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PART I
E"lementary Theory and Problems
BY
S. TIMOSHENKO
Profesaor of Theoretical and Engineering Mechanic&
Stanford University
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY, INc.
TORONTO NEW YORK L9NDON
1
NEW YORK
24. Various Shapes of Cross Sections of Beams . 97 VIII. CoMBINEO BENOING ANO TENSION oR CoMPRESSION;
25. General Case of Transversally Loaded Beams 102 THEORY oF CoLuMNS . . . . . . . . . . . 226
26. Shearing Stresses in Bending . . . . . . . . 109 50. Bending Accompanied by Compression ar Tension 226
27. Distribution of Shearing Stresses in the Case of a 51. Eccentric Loading of a Short Strut . . . . . . 230
Circular Cross Section . . . . . . . . . 116 52. The Core of a Section . . . . . . . . . . 2 35
28. Distribution of Shearing Stresses in I Beams II8 53. Eccentric Compression of a Slender Column 2 39
29. Principal Stresses in Bending 121 54. Cri ti cal Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
30. Stresses in Built-up Beams . . . . . . . 126 55. Critical Stress; Design of Columns . . . . 2 49
56. De~ign of Columns on Basis of Assumed Inaccura-
V. DEFLECTION oF TRANsvERSALLY LoADED BEAMS 134 c1es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31. Differential Equation of the Deflection Curve 134 57. Empirical Formulas far Column Design . .
32. Bending of a Uniformly Loaded Beam. . 137
33. Deflection of a Simply Supported Beam Loaded IX. ToRSION ANO CoMBINEo BENDING ANO ToRSION 261
with a Concentrated Load . . . 140 58. Torsion of a Circular Shaft . . . . . . 261
34. Determination of Deflections by the use of the 59. Torsion of a Hollow Shaft . . . . . . 268
Bending Moment Diagram; Method of Super- 60. The Shaft of Rectangular Cross Section 269
position . . . 144 61. Helical Spring, Close Coiled . . . . . 271
35. Deflection of a Cantilever Beam by the Area- 62. Combined Bending and Twist in Circular Shafts 276
Moment Method . . 147
36. Deflection of a Simply Supported Beam by the X. ENERGY 0F STRAIN . . . . . . . . 281
Area-Moment Method. ; . 153 63. Elastic Strain Energy in Tension 281
37. Deflection of Beams with Overhangs . . . . . 162 64. Tension Produced by Impact . . 285
38. The Deflection of Beams When the Loads Are Not 65. Elastic Strain Energy in Shear and Twist 292
Parallel to One of the Two Principal Planes of 66. Elastic Strain Energy in Bending . . . . 296
Bending . . . . . . 166 67. Bending Produced by lmpact . . . . . 300
39. Effect of Shearing Force on the Deflection of 68. The General Expression for Strain Energy
Beams. . . . . . 170
35
69. The Theorem of Castigliano . . . . . . 308
70. Application of Castigliano Theorem in Solution of
VI. STATICALLY INOETERMINATE PROBLEMS IN BENOING . 175 Statically lndeterminate Problems 320
40. Redundant Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . 175 71. The Reciprocal Theorem 33
41. Beam Built-in at One End and Supported at the 72. Exceptional Cases . . . . . . . . . 339
Other . . . 178
42. Beam with Both Ends Built in . 184 APPENDIX
43. Frames 188 MoMENTS oF INERTIA oF PLANE FrnuRES . . . . 343
44. Beams on Three Supports 197 l. The Moment of Inertia of a Place Area with Respect to
45. Continuous Beams 201 an Axis in Its Plane . . . . . . . . 343
II. Polar Moment of Inertia of a Plane Area 345
VII. BEAMs oF VARIABLE CRoss SECTION. BEAMS 0F Two III. Transfer of Axis . . . . . . . . . . . 347
MATERIALS 209 IV. Product of lnertia, Principal Axes . . . 348
46. Beams of Variable Cross Section 209 V. Change of Direction of Axis. Determination of the
47. Beams of Two Different Materials 216 Principal Axes 35 1
48. Reinforced-Concrete Beams 220 AUTHORINOEX 355
49. Shearing Stresses in Reinforced-Concrete Beams 224
SUBJECT INDEX 357
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
PART I
.. CHAPTER I
When the load is diminished, the elongation of the bar dimin- A = cross sectional area of bar,
ishes also, the loaded end of the bar moves up and the poten- 8 = total elongation of bar,
tial energy of strain will be transformed into the work of E = elastic constant of the material, called its Mod-
moving the load in the upward direction. ulus of Elasticity,
The property of bodies of returning, after unloading, to
their initial form is called elasticity. lt is said that the body Hooke's experimental law may be given by the following
is perfectly elastic if it recovers its original shape completely equation:
PI
after unloading; it is partially elastic if the deformation, 0 = AE (1)
produced by the externa! forces, <loes not disappear com-
pletely after unloading. In the case of a perfectly elastic The elongation of the bar is proportional to the tensile force
body the work done by the externa! forces during deformation and to the length of the bar and inversely proportional to
will be completely transformed into the potential energy of the cross sectional area and to the modulus of elasticity.
strain. In the case of a partially elastic body, part of the In making tensile tests precautions are usually taken to secure
work done by the externa! forces during deformation will be central application of the tensile force. In this manner any
dissipated in the form of heat, which will be developed in the bending of the bar will be prevented. Excluding from con-
body during the non-elastic deformation. Experiments show sideration those portions of the bar in the vicinity of the
that such st-uctural materials as steel, wood and stone may applied forces, 2 it may be assumed that during tension ali
be considered as perfectly elastic within certain limits, which longitudinal fibers of the prismatical bar have the same
depend upan the properties of the material. Assuming that elongation and the cross sections of the bar originally plane
the externa! forces acting upan the structure are known 1 it is !id perpendicular to the axis of the bar remain so after
a fundamental problem for the designer to establish such extension.
proportions of the members of the structure that it will In discussing the magnitude of internal forces let us im-
approach the condition of a perfectly elastic body under all a1P,ne the bar cut into two parts by a cross section mn and
service conditions. Only under such conditions will we have let us consider the equilibrium of the lower portian of the
continued reliable service from the structure and no permanent bar (Fig. 1, b). At the lower end of this portian the tensile
set in its members. force P is applied. On the upper end there are acting the
2. Hooke's Law.-By direct experiment with the exten- forces representing the action of the particles of the upper
sion of prismatical bars (Fig. I) it has been established for JJ<:>rtion of the strained bar on the particles of the lower
many structural materials that within certain limits the elon- portian. These forces are continuously distributed over the
gation of the bar is proportional to the tensile force. This cross section. A familiar example of such a continuous dis-
simple linear relationship between the force and the elonga- tribution of forces over a surface is that of a hydrostatic
tion which it produces was first formulated by the English pressure or of a steam pressure. In handling such continu-
scientist Robert Hooke 1 in 1678 and bears his name. Using ously distributed forces the intensity of force, i.e., the force per
the notation: unit area, is of a great importance. In our case of axial
P = force producing extension of bar, tension, in which ali fibers have the same elongation, the
l = length of bar, 2
The more complicated stress distribution near the points of appli-
cation of the forces will be discussed later in Part II. -
1 Robert Hooke, De Potentia restitutiva, London, 1678.
4 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TENSION AND COMPRESSION 5
distribution of forces over the cross section mn will be uni- TABLE I
form. Taking into account that the sum of these forces, MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
from the condition of equilibrium (Fig. 1, b), must be equal
to P and denoting the force per unit of cross sectional area Materials E Yield Point Ultimate Strength
by <T, we obtain lbs./in.2 lbs./in.2 lbs./in. 2
p
(2) Structural car bon steel o. 15 to
<T=A
0.25% carbon .............. 30 X J06 30 X Io"-40 X J03 55 X J0L65 X Jo"
Nickel steel 3 to 3.5% nickel. .. 29 X J06 40 X J0L50 X J03 78 X J0L100 X rn3
This force per unit area is called stress. In the following, Duraluminum . ............... rn X 1a6 35 X J0L45 X I03 54 X rnL65 X J03
the force will be measured in pounds and the area in square Copper, cold rolled ........... 16 X J06 28 X rnL40 X J03
inches so that the stress will be measured in pounds per square Glass ........................ I0X 1a6 3.5 X J03
Pine, with the grain ........... 1.5 X J06 8 X J0L20 X 103
inch. The elongation of the bar per unit length is deter- Concrete, in compression ....... 4 X rn6 3 X ro3
mined by the equation
t:=7 (3) Problems
and is called the unit elongation or the !ensile strain. Using : ~- Detern:iine the total elongation of a steel bar 25 in. long, if the
tens1le stress 1s equal to 15 X 103 lbs. per sq. in.
eqs. (2) and (3), Hooke's law may be represented in the Answer.
following form:
= E X l ~=~
= 2,000 80
in.
Here n and n1 are factors usually calledfactors of safety, which d=~= 2.52in.
determine the magnitude of the working stress. In the case
Irr-~--------~--r
of structural steel, it is logical to take the yield point as the Total elongation, from eqs. (3) and (4),
L--J '---' l
, 1
basis far calculating the working stress because here a con- u/ 104 50 I
=el=-=--= -in
siderable permanent set may occur, which is not permissible E 30-10 6 60 Fm. 3.
in engineering structures. In such a case a factor of safety
n = 2 will give a conservative value for the working stress 2. A structure consisting of two
provided that only constant loads are acting upon the struc- equal steel bars (Fig. 4) r 5 feet
,, long and with hinged ends is sub-
ture. In the cases of suddenly applied loads, or variable mitted to the action of a vertical
loads, and these occur very often in machine parts, a larger (i:1)
load P. Determine the necessary
factor of safety becomes necessary. For brittle materials p ~ cross sectional areas of the bars
such as cast iron, concrete, various kinds of stone and far --}-- and the deflection of the point B
such material as wood, the ultimate strength is usually taken .; fl>J when P = 5,000 lbs., 11'w = ro,ooo
Fro. 4. lbs. per sq. in. and the initial angle
as a basis for determining the working stresses.
. of inclination of the bars O = 30.
The magnitude of the factor of safety depends very much Solution. From F1g. 4 (b), representing the condition for equi-
10 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
TENSION AND COMPRESSION 11
librium of the hinge B, the tensile force in the bars is
P = 6,000 lbs. The dimensions of the structure are shown in
p Fig. ~- Determine the ve~tical and the horizontal components of
s---
- 2 sin 8'
for 8 = 30; S = P = 5,000 lbs. the d1splacement of the pomt B due to deformation of the bars.
Solution. From Fig. 6 () giving the condition for equilibrium of
The necessary cross sectional area hinge B, similar to the triangle dBC of Fig. 6 (a), we have
S 5,000 p. 15
d = - = - - - = - 1n.2
I. S = -- = 10,000 lbs.;
<Tw I0,000 2 9
p. 12
The deflection BB 1 will be found from the small right triangle S1 = - - = 8,000 lbs.
DBB 1 in which the are BD, of radius equal to the length of the bars, 9
is considered as a perpendicular dropped upan dB1, which is the
position of the bar dB after deformation. Then the elongation of
the bar dB is
(J' wl I 0,000 X I 5 X I 2 .
B1-D = E l =E= 30 X 106 = o.o 6 m. p
e
and the deflection
41 /8,
B1D .
BB 1 = -;--O = m.
sm
O. I 2
...j---,z'---8'-l
(ti) p
It is seen that the change of the angle due to the deflection BB 1 is
very small and the previous calculation of S, based upan the
assumption that 8 = 30, is accurate enough.
3. Determine the total elongation of the steel Fm. 6.
bar dB having a cross sectional area d = I in.2 and
submitted to the action of forces Q = 10,000 lbs. ; The cross sectional areas of the steel bar and of the wooden beam are
~JOln. and P = 5,000 lbs. (Fig. 5). S 10,000 . S1 8,000
Solution. The tensile force in the upper and d = -<Tw = - -=
I0,000
1 m.2; A1 = - =- -= 50 in. 2
<Tw 160
lower portions of the bar is equal to Q and that
p z.-ioin. in the middle portian is Q - P. Then the total The total elongation of the steel bar and the total compression of
elongation will be the wooden beam are
p
Qli (Q - P)/2 X Sl 10,00015-12 .
10,000 10 0 = E ,, = X = 0.060 m.;
Z~lOin. = 2
dE + dE = 2
I X 30 X 10 6 ,.a 30 106
01
= S1'1 = 160 X 12 X 12
+ -I 5,000 X 10 . 1
=---- = - + - = -
X 30 X 10 150
1
600
I
120
.
= 0.00833 m.
6
E.,,d1 1.5 X 106 = o.0154 in.
To determine the_ displacement of the hinge B, due to deformation,
F10. 5. ares are drawn w1th centers d and C (Fig. 6, a) and radii equal to
4. Determine the cross sectional dimensions of
the wooden beam BC and of the steel bar AB of the structure ABC, thc l~ngths of the elongated bar and of the compressed beam re-
loaded at B, when the working stress for wood is taken as u,. = 160 SJ><:c~vely. They, intersect in the new position B' of the hinge B.
lbs. per sq. in. and for steel u.,, = 10,000 lbs. per sq. in. The load Th1s 1s shown on a larger scale in Fig. 6 (e), where BB 1 is the elon-
12 STRENGTH OF l\1ATERIALS TENSION AND COMPRESSION 13
gation of the steel bar and BB 2 the compression of the wooden beam. ee' -fi. p I .
The dotted perpendiculars replace the ares mentioned above. -- = - = - = - = - - radian.
De ...fi,l l I E 3,000
Then BB' is the displacement of the hinge B. The components of
this displacement may be easily obtained from the figure. . Then the increase of the angle at e will be
5. Determine in the previous problem the inclination of the
bar AB to make its weight a minimum. 2 X -I - = - -
I
r a d1an.
Solution. If 0 denotes the angle between the bar and. the J,OOo I ,500
horizontal beam and '1 the length of the beam, then the length of The solution of the problem shown in Fig. 7 (b) is left to the student.
the bar is/ = '1/cos 0, the tensile force in the bar is S = P/sin 0 and 7. Determine the position of the load Pon the beam ABD so
the necessary cross sectional area is A = P/uw sin 0. The volume that the force in the bar Be becomes a maximum. Determine the
of the bar will be angle 0 to make the volume of the bar Be a minimum (Fig. 8).
lA = _l1P 2l1P
<Tw Slll 0 COS 0 <Tw sin 20
I t is seen that the volume and the weight of the bar become a
minimum when sin 20 = I and 0 = 45.
6. The square frame ABeD (Fig. 7, a) consisting of five steel
bars of I in.2 cross sectional area is submitted to the action of two
forces P = 10,000 lbs. in the direction of the diagonal. Determine
the changes of the angles at A and e due to deformation of the Fm. 8. Fm. 9.
frame. Determine the changes of the same angles if the forces are
applied as shown in Fig. 7 (b). Answer. The force in the bar Be becomes maximum when the
p loa~ P has its extreme position on the right at point D. The
,,.A...I B. p p volume of the bar will be a minim'.lm when 0 = 45.
A
o------oa,/ 11 < I
A v------08
8. Determine the necessary cross sectional area of the steel bar
Be (Fig. 9) if the working stress u w = 1 5,ooo 1bs. per sq. in. and the
/ 1
/ 1 uniformly distributed vertical
I / 1 load per foot of the beam A B 8' B' 8'
/ 1
__ s -/-J:;. is r = 1,000 lbs.
---- / 't) Answer. A = o.6 sq. in.
cV' 9. Determine the necessary
(Q) cross sectional areas of the bars
AB- and Be of the structures
Fm. 7. shown in Figs. 10 (a) and (b)
if <Tw = 16,000 lbs. per sq. in.
Solution. In the case shown in Fig. 7 (a) the diagonal will Answer. In the case of
take the complete load P. Assuming that the hinge D and the structure 10 (a) the cross sec-
direction of the diagonal are stationary, the displacement of the Fm. ro.
tional area of AB should be 2.5
hinge B in the direction of the diagonal wil! be ~qual to the elong~t~on sq. in. and of the bar Be 2.0 sq. in. In the case of Fig. 10 (b)
of the diagonal = Pl/AE. The determmat1on of the new pos1t1on
the cross sectional area of the bar AB should be 2.25 sq. in. and of
e' of the hinge e is indicated in the figure by dotted lines. I t is the bar Be 2.03 sq. iv..
seen from the small right triangle CC1e' that ee' = /-fi.. Then
10. Solve problem 3 assuming that the material is duraluminum
the angle of rotation of the bar De due to deformation of the frame and that P = Q = 10,000 lbs. per sq. in.
is equal to
14 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL$ TENSION AND COMPRESSION 15
11. Find the cross-sectional areas of the bars CD in Figs. Ioa In calculating the total elongation of a prismatical bar
and 10b and the total elongation of these bars if the material is suhmitted to the action of a tensile force P at the end and
structural steel and CTw = 16,000 lbs. per sq. in.
12. Salve problem 9 assuming that the load is applied at only
its own weight, let us consider first the elongation of an ele-
one jint of the upper chord at a distance 8 ft. from support /l. ment of length dx cut from the bar by two adjacent cross
sections (see Fig. 1). It may be assumed that along the very
5. Stress and Strain Produced in a Bar by its Own short length dx the tensile stress is constant and is given by
Weight.-In discussing the extension of a bar, Fig. 1, only eq. (7). Then the elongation do of the element will be
the load P applied at the end was taken into consideration.
lf the length of the bar is large, its own weight may produce a Jr: _
uu -
udx _ P
E -
+AE/-yxdX.
considerable additional stress and should be taken into ac-
count. In this case the maximum stress will be at the built-in The total elongation of the bar will be obtained by summing
upper cross section. Denoting by 'Y the weight per unit the elongations of all the elements. Then
volume of the bar, the complete weight will be .d-yl and the 1 -
f' P + /-yx l
maximum stress will be given by the equation: o = Jo AE dx = AE (P + ,.d-yl).
1
(9)
P + A-yl P
O"max = / = / + -y/. (6) Comparing this with eq. (1) it is seen that the total elongation
produced by the bar's own weight is equal to that produced
The second term on the right side of eq. (6) represents the by a load of half its weight applied at its end.
stress produced by the weight of the bar. The weight of
that portion of the bar below a cross section at distance x
Problems
from the lower end (Fig. 1) is /-yx and the stress will be given
by the equation: 'I. Determine the cross sectional area of a vertical prismatical
steel bar carrying on its lower end a load P = 70,000 lbs., if the
(T =
P +A/-yx length of the bar is720 feet, the working stress o-w = 10,000 lbs. per
sq. in. and the weight of a cubic foot of steel is 490 lbs. Determine
Substituting the working stress O"w for O'max in eq. (6), the the total elongation of the bar.
Solution. The cross sectional area, from eq. (8), is
equation for calculating the safe cross sectional area will be
70,000 - . 2
' p 0 (8), /1=
490 X 720 X 12 - 9 27 in.
/=Uw-'Yf
10,000
123
I t is interesting to note that with increasing length l the bar's
own weight becomes more and more important, the denomi- The total elongation, from eq. (9), is
nator of the right side of eq. (8) diminishes and the necessary
720X12( l ) .
cross sectional area A increases. When 7/ = o-w, i.e., the = 30 X 10 7,55 + -2 2 ,45 = 2.53 in.
6
do= '}'X dx
)- Answer. Far steel I = 88,200 ft., for aluminum / = 42,300 ft.
5. In what proportion will the maximum stress produced in a
3E prismatical bar by its own weight increase if all the dimensions of
and the total elongation of the bar is ;the bar are increased in the proportion n : 1 (Fig. 1)?
Answer. The stress will increase in the ratio n : l.
'Y r' 'Y/2 6. A bridge pillar consisting of two prismatical portions of equal
= 3E Jo xdx = 6E . length (Fig. 13) is loaded at the upper end by a compressive force
P = 600,000 lbs. Determine the volume of masonry if the height
This elongation is one third that of a prismatical
of the pillar is 120 ft., its weight per cubic foot is 100 lbs., and the
bar of the same length (see eq. 9).
maximum compressive stress in each portian is 150 lbs. per sq. in.
3. The vertical prismatical rod of a mine pump Compare this volume with that of a single prismatical pillar designed
is moved up and clown by a crank shaft (Fig. 12). for the same condition.
Assuming that the material is steel and the working
stress is uw = 7,000 lbs. per sq. in., determine the p
cross sectional area of the rod if the resistance of p
the piston during motion downward is 200 lbs. and
during motion upward is 2,000 lbs. The length of
the rod is 320 feet. Determine the necessary
length of the radius r of the crank if the stroke of
Fm. 12. the pump is equal to 8 in.
Solution. The necessary cross sectional area of
the rod will be found from eq. (8) by substituting P = 2,000 lbs.
Then 1/
figure, it is evident that the .compressive force on the cross section 6. Statically Indeterminate Problems in Tension and
m 1n 1 is larger than that on the cross section mn by the magnitude Compression.-There are cases in which the axi-e.l forces
of the weight of the element. Thus since the stress in both cross acting in the hars of a structure cannot be determined from
sections is to be the same and equal to uw, the difference dA in the
cross-sectional area must be such as to compensate for the difference
the equations of statics alone and the deformation ot the
in the compressive force. Hence structure must he taken into consideration. Such structures
are called statically indeterminate systems.
d.duw = "y.ddx (a)
A simple example of such a system is shown in Fig. 15.
where the right side of the equation represents the weight of the The load P produces extension in the hars OB, OC and OD,
element. Dividing this equation by Auw and integrating we find
f d.d
.d
= f "ydX,
<Tw
which are in the same plane. The conditions for equilihrium
of the hinge O gi ve two eq ua-
tions of statics which are not B
from which
sufficient to determine the three
')'X
log A=--+ C1 unknown tensile forces in the
<Tw
Substituting in eq. (a), we obtain i.e., the forces R and R1 are inversely propor-
Frn. 16.
tional to the distances of their points of appli-
p
X = ------;;-; AE (10) cation from the loaded cross section mn. Now from eqs.
1 + 2 cos3 a - -
L'.lc e
(e)' and (d) the magnitudes of these forces and the stresses
A.E. in the bar may be readily calculated.
It is seen that the force X depends not only upon the angle
of inclination a but also upon the cross sectional areas and Problems
the mechanical properties of the materials of the bars. In I. A steel cylinder and a copper tube are compressed between
the particular case in which all bars _have the same cross the plates of a press (Fig. 17). Determine the stresses in steel and
section and the same modulus we obtam, from eq. (10), P copper and also the unit compression if P =
100,000 lbs., d = 4 ins. and D = 8 ins.
p Solution. Here again static conditions are
X= 1 + 2 cos 3 a inadequate, and the deformation of cylinder and
tube must be considered to get that part of the
When a approaches zero, cosa approaches unity, and the load carried by each material. The unit short-
force in the vertical bar approaches 1 / 3P. When a ap- ening in the steel and in the copper will be
proaches 90, the inclined bars bec?me very long and the equal; therefore the stresses of each material
----rp _ __, will be in the same ratio as their moduli (eq. 4,
complete load will be taken by the m1ddle bar.
F 17 p. 4), i.e., the compressive stress in the steel
As another example of a statically indeterminate system m. will be I 5/8 the compressive stress in the copper.
let us consider a p~ismatical bar with built-in ends, loaded Then the magnitude uc of the stress in the copper will be found
from the equation of statics,
22 .STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TENSlON AND COMPRESSION 23
7. Solve the above problem, assuming a = h, A = 5A1 and .axially at two intermediate cross sections (Fig. 22) by
p = 50,000 lbs. forces Pi and P2, Determine the reactions R and R 1 .
8. What stresses will be produced in a steel bolt Hint. Solution will be obtained by using eq. (d)
and a copper tube (Fig. 21) by o[ a turn ? the on page 21, calculating the reactions produced by each
nut if the length of the bolt l = 30 ms., the p1tch of load separately and then summarizing these reactions.
Determine the reactions when F10. 22.
the bolt thread h = in., the area of the cross sec-
z tion of the bolt A. = 1 sq. inch, the area of the cross a = 0.3!, b = 0.3! and P1 = 2P2 = 1,000 lbs.
section of the tu be Ac = 2 sq. in ches?
Solution. Let X denote the unknown tensile force 1 1. Determine the forces in the bars of the
in the bolt and the compressive force in the ~u~e. 0 system, shown in Fig. 23, where OA is an axis of
~---t--~~ symmetry.
The magnitude of X will be found from the con~1t10n
that the extension of the bolt plus the shortenmg of Answer. The tensile force in the bar OB is
21
Fm. ' the tube is equal to the displacement of the nut along equal to the compressive force in the bar OC
the bol t. In our case, assuming the length of the tube equal to the Fm. 23. and is P/2 sin a. The force in the horizontal bar
length of the bolt, we obtain OA is equal to zero.
12. Solve problem 10 assuming that the lower portion of length
XI + XI _ !.h e of the bar has a cross-sectional area two times larger than the cross-
A.E. AcEc - 4 ' sectional area of the two upper parts of lengths a and b.
from which
7. Initial and Thermal Stresses.-In a statically indeter-
hA,E. 30 X rn6 . minate systern it is possible to have sorne initial stresses
l 6,100 lbs.
