts appear
instance, if you were doing a project on Canadian cities, you to have zero persons with certain characteristics. However, you
would want to make sure you know how urban areas are defined cannot be sure if this is the case or if it is due to random rounding.
by the census over time. In 2006, an urban area was defined as Go to the Statistics Canada website at www.statcan.ca/start.html
having a population of at least 1,000 and no fewer than 400 people to find more about the quality of census data.
Dissemination
Area
Maple
Ridge
Census Division
TABLE 2.2
A Comparison of Traditional and Feminist Methods
General Research Stage Traditional (Patriarchal) Alternative (Feminist)
Nature of Research Question Limited, specialized, specific, exclusive. Test Broad, inclusive. Develop an understanding of
hypothesis in order to contribute to theory peoples experiences.
development.
Data Reports of attitudes and behaviours obtained Feelings, behaviours, thoughts, insights, actions as
through questionnaires, interviews, and witnessed or experienced by people obtained
archive records. Mode of data collection through interviews, questionnaires, archive
determined prior to conduct of research. records, journals. Mode of data collection
determined by context of research.
Data analysis Determined prior to research. Deductive Done during data collection. Relies on development of
approach. Completed when all data are ideas. Inductive approach.
collected. Statistical analysis.
Analysis/Presentation Format A research report describing hypothesis, data A story or a description which includes documentation
collection methods, form of analysis, and of the research processdata collection and how
conclusions. Objective. patterns were foundand emergent concepts.
Subjective, assumes peoples interpretations are valid.
Source: Adapted from Reinharz, S. (1983). Experiential Analysis: A Contribution to Feminist Research. In Theories of Womens Studies, edited by Gloria Bowles and Renate Duelli
Klein, 162191. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
and decides what it contributes to the answering of the research critical information and to suppress detail of lower priority. All car-
questions. Analysis can take many forms including describing the tography seeks to portray the complex, three-dimensional world on a
context or processes of something (e.g., a government program), flat sheet of paper or on a television or video screen. In short . . . all
classifying data into categories (e.g., a map of a citys different maps must tell white lies (Monmonier, 1996: xi). A map is a two
cultures), drawing graphs, or completing statistical analysis. The dimensional spatial representation of any part of our world.
last stage of the research process is to make conclusions based on Our attention for the remainder of this subsection are on map
the evidence (data and analysis) that has been collected. This will projections, map features (e.g., scale), types of map, and how
be influenced by ones philosophy as illustrated by the age-old data may be portrayed on maps. We shall learn that maps can
problem of determining if a glass of water is half full or half empty. serve their purpose only if their users have a clear idea of their
While both responses are correct, they provide different interpreta- strengths, limitations, and diversity, and the conventions used
tions. A universal guide in making conclusions is to ensure that they in their preparation and interpretation. Knowledge of maps can
answer the questions that were initially posed by the research and assist geographers in both gathering and interpreting data, and
are adequately supported by the evidence. To better illustrate how influencing how others interpret their work.
four research steps may be used to organize a commentary on the
research completed by Ross et al., see Thinking about Research.
Map Projections
A map projection is simply a system for displaying the curved
Maps surface of the earth on a flat sheet of paper. The definition is easy;
the process is more difficult. No matter how one tries to flatten
We now turn our attention to a longstanding and important tool that the earth, it can never be done in such a fashion as to show all earth
geographers frequently employ in presenting their resultsmaps. details in their correct relative sizes, shapes, distances, or direc-
Geographer H. J. de Blij has suggested that if a picture is worth a tions. Something is always wrong, and the cartographersthe
thousand words, a map can be worth a millionbut beware because mapmakerstask is to select and preserve those earth relation-
they can distort reality (as contained in Monmonier, 1996: xi). ships important for the purpose at hand, and to minimize or
All mapmakers use generalization and symbolization to highlight accept those distortions that are inevitable but unimportant.