X= ( A.E.) produced in assernbly and due to inaccuracies in the lengths
4/ I + AcEc
of the bars orto intentional deviations frorn the correct values
The tensile stress in the bolt is u8 = X/A. = 16,100 lbs. per sq. in. of these lengths. These stresses will exist when externa!
The compressive stress in the tube is CTc = X/Ac = 8,050 lbs. per loads are absent, and depend only upan the geornetrical pro-
sq. m. h b bl portions of the systern, on the rnechanical properties of the
9 . What change in th~ stresses calculated m t e a ':e pro em materials and on the rnagni tude of the inaccuracies. Assurne,
will be produced by tens1le forces P = 5,000 lbs. apphed to the
ends of the bolt? . . . for exarnple, that the systern represented in Fig. I 5 has, by
Solution. Let X denote the increase m _the tens1le_ force m the mistake, l + a as the length of the vertical bar instead of l.
bolt and y the decrease in the compress1ve force m the tube. Then after assernbling the bars BO and DO, the vertical bar
Then from the condition of equilibrium, can be put into place only after initial cornpression and due
X+ Y= P. (a) to this fact it will produce sorne tensile force in the inclined
hars. Let X denote the compressive force in the vertical
A second equation may be written clown from the consid7rat~on
that the unit elongation of the bolt and tube under the applicat1on bar, which finally takes place after assembly. Then the
corresponding tensile force in the inclined bars will be X/2 cosa
26 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TENSION AND COMPRESSION 27
and the displacement of the hinge O due to the extension of the assembly temperature lo to a new temperature t. The
these bars will be (see eq. b, p. 20) corresponding thermal expansion will be partially prevented
.by the two other bars of the system, and certain compressive
0= XI . (a) / stresses will develop in the vertical bar and tensile stresses
2AcEc cos3 a in the inclined bars. The magnitude of the compressive force
The shortening of the vertical bar will be in the vertical bar will be given by eq. (11), in which instead
of the magnitude a of the inaccuracy in length we substitute
XI the thermal expansion al(I - lo) of the vertical bar.
1 = -- (b)
A.E.
From elementary geometrical considerations, the displace- Problems
ment of the hinge O, together with the shortening of the I. The rails ~fa tramway are_welded together at 50 Fahrenheit.
vertical bar, must be equal to the error a in the length of the What stre:~es w1ll be ~roduced m these rails when heated by the
vertical bar. This g1ves the following equation for deter- sun to 100 1f the coeffic1ent of thermal expansion of steel is 70 10-7?
Answer. u = 10,500 lbs. per sq. in.
mining X: 2. ~ha~ change ?f stre~ses will be produced in the case repre-
XI + XI =a. ; sented m F1g. 21 by mcreasmg the temperature from lo to I if the
2AcEc cos3 a A .E. coefficien~ of expansion of steel is and that of copper ac?
Hence Solulton. Due to t~e f~ct that ac > the increasing tempera-
X= aA.E. . ture produces compress10n m the copper and tension in the steel.
(II)
t( I
A.E.
+ 2A.cEc cos 3 a
)
The ui:iit elongatio~s of the ~opper and of the steel should be equal.
Denotmg by X the mercase m the tensile force in the bolt due to the
change of temperature, we obtain
Now the initial stresses in all the bars may be calculated.
Expansion of the bars of a system due to changes in tempera- a,(I - lo) + AXEa =
s
X
ac(I - lo) - A E ,
e e
ture may have also the same effect as inaccuracies in lengths.
from which
Assume a bar with built-in ends. lf the temperature of the
bar is raised from lo to I and thermal expansion is prevented X= (ac - a,)(I - lo)A,E .
by the reactions at the ends, there will be produced in the .' A.E.
bar compressive stresses, whose magnitude may be calculated I + AcEc
from the condition that the length remains unchanged. Let
The change in the stresses in the bolt and in the tube may be
a denote the coefficien t of thermal expansion and u the com- calculated now in the usual way.
pressive stress produced by the reactions. Then the equation 3. A strip of copper is soldered
for determining u will be ~ ~steet between two strips of steel (Fig. 24).
1 ~~%:,"'" What stresses will be produced in the
<T
a(I - lo) = E' steel and in the copper by a rise in the
Fm. 24. temperature of the strips from lo to I
from which degrees?
<T = Ea(I - lo). (12) Suggeslion. The same method as in the previous problem
should be used.
As a second example, let us consider the system represented 4 What stresses will be produced in the bars of the .system
in Fig. 15 and assume that the vertical bar is heated from
28 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
TENSION ANO COMPRESSION 29
represented in Fig. 1 5 if the temperature of all the bars be raised
6. A steel bar consisting of two portions of lengths 11 and 12
from to to t?
Solution. Let X denote the tensile force produced in the steel and cross-sectional areas A1 and A2 is fixed at the ends. Find the
thermal stresses if the temperature rises by 100 degrees Fahrenheit.
bar by an increase in temperature. Then fro~ the condition of
equilibrium of the hinge O it can be seen that m the copper bars Assume '1 = 12, A1 = 2A2, and = 70 X 10- 1
7. Find the thermal stresses in the system shown in Fig. 24
compressive forces act, equal to X/2 cosa; consequently the
if the temperature of all three strips rises by _100. degrees Fahren-
elongation of the steel bar becomes
heit. The thickness of each of the three stnps 1s the same and
XI . the coefficients of thermal expansion are = 70 X 10-7 and
= a,(t - to)I + A.E. 8
= 92 X 10-- 1. Assume Ec: E.= 15
and the elongation of the copper bars is 8. The temperature of the system shown in Fig. 1 5 rises by 100
degrees Fahrenheit. Find the thermal stresses if all three bars are
l XI
01 = ac(t - to) cos a - 2 cos2 aAcEc
of steel and have equal cross-sectional areas. Take = 70 X 10- 1
and E. = 30 X 106 lbs. per sq. in.
9. Find the stresses in the wires of the system shown in Fig. 18
Furthermore from previous considerations (see p. 20),
if the cross-sectional are a of the wires is o. 1 sq. in., the load Q = 4,ooc
1 = cosa; lbs., and the temperature of the system rises after assembly by 10
degrees Fahrenheit. . . . .
therefore 10. Determine the stresses wh1ch w1ll be bmlt up m the system
The stresses in the steel and in the copper will now be obtained from
the following equations:
X X
u. = A,; <J = .
e 2 COS aAc
(b)
5. Assuming that in the case shown in Fig. 17 a constan~ load
p = 100,000 is applied at an initial t~mperature to, determ1~e at
what increase in temperature the load w1ll be completely transm1tted (a)
to the copper if a, = 70 X 10-7 and ac = 92 X 10-7 Fw. 25.
Solution.
duced. In arder to determine the tensile force P in the ring
(ac - a,)(t - to) = 1r(D2 _ J2)Ec, let us imagine that the ring is cut at the horizontal diametral
from which section (Fig. 25, b) and consider the upper portian as a free
t - to = 75.4 degrees Fahrenheit. hody. If q denotes the uniform load per unit length of the
30 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TENSION AND COMPRESSION 31
center line of the ring and r is the radius of the center line, Problems
the force acting on an element of the ring cut out by two
I. Deter?Iin~ the. tensil_e stres~ in the cylindrical wall of the
adjacent cross sections will be qrdcp, where dcp is the central press shown m F1g. 3 tf the mner d1ameter is 10 ins. and the thick-
angle, corresponding to the element. Taking the sum of the ness of the wall is I in.
vertical components of ali the forces acting on the half ring, Solulion. The maximum hydrostatic pressure p in the cylinder
the following equation of equilibrium will be obtained: will be found from the equation:
f'.-/2 1r1a2
2P = 2 Jo qr sin cp dcp = 2qr, p - = 100,000 lbs.,
4
from which from which P ~ 1,270 l?s
per ~q. ~n. Cutting out from the cylinder
p = qr. (13) an ~lemental n_ng of w1dt~ 1 m. m the direction of the axis of the
cyh?der and usmg_eq. (13) m w?ich, for this case, q = p = 1,270 lbs.
The tensile stress in the ring will now be obtained by dividing per m. and r = 5 ms., we obtam
the force P by the cross sectional area of the ring. p 1,270 X 5_ .
In practica! applications very often the determination of (T = -A= 1 X - 6,350 lbs. per sq. m.
1
tensile stresses in a rotating ring is necessary. Then q repre-
sents the centrifuga! force per unit length of the ring and is ~- A copper tube _is fitted overa steel tube ata high temperature
given by the equation: .. I (F1g: 26), the fit bemg such that no pressure exists between tubes
at th1s temperature. Determine the stresses
w v2 which will be produced in the copper and in the
q =ir, steel W?en cooled to room temperature 10 if the
in which w is the weight of the ring per unit length, r is the
radius of the center line, v is the velocity of the ring at the
radius r, and g is acceleration due to gravity. Substituting
this expression for q in eq. (13), we obtain
wv 2
outer d1ameter of the steel tube is d, the thick-
n~ss of the steel tube is h. and that of the copper
tube is h 0
noting that the unit elongation far both rings should be the same,
the fallowing equation far determining x will be obtained:
8. Referring to problem 5, determine the number of revolu- tributed over the cross section pq. The left portion of the bar,
tions n per minute at which the stress in the copper ring becomes isolated in Fig. 27b, is in equilibrium under the action of these
equal to zero if the initial assembly stress in the same ring was a forces and the externa! force P applied at the left end. Hence
compression equal to uo, and he = h., and E. = 2Ee.
Solution. The number of revolutions n will be determined from the resultant of the forces distributed over the cross section pq
the equation: is equal to P. Denoting by A. the area of the cross section
JUo =( 2:: r[;e (d ~her+; ( d ~ h, )2]. normal to the axis of the bar and by cp,the angle between the
axis x and the normal n to the cross section pq, the cross-
sectional area of pq will be Ajeos cp and the stress s over this
9. Find the stresses in the built-up ring of problem 4 assuming cross section is
~ = 0.001in., d = 4 in., h. = h., and E,/ Ee = I 5/8. Find the p cos cp
changes of these stresses if the temperature of the rings increases s = A. = u:,; cos cp (16)
after assembly by 10 degrees Fahrenheit. Take = 92 X 10- 7
and = 70 X 10-1 where <rx = PA. denotes the stress on the cross section normal
10. Referring to problem 5, find the stresses in steel and in to the axis of the bar. It is seen that the stress s over any
copper if n = 3,000 r.p.m., d = 2 ft., h. = he = in., 'Y = 490 lbs. inclined cross section of the bar is smaller than the stress <rx
per cubic foot, and 'Ye = 550 lbs. per cubic faot. over the cross section normal to the axis of the bar and that
it diminishes as the angle cp increases. Far cp = 1r/2 the sec-
35
36 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
AN ALYSlS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 37
tion pq is parallel to the axis of the bar and the stress s
The maximum shearing stress, as seen from equation (18), acts
becomes zero, which indicates that there is no pressure be-
over cross section s inclined at 45 to the axis of the bar,
tween the longitudinal fibers of the bar.
where sin 2cp = 1, and has the magnitude
The stress s, def1ned by equation (16), has the direction
of the force P and is not perpen- T max == ux
-p y
.
l
Y
------~-...-e-' ~
\T.o;;
--"~~-_
r9 'I'\
dicular to the cross section pq. In
_;e such cases it is usual to resolve the
total stress into two components,
Although the maximum shearing stress is one-half the max-
imum normal stress, this stress is sometimes the controlling
factor when considering the strength of materials which are
as is shown in Fig. 28. The stress mi'ich weaker in shear than in tension. For example, in a
28
Frn. component O"n perpendicular to the tensile test of a bar of mild steel with a polished surface,
cross section is called the normal stress. I ts magnitude is yielding of the metal is visible to the naked e ye, Fig. 30. I t
O"n = S cos cp = O"x cos2 cp. (17)
The tangential component T is called the shearing stress and
has the value
T
= S Sln cp = O"x
O"x
COS cp Sll1 cp = - Sll1 2cp.
(
I
8)
2
Formulas (17) and (18), derived for a bar in tension can <P = 1r/2, and observing that both stress components vanish for
be used also in the case of compression. Tensile stress is such a plane we conclude that the origin O, in Fig. 32, corre-
assumed positive and compressive negative. Hence for a bar sponds to this plane. Constructing now on OA as diameter
under axial compression we have only to take <1'z with a a circle it can be readily proved that the stress components
negative sign in formulas (17) and (18). The negative sign for any cross section pq with an arbitrarily chosen angle cp,
of un will then indicate that in Fig. 29b we obtain, instead of Fig. 28, will be represented by the coordinates of a point on
tension, a compressive action on the thin element between the that circle. To obtain the point on the circle corresponding
adjacent cross sections pq and p1q1. The negative sign f<;>r T to a definite angle cp it is only necessary to measure in the
in formula (18) will indicate that for compression of the bar counter-clockwise direction from the point A the are sub-
tending an angle equal to 2cp. Let D be the point obtained in
-o-
the shearing action on the ele-
(+) (-) men t has the direction opposite this manner; then, from the figure,
'l' l'
{a)
to that shown in Fig. 29c. Figure
t 1 t 31 illustrates the rules for signs - -
OF = OC+ CF = ;
- (J'
+;
(J'
cos 2cp = u"' cos2 cp,
t of normal and shearing stresses
' {e) 1 (d)
{b) which will be used. Positive sign <1'x
Fm. 31. for shearing is taken when they DF = CD sin 2cp = - sin 2cp.
2
form a couple in clockwise direction and negative sign for
Comparing these expressions for the coordinates of point D
opposite direction.
10. The Circle of Stress.-Formulas (17) and (18) can be
with expressions (17) and (18) it is seen that this point defines
the stresses acting on the plane pq, Fig. 28. As the section
represented graphically. 1 We take an orthogonal system of
pq .rotates in the counter-clockwise direction about an axis
coordinates with the origin at O and
perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 28, cp varying from o to 1r/2,
with positive direction of axes as
. the point D moves from A to O, so that the upper half-circle
shown in Fig. 32. Beginning with the
determines the stresses for all values of cp within these limits.
cross section pq perpendicular to the
axis of the bar we ha ve for this case
lf the angle cp is larger than 1r/2 we obtain a cross section as
~hown in Fig. 33a cut by a plane mm the externa! normal 2 n 1
cp = o, in Fig. 28, and we find, from
to which makes with the x axis an angle larger than 1r/2.
formulas (17) and (18) <1'n = u,,, T = o.
Measuring again in the counter-clockwise direction from the
Selecting a scale for stresses and meas-
e-, point A, in Fig. 32, the are suhtending an angle equal to 2cp
uring normal components along the
we will obtain now a point on the lower half-circle.
horizontal axis and shearing compo- F10. 32.
Take, as an example, the case when mm is perpendicular
nents along the vertical axis, the stress
to cross section pq which was previously considered. In
acting on the plane with cp = o is represented in Fig. 32 by a
such a case the corresponding point on the circle in Fig. 32
point A having the abscissa equal to <1':i: and the ordinate equal to
is point D1 such that the angle DOD1 is equal to 1r; thus DD 1 is
zero. Taking now aplane parallel to the axis of the bar we have
a diameter of the circle. Using the coordinates of point D 1
1This graphical representation is due to O. Mohr, Zivilingenieur,
2
1882, p. II3. See also his "Abhandlungen," p. 219, 1906. In this 1:he portion of the bar on which the stresses act is indicated by
book the references to other publications on the same subject are given. shadmg. The externa! normal n1 is directed outward from that portion.
40 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 41
we find the stress components <Tn, and 7 1 for the plane mm produce a couple in the counter-clockwise direction which,
according to the rule defined in Fig. 3 rd, is negative.
- - - <Tx <Tx
un1 = OF1 = OC - FiC = -2 - -2 cos 2cp = ux sm 2 cp (20) The circle in Fig. 32 called the circle of stress is used to
determine the stress components <Tn and 7 for a cross section
71 = - F1D1 = - CD1 sin 2cp = - :x sin 2cp. 3 (21)
pq whose normal makes any angle cp with the x axis, Fig. 28.
A similar construction can be used to solve the inverse prob-
Comparing these results with express10ns (17) and (18) we Jem, when the components <Tn and 7 are given and it is re-
quired to find the tensile stress <Tx in the axial direction and
find
<Tn +
<Tn = <Tx cos cp
2
+
<Tx sin cp = <Tx
2
(22) the angle cp. We observe that the angle between the chord
OD and the x axis is equal to cp, Fig. 32. Hence, after
7 = - 7. (23)
constructing the point D with coordinates un and 7, we obtain
This indicates that the sum of the normal stresses acting on cp by drawing the line OD. Knowing the angle cp, the radius
two perpendicular planes remains constant and equal to <Tx- DC making the angle 2cp with the axis OC can be drawn and
The shearing stresses acting on two perpendicular planes are the center C of the circle of stress obtained.
numerically equal but of opposite sign.
Problems
I. Determine <Yn and 7 analytically and graphically if u-., = 15 ooo
lbs. per !q: in. and cp = 30 or cp = 120.. By using the angles' 30
p and 120 isolate an element as shown m Fig. 33b and show by
p arrows the directions of stresses acting on the element.
2. Solve the previous problem assuming that instead of tensile
stress u-., there acts compressive stress of the same amount. Observe
that in this case the diameter of the circle, Fig. 32, must lie on the
negative side of the abscissa.
3. On aplane pq, Fig. 28, are acting a normal stress <Tn = 12. ooo
lbs. per sq. in. and a shearing stress T = 4,000 lbs. per sq. in. Find
the angle cp and the stress u-.,.
FIG. 33 Answer.
<Yn
tan cp = , u-,, =- -- = 13,330 lbs. per sq. in.
By taking the adjacent cross sections m1m1 and P1q1 parallel cos2 cp
to mm and pq an element, such as shown in Fig. 33b, is isolated
4. <?n the two perpendicular sides of the element in Fig. 33b
and the directions of stresses acting on this element are are actmg the normal. stress~s un = 12,000 lbs. per sq. in. and
indicated. It is seen that the shearing stresses acting on the <Ynl = 6,000 lbs. per sq. m. Fmd <Yx and T.
sides of the element parallel to the pq plane produce a couple AnsV:er. u-,,.= 18,000 lb~. per sq. in., T = 8,485 lbs. per sq. in.
in the clockwise direction, which, according to the accepted 5. Fmd m~x1mum shearmg stress for the case in problem 1.
. 6. Determme the aspect of cross sections for which the normal
rule defined in Fig. 31c, must be considered positive. The and t_he shearing stresses are numerically equal.
shearing stresses acting on the other two sides of the element
Tension or Compression in Two Perpendicular Di-
I 1.
The minus sign is taken since point D1 is on the side of negative
3
Tmax = 2
(28)
Fw. 35.
and occurs when sin 2cp = - I and cp = 31r/4. The same
with abscissas equal to ux and u 11 represent the stresses acting magnitude _of shearing stress but with negative sign is acting
on the sides of the element in Fig. 34a, perpendicular to the x on the plane for which cp = 1r/4.
andy axes respectively. To obtain the stress components on Taking two perpendicular. planes defined by the angles
any inclined plane, defined by an angle cp in Fig. 34a, we have cp and 1r/2 + cp, which the normals n and n1 make with the x
only to construct a circle on dB as a diameter and draw the axis, the corresponding stress components are given by the
radius CD making the angle dCD, measured in the counter- co-ordinates of points D and D1 in Fig. 35, and we conclude
clockwise direction from point d, equal to 2cp. From the
figure we conclude that
71 = - 7.
negative side of the abscissa axis. Assuming, for example, At the same time there is acting on all inclined planes not only
that the stresses acting on an element are as shown in Fig. 36a, normal stresses un, but also shearing stresses, r. Such stresses
the corresponding circle is shown in Fig. 36b. The stress as ux and u 11 , of which one is the maximum and the other the
minimum normal stress, are called the principal stresses and
the two perpendicular planes on which they act are called the
principal planes. There are no shearing stresses acting on
these planes.
In the example of the previous article, Fig. 34, the principal
stresses ux and u 11 were found from very simple considerations
and it was required to find the expressions for the normal and
'l shearing stress components acting on any inclined plane,
cr, such as plane pq in Fig. 34a. In our further discussion (see
(/J)
p. 122) there will be cases in which it will he possihle to
Fra. 36. determine the shearing and the normal stress components
acting on two perpendicular planes. From the previous dis-
components acting on aplane pq with normal n are given by
cussion we already know that such normal stresses do not
the coordinates of the point Din the diagram.
represent the maximum stress which is the stress particularly
Problems important in design. To get the maximum value of stress,
the principal stresses are required. The simplest way of
I. The boiler shown in Fig. 34 has d = 100 in., h = in.
Determine u,, and u 11 if p = 100 lbs. per sq. in. lsolate a small solving this prohlem is by using the circle of stress we con-
element by the planes for which I() = 30 and 120 and show the sidered in Fig. 35. Assume that the stresses acting on an
magnitudes and the directions of the stress components acting on elementary rectangular parallelepiped are as shown in Fig.
the lateral sides of that element.
2. Determine the stresses u., u.,, r and r 1 if, in Fig. 36a, 1'
u,, = 10,000 lbs. per sq. in., u 11 = - 5,000 lbs. per sq. in. and I() = 30,
l()r = 120.
_Answer. u,. = 6,250 lbs. per sq. in., u., = - 1,250 lbs. per
sq. m., r = - r1 = 6,500 lbs. per sq. in. X
circle of stress in this case, we use first the stress components the radius of the circle of stress and we have
ux, <ry and r and construct the points D and D 1 as shown in
Fig. 37b. Since these two points represent the stresses acting Tmax -
_ (j 1 - (j 2 _
-
~( (j X - (j y )
2
+T
2
2 2
on two perpendicular planes, the length DD 1 represents a
diameter of the circle of stress. The intersection of this The equations (31)-(34) completely salve the problem of the
diameter with the x axis gives the center C of the circle, so determination of the maximum normal and the maximum
that the circle can be readily constructed. The intersection shearing stresses if the normal and shearing stresses acting on
points A and B of the circle with the x axis define the 'magni- any two perpendicular planes are given since a circle is fixed
tudes of the maximum and the minimum normal stresses; by two points at the ends of a diameter.
which are the principal stresses and are denoted by u 1 and u2.
Using the circle, the formulas for calculating u1 and <r2 can be Problems
easily obtained. From the figure we have An element, Fig. 37a, is submitted to the action of stresses
1.
The directions of the principal stresses can also be obtained = 4,000 + 1,414 = 5,414 lbs. per sq. in.,
from the figure. We know that the angle DCA is the double
angle between the stress <r1 and the x axis and since 2cp is
u2 = 4,000 - 1,414 = 2,586 lbs. per sq. in.
measured from D to A in the clockwise direction the direction From formula (33) we have
of <r1 must be as indicated in Fig. 37a. lf we isolate the ele- tan 2({) = - 1, 2 'P = - 45, 'P = - 22.
ment shaded in the figure with the sides normal and parallel
The minus sign indicates that 'P is measured from the x axis in the
to u 1 there will be only normal stresses <r1 and <r2 acting on its clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 37a.
sides. For the calculation of the numerical value of the 2. Determine the direction of the
angle cp we ha ve, from the figure, principal stresses in the previous prob-
lem if ux = - 5,000 lbs. per sq. in.
DE Solution. The corresponding circle
1 tan 2 cp 1 = -= of stress is shown in Fig. 38, tan 2({) = , .;:-..=:::..::.d,!:.__--11 6
CE
2cp = 142'. Hence the angle which the
Regarding the sign of the angle cp, it must be taken negative maximum compressive stress makes with
in this case since it is measured from the x axis in the clock- the x axis is equal to 7 1' and is measured
wise direction, Fig. 37a. Hence counter-clockwise from the x axis.
3. Find the circle of stress for the Fw. 3 s.
DE 2T case of two equal tensions u,, = uy = u
tan 2cp = - CE = (33) and for two equal compressions u,,= uy = - u. T = o in both cases.
<1'x - <Iy
Answer. Ci.-cles become points on the horizontal axis with the
The maximum shearing stress is given by the magnitude of abscissas u and -- u respectively.
50 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 51
4. On the sides of the element shown in Fig. 39a are acting the using the molecular theory of structure 0f the material. For
stresses u., = - 500 lbs. per sq. in., u11 = 1,500 lbs. per sq. in., materials which have the same elastic properties in all direc-
T = 1,000 lbs. per sq. in. Find, by using the circle of stress, the tions, so-called isotropic materials, Poisson found = 1/4.
magnitudes of the normal and shearing stresses on (a) the principal . Experimental investigation of the lateral contraction in struc-
planes, (b) the planes of maximum shearing stress.
Solution. The corresponding circle of stress is shown in Fig. 39b. tural metals 7 shows that is usually not very far off the value
The points D and D 1 represent stresses acting on the sides of the calculated by Poisson. For instance, in the case of structural
element in Fig. 39a perpendicular to the x and y axes. OB and OA steel it can be taken as = 0.30. Knowing the Poisson ratio
represent the principal stresses. Their magnitudes are u1 = 1,914 of a material, the change in volume of a bar in tension can
lbs. per sq. in. and u2 = - 914 lbs per sq. in. respectively. The be calculated. The length of the bar will increase in the
direction of the maximum compressive stress u 2 makes the angle =
ratio (1 + E) : 1. The lateral dimensions diminish in the
22 with the x axis, this angle being measured from the x axis in
the coimter-clockwise direction as shown in Fig. 39a. The points ratio (1 - E) : I; hence the cross-sectional area diminishes
in the ratio (1 - E) 2 : 1. Then the volume of the bar
changes in the ratio (1 + E)(1 - E) 2 : 1, which becomes
(1 + E - 2E) : 1 if we recall that E is a small quantity and
neglect its powers. Then the unit volume expansion is
E(I - 2). It is unlikely that any material diminishes its vol-
ume when in tension; hence must be less than 0.50. For such
_materials as rubber and paraffin approaches the above limit
and the volume of these materials during extension remains
approximately constant. On the other hand such material
as concrete has a small magnitude of ( = 1/8 to 1/12) and
Fm. 39
for cork can be taken eq ual to zero.
F and F 1 represent stresses acting on the planes subject to maximum The above discussion of lateral contraction during tension
shear. The magnitude of this shear is 1,414 lbs. per sq. in. OC can be applied with suitable changes to the case of com-
represents the normal stresses equal to 500 lbs. per sq. in. acting on pression. Longitudinal compression will be accompanied by
the same plane. lateral expansion and for calculating this expansion the same
5. Solve the previous problem if u., = - 5,000 lbs. per sq. in., , value for as in the case of extension is used.
u 11 = 3,000 lbs. per sq. in., -r = 1,000 lbs. per sq. in.
tion in one of these directions will depend not only upon the
tensile stress in this direction but also upon the stress in the The volume of the boiler will increase in the ratio
perpendicular direction. The unit elongation in the direc- (1 + E,,)(1 + Ey) 2 : 1 = (1 + Ez; + 2E11) : I = I.00038 : l.
tion of the x axis due to the tensile stress u"' will be u:r:/E.
2. A cube of concrete is compressed in two perpendicular
The tensile stress u 11 will produce lateral contraction into x directions by the arrangement shown in Fig. 40. Determine the
direction equal to u 11 / E; then if both stresses u"' and u 11 act decrease in the volume of the
simultaneously the unit elongation in x direction will be cube if it is 4 inches on a side,
p
t:he compressive stress is uni-
E;r; = E -
U;r;
E.
U 11
(35)
1 formly distributed over the faces,
= 0.1 and P = 20,000 lbs.
Solution. Neglecting friction
Similarly, for the y direction, we obtain in the hinges and considering the p
equilibrium of each hinge (Fig. (6)
(36) 40, b), it can be shown that the (<11
block is submitted to equal com- Fw. 4o.
pression in two perpendicular
In the particular case, for the two tensions equal, u"' = u 11 = u, directions and that the compressive force is equal to P.,fi = 28,300
we obtain lbs. The corresponding strain, from eq. (37), is
u
Ex = Ey = E (I - ). (37) 28,300
Ez; = E'// = - (1 - 0.1) = - 0.000398.
16 X 4 X 106
From eqs. (35) and (36) the stresses u., and u11 can be obtained In the direction perpendicular to the plane of the figure a lateral
as functions of un t strains Ex and E11 as follows: expansion of the block takes place which is
Uy =
(E 11 + Ex)E (38) Ez; = -
<Tx <Ty
E - E= 0.2 X 6
28,300
6 = 0.0000885.
I - 2 1 X 4 X 10
If in the case shown in Fig. 39a the elongation E:r: in axial The decrease per unit volume of the block will be
direction and the elongation E11 in circumferential direction are E,,+ Ey + Ez; = - 2 X 0.000398 + 0.0000885 = - 0.000707.
measured by an extensometer the corresponding tensile stresses
uz: and u'II will be found from equations (38). 3. Determine the increase in the cylindrical lateral surface of
the boiler considered in problem I above.
54 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN SS
Solution. lncrease per unit area of lateral surface = E,, + Eu Fig. 41a. Such a state of stress is called pure shear. It may
= 21 X 10-6 be concluded that pure shear is equivalent to the state of
4. Determine the unit elongation in the u 1 direction of a bar of
stress produced by tension in one direction and an eq ual
steel, if the stress conditions are such as indicated in problem l, p. 49.
Solution. compression in the perpendicular direction. If a rectangular
I
element, similar to the element abed in Fig. 41a, is isolated
E1 = 6 (5,414 - 0.3 X 2,586) = I 54.6 X 10-6 . by planes which are no longer at 45 to the x axis, normal
30 X 10
stress as well as shearing stress will act on the sides of such an
16. Pure Shear. Modulus in Shear.-Let us consider the element. The magnitude of these stresses may be ohtained
particular case of normal stresses acting in two perpendicular from the circle of stress, Fig. 41b, in the usual way.
directions in which the tensile stress <Tx in the horizontal di- Let us consider now the deformation of the element abed.
rection is numerically equal to the compressive stress <Ty in Since there are no normal stresses acting on the sides of this
the vertical direction, Fig. 41a. The corresponding circle of element the lengths ab, ad, be and ed will not change due to
the deformation, hut the horizontal diagonal bd will he
stretched and the vertical diagonal ae will be shrunk changing
the square abed into a rhomhus after deformation as indicated
in the figure by dotted lines. The angle at b, which was 1r/2
befare deformation, now hecomes less than 1r/2, say (1r/2) - 'Y,
and at the same time the angle at a increases and hecomes
}( o equal to (1r/2) + 'Y The small angle 'Y determines the dis-
tortion of the element abed, and is called the shearing strain.
The shearing strain may also he visual-
e r
ized as follows: The elemen t abed of Fig. a b
41a is turned counter-clockwise through
(a} (b} 45 and put into the position shown in
Frn. 41. Fig. 42. After distortion, produced by
the shearing stresses r, the same element
stress is shown in Fig. 41b. Point Don this circle represents takes the posi tion indicated by the dotted
the stresses acting on the planes ab and ed perpendicular to xy lines. The shearing strain, represented F10. 42.
plane and inclined at 45 to the x axis. Point D1 represents by the magnitude of the small angle 'Y,
stresses acting on the planes ad and be perpendicular to ab may be taken equal to the ratio aa1/ad, equal to the horizontal
and ed. It is seen from the circle of stress that the normal sliding aa 1 of the side ab with respect to the side de divided
stress on each of these planes is zero and that the shearing by the distance hetween these two sides. If the material
stress over the same planes, represented by the radius of the obeys Hooke's law this sliding is proportional to the stress r
circle, is numerically equal to the normal stress <T,,, so that and we can express the relation hetween the shearing stress
= <Tx = - <T y,
T (a) and the shearing strain by the eq ua tion
If we imagine the element abed to be isolated it will be in
equilibrium under the shearing stres~es only as shown in (39)
56 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 57
Tw = 0.55 to 0.60 of Uw and the required diameter of the bolt is obtained from the
equation
which indicates tht the working stress in shear should be 1
2P
8
To obtain a pronounced yield point tubular specimens are used Tw = 1rd2.
in the torsion test.
60 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 61
We have another example of such a simplified treatment
of shear problems in the case of riveted joints, Fig. 46. Since
0
1l Fra. 47.
3. Find the diameter of the rivets in Fig. 46, if r,.. = 8,000 lbs.
per sq. in. and P = 8,000 lbs.
4. Determine the dimensions land in the joint of two rectangu-
lar bars by steel plates, Fig. 48, if the forces, the dimensions and the
working stresses are the same as in problem 2.
the heads of the rivets are formed at high temperature the 6000 lb-3.
rivets produce after cooling a great compression of the plates. 9
If tensile forces Pare applied the relative motion between the 6
plates is prevented by friction due to the above mentioned
p f-- z T p
pressure between the plates. Only after friction is overcome
do the rivets begin to work in shear and if the diameter of the
rivets is not sufficient failure due to shear along the planes
Fra. 49.
mn and m1n1 may occur. It is seen that the problem of stress
analysis for a riveted joint is very complicated. A rough 5. Determine the distance a which is required in the structure
approximate solution of the problem is usually obtained by shown in Fig. 49, if the allowable shearing stress is the same as in
neglecting friction and assuming that the shearing stresses are problem 2 and the cross-sectional dimensions of all bars are 4 by
uniformly distributed along the cross section mn and m1n1. 8 in. N eglect the effect of friction.
Then the correct diameter of the rivets is obtained by using 18. Tension or Compression in Three
the equation (42) as in the previous example. Perpendicular Directions.-If a bar in the
form of a rectangular parallelepiped is sub-
Problems mitted to the action of forces P,,,, PY and Pz
1. Determine the diameter of the bolt in the joint shown in (Fig. 50), the normal stresses over cross
Fig. 45 if P = 10,000 lbs. and Tw = 6,000 lbs. per sq. in. sections perpendicular to x, y and z axes are ~
2. Find the safe length 2/ of the joint of two rectangular wooden respec ti vel y Fra. 50.
bars, Fig. 47, submitted to tension, if P = 10,000 lbs., Tw = 100
lbs. per sq. in. for shear parallel to the fibers and b = IO in. De- Pz
termine the proper depth mni, if the safe limit for the local compres- <Tz = Az
sive stress along the fibers of wood is 800 lbs. per sq. in.
It is assumed below that <Tz > <Ty > <Tz.
Experiments show that tensile stress in rivets is usually approaching
9
Combining the effects of the forces Pz, PY and Pz, it can be
the yield point of the material of which the rivets are made. See C.
Bach, Zeitschr. d. Ver. Deutsch. lng. 1912.
concluded that over a section through the z axis only the
forces P"' and Py produce stresses and therefore these stresses
62 STRENGTH OF MA TERIALS ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 63
may be calculated from eqs. (26) and (27) and represented The volume of the bar increases in the ratio
graphically by using the Mohr circle. In Fig. 51 the stress
circle with a diameter AB rep- p + E.,)(1 + Ey)(I + E,) : 1,
,.,.
~ ~ -------1
-,,--,-,rrrrn,,.,_
resents these stresses. In the
or, neglecting smali quantities of higher arder,
rmox same manner the stresses over
any section through the x axis (1 + Ex + Ey + Ez) : l.
o+-----+'-----t=-----+-....._q can be represen ted by a circle
having BC as a diameter. The I t is seen that the unit volume expansion is
circle with the diameter AC A = E;r; + + Ey Ez.
represents stresses over any sec-
----c1'x tion through the y axis. The The relation between the unit volume expansion and the
FIG. 51.
three Mohr circles represen t stresses acting on the sides of the bar will be obtained by
stresses over three series of sections through the x, y and z adding together eqs. (43). In this manner we obtain
axes. For any section inclined to x, y and z axes the stress
(1 - 2)
components are the coordinates of a point located in the A = E:, + + Ey Ez = E (O'.,+ O'y + O'z). (45)
shaded are a of Fig. 51. 10 On the basis of this i t can be con-
cluded that the maximum shearing stress will be represented In the particular case of uniform hydrostatic pressure we have
by the radius of the largest of the three circles and will be
given by the equation Tmax = (O'x - 0',)/2. lt will act on the O'x = O'y = O'z = - p.
section through the y axis bisecting the angle between the x Then from eqs. (43)
and z axes.
p
The equations for calculating the unit elongations in the Ey = Ez = - E (1 - 2),
directions of the x, y and z axes may be obtained by combin-
ing the effects of Px, PY and P. in the same manner as in con- and from eqs. (44)
sidering tension or compression in two perpendicular directions A = 3(1 - 2)
(see article 15). In this manner we obtain - E P,
Ez = O'z
E - E
(
O'x + O'y
) A= -f
1 The proof of this statement can be found in the book by A. Foppl,
1
The unit compression is proportional to the compressive stress
Technische Mechanik, Vol. 5, p. 18, 1918. See also H. M. Westergaard, p and inversely proportional to the quantity K, which is
Z. angew. Math. Mech., Vol. 4, p. 520, 1924. called the modulus of elasticity of volume.
64 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ANALYSIS OF STRESS AND STRAIN 65
Problems
ential tensile stress in the tube, assuming that there is no friction
I.Determine the decrease in the volume of a solid steel sphere between concrete and steel and that all the dimensions and the
of 10 inch diameter submitted to a uniform hydrostatic pressure longitudinal compressive stress in the column are
p = 10,000 lbs. per sq. inch. known (Fig. 53).
Solution. From eq. (49) Solution. Let p denote the longitudinal and q
the lateral compressive stress, d the inner diameter
..:1 =_ p__ = _ 10,000 X 3(1 - 2 X 0.3) 4 and h the thickness of the tube, E. the modulus of
K 30 X 10
6 = - 104
elasticity for steel, Ec, 0 the modulus of elasticity x
and Poisson's ratio for concrete. The expansion
The decrease in the volume is, therefore, of the concrete in a lateral direction will be, from
eqs. (43),
-
4
X -7rd3 = 0.209
. h.
cu b1c me
104 6 q e ( Fm. 53.
E,: = - Ec + Ec p + q). (a)
2. Referring to Fig. 52, a rubber cylinder A is compressed in a
steel cylinder B by a force P. Determine the pressure between the This expansion should be equal to the circumferential expansion of
rubber and the steel if P = l ,ooo lbs., d = 2 ins., the tube (see eq. 13)
Poisson's ratio for rubber = 0.45. Friction be- e=--
qd
(b)
tween rubber and steel is neglected. 2hE.
Solution. Let p denote the compressive stresses
t; over any cross section perpendicular to the axis of From eqs. (a) and (b) we obtain
the cylinder and q the pressure between the rubber qd _ q e
and the inner surface of the steel cylinder. Com- 2hE. -
- -+-(p
Ec Ec
+ q),
x 'J' pressive stress of the same magnitude will act be- from which
tween the lateral surfaces of the longitudinal fibers
of the rubber cylinder, from which we isolate an q = p d Ec
element in the form of a rectangular parallelepiped, --+1-c
with sides parallel to the axis of the cylinder (see 2hE,
Fig. 52). This element is in equilibrium under The circumferential tensile stress in the tube will now be calculated
Fm. 5z. the compressive stresses q on the lateral faces of the from equation
element and the axial compressive stress p. Assum- qd
ing that the steel cylinder is absolutely rigid, the lateral expansion <r = 2h
of the rubber in the x and y directions should be equal to zero and
from eqs. (43) we obtain 4. Determine the maximum shearing stress in the concrete
column of the previous problem, assuming that p = 1,000 lbs.
q per sq. in., e= 0.10, d/2h = 7.5.
0 = E - E (p + q), Solution.
from which
p o.45 Tmax = p-- -q = p- ( I -
O. I )
- = 474 lb S. per sq. lll.
.
1 ,ooo X 4 lb s. per sq. .m. 2 2 1.9
q=--= = 2 6o
_ l - l - 0.45 1r X 22
from which
Pb
R1 = 7
CHAPTER III
In a similar way, by considering the moments wi.th respect to
SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT point A, we obtain
Pa
19. Types of Beams.-In this chapter we will discuss the R2 =
simplest types of beams such as shown in Fig. 54. Figure 54a
The reactions for the beam with an overhanging end, Fig. 54c,
represents a beam with simply
can be calculated in the same manner.
supported ends. Points of sup-
In the case of the cantilever beam, Fig. 54b, the load P
port A and B are hinged so
is balanced by the reactive forces acting on the built-in end.
that the ends of the beam can
From the equations of statics, ~X = o and ~y = o, we con-
rotate freely during bending.
elude at once that the resultant of the reactive forces R1 must
lt is also assumed that one of
be vertical and equal to P. From the equation of moments,
8 the supports is mounted on
~M = o, it follows that the moment M1 of the reactive forces
(b} rollers and can move freely in
with respect to point A is equal to Pa and acts in the counter-
A e 8 the horizontal direction. Fig-
clockwise direction as shown in the figure.
L
(e)
ure 54b represents a cantilever
beam. The end A of this beam
The reactions produced by any other kind of loading on
Frn. 54. the above types of beams can be calculated by a similar
is built into the wall and cannot
procedure.
rotate during bending, while the end B is entirely free.
It should be noted that the special provisions permitting
Figure 54c represents a beam with an overhanging end. This
free rotation of the ends and free motion of the support are
beam is hinged to an immovable support at the end A and
used in practice only in beams of large spans, such as those
rests on a movable support at C.
All three of the foregoing cases represent statically de-
terminate beams since the reactions at the supports produced
found in bridges. In beams
of shorter span, the conditions
at the support are usually as 1
r 1
by a given load can be determined from the equations of
illustrated in Fig. 55. During "'JJ""?%i,.,~~.,.,A
71 ____~~~~~W=~'"i"'7W
statics. For instance, considering the simply supported beam
bending of such a beam friction ~ 1 ~
carrying a vertical load P, Fig. 54a, we see that the reaction forces between the supporting Fm. 55.
R 2 at the end B must be vertical, since this end is free to move surfaces and the beam will be
horizontally. Then from the equation of statics, ~X = o, it produced such as to oppose rotation and horizontal move-
follows that reaction R 1 is also vertical. The magnitudes of ment of the ends of the beam. These forces can be of sorne
R1 and R 2 are then determined from the equations of mo- importance in the case of flexible bars and _thin met~llic _strips,
ments. Equating to zero the sum of the moments of all forces see p. 178; but for a rigid beam the deflectton of whtch ts very
with respect to point B, we obtain small in comparison with the length l of the span these forces
Ril- Pb = o can be neglected, and the reactions can be calculated as though
66 the beam were simply supported, Fig. 54a.
68 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 6g
To investigate stresses distributed over a cross section mn we the righ t be considered, the algebraic sum of the forces to the
again consider the equilibrium of the left portian of the beam, right of a cross section and the algebraic sum of the moments
Fig. 57b. The externa! forces of those forces have the same magnitudes V and Mas have
acting on this portian of the already been found but are of opposite sense. This follows
,e beam are the reaction R1 and from the fact that the loads acting on a beam together with
the load uniformly distrib- the reactions R1 and R2 represent a system of forces in equi-
u ted along the length x. This librium; and the moment of all these forces with respect to
latter load has, of course, a any point in their plane, as well as their algebraic sum, must
resultant equal to qx. The be equal to zero. Hence the moment of the forces acting on
algebraica! sum of all forces the left portian of the beam with respect to the centroid of a
to the left of the cross section cross section mn must be equal and opposite to the moment
Fro. 57.
mn is thus R1 - qx. The with respect to the same point of the forces acting on the right
algebraic sum of the moments of all forces to the left of the portian of the beam. Also the algebraic sum of forces acting
cross section mn with respect to the centroid of this cross sec- on the left portian of the beam must be equal and opposite
tion is obtained by subtracting the moment of the resultant to the algebraic sum of forces acting on the right portion.
of the distributed load from the moment Rix of the reaction. In the following discussion the bending moment and the
The moment of the distributed load is evidently equal to shearing force at a cross section mn are taken as positive if in
considering the left portion of a beam the directions obtained
X qx 2
qx X - = - . are such as shown in Fig. 57c. To visualize this rule of sign
2 2
for bending moments, let us isolate an element of the beam by
Thus we obtain for the algebraic sum of the moments the two adjacent cross sections mn and m1n1, Fig. 58. If the
expresston
qx2
Rix - -
2
All the forces acting on the left portian of the beam can now
be replaced by one force acting in the plane of the cross section
-------
(-)
(+)
~
mn and equal to (d) (b)
V = Ri - qx = q ( ~ - x) (e) Fto. 58.
together with a couple equal to
bending moments in these cross sections are postttve the
2
M = Rix - qx = qx (l - x) (d) forces to the left of the cross section mn give a moment in the
2 2 clockwise direction and the forces to the right of the cross
The expressions (e) and (d) represent, respectively, the shear- section m1n1 a moment in the counter-clockwise direction as
ing force and the bending moment at the cross section mn. shown in Fig. 58a. It is thus seen that the directions of the
In the above examples the equilibrium of the left portian moments are such that a bending is produced which is convex
of the beam has been discussed. If, instead of the left portian, downwards. If the bending moments in the cross sections
72 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 73
mn and m 1n 1 are negative, a bending convex upwards is 1:le~arding the bending moments, it can be seen from the equi-
produced as shown in Fig. 58b. Thus in portions of a beam ltbrmm of the element that they are not equal at two adjacent
where the bending moment is positive, the deflection curve is cross sections and that the increase dM in the bending moment
convex downwards, while in portions where bending moment equals the moment of the couple represented by the two equal
is negative the deflection curve is and opposite forces V, i.e.,
rlmom,_~ \
m
,,--oconvex upwards.
mr l
The rule of signs for shearing and
dM = Vdx
(___
n nf
1 _/
Li,
)
forces is visualized in Fig. 59.
.,--1 Relation Between Bend-
21.
ing Mornent and Shearing Force.
dM _ V
dx - (50)
(+) (-)
-Let us consideran element of a Thus, _on all portions of a beam between loads the shearing
(a) (b)
beam cut out by two adjacent cross force is the rate of change of the bending moment with
FIG. 59 respect to x.
sections mn and m1n1 which are a
distance dx apart, Fig. 60. Assuming that there is a positive Let us now consider the case in which a distributed load
bending moment and a positive shearing force at the cr~ss sec- of intensity q acts between the cross sections mn and m n
F" 6 b 1 1,
tion mn, the action of the left portian of the beam on the element 1g.. o . ~hen the t?~al load acting on the element is qdx.
is represented by the force V and the couple M as indicated lf q 1s cons1dered pos1t1ve when the load acts downward, it
in Fig. 6oa. In the same manner, assuming that at section may be concluded from the equilibrium of the element that
the shear~ng. force at the cross section m 1 n 1 is different from
that at mn by an amount
~~jFiE~-~~3
n
(b)
~
from which it follows that
dV = - qdx,
dV
dx = - q.
~~
being plotted above the horizontal axis and negative values
below. Such graphical representations are called bending
moment and shearing force diagrams, respectively.
(e)
Let us consider, as an example, a simply supported beam
with a single concentrated load P, Fig. 61. 2 The reactions Fm. 61.
in this case are
straight lines ac and a1c1, For a cross section to the right of
Pb Pa the load we obtain
R1 = and R2 =
Pb Pa Pb
Taking a cross section mn to the left of P, it can be concluded V = - P = - T and M = T x - P(x - a), (b)
2 For simplicity the rollers under the movable supports will usually
be omitted in subsequent figures. x always being the distance from the left end of the beam.
The shearing force for this portian of the beam remains
76 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 77
constant and negative. In Fig. 61b this force is represented the same equation, after integration, gives the difference
by the line e' b parallel to the x axis. The bending moment is MB - MA of the bending moments at the ends B and A.
a linear function of x which for x = a is equal to Pab/l and In the case of a simply supported beam the moments at the
for x = lis equal to zero. It is always positive and its varia- ends vanish; hence the total area of the shearing force diagram
tion along the right portion of the beam is represented by the vanishes.
straight line c1b1. The broken lines acc' b and a1c1b1 in Figs. lf several loads act on a beam, Fig. 62, the beam is divided
61b and 61c represent respectively the shearing force and into severa} portions and expressions for V and M must be
bending moment diagrams for the whole length of the beam.
At the load P there is an abrupt change in the magJ;1itude of
the shearing force from the positive value Pb/l to the negative R, -- P.
a,
T b,
R,
a, P, P,
value - Pa/l and a sharp change in the slope of the bending JC
moment diagram.
In deriving expressions (b) for the shearing force and ti
Finally far the last portion of the beam we obtain there then corresponds a maximum or a mnimum in the
bending moment diagram. The numerical values of all these
V= - R2, M = R2(/ - x). (h) maxima and mnima must be investigated to find the nu-
From expressions (e) (h) we see that in each portian of the merically largest bending moment.
beam the shearing force remains constant; hence the shearing Let us next consider the case of a uniformly distributed
force diagram is as shown in Fig. 62b The bending moment load, Fig. 63. From our previous discussion (p. 70), we have
in each portian of the beam is a linear function of x; hence in for a cross section a distan ce x from the left support
the corresponding diagram it is represented by an inclined
qx
straight line. To draw these lines we note from expressions and M = 2 (/ - x). (i)
(e) and (h) that at the ends x = o and x = l the moments are
zero. The moments under the loads are obtained by sub- . We see that the shearing force diagram consists in this case
stituting in expressions (e), (/), and (h) x = a1, x = a2, and of an inclined straight line the ordinates of which for x = o
x = a 3, respectively. In this manner we obtain far the above and x = l are equal to q//2 and - q//2 respectively, as shown
mentioned moments the values in Fig. 63b. As can be seen from expression (i) the bending
M = R1a1, M = R1a2 - P1(a2 - a1), and M = R2ba.
By using these values the bending moment diagram, shown in 1;;1111111~T11111111!11(1111 ~ ,
/~% ,,
Fig. 62e, is readily constructed.