Round Globe to Flat Map world map, we must decide on a way to flatten the globes curved
surface on the hemisphere we can see. Then we have to cut the
The best way to model the earths surface accurately, of course, globe map down the middle of its hidden hemisphere and place
would be to show it on a globe. But globes are not as convenient the two back quarters on their respective sides of the already
to use as flat maps and do not allow one to see the entire surface visible front half. In simple terms, we have to peel the map from
of the earth all at once. Nor can they show very much of the the globe and flatten it in the same way we might try to peel an
detailed content of areas. Even a very large globe of, say, 1 metre orange and flatten the skin. Inevitably, the peeling and flattening
in diameter, compresses the physical or cultural information of process will produce a resulting map that either shows tears or
some 130,000 square kilometres of earth surface into a space breaks in the surface (Figure 2.5a) or is subject to uneven stretch-
2.5 centimetres on a side. ing or shrinking to make it lie flat (Figure 2.5b).
Geographers make two different demands on the maps they
use to represent reality. One requirement is to show at one glance
generalized relationships and spatial content of the entire world; ProjectionsGeometrical and Mathematical
the many world maps used in this and other geography textbooks
and in atlases have that purpose. The other need is to show the Of course, mapmakers do not physically engage in cutting, peel-
detailed content of only portions of the earths surfacecities, ing, flattening, or stretching operations. Their task, rather, is
regions, countries, hemisphereswithout reference to areas out- to construct or project on a flat surface the network of paral-
side the zone of interest. Although the needs and problems of both lels and meridians (the graticule) of the globe grid. The idea
kinds of maps differ, each starts with the same requirement: to of projections is perhaps easiest visualized by thinking of a
transform a curved surface into a flat one. transparent globe with an imagined light source located inside.
If we look at the globe directly, only the frontthe side Lines of latitude and longitude (or of coastlines or any other
facing usis visible; the back is hidden (Figure 2.4). To make a features) drawn on that globe will cast shadows on any nearby
Shape
Although no projection can reproduce correct shapes for large
areas, some do accurately portray the shapes of small areas. These
FIGURE 2.7 The effect of light source location on planar surface true-shape projections are called conformal, and the importance
projections. Note the variations in spacing of the lines of latitude that of conformality is that regions and features look right and have
occur when the light source is moved. the correct directional relationships. They achieve these proper-
ties for small areas by assuring that lines of latitude and longitude
cross each other at right angles and that the scale is the same in all
directions at any given location. Both these conditions exist on the
Globe Properties and Map globe but can be retained for only relatively small areas on maps.
(c) (b)
FIGURE 2.9 Sample projections demonstrating specific map properties. (a) The equal-area sinusoidal projection retains everywhere the property of
equivalence. (b) The mathematically derived Mercator projection is conformal, displaying true shapes of individual features but greatly exaggerating sizes
and distorting shapes away from the equator. (c) A portion of an azimuthal equidistant projection, polar-case. Distances from the centre (North Pole) to any
other point are true; extension of the grid to the Southern Hemisphere would show the South Pole infinitely stretched to form the circumference of the map.
shown only from one or two central points. Distances between all classrooms across Canada during your parents school days, has
other locations are incorrect and, quite likely, greatly distorted as had a profound influence how they and others perceive the world
Figure 2.9c clearly shows. (Figure 2.10a). It was developed in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator
as a navigation aid because direction is maintained on the map.
Draw a line between two points and that provides a compass
Direction direction for the trip. However, this benefit comes at a costthe
As is true of distances, directions between all points on a map amount of distortion increases as you move away from the equa-
cannot be shown without distortion. On azimuthal projections, tor. This means that countries such as Canada and the northern
however, true directions are shown from one central point to all hemispheres continents, appear much larger than they are relative
other points. (An azimuth is the angle formed at the beginning to equatorial countries and the continents of the southern hemi-
point of a straight line, in relation to a meridian.) Directions or sphere, which are located relatively closer to the equator. This map
azimuths from points other than the central point to other points appeared not only in classrooms but was frequently seen in news-
are not accurate. The azimuthal property of a projection is not papers, books, and atlases. Thus, the Mercator projection became
exclusivethat is, an azimuthal projection may also be equiv- the mental map of the world for Canadians and people living in
alent, conformal, or equidistant. The azimuthal equal-distance the northern hemisphere. This was seen as a distinct but inap-
(equidistant) map shown as Figure 2.9c is, as well, a true- propriate geographic advantage of the colonial (European) powers
direction map from the same North Pole origin. over their many colonies located in the southern hemisphere. In
There has been considerable debate within the cartographic response, it was argued that the Mercator Map should only be
community about which map projection is best. The Mercator used for navigation, and that the Gall-Peters Map (Figure 2.10b)
projection, which was frequently placed as wall maps in most should be used for used for other purposes because it preserves
FIGURE 2.10 The Mercator, Gall-Peters, Robinson, and Winkel-Tripel Map Projections.