In practica! applications it is of importance to find the
cross sections at which the bending moment has its maximum
~r~:)
or mnimum values. In the case of concentrated loads just
considered, Fig. 62, the maximum bending moment octurs
(b~}f~
e, b
~
under the load P2. This load corresponds in the bending
moment diagram to point di, at which point the slope of the
diagram changes sign. Further, from equation (50), we know
that the slope of the bending moment diagram at any point ~ ~
(e)
is equal to the shearing force. Hence the bending moment
Fm. 63.
has its maximum or mnimum values at the cross sections in
which the shearing force changes i ts sign. If, as we proceed moment in this case is a parabolic curve with its vertical axis
along the x axis, the shearing force changes from a positive at the middle of the span of the beam, Fig. 63c. The moments
to a negative value, as under the load P2 in Fig. 62, the slope at the ends, i.e., far x = o and x = l, vanish; and the max-
in the bending moment diagram also changes from positive imum value of the moruent occurs at the middle of the span
to negative. Hence we have the maximum bending moment where the shearing force changes the sign. This maximum
at this cross section. A change in V from a negative to a is obtained by substituting x = l/2 in expression (i), which
positive value indicates a minimum bending moment. In the gives Mmax = q/2/8.
general case a shearing force diagram may intersect the hori- If a uniform load covers only a part of the span, Fig. 64,
zontal axis in severa! places. To each such intersection point we must consider three portions of the beam of length a, b,
80 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 81
and c. Beginning with the determination of the reactions R1 For the right unloaded portion of the beam, considering the
and R 2 we replace the uniformly distributed load by its re- forces to the right of a cross section, we find
sultantqb. From the equations of statics for the moments and (/)
By using expressions (j), (k), and (/) the shearing force and
bending moment diagrams are readily constructed. The
shearing force diagram, Fig. 64b, consists of the horizontal
portions a1c1 and d1b1 corresponding to the unloaded portions
of the beam and the inclined line c1d1 corresponding to the
uniformly loaded portion. The bending moment diagram,
Fig. 64c, consists of the two inclined lines a2c 2 and b~2
corresponding to the unloaded portions and of the parabolic
curve c2d2 with vertical axis corresponding to the loaded por-
tion of the beam. The maximum bending moment is at the
point e2, which corresponds to the point e1 where the shearing
force changes sign. At points c2 and d2 the parabola is
tangent to the inclined lines a2c2 and d2b2 respectively. This
follows from the fact that at points c1 and d1 of the shearing
force diagram there is no ab-
with respect to B and A, we then obtain rupt change in the magnitude
of the shearing force; hence, by
R1 = 7qb( e+ 2b) and virtue of equation (50), there I
(o)
cannot occur an abrupt change
The shearing force and the bending moment for the left in slope of the bending moment P,{I <->
--------,,(lc,
1
unloaded portion of the beam (o < x < a) are diagram at the corresponding q=-,
. dd2- P,
V = R1 and M = R1x. (j) Po1nts c2 an ...___,....____b,
In the case of a cantilever (b} e'
For a cross section mn taken in the loaded portion of the beam beabm~ Fig._ 6 5, thde same method 4=--::~c-,
the shearing force is obtained by subtracting the load q(x - a) as e1ore 1s use to construct
to the left of the cross section from the reaction R1. The the shearing force and bending (, ---- 4
(e}
bending moment in the same cross section is obtained by moment diagrams. Measuring Fro. 65.
subtracting the moment of the load to the left of the cross x from the left end of the
section from the moment of the reacton R1. In this manner beam and considering the portion to the left of the load P2
we find (o < x < a), we obtain
V= R1 - q(x - a) and
x-a
and M = R1x - q(x - a) X - 2 - (k) The minus sign in these expressions follows from the rule of
82 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS SHEARING FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT 83
signs indicated in Fig. 58b and Fig. 59b. For the right portian have concentrated loads Pi, P2 and Pa, Fig. 62, acting simul-
of the beam (a < x < l) we obtain taneously with a uniform load, Fig. 63, the bending moment
and at any cross section is obtained by summing up the corre-
sponding ordinates of the diagrams in Fig. 62e and Fig. 63c.
The corresponding diagrams of shearing force and bending
moment are shown in Fig. 65b and 65c. The total area of the Problems
shearing force diagram <loes not vanish in this case and is 1. Draw approximately to scale the shearing force and bending
equal to - Pi/ - P2b, which is the bending moment MB at moment diagrams and label the values of the largest positive and
the end B of the beam. The bending moment diagram con- negative shearing forces and bending moments for the beams shown
sists of the two inclined lines a2c2 and c2b2 the slopes of which in Fig. 67.
are equal to the values of the shearing force at the correspond-
r
4 ,_ _ 6' , - - ,
ing portions of the cantilever. The numerical maximum of
the bending moment is at the built-in end B of the beam. 600" (l!r lt. J
lf a cantilever carries a uniform load, Fig. 66, the shearing 4 (b} ?f)r-
force and bending moment ata distance x from the left end are
X qx 2
V= - qx and M = - qx X - = - -
2 2
o,
<-)
occurs at the end B of the
beam.
lf concentrated loads and 1
4
1000"
,~6-,_,---6=+ aw ~::::::--,o-,---,,ooo
4__ _ _ 400
1
p,r h.
-'1"'1- -
IOOO"
3. A cantilever carrying a total load W which increases uni- Jeft end as shown in Fig. 72a. Draw approximately to scale the
formly from zero at the left end as shown by the inclined line AC, shearini force and bending moment diagrams if W = 12,000 lbs.
Fig. 69a, is built in at the right end. and l = 24 ft.
Draw the diagrams of shearing force and Solution. The reactions at the supports in this case are
bending moment. R 1 = W = 4,000 lbs. and R 2 = 8,000 lbs. The shearing force at
Solution. The shearing force at a a cross section mn is obtained by
cross section mn at a distance x from the subtracting the shaded portion
left end of the cantilever is numerically of the load from the reaction R1.
(o)
equal to the shaded portion of the load. Hence
Since the total load W is represented
IV
by the triangle ACB the shaded portion
is Wx2/l2. By using the rule of sign pre- V= R 1 - W ~ = W (i - ~)-
viously adopted, Fig. 59, we obtain " (11)
The shearing force diagram is rep-
resented by the parabolic curve
a, acb in Fig. 72b. The bending
moment at a cross section mn is
(cJ W The shearing force diagram is thus rep-
resen ted in Fig. 69b by the parabola ab
which has a vertical axis at the point a.
M = R1x
X2
- W /2 X
X
3
M r#
~
~ The bending moment at the cross section
F10. 69. mn is obtained by taking the moment = Wx ( 1
r. ---'-,-,-""""r
b
10()()'
r-d'----6'
_I ,,,, ,,7 1
FIG. 70. F10. 71.
730"'
}f
tJ-400prrfl.
(t:)
~ e
lp
Le= dJ:
{d)
c=-l p
Fm. 74
Solution. In the case shown in Fig. 74a the reactions are 670
lbs. and 3,330 lbs. The shearing force for the left portion of the
STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 89
o_n the con ve~ sid~ of the beam is accompanied by lateral contrae- and its area dd, i.e., (Ey/r)dd. Dueto the fact that all such
/tonan~ long1t~dmal contraction on the concave side, by lateral forces distributed over the cross section represent a system
expans1~n, as m the _case of simple tension or compression equivalent to a couple, the resultant of these forces must be
(~ee art1cle 14). Th1s changes the shape of all cross sec- equal to zero and we obtain
~1o~s, the vertical sides of the rectangular section becoming
mclmed to each other as in Fig. 77 (b). The unit strain in
f Ey
--:-dd EJ
= ,: ydd = ,
the lateral direction is
y i.e., the moment of the area of the cross section with respect
Ez = - Ex = - r' (53) to the neutral axis is equal to zero; hence the neutral axis
passes through the centroid of the section.
~her~, is Poisson's r~tio. Due to this distortion all straight
The moment of the force on the ahove element with
lmes m _the cross sect10n, parallel to the z axis, curve so as
respect to the neutral axis is (Ey /r) dd-y. Summarizing such
to remam normal to the sides of the section. Their radius
moments over the cross section and putting the resultant
?f cu~vatur: R will be larger than r in the same proportion equal to the moment M of the externa! forces, the following
m w?1ch Ex 1s numerically larger than Ez (see eq. 53) and we
obtam equation for determining the radius of curvature r is obtained:
I
R = r.
From the strains of the longitudinal fihers the corresponding
(54)
in which
frEy2dd =El.= M
r or (56)
:$e
1rd4 1rd
1. = 64 ; Z=-
32
For the various profile sections, e.g., for I beams, channels
l ---1-.,_ \ )
., (a)
{t) z
J'
(6!)
Mu = J z E: dA = 1; JyzdA.
The integral on the right side is the product oj inertia of the
94 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 95
cross section (see appendix, p. 348) and it is zero if the y and z E = 1.5 X 106 lbs. per sq. in. The weight of the beam 1s to be
axes are the principal axes of the section. Therefore this couple neglected.
is zero and, since the component about they axis of the applied Answer. P = 13,900 lbs.; = 0.0864 in.
4. A standard 30" girder beam is supported as shown in Fig. 8 I
couple is zero, the conditions of equilibrium are satisfied.
and loaded on the overhangs
Problems
Determine the maximum stress in a locomotive axle (Fig. 80)
I.
~r,o=~~' :'.l~~sr:~~"g~~:,~
mine the maximum stress in the
E!Hji
- -~
- ~
.i:l~ J~d ~,
if e = 13.5 in., diameter d of the axle middle portion of the beam and '' ' zo'
f4------~r--- is 10 io. and the spring-borne load P
per journal is 26,000 lbs.
Solution. The bending moment
the deflection at the middle of
the beam if I z = 9,150 in. 4
Fm. Sr.
eLrf
a diagonal of the cross section (Fig. 82) will have a lower increased by 0.7 per cent by cut-
maximum stress if the corners shown shaded on the figure ting off the two shaded segmen ts
are cut off. Letting a denote the
length of the side of the square
which have a depth ~ = 0.011d.
In the case of a triangular section
;L_,
cross section, the moment of in- (Fig. 83, e) the section modulus (b)
ertia with respect to the z axis is can be increased by cutting off the Fw. 83.
(see appendix) I, = a 4/12 and the shaded corner.
corresponding section modulus is In designing a beam to undergo pure bending, not only the
p z= I, .../2 = .../2 a3. conditions of strength should be satisfied but also the condition
:y of economy in the beam's own weight. Of two cross sections
a 12
Fw. 82. having the same section modulus, i.e., satisfying the condition
Let us now cut off the corners so
that mp = aa, where a is a fraction to be determined later. of strength with the same factor of safety, that with the smaller
The new cross section consists of a square mm 1mm1 with the area is more economical. In comparing various shapes of
sides a(I - a) and of two parallelograms mnn1m1. The mo- cross sections, we consider first the rectangle of depth h and
width b. The section modulus is
ment of inertia of such a cross section with respect to the z
axis 1s
Z -- bh2 - ~ Ah (a)
4 4 3 4 3 6 - 6 '
, a (1 - a) aa~ [a(1 - a)] a (1 - a)
I, = 12 +2-3- ~ = 12 (1 +3a) where A denotes the cross-sectional area.
and the corresponding section modulus is lt is seen that the rectangular cross section becomes more
and more economical with increase in its depth h. However,
Jz'~ = -~ a3 (1
Z ' = ---'-- - a )2 (I + 3a). there is a certain limit to this increase, and the question of
a(I - a) 12
the stability of the beam arises as the section becomes nar-
Now if we determine the value of a to make this section rower. The collapse of a beam of very narrow rectangular
modulus a maximum, we find a = 1/9. With this value of section may be due not to overcoming the strength of the
a in Z' it is found that cutting off the corners decreases the material but to sidewise buckling (see part 11).
maximum bending stress by about 5 per cent. This result is In the case of a circular cross section we have
easily understood once we consider that the section modulus
Z = 1rd = ~ A -d.
3
is the quotient of the moment of inertia and half the depth (b)
32 8
of the cross section. By cutting off the corners the moment
of inertia of the cross section is diminished in a smaller pro- Comparing circular and square cross sections of the same
portion than the depth; hence the section modulus increases area, we find that the side h of the square will be h = d...[ii-/2,
and (u,,)max decreases. A similar effect may be obtained in for which eq. (a) gives
other cases. For a rectangle with narrow outstanding por- Z = o.147A-d.
100 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 101
Comparison of this with (b) shows a square cross section to from the extreme bottom edge will satisfy the equation e = h.
be more economical than a circular one. Now, referring to Fig. 84, the position of the centroid is calculated
Consideration of the stress distribution along the depth from the equation:
h ,2
of the cross section (Fig. 78) leads to the conclusion that + (x -
ht -2 t) -2 h
for economical design most of the material of the beam e=
should be put as far as possible from the neutral axis. The ht + (x - t)t 4'
most favorable case for a given cross-sectional area A and from which
-r6-- .
h 2
depth h would be to distribute each half of the area at a X = t +- - = I +4
h-21 2
= 9 m.
distance h/2 from the neutral axis. Then
1 =
z
2 X~ X
2
(~)2 = Ah2.
2 4 '
Z = Ah. (e) eb---------------d)
M M ~
~
Fw. 85.
This is a limit which may be approached in practice by use
of an I section with most of the material in the flanges. Due 2. Determine the ratio (o-.,)max : (o-.,)min for a channel, bent as
to the necessity of putting part of the material in the web shown in Fig. 85, if t = 2 in., h = ro in., b = 24 in.
of the beam, the limiting condition (e) can never be realized, Answer.
and for standard I profiles we have approximately (o-.,)max : (o-.,)min = 3 : - 7
z
Z ~ o.30Ah. (d) 3. Determine the condition at which the di-
minishing of the depth h 1 of the section shown in
Comparison of (d) with (a) shows that an I section is more Fig. 86 is accompanied by an increase in section
economical than a rectangular section of the same depth. At modulus.
the same time, due to its wide flanges, an I beam will always Solution. Fw. 86.
be more stable with respect to sidewise buckling than a beam dh1 2
bh3
Z=-+-,
6h1 6
of rectangular section of the same depth and section modulus.
dZ bh3 dh1
Problems dh1 = - 6h12 + 3 .
r. Determine the width x of the fl.ange of a cast iron beam The condition for increase in Z with decrease of h1 is
having the section shown in Fig. 84, such that the max1mum
bh3 dh1
- >-
6h12 3
or
25. General Case of Transversally Loaded Beams.-In Solution. To obtain the dangerous section the shearing force
the general case of transversally loaded beams, the stresses diagram should be constructed (Fig. 87, b). The reaction at the
distributed over a cross section of a beam must balance the
shearing force and the bending moment at that cross section.
The calculation of the stresses is usually made in two steps by
determining first the stresses produced by the bending mo-
ment, the so-called bending stresses, and afterwards the shear-
ing stresses produced by the shearing force. In this article we
..
shall limit ourself to the calculation of the bending stresses;
the discussion of shearing stresses will be given in the next
article. In calculating bending stresses we assume that these
stresses are distributed in the same manner as in the case of Fro. 87.
pure bending and will use the formulas derived for the stresses
in article 23. Experiments show that such a procedure gives left support is
satisfactory results if we are dealing with sections which are I 2 X 400 X I 5 + 6 X 400 X 3 lb
not very clase to the point of application of a concentrated Rr = 21
= 3,77 s.
force. In the vicinity of the application of a concentrated load
The shearing force for any cross section of the portion AC of the
the stress distribution is more complicated. This problem
beam is
will be discussed in Part II. V= R 1 - qx = 3,770 - 400 X x.
The calculation of bending stresses is usually made for
the cross sections at which the bending moment has the This force is zero for x = 3,770/400 = 9.43 feet. For this section
the bending moment is a maximum,
largest positive or negative value. Having the numerical
maximum of the bending moment and the magnitude of the Mmax = 3,770 X 9.43 - 4oo X X 9.4J2
allowable stress <Tw in bending, the required cross-sectional = 17,800 X 12 lbs. in.
dimensions of a beam can be obtained from the equation
The necessary section modulus
Mmax 17,800 X 12 .
<Tw = Z- (63) Z = = 13.4 m.3 1/
l 6,ooo
The application of this equation will now be shown by a This condition is satisfied by a standard
number of examples. I beam of depth 8 in., cross-sectional area
an d Z = 14.2 .m. 3
5.33 sq. m.,
2. A wooden dam (Fig. 88) consists of Fro. 88.
Problems
vertical bars such as A B of rectangular
1. Determine the necessary dimensions of a standard I beam to cross section and dimension h = 1 foot supported at the ends. De-
support a distributed load of 400 lbs. per foot, as shown in Fig. 87, termine (<r,,)max if the length of the bars l = 18 feet and the weight
when the working stress a-w = 16,000 lbs. per sq. in. Only the of the bar is neglected. .
normal stresses a-,, are to be taken into consideration and the weight Solution. If b is the width of one bar, the complete hydrostat1c
of the beam is neglected. pressure on the bar, represented by the triangular prism ABC, is
STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 105
104 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
T?e shearing (orce at any cross section mn is equal to the reaction R 1
W = bl2 X 62.4 l?s The reaction at .d is R 1 = W = bl2 X 62.4 mmus the we1ght of the load represented by area Amn. Since the
lbs. ~nd the sh_eanng force _at any cross section mn is equal to the
load represented by the area
react10n R1 mmus the we1ght of the prism Amn of water, i.e.,
v= R1 - w; = w(}- ;) .
we obtain
ADE = W(l - d) = J. W
/ 4 '
maximum bending moment will be at the middle of the span, corresponding Mmax and the dimensions of the I beams if Uw = l 5,000
Mmax = 19,200 lbs. ft. lbs. per sq. in., l = 30 feet, a = 12 feet, d = 6 feet, the weight of the
The necessary crane W = 10,000 lbs., the load lifted by the crane P = 2,000 lbs.
19,200 X 12 . The loads are acting in the middle plane between the two I beams
Z = = 15.4 m. 3 and are equally distributed between them.
15,000
Solution. The maximum bending moment will be under the
The standard I beam of depth 8 in. and cross-sectional area 6.71 right wheel when the distance of this wheel from the right support is
sq. in., z = 16. 1 in. 3, is the nearest cross section satisfying .the equal to li = (l - d); Mmax = 1,009,000 lbs. in. Dividing the
strength conditions. . . . . moment equally between the two beams, we find the necessary
5. Determine the most unfavorable pos1t1on of the ho1stmg
Mmax .
carriage of a crane which rides on a beam as in Fig. 91. Find Mma11. Z = -20-w
-= 33.6 m. 3
if the load per wheel is P = 10,000 lbs.,
l = 24 feet, d = 6 feet. The weight The necessary I beam has a depth 12 in., cross-sectional area 9.26 sq.
of the beam is neglected. in.; Z = 36.0 in. 3 The weight of the beam is neglected.
Solution. If x is the distance of the 7. A circular wooden beam supported at C and attached to the
Fro. 91. left wheel from the left support of the foundation at d (Fig. 93) carries a load q = 300 lbs. per foot un-
beam, the bending moment under this
wheel is
2P(l - x - d)x
l
This moment becomes a maximum when
l d
x=---
2 4'
hence in order to obtain the maximum bending moment under the
left wheel the carriage must be displaced from the middle position
by a distance d/4 towards the ri&ht support. The sa1;11e magnitude
of bending moment can be obtamed also under the right wheel by
displacing the carriage by d/4 from the middle position towards the
left support.
Fro. 93. Fm. 94.
8. The wooden dam backed by vertical pillars built in at the The diameter of the rivet d = 3/4 in., h = 1/4 in., h1 = 3/8 in.,
lower ends (Fig. 94) consists of horizontal boards. Determine the P = 10,000 lbs. per sq. in.
dimension of the square cross section of the pillars if l = 6 feet, Solution. The bending moment at the cross section mn is
d = 3 feet and <Tw = 500 lbs. per sq. in. Construct the bending !/2 X h/2. The bending moment at the middle cross section m 1n 1
moment and shearing force diagrams. IS
Solution. The total lateral load on one pillar is represented by
the weight W of the triangular prism dBC of water. At any cross f(!!. + h1).
2 2 4
section mn, the shearing force and the bending moment are .
This latter moment is the one to be taken into account in calculating
Wx 2 Wx 2 x the stresses. Then
V= - -2- ; M= - -2 -3
P(h hi) 1rd3 4P 2h + h1 = 26,400 lbs. per sq. in.
(<1.,)m:u: = - - + - : - = --:::;; d
In determining the signs of V and M it is assumed that Fig. 94 is 2 2 4 32 1ru-
rotated 90 in the counter-clockwise direction so as to bring the l 1. Determine the necessary standard I beams for the cases in
axes x and y into coincidence with those of Fig. 56. The necessary Figures 67a, 67d, and 68b, assuming working stress of 16,000 lbs.
dimension b is found from equation per sq. in.
b Mmax 3 X 62 X 62.4 X 12 12. Determine the necessary dimensions of a simply supported
Z=-=--= beam of standard I-section such as to carry a uniform load of 400
6 <Tw 500
lbs. per ft. and a load of P = 4000 lbs. placed at the middle. The
from which
length ?f the beam is 15 ft. and working stress <Tw = 16,000 lbs.
b = 9.90 in. per sq. m.
The construction of diagrams is left to the -eader. 13. A channel the cross section of which is shown in Fig. 85 is
9. Determine the necessary dimensions of a cantilever beam simply supported at the ends and carries a concentrated load at the
of a standard I section which carries a unifor~ad q = 200 lbs. middle. Calcula te the maximum value of the load which the beam
per foot and a concentrated load P = 500 lbs. at the end if the will carry if the working stress is 1,000 lbs. per sq. in. for tension and
length l = 5 feet and <Tw = 15,000 lbs. per sq. in. 2,000 lbs. per sq. in. for compression.
Solution.
26. Shearing Stresses in Bending.-ln the preceding ar-
(500 X 5 + 1,000 X 2.5)12 .
Z = = 4 m. 3 ticle it was shown that when a beam is bent by transverse
15,000
loads not only normal stresses
The necessary standard I beam is 5 in. deep and of 2.87 in. 2 cross- <T., but also shearing stresses r ll
sectional area. are produced in any cross sec- -G
tion mn of the beam, Fig. 96.
h ; Considering the action on the H(~_.__I-
right portian of the beam, Fig. y" ~
p
96, it can be concluded from
h the conditions of equilibrium
that the magnitude of these shearing stresses is such that their
summation is equal to the shearing force V. In investigating
Fm. 95
the law of their distribution over the area of the cross section
10. Determine the bending stresses in a rivet by assuming that we begin with the simple case of a rectangular cross section,
the loads acting on the rivet are distributed as shown in Fig. 95 Fig. 97. In such a case it is natural to assume that the shear-
110 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 111
ing stress at each point of the cross section is parallel to the as in Fig. 97 (b), in accordance with our assumption there
shearing force V, i.e., parallel to the sides mn of the cross is a uniform distribution of the shearing stresses T 11x over
section. We denote the stress in such a case by T 11x. The the vertical face acc1a1. These stresses have a moment
subscript y in T 11x indicates that the shearing stress is parallel (T 11xbdy)dx about the lower rear edge ee of the element which
to the y axis and the subscript x that the stress acts in aplane must be balanced by the moment (Tx 11bdx)dy due to shearing
perpendicular to the x axis. As a second assumption we take stresses distributed over the horizontal face of the element,
\'
cdd1c1. Then
Tyxbdydx = Tx 11bdxdy and Tyx = Tx11,
i.e., the shearing stresses acting on the two perpendicular
faces of the element are equal. The same conclusion was
met befare in simple tension (see p. 40) and also in tension
or compression in two perpendicular directions (see p. 45).
The existence of these shearing stresses in the planes parallel
to the neutral plane can be demonstrated by simple experi-
ments. Take two equal rectangular bars put together on
simple supports as shown in Fig.
98 and bent by a concentrated
(6}
load P. If there is no friction be-
tween the bars, the bending of
k
n_i-----'~j
:t(a}
F10. 97. each bar will be independent of p
the distribution of the shearing stresses to be uniform across that of the other; each will have
the width of the beam cc 1 These two assumptions will compression of the upper and ten-
enable us to determine completely the distribution of the sion of the lower longitudinal fibers
(b)
shearing stresses. A more elabora te investigation of the prob- and the condition will be that in-
lem shows that the approximate solution thus obtained is dicated in Fig. 98 (b). The lower
usually sufficiently accurate and that for a narrow rectangle longitudinal fibers of the upper bar slide with respect to the
(h large in comparison with b, Fig. 97) it practically coincides upper fibers of the lower bar. In a solid bar of depth 2h
with the exact solution. 3 (Fig. 98, a) there will be shearing stresses along the neutral
If an element be cut from the beam by adjacent cross plane nn of such magnitude as to prevent this sliding of the
sections and by adjacent planes parallel to the neutral plane, upper portion of the bar with respect to the lower, shown in
3 The exact solution of this problem is due to de Saint Venant,
Fig. 98 (b). Due to this prevention of sliding the single
Journal de Math. (Liouville), 1856. An account of de Saint Venant's bar of depth 2h is mm::h stiffer and stronger than two bars
famous work is given in Todhunter and Pearson's "History of the Theory each of depth h. In practice keys such as a, b, e, . . . are
of Elasticity." The approximate solution given below is by Jouravski. sometimes used with built-up wooden beams in arder to pre-
For the French translation ofhis work see Annales des Ponts et Chausses,
1856. The exact theory shows that when the depth of the beam is small vent sliding (Fig. 99, a). Observation of the clearances
in comparison with the width the discrepancy between the exact and the around a key, Fig. 99 (b), enables us to determine the direc-
approximate theories becomes considerable. tion of sliding in the case of a built-up beam and therefore
112 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 113
the direction of the shearing stresses over the neutral plane will be (eq. 57)
in the case of a salid beam. My
uxdA = I, dA.
The above discussion shows that the shearing stress T11:i:
p
at any point of the vertical The sum of all these forces distributed over the side nppn of
cross section is vertical in the elemen t will be
direction and numerically h12My
(Q)
equal to the horizontal
shearing stress T:i:11 in the
. i1/1
ydA.
z
(a)
horizontal plane through In the same manner the sum of the normal forces acting on
~;~
the same point: This latter the side n1p1p1n1 is
stress can easily be calcu- ht 2(M dM)y +
(b) (e) lated from the condition of
equilibrium of the element
I.
I
11,
dA. (b)
z
Fm. 99 The force due to the shearing stresses Tx 11 acting on the top
PP1nn1 cut out from the
side PP1 of the element is
beam by two adjacent cross sections mn and m1n1 and by the T:i: 11bdx. (e)
horizontal plane PP1, Fig. 100 (a) and (b). The only forces on
The forces given in (a), (b) and (e) must satisfy eq. ~X= o,hence
11:f~~i r n n,
,,, - b -- ,,,
z
p
11
y
rplJ Tx 11bdx =
from which
I.
V
h/2 (M
dM I r4'2
+ dM)y
.Y
(11)
Fm. 100.
(/J) (e)
Txy = T11x = bf
Vih12 ydA.
z 1/1
this element in the direction of the x a ~are the shearing The integral in this equation has a very simple meaning. lt
stresses Tx 11 over the side PP1 and the normal stress <1'x over the represents the moment of the shaded portian of the cross
sides pn and p1n1. If the bending moments at cross sections section, Fig. 100 (b), with respect to the neutral axis z. For
mn and m1n1 are equal, i.e., in the case of pure bending, the the rectangular section discussed
normal stresses ux over the sides np and n1P1 will be also dA = bdy
equal and will be in balance between themselves. Then the
shearing stress Tx11 must be equal to zero. and the integral becomes
Let us consider now the more general case of a varying 2
normal force acting on an elemental area dA of the side nppn The same result can be obtained by multiplying the area
114 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 115
+
[(h/2) - yi] of the shaded portian by the distance [(h/2) Yi] the shearing strain is zero, so that the curves m'n' and mi'ni'
of its centroid from the neutral axis. are normal to the upper and lower surfaces of the bar after
Substituting (d) in eq. (64), we obtain for the rectangular bending. At the neutral surface the angles between the tan-
section gents to the curves m'n' and mi'ni' and the normal sections
(65) mn and m 1ni are equal to 'Y = 1/G (r 11x)max As long as the
shearing force remains constant along the beam, the warping
It is seen that the shearing stresses r 11x are not uniformly of all cross sections is the same, so that mm' = m1mi', nn'
distributed from top to bottom of the beam. The maximum = n 1ni' and the stretching or the shrinking produced by the
value of r 11x occurs for Y1 = o, i.e., for points on the neutral bending moment in the longitudinal fibers is unaffected. This
axis; and is, from equation (65), fact explains the validity here of eq. (57), which was devel-
oped for pure bending and based on the assumption that
cross sections of a bar remain plane during bending.
or, since /, = h 3/12, A more elaborate investigation of the problem 4 shows that
the warping of cross sections also <loes not substantially
3 V
(Tyx)max = 2 h (66) affect the strain in longitudinal fibers if a distributed load
acts on the beam and the shearing force varies continuously
Thus the maximum shearing stress in the case of a rectangular
along the beam. In the case of concentrated loads the stress
cross section is 50 per cent greater than the average shearing
distribution near the p
stress, obtained by dividing the shearing force by the area of p
loads is more compli- e
the cross section.
cated, but this devia-
For the bottom and for the top of the cross section,
tion from the straight
Y1 = h/2 and equation (65) gives r 11x = o. The graph of
line law is of a local
equation (65) (Fig. 100, e) shows that the distribution of the
type (see Part II).
shearing stresses along the depth of the beam follows a para-
bolicla w. Theshadedareaboundedbythe
para bola multiplied with the width of the I.
Problems
Determine the
;j +
1
~t
L-1
beam gives i(r 11x)maxh = V, as it should. limiting values of the 1
1
S
shearing force V. In fact p
we can readily show that at z
moment of the segment of the circle below the line pp with respect
points p (Fig. 104, b) of the to the z axis. The elemental area mn has the length 2 ...J R 2 - y 2
cross section along the bound- y (a) (b} y and the width dy. The area is dA = 2...JR2 - y 2dy. The mom~nt
ary the shearing stress is of this strip about Cz is ydA and the total moment for the ent1re
tangent to the boundary. segment is
Let us consider an infinitesimal element abcd (Fig. 104, e) in
5 The approximate theory based on the above two assumptions gives
the form of a rectangular parallelepiped with the face adjg in satisfactory accuracy and comparison ~ith the exa~t theory ~hows that
the surface of the beam and the face abcd in the plane yz of the the error in the magnitude of the max1mum shearmg stress 1s about 5
cross section. If the shearing stress acting over the side abcd of per cent, which is not high for practica! application. Se~, Saint Ven~nt,
the element has a direction such as T, it can always be resolved loe. cit., p. 110. See also the book by A. E. H. Love, Mathemat1cal
Theory of Elasticity," 4th ed., 1927, p. 346.
118 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 119
i1/1
R 2...JR2 - y2ydy = (R2 - y12)3/2_ The stress then vares along the depth of the beam following
a parabolic law. The maximum and mnimum values of r 11,,
Substituting this in eq. (64) and taking 2...JR 2 - y 12 for b, we obtain in the web of the beam are obtained by putting Y1 = o and
V(R 2 - yi2) Y1 = hi/2:
Tyx = 31, ' (67)
(70)
and the total shearing stress at points p (Fig. 105) is
2 2
VR...JR 2 - J1 2 V (bh
TyxR
- bh
1 )
-r=-;===== (Tyx)min = bi/z g - 8-
...JR2 - y12 31,
I t is seen that the maximum r is obtained for y 1 = o, i.e., for the When b1 is very small in comparison with b there is no great
neutral axis of the cross section. Then, substituting 1, = 1rR4/ 4, difference between (rvx)max and (rvx)min and the distribution
4 V 4 V of the shearing stresses over the cross section of the web is
Tmax = - - = - - (68) practically uniform.
3 1rR2 3 A
A good approximation for (rvx)max is obtained by dividing
In the case of a circular cross section, therefore, the maximum
shearing stress is 33 per cent larger than the average value obtained the complete shearing force V by the cross-sectional area of
by dividing the shearing force by the cross-sectional area. the web alone. This follows from the fact that the shearing
stresses distributed over the cross section of the web yield a
28. Distribution of Shearing Stresses in I Beams.-ln
force which is nearly equal to V, which means that the web
V
considering the distribution of the shear-
takes nearly all the shearing force, and the flanges have only
ing stresses in I beams (Fig. 106) for the
a secondary part in its transmission. To prove this the
e section of the web, the same assumptions are
summation of the stresses Tyx over the web which we will call
made as for a rectangular cross section; h,/2
these were that the shearing stresses are
parallel to the shearing force V and are uni-
Vi is
i 11,12
Tyxb1dy, from eq. (69):
formly distributed over the thickness b1 of V1 = __f_ f,.,12 [ ~ ( !!!_ - h12) + b1 ( hi2 - yi2 )] b1dy
the web. Then eq. (64) will be used for bd.J-h,2 2 4 4 2 4
calculating the stresses Tyx For points on
and, after integration,
Fm. 106. the line pp at a distance Y1 from the neu-
tral axis, where the width of the cross sec- V _ V [ b(h - h1) . h
1
+ h1 . h1 + b1h1 3
] _
(a)
tion is bi, the moment of the shaded portion with respect - J. 2 2 2 12
to the neutral axis z is For small thickness of flanges, i.e., when h1 approaches h, the
fh12 ydA = ~ (h2 - h12) + ~ (h12 - yi2). moment of inertia I. is represented with sufficient accuracy
Ju, 2 4 4 2 4 by the equation:
Substituting in eq. (64), we obtain I = b(h - h1) . (h + h1) + b1h1 2 3
,
(b)
12 z 2 8 12
T11x = __f_ [~ (1!:_ - hi2)
bi/z 2 4 4
+ ~!2 (h4 - y 12)]. (69)
in which the first term represents the cross-sectional area of
120 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 121
the flanges multiplied by the square of the distance (h + h1)/4 29. Principal Stresses in Bending.-By using eqs. (57)
of their centers from the z axis, which is approximately the and (64) the normal stress <Tx and the shearing stress Tyz can
moment of inertia of the cross section of the flanges. The easily be calculated for any point of a cross section provided
second term is the moment of inertia of the cross section of the bending moment M and the shearing force V are known
the web. Comparing (a) and (b), we see that as h1 approaches for this cross section. The maximum numerical value of <Tz
h the force V1 approaches V and the shearing force will be will be in the fiber most remote from the neutral axis, and
taken by the web alone. the maximum value of Tyx usually at the neutral axis. In
In considering the distributio'n of the shearing sti-esses the majority of cases only the maximum values of <Tz and Tyz
over the cross sections of the flanges the assumption of obtained in this manner are used in design and the cross~
no variation along the width of the section cannot be made. sectional dimensions of beams are taken so as to satisfy the
For example, at the level ae (Fig. 106), along the lower conditions
boundary of the flange, ac and de, the shearing stress Tyx and
must be zero since the corresponding equal stress Txy in the It is assumed here that the material is equally strong m
free bottom surface of the flange is zero (see p. 116 and also tension and compression and <Tw is the same for both. Other-
Fig. 104, e). In the part cd, however, the shearing stresses
are not zero, but have the magnitudes calculated above for
(rux)min in the web. This indicates that at the junction cd
of the web and the flange the distribution of shearing stresses
;f, rr
follows a more complicated law than can be investigated by
our elementary analysis. In order to dissipate a stress con-
centration at the points e and d, the sharp corners are usually
replaced by fillets as indicated in the figure by dotted lines.
A more detailed discussion of the distribution of shearing
stresses in flanges will be given later (see Part II).
Problems
Determine (r11,,)max and (r11,,)min in the cross section of the web
I.
of an I beam, Fig. 106, if b = 5 in., b1 = in., h = 12
in., h1 = 10 in., V = 30,000 lbs. Determine the
shearing force transmitted by the web Vi.
h Answer. (Tyx)max = 5,870 lbs. per sq. in., (T11z)min
= 4,430 lbs. per sq. in., Vi = 0.945 V.
2. Determine the maximum shearing stress in the
web of a T beam (Fig. 107) if h = 8 in., h1 = 7 in., Fm. 108.
b = 4 in., b1 = 1 in. and V;= 1,000 lbs.
Fm. 107. Answer. Using the sare method as in the_ case of wise the conditions of strength in tension and in compression
an I beam, we find (T11x)max = 176 lbs. per sq. m. must be satisfied separately and we obtain
3. Determine the maximum shearing stress in problems I and
6 of article 25. (ux)max < <Tw in tension; (ux)min < <Tw in compression.
122 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 123
There are cases, however, which require a more detailed I08, b), the corresponding Mohr's circle is shown in Fig. 108
analysis of stress conditions. We shall now demonstrate the (e). By taking the distance OF = ux and DF = Tyx, the
method of analysis necessary for such cases with a beam simply point D, representing stresses over the sides be and ad of
supported and loaded at the middle (Fig. rn8). For a point the element, is obtained. The distance OF is taken in the
A below the neutral axis in the cross section mn, the magni- direction of positive u and DF in the upward direction because
tudes of the stresses ux and Tyx = Txy are given by eqs. (57) ux is tensile stress and shearing stresses Tyx over sides be and
and (64). In Fig. I08 (b) those stresses are shown acting ad give a clockwise couple (see p. 38). Point Di represents
on an infinitesimal element cut out of the beam at the point A, the stresses over the sides ab and de of the element on which
their senses being easily determined from those of M and V. the normal stresses are zero and the shearing stresses are
For such an infinitesimal element the changes in stresses ux negative. The circle constructed on the diameter DDi deter-
and Tyx for various points of the element can be neglected mines umax = OA and um1n = - OB. From the same con-
and it can be assumed that the element is in a homogeneous struction the angle 2cp is determined and the direction of
state of stress, i.e., the quantities ux and Tyx may be regarded u max in Fig. I08 (b) is obtained by measuring cp from the
as the same throughout the element. Such a state of stress x axis in the clockwise direction. Of course Umin is perpen-
is illustrated by the element of finite dimensions in Fig. 37a. dicular to u max
From our previous investigation (see p. 46) we know By taking a section mini to the right of the load P (Fig.
that the stresses on the sides of an element cut out from a 108, a) and considering a point A above the neutral axis,
stressed body vary with the directions of these sides and the direction of the stresses acting on an element abcd at A
that it is possible to so rotate the element that only normal will be that indicated in Fig. I08 (d). The corresponding
stresses are present (see p. 47). The directions of the sides Mohr's circle is shown in Fig. I08 (e). Point D represents
are then called principal directions and the corresponding the stresses for the sides ab and de of the element abcd and
stresses principal stresses. The magnitudes of these stresses point Di the stresses over the sides ad and be. The angle cp
can be found from eqs. (31) and (32) by substituting in these determining the direction Umax must be measured in the clock-
equations Uy = o. Then we obtain wise direction from the outer normal to the side ab or cd as
shown in Fig. 108 (d).
_
U max -
U:,;
2 + ~( 2 U:r;
)2 + 2
T yx > (72) lf we take a point at the neutral surface, then ux becomes
zero. An element at this point will be in the condition of
_ U:,; U:,;
2
+ Tyx. pure shear. The directions of the principal stresses will be
2 -
2
U'min - (73)
~( 2 ) at 45 to the x and y axes.
lt is possible to construct two systems of orthogonal curves
lt should be noted that U'max is always tension and U'min always whose tangents at each point are in the directions of the
compression. Knowing principal stresses, the maximum
principal stresses at this point. Such curves are called the
shearing stress at any point will be obtained from eq. (34)
trajeftories of the stresses. Figure 109 shows the stress trajec-
(see p. 49):
tories for a rectangular can tilever beam, loaded a t the end.
_
Tmax -
U'max -
2
U'min _
-
~( U':r:) 2
2
+ T yx
2 All these curves intersect the neutral surface at 45 and have
horizontal or vertical tangents at points where the shearing
For determining the directions of principal stresses Mohr's stress Tyx is zero, i.e., at the top and at the bottom surfaces
circle will be used. For an element such as at point A (Fig. of the beam. The trajectories giving the directions of u max
124 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 125
(tension) are represented by foil lines and the other system from eq. (72) may be larger than the tensile stress (uz)max
of trajectories by dotted lines. Figure 110 gives the tra-
u~!' . , ,
in the most remate fiber and should be taken into account
jectories and the stress distribution diagrams for <Tz and r 11"' in design. To illustrate, consider the case represented in
over several cross sections of a simply supported rectangular Fig. 108 (a) with a beam of I :.--- __ -=--- __ _
section and the same dimen-
/.
tll~~
s1or,s as m pro bl em l, page ryx tl'max
/ /tJ'min
r
II
120, the length l = 2 feet and - --- --- -;;.:n ',{~i
Frn. 109.
., ,ccr
,:. l,
Frn. 110.
'?/-
,,1
IS'---
p = 60,000 lbs. Then Mmax
= 30,000 lbs. feet; Vmax =
30,000 lbs. From eq. (57)
__
1,
30,000 X I 2 X 6 b .
beam under uniform load. lt is clearly seen that <Tz has a (u,,)max = 286 = 7,550 1 s. per sq. m.
maximum value at the middle, where the bending moment
Mis a maximum, and r 11z is maximum at the supports, where Now far a point at the junction of flange and web we obtain
the maximum shearing force acts. 6 In the design of beams the fallowing values of normal and shearing stresses:
the concern is for the numerically maximum values of u.
= 7,550 X rn -- 6,6 10 lb s. per sq. m.,
'--"-"-"------ . .
From eq. (72) it can be seen that for the most remate fibers <Tz
12
in tension, where the shear is zero, the longitudinal normal
stress <T:r; becomes the principal stress, i.e., <Tmax = (uz)max r 11z = 4,430 lbs. per sq. in.
Far fibers nearer to the neutral axis the longitudinal fiber Then, from eq. (72), the principal stress is
stress <Tz is less than at the extreme fiber; however we now
have a shear stress r 11,, also and the stresses <Tz and r 11z acting <Tmax = 8,830 lbs. per sq. in.
together at this point may produce a principal stress, given It can be seen that O'max at the joint between the flange
by eq. (72), which will be numerically larger even than that and the web is larger than the tensile stress at the most remate
at the extreme fiber. In the case of beams of rectangular or fiber and therefore it must be considered in design. The
circular cross section, in which the shearing stress r 11z vares variationS of <T:,;, Tyx, O'max and O'min along the depth of the
continuously clown the depth of the beam, this is not usually beam are shown in Fig. 1 1 1.
the case, that is, the stress (uz)max calculated far the most
remate fiber at the section of maximum bending moment is Problems
the maximum stress acting in the beam. However, in such 1, Determine O"max and O"min at a point 2 in. below ~he neut~al
a case as an I beam, where a sudden change occurs in the axis in the section 3 feet from the loaded end of the canttlever (Ftg.
magnitude of shearing stress at the junction of flange and 109) if the depth h = S in., the width b .= 4 _in. and P = Z,O?O lbs.
web (see p. 120), the maximum stress calculated at this joint Determine the angle between O"max at this pomt and the x axis.
Solution. (u,,) = - 844 lbs. per sq. m.; (r 11,,) = 70.3 lbs. ~er
6
Several examples of construction of the trajectories of stresses are sq. in.; O"max = 5.7 lbs. per sq. in.; O'ntin = - 849.7 lbs. per sq. _m.
discussed by l. Wagner, Zeitschr. d. Osterr. Ing. u. Archit. Ver., 19II, p. The angle between umax and the x axis is 8 5 I 6' m_easure? clockwise.
615. z. Determine O"max and O"min at the neutral axis and m the cross
section I foot from the left support for the uniformly loaded
1
126 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 127
rectangular beam supported at the ends (Fig. no). The cross- is equal to 2h in this case, we obtain
sectional dimensions are the same as in the previous problem,
and q = r,ooo lbs. per foot; l = 10 feet. 3 V 3 Ve
Answer. S = eb 2 b2h = 2 2h (75)
<Tmax = - <Tmin = 187.5 lbs. per sq. in.
The dimensions of the keys and the distance e between them
3. Determine the length of the I beam considered on p. 125 if should be chosen so as to insure sufficient strength against
(ux)max is equal to <Tmax at the junction of flange and web.
Answer. l = 39.8 in. shear of the key and against crushing of the wood on the
lateral sides of the key and the keyway. In such calculations
30. Stresses in Built-up Beams.-In engineering practice the rough assumption is usually made that the shearing
built-up beams are frequently used and the stresses in them stresses are uniformly distributed over the middle section
are usually calculated on the assumption that their parts are a X b of the key and that the pressure on the lateral sides
rigidly connected. The computation will then involve (a) of the keys is uniformly distributed over the areas e X b.
the designing of the beam as a salid beam and (b) the designing Then denoting by Tw the working shearing stress for the keys,
and spacing of the elements which unite the parts of the and by uw' the working stress in lateral compression of the
beam. In the first case the formulas for salid beams are wood of the keys or the keyways, the following equations
used, making an allowance for the effect of rivet hales, bolts, for designing the keys are obtained:
slots, etc., by the use of reduced sections. The computations s_
necessary for the uniting of the elements will be indicated by ab < Tw;
illustrations.
It is necessary to insure also sufficient strength against shear-
Let us discuss first a wooden beam built up as shown in
ing of the wood of the beam along the fi bers between two
Fig. 99. I t is assumed that the keys used between the two
keys. The shearing force will be again equal to S and the
parts of the beam are strong enough to resist the shearing
resisting area is b X (e - a). Denoting with Tw' the working
forces S (Fig. 99, b). Then eq. (57) can be used for calcu-
stress in shear of the material of the beam along the fihers,
lating ux- In arder to take into account the weakening of
the condition of strength becomes
the section by the keyways and the bolt hales, only the shaded
portian of the section, indicated in Fig. 99 (e), should be s = ,
taken into consideration. Then b(e - a)< Tw
using eq. (66) and considering that the depth of the beam of Mines show that built-up wooden beams have about 75 per cent of the
strength of the solid beam of the same dimensions.
128 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES . IN LOADED BEAMS 129
In calculating the u., stresses in huilt-up I heams the flange of the heam shaded in Fig. 11_2 ~e) to slide along the
weakening effect of rivet holes is usually taken into account web. This sliding is prevented by frtct10n forces and by the
by assuming that all the holes are in the same cross section rivet A. Neglecting friction, the force acting on the rivet
(Fig. n2, a) of the heam 8 and suhtracting their diametral hecomes equal to the difference of forces acting in sections
sections in calculating lz in eq. (57). mn and m 1n 1 of the flknge. The force in the flange in the
cross section mn is (see eq. (a), p. I 13)
1f ydA,
FIG. Il2.
, Then the force transmitted by the rivet A from the flange
In calculating the maximum shearing stress it is also
T 11.,
to the web will he
the practice to take into account the weakening effect of the
S llMJ ydA.
=-y; (a)
rivet holes. It can he seen that the cross-sectional area of
the web is diminished, by holes, in the ratio (e - d)/e, where
e is the distance between the centers of the holes and d the By using eq. (50) and suhstituting the distance e hetween
diameter of the holes. Hence the factor e/(e - d) is usually the rivets instead of dx, we ohtain
included in' the right side of eq. (64) for calculating T 11., in llM = Ve,
the web of huilt-up I beams. It should be noted that this
manner of calculating the weakening effect of rivet holes is where V is the shearing force in the cross section of the heam
only a rough approximation. The actual distrihution of through the rivet A. Suhstituting in eq. (a), we obtain
stresses near the holes is very complicated. Sorne discussion
of stress concentration near the edge of a hole will he given S = Vef
I. ydA.
later (see Part II).
In calculating ,the shearing force acting on one rivet, such The integral entering in this equa.tion represents the mom:nt
as rivet A (Fig. 1 I 2, b), let us consider the two cross sections of the shaded cross section (Fig. II2, e) of the flange w1th
mn and m1n1. Due to the difference of hending moments in respect to the neutral axis z.
these two cross sections the normal stresses u., on sections It is easy to see that in order to get sliding of the flange
mn and m 1n1 will he different and there is a tendency-for the along fhe web the rivet must he she~red. through :w~
sections. Assuming that the force S 1s umformly d1str1buted
~ross
8
The holes in vertical web are present in sections where vertical
stiffeners are riveted to the girder. over these two cross sections, the shearing stress in the rivet
130 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESSES IN LOADED BEAMS 131
will be Problems
T
S2Ve
= --:;;p. = 1rd2]
Jydd. (77) 1. A huilt-up wooden beam (Fig. 99) consists of two bars of
rectangular cross section connected by keys. Determine the
2-
4 shearing force acting on the keys, the shearing stress in the key and
pressure per unit area on its lateral sides if the load P = 5,000 lbs.,
The force S sometimes produces considerable shearing stress
the width of the beam b = 5 in., the depth 2h = 16 in., the width
in the web of the beam along the plane ab (see Fig. I 12, b) of the key a = 3 in., the depth of the key 2c = 2 in., and the
which must be taken into consideration. Assuming that these distance between centers of the keys e = II in.
stresses are uniformly distributed and dividing S by the area Answer.
b1(e - d), we obtain 3 2,500 X 11
S = 2- ~ -16- - =
T
, V e
= bil. e - d
J d
Y A. (b) .h-
Shearing stress in the key is
2
,
580 lbs.
- 3 X
u,, - ~ - - - -
106 X 2 I. S --
3,160 lbs. per sq. m.,
.
20,400
~2 + '\J/u,,4 + Tz112 =
2
O"max = 6,160 lbs. per sq. in.
shall not exceed a certain small portion of the span. the bars indicating that we consider here only the numerical
o value of the curvature. Regarding the sign, it should be
noted that the bending moment is taken positive in equation
(a) if it produces upward concavity (see p. 71). Hence the
curvature is positive when the center of curvature is above
the curve as in Fig. II4. However, it is easy to see that for
such a curva ture the angle 0 decreases as the poin t m moves
along the curve from A to B. Hence, to a positive increment
ds corresponds a negative d0. Thus to have the proper sign
equation (b) must be written in the form
FIG. 114. I d0
r= - ds. (e)
Let the curve AmB in Fig. 114 represent the shape of the
axis of the beam after bending. This curve is called the In practica! applications only very small deflections of beams
deflection curve. To derive the differential equation of this are allowable, and the deflection curves are very flat. In
curve we take the coordinate axes as shown in the figure and such cases we can assume with sufficient accuracy that
assume that the curvature of the deflection curve at any point ds ~ dx and 0 ~ tan 0 = dy/dx. (d)
depends only on the magnitude of the bending moment M
at that point. 1 In such a case the relation between the curva- Substituting these approximate values for ds and 0 in equation
ture and the moment is the same as in the case of pure bending (e) we obtain
(see equation (56)), and we obtain (e)
l M
r =El. (a) Equation (a) thus becomes
1 The effect of shearing force on the curvature will be discussed later
J2y
(see art. 39). I t will be shown that this effect is usually small and can El. dx2 = - M.
be neglected.