Peter H. Dana/08
area. Originally developed in 1855 by James Gall and popularized affected Canada by overemphasizing its northern extent and either
Arno Peters in 1973, this projection, like the Mercator, utilizes a distorts the shape of high latitude areas or makes them appear
rectangular coordinate system but distorts shape, area, scale, and very remote (Figure 2.11).
distance. Since it better represents the size of countries, intense
lobbying occurred to have the Gall-Peters adopted as the map
of the world. The United Nations Development Programme
A Cautionary Reminder
responded and adopted it in its publications. In truth, neither the Mapmakers must be conscious of the properties of the projec-
Gall-Peters nor the Mercator maps provide an accurate represen- tions they use, selecting the one that best suits their purposes. It
tation of the worldonly the globe can do that! A compromise is not ever possible to transform the globe into a flat map without
projection is the Robinson projection (Figure 2.10c), developed in distortion. But cartographers have devised hundreds of possible
1963 by Arthur H. Robinson. While the projection is neither equal mathematical and geometrical projections in various modifica-
area nor conformal, it produced a more appealing visualization. tions and aspects to display to their best advantage the variety of
In 1988, The National Geographic Society adopted the Robinson earth features and relationships they wish to emphasize. Some
projection for its publications. It switched 10 years later to the projections are highly specialized and properly restricted to a sin-
Winkel-Tripel projection (Figure 2.10d), which is a modification gle limited purpose; others achieve a more general acceptability
of the Robinson projection. It was developed to minimize distor- and utility.
tion relative to shapes, distances, and perspective. If the map shows only a small area, the choice of a projection is
The previous discussion suggest that Canada can be mapped a not criticalvirtually any can be used. The choice becomes more
number of ways. The distortion of shape and area in high latitudes important when the area to be shown extends over a considerable
that is commonly associated with cylindrical projections has longitude and latitude; then the selection of a projection clearly
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 2.11 Canada Portrayed by Different Map Projections. (a) Transverse Mercator Projection is a cylindrical projection and is conformal. It is
often used for mapping continents and oceans, equatorial and mid-latitude, and areas with a reasonably large north-south extent. It is used for the
1:250,000 and 1:50,000 National Topographic System series in Canada (to be discussed very soon), in part because it is relatively easy to match
the edges of maps. The USGS also uses this type of projection for its topographic map series. (b) Gnomonic Azimuthal Projection is a type of planer
map. It maintains (with some limitations) equidistance and true direction. It is well suited for mapping the World (with some limitations), hemispheres,
equatorial and mid-latitude areas, continents and oceans, large regions and seas, and polar areas. This type of map is generally used for topographic
and navigation purposes, and by the United States Geological Survey, which supplies base and thematic maps covering the United States of America.
(c) Lambert Conformal Conic Projection is conformal and maintains true direction (with some limitations). It is particularly well suited for mapping the
continents/ oceans, equatorial and mid-latitude areas, and areas with a reasonably large east-west extent. It is often used to map large countries.
Source: Reproduced with the permission of the Ministry of Public Works and Government Services, 2008. Map Projections, Atlas of Canada, http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/
learningresources/carto_corner/map_projections.html.
depends on the purpose of the map. As we have seen, Mercator or While selection of an appropriate projection is the task
gnomonic projections are useful for navigation. If numerical data of the cartographer, understanding the consequences of that
are being mapped, the relative sizes of the areas involved should be selection and recognizing and allowing for the distortions inevi-
correct, and equivalence is the sought-after map property. Confor- table in all flat maps are the responsibility of the map reader.
mality and equal distance may be required in other instances. When skilfully designed maps are read by knowledgeable users,
FIGURE 2.12 The effect of scale on area and detail. These two maps of Squamish, B.C. are from the NTS series and are scales of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000.