134
1 , ,'
1
- =
r
El z :fx = - q~ + qt +
2
C (a)
1 (e)
The exact expression (f) for the curvature was used by the first
2
investigators of the deflection curves. It was used, for example, by The new constant of integration C1 is determined from the
L. Euler in his famous work on "Elastic Curves," an English translation
of which was published in "Isis," No. 58 (vol. XX, 1) November, 1933. condition that the deflection at the supports is zero.. Sub-
138 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 139
stituting y = o and x = o into equation (e) we find C1 = o.
Equation (e) then becomes The second integration gives
The maximum slope occurs at the left end of the beam where, Substituting this value in equation (b), we find
by substituting x = o in equation
(b), we obtain y = _q_ (x4 - 4/3x
24El.
+ 3/4).
(83) This equation defines the deflection curve of the uniformly
loaded can tilever.
In the case of a uniformly lf the left end, instead of the right end, is built in, as in
loaded cantilever beam, Fig. I I 5a, Fig. 115b, the deflection curve is evidently obtained by suh-
;e
the bending moment at a cross stituting l - x instead of x in equation (84). In this way
(b} section mn a distance x from the we find
left end is
y qx2 y
Fm. n5.
M= - -2 ,
El/ = qt + C. (a)
2. Find the depth of a uniformly loaded and simply supported
steel I beam having aspan of 10 ft., if the maximum bending stress
is 16,000 lbs. per sq. in. and the maximum deflection o = 0.1 in.
The constant of integration is found from the condition that Answer: h = I 6 in.
the slope at the built-in end is zero, that is dy/dx = o for 3. A uniformly loaded cantilever beam of ~ span .l = IO ft.
has a deflection at the end equal to 0.01/. What 1s the slope of the
x = l. Substituting these values in equation (a) we find deflection curve at the end?
ql 4. What is the length of a uniformly loaded cantilever bea~ if
C=-7; its deflection at the free end is I in. and the slope of the deflect10n
curve at the same point is 0.01?
-
140 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 141
'
.
5 _A uniformly_ loaded steel I beam supported at the ends has a By integrating these equations we obtain
~eflect10n at the m1ddle of = 5/ 16 in. while the slope of the deflec- J
t1on _curve at th~ end 0 = ?-Ol. Find the depth h of the beam if the
max1mu~ bendmg stress 1s u = 18,000 lbs. per sq. in. El dy = - Pbx2 +C for x~a
Solutton: dx 2/
We use the known formulas and (a)
=--,
5 q/4 q/2 h El, ddyx = - Pbx2 + P(x - a)2 +C 1 for X> a.
384 El <Tmax =g X zJ , ~.
2/ 2
. J
From the first two formulas we find Since the two branches of the deflection curve must have a
common tangent at the point of application of the load P,
j_ 5 . the above expressions (a) for the slope must be equal for
r6 l = 0 = 16 X room. and /= 100 in.
x = a. From this we conclude that the constants of in-
The second formula then gives tegration are equal, i.e., C = C1 Performing the second
integration and substituting C for C1, we obtain
2
ql _ 3E0 3 X 30 X 106 X o.ar
81 - -- = Pbx 3
roo El,y = - 6/ + Cx + C2 for x~a
Substituting this in the third formula, we obtain and (b)
h = 2 X 18,000 X 100
El zJ = _ Pbx
6/
3
+ P(x 6- a)
3
+ CX+ C
3 for x ~ a.
3 X 30 X 106 X o.or = 4 m.
33 Defl.ection of a Simply Supported Beam Loaded with Since the two branches of the deflection curve have a common
a Concentrated Load.-ln this case there are two different deflection at the point of application of the load, the two
p expressions for the bend- expressions (b) must be identical for x = a. From this it
A,t;:-----~-m:_-_-_-_. . b_~B~
i.____
%
ing moment (see p. 75)
corresponding to the two
follows that C2 = C3. Finally we need to qetermine only two
constants C and C2, for which determination we have two
n conditions, namely that the deflection at each of the two ends
t-------1------J portions of the beam, Fig.
of the beam is zero. Substituting x = o and y = o in the
y II6. Equation (79) for
first of expressions (b), we find
Fm. 116. the deflection curve'-must
therefore be written for (e)
each portian. In this way we obtain
Substituting y =o and x = l in the second of expressions
d2y Pb (b) we obtain
El, dx2 = - T x for X< a
Pbl Pb3 Pb(/2 - b2)
and e= T-6T = 61 (d)
d2y Pb
El, dx2 = - T x + P(x - a) for X~ a. Substituting the values (e) and (d) of the constants into
equations (b) for the deflection curve, we obtain
142 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 143
Pbx
El.y = 6[ (12 _ b2 _ x2) for from which
x~a (86)
and X= (J)
Pbx
El ,y = 6/ (12 - b2 - x2) + P(x 6- a
)3
ar
, X ~ a. (87) This is the distance from the left support to the point of
maximum deflection. To find the maximum deflection itself
The. first of these equations gives the deflections for the Ieft we substitute expression (J) in equation (86), which gives
port1?n of th~ beam and the second gives the deflctions for
the nght portian. Pb(l2 _ b2)312
Ymax = 9~3/EJ, (g)
Substituting the value (d) into equations (a) we obtain
dy Pb If the load P is applied at the middle of the span the
El z dx = 6/ (/2 - b2 - 3x2) for x ~ a maximum deflection is evidently at the middle also. Its
and magnitude is obtained by substituting b = l/2 in equation (g),
(e)
dy Pb P(x _ a)2 which gives
El z dx = 6/ (12 - b2 - 3x2) + 2 far x ~ a. pa
(y)x=112 = 48EI .
a=b z
From these equations the slope at any point of the deflection
curve can readily be calculated. Often we need the values of From equation (J) it can be concluded that in the case of
the slopes at the_ ends of the beam. Substituting x = 0 in one concentrated force the maximum deflection is always near
the first of equat1ons (e), x = l in the second, and denoting the middle of the beam. When b = l/2 it is at the middle;
the slopes at the corresponding ends by 01 and 02 we obtain 3 in the limiting case, when b is very small and P is at the
support, the distance x as given by equation (/) is // ../3, and
81 = (dy) _ Pb(/2 - b2)
dx x=o - 6/El, ' (88) the point of maximum deflection is only a distance
l l
82 =(dy) =-Pab(l+a)_ ../3 - 2 = 0.077/
dx x=l 6/El,
The maximum deflection occurs at the point where the from the middle. Dueto this fact the deflection at the middle
~ang~nt to the deflection curve is horizontal. If a > b as is a close approximation to the maximum deflection. To
in F_1g. 116, the maximum deflection is evidently in the left obtain the deflection at the middle we substitute x = l/2 in
port10n o_f the beam. We can find the position of this point
by equatmg the first of the expressions (e) to zero to obtain
i
f
equation (86), which gives
Pb
2 - b2 - 3x2 = o, (y)x-112 = EI (3/2 - 4b2).
a>b 48 z
3
For flat curves? which we have in most cases, the slopes 01 and 01
can be taken ~umer1cal!y equal to the angles of rotation of the ends of The difference of the deflections (g) and (91) in the most
the ~ea1:1 durrng_ bendrng, the slopes being taken positive when the unfavorable case, that is when b approaches zero, is only about
rotat1on 1s clockw1se. ,
2.5 per cent of the maximum deflection. '
144 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 145
Problems diagram. Two adjacent cross sections of the beam at dis-
I. Fin~ the position of the load P, Fig. n6, if the ratio of tance ds apart will intersect after bending, at an angle do,
the numencal values of the slopes at the ends of the bea and, from eq. (56),
l 81/02 I = , m IS I M
_Find the diti:erence between the maximum deflection and the
2. do= -ds = -ds.
r EJ.
deflect10? at the m1~dle of the beam in Fig. n6 if b = 2a.
. 3 ~md the m~x1mum deflection of the beam shown in Fig. 116 Far beams used in structures, the curvature 1s very small,
1f A_B 1_s an Amen~an Standard I beam, 8 in. in depth and 5. and we may use dx for ds. Then
34
sq. m. m cross-sect10nal area, and a = 12 ft., b = 8 ft., and p =
2000 lbs. I
do = EJ. (Mdx). (a)
4: What will be the maximum deflection if the I beam of the
pre"."10us p_roblem is_ replaced by a wooden beam having a cross
sectwn lo m. by lo m. The modulus of elasticity for wood can be Graphically interpreted, this means that the elemental angle
taken as E = 1.5 X 106 lbs. pr sq. in. dO between two consecutive radii or two consecutive tangents
l to the deflection curve equals the shaded elemental area Mdx
34 Determination of Deflections by the use of the Bend- of the bending moment diagram, divided by the flexura!
ing Moment Diagram; Method of Superposition.-In the pre- rigidity. 5 This being so for each element, the angle O between
ceding articles it was shown the tangents at A and B will be obtained by summar121ng
how the deflection curve of a such elements as given by eq. (a). Then
beam can be determined by
i
B
integration of the differential O= A EJ. Mdx,
equation (79). In many cases,
1 however, especially if we need that is, the angle between the tangents at two points A and B
1 1
ldxl
f- -f- X
_,I the deflection in a prescribed
point rather than the gen-
of the deflection curve equals the are a of the bending momen t
diagram between the corresponding verticals, divided by the
1 1 1
1 1 1 eral equation of the deflection flexural rigidity of the beam.
1 1
61 curve, the calculation can be Let us consider now the distance of the point B from the
considerably simplified by the tangent AB' at point A. Recalling that a deflection curve is a
use of the bending moment flat curve, the above distance can be measured along the
l vertical BB'. The contribution made to this distance by the
Fm. 117. diagram as will be described in
the following discussion. 4 bending of an element mn of the beam and included between
In Fig. I 17 AB represents a portian of a deflection curve the two consecutive tangents at m and n is equal to
and a/J the corresponding portian of the bending moment Mdx
4 xdO = x - -
The use of the bending moment diagram in calculating deflections EJ.
of be~ms was ?eveloped by O. Mohr, see Zeitschr. d. Architekten und )
Ingemeur-Verems zu Hannover, p. 10, 1868. See also O. Mohr, Abhand- lnterpreted graphically this is 1/EJ. (moment of shaded area
lun~e~ aus dem Gebiete der Technischen Mechanik, p. 294, Berlin, 190 6. 1 Mdx with respect to the vertical through B). lntegration
A similar me~hod _was developed independently of O. Mohr by Prof. C. 5 By way of dimensional check: d8 is in radians, i.e., a pure number,
E. Green, Umvers1ty of Michigan, 1874.
Mdx in inch lbs. X inches, El, in lbs. per sq. in. X (inches) 4
146 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 147
gives the total deflection BB':
ously acting loads can be obtained by summing up the de-
-,
BB = = LB -xMdx I flections produced at that point by the individual loads. For
A Elz ' example, if the deflection curve produced by a single load
that is, the distance of B from the tangent at d is equal to (equations (86) and (87)) is known, the deflection produced
the moment with respect to the vertical through B of the area by several loads is obtained by simple summation. This
of the bendin~ 1?-~ment diagram between d and B, divided by method of calculating deflections will be called the meihod
the flexural ng1d1ty El.. By using eqs. (92) and (93) the of superposition in the subsequent discussion.
slope of the ~deflection curve and the magni tude of deflec- The calculation of the integrals in equations (92) and (93)
tio? at any cross section of the beam can easily be calculated. can often be simplified by the se of known formulas concern-
Th1s method of calculating deflections is called drea-Moment ing areas and centroids. Several formulas which are often
Method. encountered in applications are given in Fig. l'I 8.
35. Deflection of a Cantilever Beam by the Area-Moment
Method.-For the j::ase of a can ti- \
~1
bending momen t diagram is shown
B
in Fig. II9 (b). Since a tangent a 6
Paraba/a at the built-in end d remains fixed,
A"a '-111
the distances of points of the de- PZ
h flection curve from this tangent
(b)
---=::J...L-1...L.1...J..l are actual deflections. The angle 0b
which the tangent to the deflection
~ _ ____,f- F1c. 119.
curve at B makes with the tangent
Cv61c Para6ola
Ar,a ~lh at d is called the angular dejlection of B with respect to d.
FIG. 118. Then from eq. (92) 6
I t s_hould be noted that the deflection of a beam oLa given / I p2
flexu~al rigidity (se_e equation (93)) is entirely defined by the eb = p l X 2X El z = 2El z
0 = dy = p2
dx 2El.
[ I - (/ -
/2
x)2]. The slope a: any cross section a
distance x from the support 1s,
from eq. (92),
The deflectiony at the same cross section is the moment of the
area m'n'aa1 about m'n' divided by El. (see eq. 93). Separat-
ing this area into the rectangle and the triangle indicated in o=
dy I
d-X = El z
ix
o
q(/ -
2
X1)2 d
X1
g ..-'l.._ _ ___.,,,d.!--1_
Pc
y x-ic-----l
{b)
__..._J';;"-:--+--x plication of the load are deter-
I mined from eqs. (96) and (97)
with e in place of /. For any
cross section to the right of the
divided by El. (Fig. 121, b). The moment of the element of
this area, shown shaded, is
q(/ - X1)2 d
FIG. 120. (X - X ) X
load the bending moment and 2
the curvature are zero; hence this portion of the beam re-
and the total moment is the integral of this with respect to X1
mains straight. The slope is constant and equal to the slope .
at D, i.e., from eq. (94), Pc 2/2El,. The deflection at any from x 1 = o to x1 = x. Hence
cross section mn is the moment of the area of the triangle aa1d
about the vertical m'n' divided by El., which gives y = - I -q
El. 2
ix
0
(x - x1) (l - x1) 2dx1.
y = _1_ Pc2 ( x - .!_ e ) . The deflection at any point a distance x from the support is
El. 2 3 then, after integration,
In the case of a cantilever with a uniform load of intensity
q (Fig. 121, a) the bending moment at any cross section (101)
150 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 151
For the deflection at the end x = l, Solution.
q/4 P/3 q/4
= - +SEI,
-
8 = (y).,=1 = 8EI. (102) 3EI,
2. Determine the deflection of the top of the pillar represented
The same problem can be solved by using the method
in Fig. 94.
of superposition. The uniform load can be considered as a Solution. The bending moment at any cross section mn, a
system of infinitesimal loads qdc as indicated by the shaded distance x from the top, is
area in Fig. 122. The deflection Wx 3
---z produced at the cross section mn M= 3/2 '
by each elemental load qdc to i ts
left can be found from eq. (98) by where W = d/2 X 62.4 lbs. is the total hydrostatic pressure trans-
mitted to one pillar. Using eq. (93), the deflection of the top of
substituting qdc for P. The de-
the pillar is
y flection Yi produced by the total
Fm. 122 load to the left of mn is the sum- 5 = W .[' x4dx = W/3 = 3X62X62.4X6X i2X 12 = o.o o
7
in.
mation of the deflections produced El, 0 3/2 15EI, 2X15X1.5X106 X9"94
by all such elemental loads with e varying from e = o to 3. Determine the deflection and the slope at the end of a canti-
e= x: lever bent by a couple M (Fig. 123).
1 i"'qc2 1 q x4 Answer.
Yi = El -(x
2 - 3 c)dc = El-
z o 2 4
The deflection produced at the cross section mn by an ele-
,
mental load qdc1 to its right is found from eq. (97) by
substituting qdc1 for P and C1 for l. The deflectiony 2 produced -
at mn by the total load to the right is the summation of the T '-
deflections due to all such elemental load, with c 1 varying l
y
from ci = x to c1 = l:
Y2
1
= El.
z
1
q
(cix2
2 -
x3) q (
6 dci = 2EJ. -
x4
6 +2 x2!2
-
x3)
3 .
Fm. 123. Fm.
(Fig. 124) are bent by tightening the bolt at the right end. Deter-
Then the total deflection at the section mn is mine the diameter d of the bolt to make the factors of safety for
2 4 the wooden beams and for the steel bolt the same. The length of
q (l2x lx3
y = Yi + Y = 2El.
2
2 - 3 + x12 )
' the beams l = 3 feet, the depth h = 8 in., the width b = 6 in.,
working stress for steel <Fw = 12,000 lbs. per sq. in., for wood
which agrees with eq. (101) found above. <Fw = 1,200 lbs. per sq. in. Determine the deflection of the beams
when the tensile stress in the bolt is 12,000 lbs. per sq. in.
Solution. If P is the force in the bolt, the equation for deter-
Problems mining the diameter d will be
1. Determine the deflection and the slope of the cantilever 4P 6Pl 12,000
beam in problem 9, p. 108. 1rd2: bh 2 = 1,200 = 1
152 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 153
from which 1/ R. Therefore
1rd2
d = 0.476 in. and P = 12,000 X - = 2,130 lbs.
4
from which
Then from eq. (95), by taking E = 1.5 X I06 lbs. per sq. in. the 2EJ, .
deflection = 0.0864 in. l = ~ - - = 1/3 m.
qR
5. What is the ratio of the deflections at the ends of the canti-
levers shown in Fig. 125 if the intensity of uniform load is the same The maximum stress is determined from the equation O"max =
in both cases? Eh/2R = 50,000 lbs. per sq. in. .
Answer. 7 : 41. 9. Determine the deflections of the cantilever beams shown in
Fig. 68, assuming that the material is steel, the depth of each
beam is 10 in., and the maximum bending stress is 16,000 lbs.
per sq. in.
~.,
36. Deflection of a Simply Supported Beam by the Area-
1 ~1"~Fm. 125.
A ~~.....,02~-----=---B
~1 ,;=
Fm. 126.
IC
Moment Method.-Let us consider the case of a simply
supported beam with a load P applied at point F, Fig.
128. The bending moment diagram is the triangle a1bif1,
l--------f
6. What must be the equation of the axis of the curved bar AB
before it is bent if the load P, moving along the bar, remains always
on the same level (Fig. 126)?
Answer.
Px3
y= - 3EI
- .
By using this value the slope 01 at the left end of the beam dy I )
is found to be dx = 01 - 0 = EJ. (R - .6.a1mn
Pab(l + b) The first term in the parenthesis is the reaction at the left
(a)
6/EI. support of the conjugate beam a1b1 and the second is ~he load
which coincides with previously obtained formula (88). 7 A on the conjugate beam to the left of the cross sect10n mn .
simple interpretation of the formula (a) is obtained if we The expression in the parenthesis therefore represents the
consider a1b1 as a simply supported beam, carrying the tri- shearing force at the cross section mn of the conjugate beam.
angular load represented by the triangle aif1b1. The reaction Consequently the slope of the actual beam at a point d can
at the left support a1 of this imaginary beam is evidently be obtained by dividing the shearing force at the correspond-
ing cross section of the conjugate beam by the flexural
R = Pab X ! +bX _!_ = Pab(! + b) rigidity El,.
2 3 l u Considering next the deflection y at a point d, it may be
By comparing this with formula (a), it can be concluded that seen from Fig. I 28 that
the slope 01 is equal to the reaction at the corresponding (b)
support of the imaginary beam divided by the flexural rigidity y = ce - de.
of the real beam. The slope 02 at the right end of the beam From the triangle Ace we obtain the relation
can be obtained in a similar way; to get the correct sign for
Rx
02 the reaction at the right end must be taken wth minus sign, ce = 01x = El z (c)
which represents the shearing force at the right end of the
imaginary beam. The imaginary beam a1b1 which carries the where R is the reaction at the left support of the conjugate
fictitious load represented by the area of the bending moment beam. The second term on the right side of equation (b)
diagram is called a conjugate beam. lt can thus be concluded represents the distance of the point d of the deflection curve
that the numerical values of the slopes at the ends of a simply from the tangent Ae and is obtained from equation (93) as
supported beam can be obtained by dividing the reacti~ns at
the ends of the conjugate beam by the flexural rigidity EJ . de = E~ z area .6.a1mn X ~ (d)
This conclusion, which was derived for the case of a single
Substituting expressions (c) and (d) in equation (b), we obtain
load, holds for any transverse loading, since, as has been
shown (p. 146) the moments and the deflections in the case 1 (e)
y = - - ( Rx - .6.a1mn X -:'.)
of several loads can be obtained by the superposition of the Elz 3
moments and deflections due to single loads. The expression in paren thesis is seen to be the bending momen t
To calculate the slope at any point d of the deflection at the cross section mn of the conjugate beam. Thus the
curve, Fig. I 28, it is necessary to subtract the angle 0 between deflection at any point of a simply supported beam is obtained
the tangents at A and at d from the angle 01 at the support.
by dividing the bending moment at the correspo_n~i?g cross
Using equation (92) for the calculation of the angle 0, we section of the conjugate beam by the flexural r1g1d1ty EJ
obtain Substituting the actual value of R in equation (e) and noting
7 Note that a = / - b.
that
156 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS iJ DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 157
Pbx 2
area ~a1mn = , The deflection at the middle is obtained from equation (91),
21 which was derived on the assumption that the load is to the
we obtain
right of the middle. Any element of load qdb to the right of
I [Pabx(l + b) Pbx] Pbx the middle produces at the middle a deflection
y = El 61 - 7; = 6/El (12 - b2 - x2).
This checks with equation (86), which was previously ob- El. (3 /2 - 4b2)
(dy),,=112 = q6db
48
tained by integration of the differential equation of the de-
Summing up the deflections produced by all such elements of
flection curve. The deflection for a point to the right of the
load to the right of the middle, and noting that the load on
load P can be calculated in a similar manner. The result
will, of course, be the same as equation (87). the left half of the beam produces the same deflection at the
middle as the load on the right half, we obtain for the total
Having the deflection curve produced by a single load P,
deflection
the deflection curve produced by any system of transverse
concentrated loads can readily be obtained by employing the
= (y)x=l/2 = 2 Jo
t'2 48El
qbdb
z
2 2 - _5_ q/4 .
(3! - 4b) - 384 El, (g)
method of superposition. lt is simply necessary to use
equations (86) and (87) for each individual load. The results (J) and (g) coincide with formulas (83) and (82)
db-, r- IJ--, The same method is also
applicable to the case of a dis-
previously obtained by integration of the differential equation
of the deflection curve.
tributed load. As an example The same results are readily obtained by considering the
we shall take the case of a conjugate beam ab, Fig. 129b, loaded by the parabolic segment
e simply supported beam under acb, which is the bending moment diagram in this case. The
a uniformly distributed load, total fictitious load on the conjugate beam is
Fig. I 29, and calcula te the 2 q/2
slopes at the ends and the de- - X - X l
flection at the middle. From 3 8 '
(6) equation (a) the increment of and each reaction is equal to q/3/24. The slope (J) is then
Frn. 129. slope d01 produced at the left obtained by dividing this reaction by El.. To calculate the
end of the beam by the ele- deflection at the middle we find the bending moment at the
ment of load qdb shown in the Fig. 129 is middle d of the conjugate beam, which is
J(J
1
_ qabdb(l + b) _ qb(/2 - b2 )db q/3 ( { - 3! ) = 5ql
4
UI - 6/El. - 6/El. .. 24 2 16 384
The slope 01 produced by the total load is then the summation The defl.ection (g) is then obtained by dividing this moment
of the increments of slope produced by all the elements qdb by El
from b = o to b = l. Thus -
Z
especially useful if the distributed Fw. .
qb(/2 b2 )db q/3
l - 130
81 (J) load covers only a part of the span
= o 6/El. = 24El, .
as in Fig. 130. Using the expression developed above for
158 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
';:
'
,~.
1
DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS
1
Y= E~z(~ x - ~ -;: ~) = ::J;,(1 -;:).
159
(105)
112
ch = i a
qbdb
48EI. (3/2 - 4b2). Problems
The load to the left of the middle produces the deflection 1. Determine the angles at the ends and the deflection under
112 the loads and at the middle of the beam
2 =
I
e
qbdb
- - (3/2 - 4b2).
48EJ,
shown in Fig. 132.
Solution. The conjugate beam will
be loaded by the trapezoid adeb, the area
The total deflection at the middle is therefore of which is Pe(! - e). The angles at the
= 1 + 2 =
a
112
qbdb
48EI, (3/2 - 4b2) + f
e
112
bdb
4~EI z (312 - 4b2).
ends are
81 = 82 = El,
I Pe(! - e)
2 F10. 132.
In the case of a simply supported beam A.B with a couple The deflection under the loads is
M acting at the end, Fig.
2 2 2
131, the bending moment _ _ I_[Pe (1- e)_ Pe _ ~] = Pe (~ _~e).
(J)x=c - El, 2 2 J El, 2 3
diagram is a triangle abd,
as shown in Fig. 13 rb. The deflection at the middle, from eq. (91), is
Considering ab as the
Pe
conjugate beam, the total (y).,=112 = 24El, (3/2 - 4C2).
fictitious load is Ml/2.
The reactions at the 2.Determine the slope at the ends of the beam shown in Fig. 88.
ends of the conjugate Answer.
beam are thus Ml/6 and dy ) _ _J_ Wl2 . dy ) _ _ __i_ W/2 .
FIG. 131. Ml/3. Hence the numer- ( dx x=O - 180El,' ( dx x=l - 180El,
ical values of the slopes
at the ends of the actual beam are 3. Determine the deflection at the middle of the beam AB,
shown in Fig. 133, when l.= 91.4 in.4, q =
Ml 500 lbs. per foot, l = 24 feet, a = 12 feet,
81 = 6EJ. (103) b = 8 feet. E= 30 X 106 lbs. per sq. in.
and Solution. Due to the fact that a
= l/2 the deflection produced at the
82 = -Ml
-. (104) Fm. 133. middle by the load acting on the left
3EI. half of the beam, from eq. (82), is
The sign of the slope at the right end is of course negative.
I 5 q/4
The deflection at a cross section mn of the beam is obtained (yi)x-112 = ;: 384 El, .
by dividing the bending moment at the corresponding cross
section m1n1 of the conjugate beam by El., which gives The deflection produced at the middle by the load on the right
DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 161
160 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
(y 2 )"'= 112
- r qede
- )
2 2 - 25 q/4
48El, (3I - 4e) - 48 X 162 X El,.
01 =
Pe/
82 =-El
24 z
0
If a > l/,{j the angle 82 changes its sign. The bending moment at
The total deflection is the cross section m1n1 of the conjugate beam is
(y)z=l/2= (y1)z=l/2+(y2)z=l/2 = (; ~
3 4 48
+
; 162 ) l~z
= 1.02 in,
A1x -
Pea2x x
21 ~ 3=
2
Pex [
z/2
(
2 b
a)
+ 3 - 3b 2 ]
-
Pex
6l .
3
Solution. Both planks have the same deflection curves and illustration, we consider the bending of a beam wi th an overhang
curvature; hence their bending moments are in the same ratio as under the action of a uni-
the moments of inertia of their cross sections, i.e., in the ratio formly distributed load q (Fig. "] 1111 i!~1\31fRU~~ IJlIBJ e
h13 : hi. The section moduli are in the ratio h 12 : h 22 ; hence the
maximum stresses are in the ratio h1 : h2 139). The beam is divided r 1 \ -t
into the parts AB and BC and
the action of the overhang on
the portian of the beam be-
f
1
[f
(o)
!!!!1!!111111 I I I I I
{b) f",,. fil'
~?
tween the supports is replaced Y 1(
formly distributed pressure along the length of the rigid plane rectly transmitted to the sup-
surface MN. Determine the forces P necessary to straighten the port and that only the couple qa2 ~2 need be considered. The_n
bar and the maximum stress produced in it if / = .20 in., = 0.1 in., the defl.ection at any cross section between the supports 1s
and the cross section of the bar is a square having I in. sides. obtained by subtracting the defl.ection produced ~y the couple
Solution. To obtain a uniformly distributed pressure, the qa2/2 from the defl.ections produced by the umf?rm load q
initial curvature of the bar must be the same as the deflection curve
(Fig. 139, b). Using eqs. (81) and (105), we obtam
of a simply supported beam carrying a uniformly distributed load
2
of intensity 2P/l. Then we obtain 2
qa lx ( x )
Y = _q_
2 EJ.
(!3x - 2lx3 + x4) - -El
12
1 - 2
2Pl2 PI 4
Mmax = / S=
4, (a)
The angle of rotation of the cross section at B_ is ?btained_by
2
= _s_ X P X !_ using eqs. (83) and (104), from which, by cons1dermg rotat1on
(b)
384 / El, positive when in the clockwise direction, we have
The maximum stress will be qa2/ q/3
Mmax P/h 82 = 6EI. - 24EI.
<Fmax = -- = - (e)
Z 81.
Now from (b) and (e) The defl.ection at any cross section of the overhang (Fig. 139,
e) is now obtained by superposing the defl.ection of a cantilever
24 X 30 X Ia6 X 0.1 X 1 .
2 = 36,000 lbs. per sq. m. (eq. 101) on the defl.ection
5X 20
qa2l q/3 )
and from (e) 82 X = ( 6EI. - 24EI. x
P = 1,200 lbs.
due to the rotation of the cross section B.
37. Deflectionof Beams with Overhangs.-A beam with an
overhang can be divided into two parts: the one between the Problems
supports which is to be treated as a beam with supported ends 1 . Determine the deflection and the slope at the end C of the
and the overhang which is to be treated as a cantilever: Asan beam shown in Fig. 141a.
164 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 165
Answer. Deflection = Pa
2
~ + a) SIope -_ Pa(2l + 3a) at which (1) the deflection at the middle is equal to the deflection at
3 I. ' 6EI, either end, (2) the deflection at the middle has its maximum value.
Answer. (1) x = 0.152/; (2) x = l/6.
2. For the beam shown in Fig. 140 determine the deflection at
the end C and also that at the midpoint between the supports.
__:-
P,~j/_9,
e ' e ", t:P
"-~ J;C- ~_e
/j
_
~ll
. "i
beam between the supports
will be in the condition of a
Solution. That part of the l z .r~!j
FIG. 143.
-'
length of _ove,hangs to make the nu~e<-
1cal max1mum value of the bendmg -
moment as small as possible. Determine
the deflection at the middle for this
"
---- --
Fm. 144.
-
"
condition.
bent in one case by the force P at :::jP 1- e Solution. Making the numerical values of the b~nding mo-
the end (Fig. 141, a), and in another As - % ments at the middle and at the supports equal we obtam
case b_y the same force applied at i----1
the m1ddle of the span (Fig. 141, (/J) X= 0.207/.
b). P=ove ~hat the deflection at F10. 1 1.
4 The deflection at the middle is determined from the equation
the pomt D 1~ the first case is equal
to the deflect10n at the end C in the second case. 5 q(l - 2x) 4 qx2 (l - 2x) 2
0
Answer. In each case the deflection is = 384 . El. 16EI.
Pl2a in which the first term on the right side represents the deflection pro-
duced by the load between the support (eq. 82) and the second,
,16EI.
the deflection produced by the load on the overhangs (eq. I05).
7. Determine the deflections at the ends of the overhangs for
4 A beam of length l with t~o equar overhangs is loaded by the beams represented in Fig. 74 a, b, c. Assume a standard I
two equal forces P at the ends (F1g. 142). Determine the ratio x/1 beam of 8 in. depth and 5.97 sq. in. area. E = 30 X I06 lbs.
per sq. in.
166 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 167
38. The Deflection of Beams When the Loads Are Not
t
Parallel to One of the Two Principal Planes of Bending.-
@.?.:t-~=--==-_=~-fm~_z-_=:-_=~~j-l..
Let us consider first a simple ex-
ample of a cantilever, whose cross
~--+=----~ x z _ h section has two axes of symmetry
"' ~ (Fig. 145). The load P at the end
This is an axis through the centroid of the cross section making
an angle {3 with the z axis (see Fig. 146) such that, from eq. (b),
y
tan {3 = - -
z
= I.
tan a - .
1y
lt will be seen that, in general, tan {3 is
(e)
h
P p Y is perpendicular to the axis of the
Fm. 145. beam and makes an angle a with not equal to tan a; hence the neutral '
. the principal axis y of the cross axis nn is not perpendicular to the plane
sect1on. In calculating the stresses and deflections of the of the bending forces and the plane of
b~am the method of superposition will be used. The load p the deflection curve, which is perpen- Bt--...-;..-......---<,..___._
'"'.111 b~ resolved into two components Pcosa and Psina in the dicular to nn, does not coincide with
d1rect1?ns of the two principal axes of the cross section. The the plane of the bending forces. These FIG. 146
defle~tlon produ~ed by each of these components can easily be two planes coincide only when tan a
obtamed by usmg the theory of bending in the plane of = o or oo or I. = !y. In the first two cases the plane of the
symmetr_y: Then the resultant deflection is obtained by bending forces coincides with one of the principal planes of
superpos1t1~n. The absolute values of the two components bending. In the last case the ellipse of inertia becomes a
of the bendmg moment at any cross section mn of the canti- circle since the two principal moments of inertia are equal and
lever P .are Mz = P cos a(l - x) about the z axis, an d M Y any two perpendicular directions may be taken as the two
= sm a(l - x) about the y axis. From the directions of principal axes of the cross section. When 1,/ly is a large
the two components and of the axes y and z, it will be seen number, i.e., when the rigidity of the beam in the xy plane is
tha_t _the moment Mz produces compression in points with a much larger than that in the xz plane, tan/3 becomes large in
pos~t~ve Y and MY produces compression in points with a comparison with tana and when angle a is small, angle {3
positive ~- Then :he normal stress <1'x at any point of the will approach 90 and the neutral axis will approach the
cross section (y, z) Is obtained by adding together the stresses vertical axis. The deflection will be principally in the xz
produ_ced by M, and M-v separately. We thus arrive at the plane, i.e., there is a tendency to deflect in the plane of greatest
equat1on:
flexibility. This can be demonstrated in a very simple
<Tx = _ P cos a(l - x)y P sin a(l _ x)z manner on a thin rule. The slightest deviation of the bending
I. - Iy force from the plane of greatest rigidity results in a bending in
= _ P(l _ x) [y cosa+
I.
z sin].
ly
(a)
the perpendicular direction. This can be shown also by
resolving the force P (Fig. 145) into two components and
The neutral axis is found by taking points with such coordi- calculating deflections produced by each component. If the
nates that_ the expression in brackets in eq. (a) equals zero. flexural rigidity of the cantilever in the horizontal plane is
The equat10n of the neutral axis is therefore very small in comparison with the rigidity in vertical plane, a
small horizontal component may produce a much greater
y cosa z sin a
I +--=o.
ly (b)
horizontal deflection than the deflection in the vertical plane;
hence the resultant deflection will be principally in the plane of
168 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 169
P/( h ~~:a+ b :t )
q
Solution. The max1mum bendmg moment w1ll be at
(trz)max = (d) Fro. 148. t h e m1"ddl e
The compressive stresses at the point B will have the same M max = q/2 = 200 X ia2 = 2 500 lbs. feet = 30,000 lbs. ins.
8 8 >
magnitude. The method developed above for the case of a
The components of the bending moment in the prin~ipal planes are
cantilever with two planes of symmetry and loaded at the end
M. = Mmax cosa= 30,000 X 0.949 = 28,_500 lbs. ms .. and M11 =
can be applied also to beams supported at the ends and loaded Mmax sin a= 30,000 X 0.316 = 9,480 lbs. m. The max1mum stress
by several loads. Resolving each force into two components at the point B is
parallel to the two axes of symmetry of the cross section, the 28,500 + 6 X 9,480 = 643 lbs. per sq. in.
problem is reduced to two simple problems of bending of a (O":, ) max = 6 X bh2 hb2
beam in the two principal planes. The resultant deflections The deflections at the middle in the two principal planes are
will be obtained by superposing the two deflections in the
5 q/4 cos a 5 ql4 sin a
principal planes.
u
= 384 EJ. and
= 384 EJ.,,
170 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
The sum of this and the curvature produced by the bending moment
(see eq. 79) gives
171
~
u= u 11
~ cosa + o,sina
. =-5 -
q/4 ( cos2 a +-sm
/, . 2 a )
384 El,
=
1 11
0.117 in. X 1.08 = .126 in. ~~ = - E~, ( M + !~ q) . (106)
4. Soive the above problem if the distance between the sup- This equation must be used instead of eq. (79) to determine
ports is b feet and the beam has two equal overhangs each 2 feet deflections in all cases in which the effect of the shearing force
long. should be taken into consideration. 9 Knowing M and q as func-
39. Effect of Shearing Force on the Deflection of Beams.-ln tions of x, eq. (rn6) can be easily integrated in the same manner
the previ?us dis~ussion (se~ p. 134) only the action of the bending as has been shown in article 32.
The conjuga te beam method (see p. 154) may also be applied
moment m causmg deflect10n was considered. An additional de-
to good advantage in this case by taking as ordinates of the imag-
flection will be produced by the shearing force, in the form of a
mutual sliding of adjacent cross sections along inary load diagram
each other. As a result of the non-uniform dis- El,
M+a AGq, (b)
~-t-~a::c----.x tribution of the shearirig stresses, the cross sec-
tions, previously plane, become curved as in
instead of only M.
Fig. 149, which shows the bending due to shear Let us consider, for example, the case of a simply supported
Y alone. 8 The elements of the cross sections at beam with a uniform load (Fig. 150). The bending moment at
Fm. 149. the centroids remain vertical and slide along one any section x is
another; therefore the slope of the deflection
ql qx2
curve, due to the shear alone, is equal at each cross section to the M=-x-- (e)
shearing strai_n at the centroid of this cross section. Denoting by 2 2
y1 the deflect1ons due to shear, we obtain for any cross section the
The load on the conjugate beam consists of two parts: (1) that
following expression for the slope:
represented by the first term of (b) and given by the parabolic
bending moment diagram (Fig. 150, b) and (2) that represented
dy1 _ (T 11 :i) 11-o aV
(a) by the second term of (b), which is a(EI,/AG)q. Since q is constant,
dx - G = AG'
~n which V/A _is the average shearing stress T 11.,, G is the modulus
m shear anda is a n1;1m_eric~l factor with which the average shearing
stress mus_t be mult1plied m ?rder to obtain the shearing stress at
the centro1d of the cross sect10ns. For a rectangular cross-section
The additional defl.ection at
any section due to the sheru-ing
force is the _bendi~g moment pro-
duced at th1s sect10n of the con-
the second term is a uniformly distributed load shown in Fig. 150 (e).
z 1
j j 11 j 11 p.) I I I I j 11 j q
a - ~
a = 3/2 (see eq. 66, p. 114); for a circular cross-section a = 4/3 jugate beam by such a load, di- ~ ~ il ~2
vided by El,. At the middle of / i
(see eq. 68, p. 118). With a continuous load on the beam the
she~ring f~rce V is a continuous function which may be liffer-
~he beam the additional deflection t (b f 8
entiated w1th respect to x. The curvature caused by the shear 1s consequently
alone is then !1r---------.l
(e)
C(~
FIG. 150.
Adding this to the deflection due to the bending moment (see eq.
The defor_mation P:oduced by the bending moment and consisting of
8
9 Another way of determining additional deflection due to shear is
a mutual rotat10n of adJacent cross sections is removed.
discussed on page 298.
172 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFLECTION OF LOADED BEAMS 173
- 0.84 (
7h )] . (k)
hence the problems are statically determnate. We will now
consider problems on the bending of beams in which the
p
W e ha ve an analogous condi- equations of statics are not sufficient to determine all the
tion also in the case of a cantilever reactive forces at the supports, so that additional equations,
beam. If the built-in cross sec- based on a consideration of the deflection of the beams, must
tion can warp freely as shown
be derived. Such problems are called statically indeterminate.
t in Fig. 152 (a), the conditions
1 p will be as assumed in the deri- Let us consider the various types of supports which a
/--z--....i l va tion of eq. (h). The deflection beam may have. The support represented in Fig. 153 (a) is
FIG. 152.
P/3 (
= 3EI
of a cantilever of rectangular
cross section will be obtained
by substituting l for //2 and P for P/2 in this equation, giving
1
-
+ 0.98 /2
h2) . (/)
R
~m
F-R n
X
1/,
,M
)(
When the built-in cross section is completely prevented from warp- Fw. 153.
ing (Fig. 152, b), the conditions will be the same as assumed in
the derivation of eq. (k) and the deflection will be called a hinged movable support. Neglecting the friction in the
hinge and in the rollers, it is evident that in this type of
PI [
= JEI I + 0.71 h
2
12 - 0.10
(
1
h )] , (m) support the reaction must act through the center of the hinge
and must be perpendicular to the plane mn on which the rollers
which is less than the deflection given by (l). are moving. Hence we know the point of application of the
10
See L. N. G. Filon, Phi!. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A), Vol. 201, p. 63, reaction and its direction. There remains only one unknown
1903, and S. Timoshenko, Phi!. Mag., Vol. 47, p. 1095, 1924. See also element, the magnitude of the reaction.
Th. v. Krmn, Scripta Universitatis atque Bibliothecae Hierosolmi-
tanarum, 1923, and writer's "Theory of Elasticity," p. 95, 1934. In Fig. 1 53 (b) a hinged immovable support is shown. In
this case the reaction must go through the center of the hinge
but it may have any direction in the plane of the figure. We
have two unknowns to determine from the equations of
,/
175
176 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 177
statics, the direction of the reaction and its magnitude or corresponding reaction, and for determining these four un-
if we like, the vertical and horizontal components of' the' knowns we have only the three equations (a). Hence we
reaction. have one redundant constraint and a consideration of the
In Fig. 153 (e) a built-in end is represented. In this case deformation of the beam becomes necessary to determine the
not only the direction and the magnitude of the reaction are reactions. The vertical components of the reactions can be
unknown, but also the point of application. The reactive calculated from the equations of statics. In the case of
forces distributed over the built-in section can be replaced by vertical loads it can be concluded also from statics that the
a force R applied at the centroid of the cross section and a horizontal components H are equal and opposite in direction.
couple M. We then have three unknowns to determine from To find the magnitude of H let us consider the elongation of
the equations of statics, the two components of the reactive the axis of the beam during bending. A good approximation
force R and the magnitude of the couple M. to this elongation can be obtained by assuming that the
For beams loaded by transverse loads in one plane we have, deflection curve of the beam is a parabola,1 the equation of
for determining the reactions at the supports, the three which is
equations of statics, namely, 4x(l - x) (b)
y= 2
~X = o; ~y = o; ~M = o. (a)
where is the deflection at the middle. The length of the
If the beam is supported so that there are only three unknown
curve 1s
reactive elements, they can be determined from eqs. (a);
hence the problem is statically determinate. These three
elements are just sufficient to assure the immovability of the s = 2 Jorz12 ,,,Jdx
~ 2
+-
dy2 = 2 Joro 1/2 dx \J11 + ( ddyx )2 . (e)
beam. When the number of reactive elements is larger than
three, we say there are redundan! constraints and the problem In the case of a flat curve the quantity (dy/dx) 2 is small in
is statically indeterminate. comparison with unity and neglecting small quantities of
A cantilever is supported at the built-in end. In this ' arder higher than the second we obtain approximately
case, as was explained above, the number of unknown reactive
~~ ~ + 2\
2 2
(dy ) dy )
elements is three and they can be determined from the equa- + dx 1 I (
dx
tions of statics. Far beams supported at both ends and
beams with overhangs it is usually assumed that one of the Substituting this expression in equation (e) and using equation
supports is an immovable and the other a movable hinge. In (b) we find the length of the curve to be
such a case we have again three 2
unknown reactive elements, S = f( I + 3~ /2 )
.,,, which can be determined from
the equations of statics. Then the difference between the length of the curve and the
Frn. 154. If the beam has immovable distance l between the supports represents e total axial
hinges at both ends (Fig. 154), elongation of the beam and is (8/3)(0 2//); the u.1it elongation
the problem becomes statically indeterminate. At each end 1 The exact expression for the deflection curve will be given la ter
we have two unknown elements, the two components of the (see Part 11).
178 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 179
is then (8/3)(0 2//2). Knowing this and denoting by E the as shown in Fig. 155 (c). 2 It is evident that the bending of
modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam and by d. the beam represented in Fig. 155 (a) can be obtained by a
its cross-sectional area, we obtain the horizontal reaction from combination of cases (b) and (e).
equation: It is only necessary to adjust
the magnitude of the couple
(b) Ma at the support in such a
manner as to satisfy the con-
I t is interesting to note that for most beams in practice the dition
deflection is very small in comparison with the length and 01 = - 0i'. (a) "
the tensile stress (8/3)( 2//2)E produced by the forces H is Thus, the rotation of the left
usually small in comparison with bending stresses and can be end of the beam, due to the
neglected. This justifies the usual practice of calculating force P, will be annihilated by
beams with supported ends by assuming that one of the two Ma and the condition of a
supports is a movable hinge, although the special provisions built-in end with zero slope will
for permitting free motion of the hinge are actually used only be satisfied. To obtain the stat-
in cases of large spans such as bridges. ically indeterminate couple Ma
In the case of the bending of flexible bars and thin metallic it is necessary only to substitute FIG.
155 _
strips, where the deflection is no longer very small in in eq. (a) the known values for
comparison with l, the tensile stresses produced by the the angles 01 and 0i' from equations (88), p. 142, and (104),
longitudinal forces H can not be neglected. Such problems p. 158. Then
. Pc(/2 - c2)
will be discussed later (see Part II). In the following discus-
6/EI.
sion of statically indeterminate problems of bending the
from which
method of superposition will be used and the solutions will be Pc(/2 - c2 )
obtained by combining statically determnate cases in such a Ma = - 2
2
manner as to satisfy the conditions at the supports. The bending moment diagram can now be obtained by com-
41. Beam Built-in at One End and Supported at the bining the diagrams for cases (b) and (e) as shown by the
Other.-Consider first the case where there is a single con- shaded area in Fig. 155 (d). The maximum bending moment
centrated load P (Fig. 155). 2 In this case we have three will be either that at a or that at d.
unknown reactive elements at the left end and one at the The deflection at any point can easily be obtained by
right end. Hence the problem is statically indeterminate subtracting from the deflection at this point produced by the
with one redundant constraint. In the solution of this prob- load P the deflection produced by the couple Ma. The
lem let us consideras redundant the constraint which prevents equations of the deflection curves for both these c~ses have
the left end d. of the beam from rotating during bending. Re- already been given in (86) and (87), p. 142, and tn (105),
moving this constraint, we obtain the statically. determina te p. 159. Let us take, for instance, the case e < l and calcu-
problem shown in Fig. 155 (b). The bending produced by the 2 Deflection curves and bending moment diagrams are shown to-
statically indeterminate couple Ma will be studied separately gether.
180 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 181
late the deflection at the middle of the span. From eqs. (91) using the method of superposition, the problem can be solved
and (105) far other types of transverse
~ _ __?!_ ( 2 _ 2) + Ma/2 loading by simple extension of
0
- 48E/, 3 4e 16EI, the above theory. Take, far
or, by using eq. (107), instance, the case represented in
Fig. 156. The moment at the Fro. 156.
Pe support A, produced by any
= 96EI, (3/2 - 5e2).
element qde of the load, is obtained from eq. (107) by substi-
At the point C where the bending moment becomes zero, the tuting qde far P. The total moment Ma at the support will be
curvature of the deflection curve is also zero and we have a
point of inflection, i.e., a point where the curvature changes M -
-- ib qede(l2 -
212
c'2) = - .!L [{2(b2 - a2) - b4 -
212 2 4
4]. (e)
a
s1gn.
It may be seen from eq. (107) that the bending moment If the load be distributed along the entire length of the beam,
at the built-in end depends on the position of the load P. If then substituting in eq. (e) a = o, b = l, we obtain
we equate to zero the derivative of eq. (107) with respect to e,
we find that the moment Ma has its numerical maximum value q/2
Ma=- 8 (109)
when e = l/-{j. Then
Pl
!Mal max = - = 0.192P/. (108)
3"J3
The bending moment under the load, from Fig. 155 (d), is
M d -_ Pe(l l - e) _ ~l Pe(/22/2- e ) -_ Pe
2
2ls
(l _ ) 2 (
e 2
+ e). (b)
l
e= - (-{j - 1) = 0.366/.
2
2. Determine the maximum deflection for the case of a uni- equation for determining & will be
formly distributed load shown in Fig. 157.
Solution. Combining eqs. (81) and (105), the following equa- ql RJ &
tion for the deflection curve is obtained: SEI, - 3EI, = k'
from which
y = _q_ (3/2x
48EI.
2 - 5lx3 + 2x4) (d)
1l.i_1,J
ql4 of symmetry the middle cross section
max = 185EJ, <loes not rotate during bending and
each half of the beam will be in the
3. Determine the reaction at the right support of the beam condition of a beam built in at one end
shown in Fig. 1 57, considering this reaction as the redundan t con- and supported at the other.
strain t. (b)
7. Determine the deflection of the
Solutin. Removing support B, the deflection of this end of end C of the beam shown in Fig. 1 59.
the beam, considered as a cantilever, will be ql4/8EI. from eq. (84). Solution. Replacing the action of (e)
Reaction Rb at B (Fig. 157, a) must be such as to eliminate the the overhang by a couple Pa, the Fro. 159.
above deflection. Then by using eq. (95) we obtain the equation: ,.,, bending of the beam between the sup-
ports will be obtained by superposing cases (b) and (e). The stat-
ql4 Rbl ically indeterminate couple Ma will be found from the equation
- - = --,
SEI. 3EI. 81 = - 8t' or
from which Pal Mal
6EI, = 3EI.'
from which Ma = Pa/2. The deflection at C will be
1 i l:JP
1
8 end, is supported by a shorter cantilever
CD of the same cross section as cantilever combining the two statically
z, e AB. Determine the pressure X between determinate problems shown
the two beams at C. in Fig. 161 (b) and (e). It is
Fm. 16o. Solulion. Pressure X will be found evident that the conditions at Fm. 161.
from the condition that at C both the can- the built-in ends of the beam
tilevers have the same deflection. Using eq. (95) for the lower AB will be satisfied if the couples Ma and Mb are adjusted
cantilever and eq. (97) together with eq. (95) for the upper we
obtain
so as to make
Xli3 _ P ( //i2 _ /1 3 ) _ X/13 , 81 = - 8i'; (a)
3EI, El, 2 6 3EI.
from which From these two equations the two statically indeterminate
X = 3P ( !__ _ !__) . couples are obtained. Using eqs. (88) and (89) for a con-
/4 3 centrated load and eqs. (103) and (104) for the couples,
From a consideration of the bending moment diagrams for the eqs. (a) become
upper and lower cantilevers it can be concluded that at C the upper
cantilever has a larger angular deflection than the lower has. This Pc(/2 - c2 ) Mal Mbl
indicates that there will be contact between the two cantilevers 6/EI. = 3EI. + 6EI.'
only at points D and C.