NTS stands for the National Topographic System which provides topographic map coverage of Canada at scales of 1:500,000, 1:250,000, 1:125,000,
1:50,000, and 1:25,000. The larger the scale, the greater the number and kinds of features that can be included on the map. Scale can be reported in one
(or more) of three ways. A verbal scale is given in words (1 centimetre to 1 kilometre or 1 inch to 1 mile). A representative fraction (such as that placed
at the left, below each of the maps above) is a statement of how many linear units on the earths surface are represented by one unit on the map. A graphic
scale (such as that placed at the right and below each of the maps above) is a line or bar marked off in map units but labelled in ground units.
Source: 2006. Produced under licence from Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, with permission of Natural Resources Canada.
system is based on a grid pattern that divides the earth into The northing values are measured continuously from zero at the
60 zones, each comprising 60 degrees of longitude (Figure 2.15). Equator, in a northerly direction. To avoid negative numbers for
Each zone is numbered 1 through 60, starting at the international locations south of the Equator, it has been assigned an arbitrary
date line (longitude 180 ), and proceeding east. West to east, false northing value of 10,000,000 metre. A central meridian
Canada spans zones 7 through 22 (Figure 2.16). Twenty UTM through the middle of each 6 zone is assigned an easting value
zones extend from 80S to 84N. Beginning at 80S and preced- of 500,000 metre. Grid values to the west of this central merid-
ing northward, the bands are lettered C through X (omitting ian are less than 500,000; to the east, more than 500,000. Thus,
letters I and O in order to avoid confusion with numbers anything west of the central meridian will have an easting less
one and zero). Each of these bands is 8 wide with the exception than 500,000 metre. For example, UTM eastings range from
of band X, which is 12 wide. Note that beyond zones C and X, the 167,000 metre to 833,000 metre at the equator (these ranges nar-
Universal Polar Stereographic (UPS) grid system is used, and not row towards the poles). In the southern hemisphere, northings
the UTM system. The UTM lettering system covering the latitude decrease as you go southward from the equator, which is given a
zones for Canada are: false northing of 10,000,000 metre so that no point within the
from 72N lat. to 84N X (northern 12 zone) zone has a negative northing value. In the northern hemisphere,
positions are measured northward from the equator, which has an
from 64N lat. to 72N W
initial northing value of 0 metre and a maximum northing
from 56N lat. to 64N V value of approximately 9,328,000 metre at the 84th parallelthe
from 48N lat. to 56N U maximum northern extent of the UTM zones. For instance, the
from 40N lat. to 48N T CN Tower, located in zone 17 has a grid coordinates 630084 m
The Grid Zone Designation is identified by reading the col- east, 4833438 m north. UTM is easier to use than latitude and
umn first and then the row. Winnipeg would be in zone 14U and longitude because it is in a grid (rather than curved) and is in
Toronto 17T (Figure 2.16). metric units.
Within each zone, a square grid is superimposed and is The UTM system has been integrated into Canadas National
aligned in order that vertical grid lines are parallel to the centre Topographic System, and is represented on the 1:50,000 map sheets
of the zone. Location is determined by the UTM grid coordi- in a light blue line (See Figure 2.14). Distances and places can be
nates, which are expressed as a distance in metres to the east of measured and UTM coordinates determined. For more information
the central meridian, referred to as the easting, and a distance go to: http://maps.nrcan.gc.ca/cartospecs/ChapBorder&Grid/Chap
in metres to the north of the equator, referred to as the northing. Border&GridEF50/BorGriIntro010704E50.htm.
Russia
Chukchi Bay Area covered by 1,250,000
gridded map sheet 67A Arct i c O ce a n
which falls in two zones Appro things
ximate 8,000,000 metres nor
G r e e n l a n d
Area covered by 1,250,000
gridded map sheet 87C
which falls in two zones
Beaufort Sea gs
Alaska thin
s nor
etr e
0 0m
0,0
8,00
a te
oxim Baffin Bay
Appr
gs
hin
nort
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etre
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7
14
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0
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Gulf of Alaska
C a n a d a roxi
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ng
asti
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8 gs
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Area covered by 1,250,000 ort
8
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A t la nt ic
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How Maps Show Other The maps they made of climate, vegetation, soil, population, and
other distributions introduced the thematic map, the second major
DataThematic Maps class of maps. Thematic map is the general term applied to a map
of any scale that presents a specific spatial distribution or a single
Until about the middle of the 18th century, the general-purpose category of datathat is, presents a graphic theme. The way the
or reference map was the dominant map form, for the primary information is shown on such a map may vary according to the
function of the mapmaker (and the explorer who supplied the type of information to be conveyed, the level of generalization
new data) was to fill in the worlds unknown areas with reliable that is desired, and the symbolization selected. Thematic maps
locational information. With the passage of time, scholars saw may be either qualitative or quantitative. The principal purpose
the possibilities to use the accumulating locational information to of the qualitative map is to show the distribution of a particular
display and study the spatial patterns of social and physical data. class of information. The world location of producing oil fields,
4,000,000 100,000
1,000,000
1,000,000 10,000,000
100,000
FIGURE 2.17 Types of thematic maps. Although population is the theme of each, these different California maps present their information in strikingly
different ways. (a) In the graduated circle map, the area of the circle is approximately proportional to the absolute number of people within each county.
(b) In a dot-distribution map where large numbers of items are involved, the value of each dot is identical and stated in the map legend. The placement
of dots on this map does not indicate precise locations of people within the county, but simply their total number. (c) Population density is recorded by
the isopleth map, while the choropleth map (d) may show absolute values as here or, more usually, ratio values such as population per square kilometre.
Source: From Fred M. Shelley and Audrey E. Clarke, Human and Cultural Geography, 1994. Reproduced by permission of The McGraw-Hill Companies.
attention on how mental images and maps are developed while the of Space). First, what you know and how you draw it reflects
former indicates the product of that process (Kitchin, 2000). where you have lived (Figure 2.20) and travelled, especially if it
There are many findings associated with mental map is a popular vacation destination. Second, our everyday conversa-
research, which, in part, reinforce comments made in Chapter 1 tions and media coverage about a place influence our perceptions.
(see Physical and Cultural Attributes, The Changing Attributes For instance, we may choose routes or avoid neighbourhoods not
on objective grounds but on how the area is reported in the media
(e.g. high crime). In those choices, gender can play an impor-
Bol'shoy Sovetskiy Atlas Atlas Mira, 1954
Mira, 1939 tant role. The mental maps of women may well contain danger
zones where fear of, for example, sexual assault, harassment, or
encounter with persons or conditions felt to be threatening are
determinants in routes chosen or times of journey. Third, indi-
Ala
Logashkino
viduals who are of lower socio-economic groups draw maps that
ze
ya
Logashkino Logashkino FIGURE 2.19 The wandering town of Logashkino, as traced in various
Soviet atlases by Mark Monmonier. Deliberate, extensive cartographic
disinformation and locational falsification, he reports, became a Cold
War tactic of the Soviet Union. We usually useand trustmaps to tell
us exactly where things are located. On the maps shown, however,
Atlas Mira, 1967 Atlas SSSR, 1969
Logashkino migrates from west of the river away from the coast to
east of the river on the coast, while the river itself gains and loses a
distributary and, in 1954, the town itself disappears. The changing
Logashkino
misinformation, Monmonier suggests, was intended to obscure from
Logashkino
potential enemies the precise location of possible military targets.
Source: Mark Monmonier, How to Lie with Maps, 2nd ed. 1996. Reproduced by
permission of the University of Chicago Press.
age, affluence, familiarity, and education, and may be enlarged or interest in, and respect for, traditional knowledge in guiding
restricted for different social groups within the city or country. resource development decisions, such as timber harvesting, oil
Mental maps are becoming more accessible through the and gas development, and park planning, as well as land claims
web. On Platial.com, over 5,000 custom maps have been drawn, agreements between aboriginals and federal/state/provincial
including maps called autobiogeographies, indicating where they governments (Folke et al., 2007). Broadly defined, traditional
have been. Drawing mental maps forms an important element knowledge is the cumulative and collective body of knowledge,
in neogeographypeople using and creating their own maps, experience, and values held by societies with a history of subsis-
on their own terms, and by combining elements of an existing tence (Ellis, 2005: 66). Mental maps have been developed by
toolset. A neogeographer geotags pictures and images (i.e. adds combining the individual discourses and/or mental maps obtained
information about where an image is located often by using a from local people can indicate a communitys local knowledge
global positioning system (to be discussed shortly) and locates it or how it defines its region. In a resource management context,
on a web-based map, such as Google Maps (maps.google.com), information generated from this type of exercise can enhance
Microsoft Maps (local.live.com), or Yahoo Maps (maps.yahoo sustainability (Figure 2.22). Although it has been employed suc-
.com/beta). People often geotag their photos to make a map of their cessfully, the utility and accuracy of this type of exercise remains
summer vacation. The popular term for drawing mental maps is controversial. Some questions the merits of incorporating qualita-
social mappingmaps that tell people something about a place. tive data (i.e., the stories, sketches) onto very accurate locational
Sometimes government agencies or consultants will use a (i.e., quantitative) maps. On the other hand, as illustrated by some
group facilitator to have members of a community work together pharmaceutical companies, indigenous knowledge has sometimes
to learn more about them, their community, and their resources. been exploited by private interests when the location of their
Over the past 20 years, there has been an increasing worldwide valued resources has been revealed.
Network
Street centre lines
Drainage network
Utilities
Sanitary sewer lines
Water lines
Telephone
Gas/electric
Lots/Ownership
Lot lines
Property lines
Zones/Districts
Comprehensive plan
Municipal zoning
Voting precincts
School districts
Census tracts/blocks
Base Mapping
Road pavement
Buildings/structures
Fences/parking lots
Drainage
Wooded areas
Spot elevation
Contour lines
Recreational facilities
Summary
The research process is generally characterized by four main steps the characteristics of the global grid are distorted, but conve-
and five common purposes. In order to be rigorous, researchers nience and data manageability are gained. Spatial information
use a mix of data sources (primary and/or secondary; quanti- may be depicted in a number of ways, each designed to simplify
tative and/or qualitative) and/or forms of analysis. The census and clarify the infinite complexity of the real-world. GIS allows
of Canada is a very reliable secondary source of data and is for the creation, storage, analysis, and visualization of data in
valuable because data can be tracked over space and time through both two and three dimensions, and is emerging as a technique all
a range of geographic scales. Maps are an important source of geographers should have some familiarity with. GIS is becoming
geographic data and a way to present results. All maps are an increasingly more accessible to the general public. Geographers
imperfect rendering of the three-dimensional earth and its parts, use verbal and mathematical models for the same purpose, to
on a two-dimensional surface. In that rendering, some or all of abstract and to analyze.
K EY WOR DS
azimuthal projection 41 geocaching 55 inductive research 32 qualitative data 36
conformal projection 40 geocoding 54 map 37 quantitative data 36
conic projection 43 geographic information systems mental map 48 remote sensing 53
cylindrical projection 43 (GIS) 53 mathematical projection 38 scale 44
deductive research 32 geometrical (perspective) model 55 secondary data 33
developable surface 39 projection 39 neogeography 51 spatial system 55
equal-area (equivalent) gnomonic projection 39 orthographic projection 39 stereographic projection 39
projection 40 global positioning system primary data 33 social mapping 51
equidistant projection 40 (GPS) 55 projection 37 Universal Transverse
graticule 38 Mercator (UTM) 45
FOCUS FOLLOW-UP
1. What are the sources of information, census consolidated subdivision, census understood on the earths surface itself.
primary and secondary, which division, and economic region. Some Thematic (single category) maps may
geographers use? pp. 3137. problems with using census data be with qualitative or quantitative. Their
Geographers use a wide range of include the delay in obtaining data data may be shown in graduated circle,
sources to obtain information. Common once it is collected, although this dot distribution, isometric, chloropleth,
primary data sources include surveys, should become shorter as more statistical, or cartogram form.
interviews, field observations, and data are collected online. Averaging 4. In what ways in addition to maps
participant observation. Popular of data, particularly when populations may spatial data be visualized or
secondary data sources include the are small, detracts from the precision analyzed? p. 5155.
census, and reliable surveys completed of data while protecting the Informally, we all create mental
by government agencies, non- confidentiality of respondents. maps reflecting highly personalized
government organizations, and the 3. Why do geographers use maps, impressions and information about
private sector. and how do maps show spatial the spatial arrangement of things (for
2. How is the Census of Canada spatially information? pp. 3751. example buildings, streets, landscape
organized and what are some Maps are tools geographers use to features). More formally, geographers
problems in using this data source? identify and delimit regions and to recognize the content of area as forming
pp. 3435. analyze their content. They permit the a spatial system to which techniques
The census geography ranges study of areas and areal features too of spatial systems analysis and model
from city block, dissemination area, extensive to be completely viewed or building are applicable.