10. Solve problem 7 assuming, instead of a concentrated load Pe(/ - c)(2l - e) Mal Mbl
P, a uniformly distributed load of intensity q to be distributed (1) 6/EI. = 6EI. + 3EI,'
along the length a of the overhand, (2) along the entire length of
the beam. from which
II. Draw the bending moment and shearing force diagrams for
the case shown in Fig. 1 56 if a = 4 ft., b = 12 ft., l = 1 5 ft. and Pc 2 (/ - e) . Pe(! - c) 2
M,,= /2 (111)
q = 400 lbs. per ft. /2 '
42. Beam with Both Ends Built in.-ln this case we have Combining the bending moment diagrams for cases (b) and (e),
six reactive elements (three at each end), i.e., the problem has the diagram shown in Fig. 161 (d) is obtained. The maximum
186 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 187
positive bending moment is under the load at the point C. the moment at the support B will have the same magnitude. Com-
lts magnitude can be found from Fig. 161 (d) and is given by bining the parabolic bending moment diagram produced by the
uniform load with the rectangular diagram given by two equal
the following: couples applied at the ends, we obtain the diagram shown in Fig.
1
M = Pc(l - e)
e I
+ Mac
I
+ Mb(lI- e) _ 2Pc2 (l - c)2
- 13 .
(
112
) 1
162 (b) by the shaded area.
3. Determine the moments at the
1 .
1 ends of a beam with built-in ends and
From Fig. 161 (d) it may be seen that the numerically ! loaded by the triangular load shown
maximum bending moment is either that at Cor that at the in Fig. 163.
Solution. The intensity of the
nearest support. For a moving load, i.e., when e varies, load at distance e from the support B
assuming e < l/2, the maximum numerical value of Mb is is q0 c/l and the load represented by the shaded element is qacdc/1.
obtained by putting e = 1/3/ in eq. (111). This maximum is The couples acting at the ends, produced by this elementary load, as
equal to 4/27P/. The bending moment under the load is a given by eqs. (u1), are
maximum when e= l/2 and this maximum, from eq. (112), qac3(/ - c)dc
is equal to 1/8P/. Hence for a moving load the greatest dMa= /3
moment is at the end.
By using the method of superposition the deflection at any therefore
point can also be obtained by combining the deflection pro- _ ri qac 3
(/ - c)dc = qal2
duced by load P with that produced by couples Ma and Mb. Ma = Jo /3 - 20 ;
Having the solution for a single concentrated load P, any
other type of transverse loading can easily be studied by using
the method of superposition.
4. Determine the reactive couples Ma and Mb in a beam with
Problems built-in ends and bent by a couple Pe
I. Draw the shearing force diagram for the case in Fig. 161 (a) (Fig. 164).
if P = 1,000 lbs., l = 12 ft., ande = 4 ft. Solution. By using the solution of
2. Construct the bending moment diagram for a uniformly problem 5, p. 160, and eqs. (104) and
,___ _ 1 _ _ __, loaded beam with built-in ends (Fig. (105), the following equations are ob-
tained:
~~~1 162).
~j 111111111 ! 1I FA 111; Solution. The moment at /1 pro-
-" dc.J ~e ~. duced by one element qdc of the load 2M
a
+ Mb = - 3Pc
- /3 [ a2 ( b + -)
J
- 2 3]
-b
J
,
(Fig. 162, a) is, from eq. (111),
dMa = - qdcc2(l -
/2
e) 2Mb + Ma = J;c [} a 3
- b2 ( a + !)],
Fm. 162. from which Ma and Mb can easily be calculated.
The moment produced by the oad
over the entire span is then
5. Determine the bending moments at the ends of a built-in
beam due to non-uniform heating of the beam if the temperature
2
Ma = _ [' qdcc (l - e) = ~p varies from fo at the bottom to t at the top of the beam according
o 12 - 12; to a linear law.
188 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 189
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS
Answer. Fig. 165 (b).. lt is evident that there will be couples M at the
Ma = Mb = aEI,(t - to), ends of the horizontal beam AB which oppose the free rotation
h
'
of these ends and represent the action of the vertical bars
where a is the coefficient of thermal expansion and h is the depth on the horizontal beam. This couple M can be considered as
of the beam. t the only statically indeterminate quantity. Knowing M, the
6. Determine the effect on the reactive force and reactive couple ! '
at A of a small vertical displacement o of the built-in end A of the 1
1-
beam AB (Fig. 161). 1
Considering now the vertical bar AC as a beam with supported ing the horizontal motion of the hinges C and D is removed.
ends, bent by a couple M, and denoting by h its length and by The vertical bars no longer have any bending. The horizontal
EI1 its flexura} rigidity, the angle at the top, from eq. (104), bar AB is in the condition of a bar with simply supported ends
will be
whose angles of rotation are equal to Pl2/16EI, and the hori-
, _ Mh zontal m0tion of each hinge C and D is therefore h(Pf2/16EI).
81 - 3EI1.
In case (e) the effect of the forces H is studied. These forces
Substituting in eq. (a), we obtain produce bending couples on the ends of the horizontal bar AB
P/2 MI Mh equal to Hh, so that the angles of rotation of its ends 0' will
16EJ - 2EJ = 3EI1' be Hhl/2EI. The deflection of each hinge C and D consists
from which of two parts, the deflection 8'h = Hh 2l/2EI due to rotation of
the upper end and the deflection Hh 3 /3El1 of the vertical bars
(1 IJ) as cantilevers. In the actual case (Fig. 166, a) the hinges C
and D do not move; hence the horizontal displacements pro-
This is the absolute value of M. Its direction is shown in duced by the force P (Fig. 166, b) must be counteracted by
Fig. 165 (b). Knowing M, the bending moment diagram can the forces H (Fig. 166, e), i.e.,
be constructed as shown in Fig. 165 (e). The reactive forces
p2 Hh 2l Hh
,, at the hinges C and D are also
.,A _ _ _ _ _ _ _B shown (Fig. 16 5, a). The verti- 16Elh = 2EJ + 3EI1'
cal components of these forces, from which
{a}
from considerations of symmetry,
are each equal to P/2. As regards
H e H the horizontal components, their
magnitude M/h is obtained by con- {o/
sidering the vertical bars as simply H
Remembering that Hh = M, this re-
supported beams loaded at the top sult agrees with the equation (n3)
by the couples M.
above.
The same problem can be sol ved 1
,.
This latter method of analysis is (/
e in another way by taking t}:ie hori-
especially useful for nonsymmetrical
zontal reaction H at the hinges loading such as shown in Fig. 167. e
C and D as the statically inde- Removing the constraint preventing Fm. 167.
terminate quantity, instead of M
the hinges C and D from horizontal
(Fig. 166). The statically inde- motion, we have the condition represented in Fig. 167 (b). It
terminate problem is solved by
is evident that the increase in distance between C and D may
FIG. 166.
superposing the two statically de-
be obtained by multiplying by h the sum of the angles 81
termina te problems shown in Fig.
166 (b) and (e). In case (b) the redundant constraint prevent- and 82 Using eqs. (88) and (89), this increase in distance
192 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 193
becomes
we will use a method based on the method of superposition in
which the given system of loading is split into parts such that
h [Pe(/
2
- e
2
) + Pe(/ - e)(2! - e)] Pe(/ - e)h for each partial loading a simple solution can be found. 4 The .
6/EJ 6/EJ = 2EJ problem shown in Fig. 168 (a) can be solved by superposing the
I t must be eliminated by the horizontal reactions H (Fig. solutions of the two problems shown in Fig. 168 (b) and (e). The
case shown in (b) is a symmetrical one and can be considered in
166, e). Then, using the results obtained in the previous
the same manner as the first example shown in Fig. 165. A study
problem, we get the following equation for determining H: of the case shown in (e) will show that the point of inflection O
of the horizontal bar dB is situated at the middle of the bar. This
Hh ! + Hh
2 3
2
( ) = Pe(/ - e)h follows from the condition that the loads P/2 are equally distant
2EJ 3EI1 2EJ ' from the vertical axis of symmetry of the frame and are opposite
from which in sense. The moment, the deflection, and the axial force produced
\.
H = Pe(! - e) _ _1_ _ 0
at the mid point O of the horizontal beam dB by one of the loads
2h/ 2lh P/2 will be removed by the action of the other load P/2. Hence
l + J 1 / there will be no bending moment, no vertcal deflection and no axial
force at O. The magnitude of the shearing force at the same point
Having the solution for one concentrated load, any other case X can be found from the condition that the vertical deflection of O
of loading of the beam AB of the frame can easily be studied is equal to zero (Fig. 168, d). This deflection consists of two parts,
by the method of superposition. a deflection 1 due to the bending of the cantilever OB anda deflec-
tion 2 due to rotation of the end B of the vertical bar BD. Using
Let us consider now a frame with built-in supports and an the known equations for a cantilever (eq. 98), and using the notations
unsymmetrical loading as shown in Fig. 168. In this case we have given in the figure, the following equations are obtained:
I
p t:
-e ~ '9z e
?___!_(~ e) x(~r,
r _!!__i!_
A B
A B
1
- 2 3EI + 22EJ 3EI
2 - -
h
I,
(a) (J,} 02 = (Pe - x~) .!!_~.
EI1
l e
1/,
f--- / ----i
o
/ 1/. /
2 2 2
r,
\
t . ::1
\
% 1~ o P/z t'IB
\ l h
X
L l-c l
o
%
lJ
ing moment at every cross section of the frame for case (e) can be
calculated. Combining this with the bending moments for the sym-
metrical case (b), the solution of the problem (a) is obtained. 5
i 1 h
l
Problems
I. Determine the bending moments at the corners of the frame
~ ;,: 1/. shown in Fig. 169.
(t:) (d) o
4
Fm. 168. Such a method was extensively used by W. L. Andre; see his book
"Das B-U Verfahren," Mnchen and Berlin, 1919.
5
three reactive elements at each support and the system has three Solutions of many important problems on frames can be found in
statically indeterminate elements. In the solution of this problem the book by Kleinlogel, "Mehrstielige Rahmen," Berlin, 1927.
194 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 195
Solution. Considering the bar dB as a beam supported at the 4. Determine the bending moments at the joints of the frame
shown in Fig. 171.
.,...I,_...,_._~~1 ,.;k\r~
A P 1
. rf{;o.0.'
~
~/
'}- le,)
N~~
H (b) M
F10. 171.
(6)
Fm. 169. Solution. Disjointing the frame as shown in Fig. 171 (b), the
equations for determining the couples M and M1 are
ends (Fig. 169, b) and denoting by M the moments at tlie corners.
the angle 01 will be and
P/2 MI Substituting in these equations
16EI- 'lEl.
Pe(! - e) MI H
Putting this equal to the angle 0i' at the ends of the vertical bars 0 ---~---
1 - 2EI 2EI' 1,,
which are bent by the couples M only, the following equation for
Mis obtained: I
Mh M1h
P/2 MI Mh 811
= 3EI1 - 6EI1 ;
16EI - 'lEl = 'lE/1'
from which Mil
PI 02 =- -.
2EI2'
M=s--h-1
I + / /1
Determine the horizontal reactions H
2.
o'l
for the case shown in Fig. 170. we obtain two equations for deter- ~/
Suggestion. By using eq. (114) and ap. mining M and M1,
plying the method of superposition, we get 5. A symmetrical rectangular
frame is submitted to the action of
~~~~,c~;---;iJ
H = q/2 1 , a horizontal force H as shown in
~
(b} '
'l4h1+.:l~ Fig. 17'1.. Determine the bending F10. 172.
Fm. 170.
3 11 I moments M and M 1 at the joints.
Solution. The deformed shape of the frame is shown in Fig.
3 Draw the bending moment diagram for the three bars of the
I7'l (a). Disjointing the frame as shown in Fig. 17'1. (b), and
preceding problem assuming h = I and I = / 1
applying moments the directions of which are chosen to comply
with the distorted shape of the frame, Fig. 17'1. (a), we have
196 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 197
far the bar CD
7. A frame consists of two bar~ joined rigid_ly at B and built
Mil (Hh ) l in at A and C (Fig. 174). Determrne the bendmg moment M at
81 = 6El = 2 - M 6El . (a)
tJ
Considering now the vertical bar AC as a cantilever built in at the I
end C at an angle 81, the slope at the end d will be
, H h2 Mh
82 = 81 + -2 2El1 - El1 . (b)
Finally, dueto bending of the bar dB,
Fm. 173. Fm. 174.
, MI
82 = 82 = - - . (e)
6El2 B and the compressive force Pin AB when, due to a rise in tem-
Then, from eqs. (a), (b) and (e), perature the bar dB increases in length by .6. = al(t - to).
dns'wer. P and M can be found from equations:
M = Hh ( 1 3h l ) r
2 + / 11 l h l (d) Pli3 Mli2 .6.
r+-+6--
12 l 11
3EI - 2El = '
Substituting in eq. (a), the bending moment M1 can be found. Pli2 M/1 MI
When the horizontal bar CD has very great rigidity, we approach
2El - El = 4El .
the condition of the frame shown in Fig. 168, submitted to a lateral
load H. Substituting in (d) l = oo, we obtain far this case 44. Beams on Three Supports.-ln the case of a beam
on three supports (Fig. 175, a) there is one statically inde-
M= Hh 1 terminate reactive element. Let the reaction of the inter-
(e)
4 I + ~{ 11 mediate support be this element. Then by using the_ ?1ethod
6h12 of superposition the solution of case (a) may be ol;>tained by
combining the cases repr~sented in (b) and (e), Fig. I7 5. ?he
The case of a frame such as shown in Fig. 165 with hinged supports
and submitted to the action of a lateral load applied at A can also intermediate reaction X is found by using the cond1t10n
be obtained by substituting l = o in eq. (d). that the deflection 5 produced at C by the load P must be
6. Determine the horizontal reactions H, and the moments Me eliminated by the reaction X. Using eq. (86), we get the
and Mb at the joints A and B for the frame shown in Fig. 173. following equation far determining X:
dnswer.
Pcl1[(/1 + /2) 2 - c 2 - li2]
qh IIm + 20
H= - - - - - ,
20 2m +3
6(/1 + l2)EI.
from which
qh2 7m
Ma = Mb = -6
o 2m
+ 3, (115)
where
l h If Pis acting on the left span of the beam, the same equation
m= - . - . can be used, but the distance e must be measured from the
11 l
198 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 199
support A and /1 and /2 must be interchanged. Far '1 = /2 = /, The direction of Me as determined from the condition of bend-
from (115), ing is shown by arrows in Fig. 175 (d). The bending moment
Pc(3/2 - c2) diagram is shown by the shaded area in Fig. I 7 5 (d).
X= 2/ . (II6)
Problems
Having the solution for a single load P, any other loading can
easily be studied by using the method of superposition. I. For the example in Fig. 175 prove that the magnitude of the
The same problem can be solved in another manner. Im- bending moment Me given by eq. (u7) is the same as that given
for the cross section C by eq. ( II 5).
agine the beam cut into two parts at C (Fig. 175, d) and let
2. Dra w the shearing force diagram for the beam of the preced-
ing problem if /1 = /2, e = '2/2, and P = 1,000 lbs.
3. A beam on three supports (Fig. 175, a) is carrying a uni-
formly distributed load of intensity q. Determine the bending
moment at the support C.
Solution. By the method of superposition, substituting qdc for
Pin eq. (u7) and integrating along both spans, we obtain
_ (1 2 qc(/22 - c2)dc _ {1 1 qc(li2 - c2)dc = q '23 + /13
r- - - --,,.--5- - """'h Me = J0 2Ml1 + 12) Jo 2/1(/1 + /2) - 8 '1 + 12 '
6, K
when
~-
(e)
- q/2.
/ = /2 = l, Me=
8
The direction of this moment is as shown in Fig. 175 (d).
~),, 4. Draw the shearing force diagram for the preceding problem
(d) assuming /1 = /2 and q = 500 lbs. per ft.
FIG. 175.
5. Determine the numerical maximum bending moment in the
beam dCB (Fig. 175) if P = 10,000 lbs., / = 9 ft., /2 = 12 ft.,
Me denote the magnitude of the bending moment of the orig- e= 6 ft.
dnswer_ Mmax. = 23,600 lbs. ft.
inal beam at this cross section. In this manner the problem
6. A beam on three equidistant supports is carrying a uniformly
is reduced to the consideration of the two simply supported distributed load of intensity q. What effect will it have on the
beams shown in (d) which are statically determinate. The middle reaction if the middle support is lowered a distance ?
magnitude of Me is determined from the condition of con- Solution. Using the method shown in Fig. 175 (b) and (e),
tinuity of the deflection curve at the support C. From this the middle reaction X is found from the equation:
() = 0', whence, using the eqs. (88), p. 142, and (104), p. 158,
-5-q(2l)
- = -X(2l)
4
we obtain -+o
384 El 4SEJ '
MJ1 Pc(/2 2 - c2) Mcf2
- - = -----+
- 3Efz 6/2Efz
--,
3Efz
from which
5 6EI
from which X=
8 2qt-
13 -
Pc(li - c2)
Me= (117) 7. Determine the additional pressure of the beam AB on the
2/2('1 + /2)
support C (Fig. 175, a) due to non-uniform heating of the beam
200 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 201
if the temperature varies from t at the bottom to /1 at the top of 45. Continuous Beams.-In the case of a continuous beam
the beam according to a linear law, t > 11 and /1 = /2 = l. on many supports (Fig. 177) one support is usually considered
Solution. If the support at C were removed, then, due to the as an immovable hinge while the other supports are hinges on
non-uniform heating, the deflection curve of the beam would be,.. rollers. In this arrangement every intermediate support has
come the are of a cir.cle. The radius of this circle is determined only one. unknown reactive element, the magnitude of the
by the equation: vertical reaction; hence the number of statically indeterminate
a(t - 11)
r h H, H, H3 H~ Hs
indicate that the directions of these moments are opposite to that shown
Knowing X, the bending moment diagram can readily be obtained. in the figure.
202 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 203
heams as there are spans in the continuous heam. For Suhstituting expressions (a) and (b) in this equation we ohtain
calculating the hending moments Mn-1, Mn, Mn+i the con-
dition of continuity of the deflection curve at the supports Mn-iln + 'lMn(fn + In+1) + Mn+1'n+l
will he used. For any support n this condition of continuity
is satisfied if the deflection curves of the two adjacent spans
= --,n -
6Anan 6An+1bn+1
In+l
(118)
have a common tangent at the support n, i.e., if the slope at This is the well-known equation of three moments. 7 lt is
the right end of span n is equal to the slope at the left end of evident that the numher of these equations is equal to the
span n + 1. To calculate these slopes the area moment numher of intermedia te supports and the hending moments at
method will he used. Let An denote the area of the hending the supports can he calculated without difficulty.
moment diagram for the span n, considered as a simply sup- In the heginning it was assumed that the ends of the
ported heam, due to the actual load on this span; let an and bn continuous heam were supported. lf one or hoth ends are
represent the horizontal distances of the centroid Cn of the huilt in, then the numher of statically indeterminate quantities
moment area from the supports n - 1 and n. Then the slope will he larger than the numher of intermediate supports and
at the right end for this condition of loading is (see Art. 35) derivation of additional equations will he necessary to express
the condition that no rotation occurs at the huilt-in ends (see
prohlem 5 helow).
Knowing the moments at the supports, there is no difficulty
In addition to the deflection caused by the load on the span in calculating the reactions at the supports of a continuous
itself, the span n is also hent by the couples Mn-I and Mn. heam. Taking, for instance, the two adjacent spans n and
From equations (103) and (104) the slope produced at the n + 1 (Fig. 177, b), and considering them as two simply
support n by these couples is supported heams, the reaction Rn' at the support n, dueto the
loads on these two spans, can easily he calculated. In
addition to this there will he a reaction due to the moments
Mn-i, Mn and Mn+i Taking the directions of these moments
The total angle of rotation is then * as indicated in Fig. 177 (b), the additional pressure on the
support n will he
() -- - ( 3EI.
- + Mn-iln
Mnln +-Anan)
(a)
~=-=-
6EI,
-
lnEI. Mn-1 - Mn + - Mn + Mn+l .
In In+l
In the same manner, for the left end of the span n + 1, we
ohtain Adding this to the ahove reaction Rn', the total reaction will he
()' _ n+lbn+l + Mnfn+l + Mn+iln+l (b) Rn = Rn' + Mn-1 - Mn +- Mn + Mn+l
- ln+1EI, 3EI, 6EI. In In+l
From the condition of continuity it follows that lf concentrated forces are applied at the supports they will
0 = 0'. (e) 7 This equation was established by Bertot; see Comptes rendus de
la Socit des Ingenieurs civils, p. 278, 1855; see also Clapeyron, Pars,
* The angle is taken positive if rotation is in clockwise direction. c. R., t. 45 (1857).
204 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 205
be transmitted directly to the corresponding supports and maximum ordinate qln2 /8. The area of the parabolic segment is
must be added to the right side of equation (119). 2 qln2 qln3
A
n
= - l
J n 8 - = -
12
The general equation of continuity (e) can also be used for
those cases where, by mis-align-
t
,/Jn 1 ,
--;------r--__ t .Q,,.,----7
ment, the supports are not situ-
" .,----------{n,, ated on the same level (Fig.
z,, - - - - - - - z,,.,---i 178). Let f3n and f3n+i denote the
Frn. 178. angles of inclination to the hori-
zontal of the straight lines con-
necting the points of supports in the nth and (n + 1)th spans.
The angle of rotation given by eqs. (a) and (b) was measured
from the line connecting the centers of the hinges; hence the
angle 0 between the tangent at n and the horizontal line will be,
for the span n,
10 / IO q.
Problems
The reaction at support 1 is
Determine the bending moment and shearing force diagrams
l. q/2l II
for a continuous beam with three equal spans carrying a uniformly R1 = ql + 10 / = 10 ql.
distributed load of intensity q (Fig. 179).
Solution. For a simply supported beam and a uniformly dis- The shearing force diagram is shown in Fig. 179 (b). The maximum
tributed load the bending moment diagram is a parabola with moment will evidently be at a distance 4//10 from the ends of the
206 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STATICALLY INDETERMINATE SYSTEMS 207
beam, where the shearing force is zero. The numerical maximum Both these moments are negative, so that the he;11ding mom7nt
bending moment is at the intermediate supports. diagram will be as shown in Fig. I 82 (b). To obtam the shearmg
2. Set up the expression for the right side of eq. (II8) when
trlllilil*
p
~
there is a concentrated force in the span n and no load in the span
n + 1 (Fig. 180).
Solution. In this case A,. is the area of the triangle of height
Pe(/n - e)//,. and with the base /,.; hence An = Pe(/,. - e)/2 and l _: / ~' ,
a,. = /,. - ,. = /,. - Un+ e)/3. Substituting in (118), we get (a}
~ ~~ - ,M,~-
Mn-iln + 2Mn(fn + fn+i) + Mn+iln+l = -
Pe(/,. - e)(2/,. - e)
/,. r~1111:@1111~r,-c/;1
3. Determine the bending moments at the supports and the
reactions for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 18 1.
1111111111111111~*
. 704fl
(e) _j_
Fm. 182.
Fm. 18r. fo:ce diagram it is necessary to find the reactions at the supports
of the separate spans (eq. n9). The pressures on supports o and
Answer. Mi =-1.54 ton ft.; M2 = - 3.74 ton ft.; Ma 1 for the first span of the beam are
= - 1.65 ton ft. The reactions are Ro = - 0.386 ton; R1 = 2.69
tons; R2 = 6.22 tons; Ra = 3.75 tons; R4 = - 0.275 ton. The ql M1
and ;- - T = o.551ql.
moments at the supports are negative and produce bending con-
vex up.
The pressure on supports 1 and 2 of the second span of the beam are
4. Construct the bending moment and shearing force diagrams
for the continuous beam shown in Fig. 182 (a) if P = ql, e= //4.
Solution. In this case the imaginary loading for the first span and
is A1 = q/3/12, for the second span A2 = o, and for the third span
and on supports 2 and 3 of the third span
Aa = Pe(/ - e) = 2/ - e . ba = I+ e.
2 ' 3 , 3 P(I - e) M2
and
1
+T = o.704ql.
Substituting in eq. (u8) gives the following equations for deter-
mining the bending moments M 1 and M 2 :
From this, the shearing force diagram is obtained as shown in
4Mil+ M2l= - q/3 Fig. 182 (e). . .
4 , 5. Determine the bendmg moment dtagram for the case shown
Pe(P. - e2 ) in Fig. 183 (a).
Solution. Equation (n8) for this case becomes
l
from which Mol+ 4Af1' + M2' = o.
49 44
M1 = - 6o qP. ; M2 = - 6oq/2. Now, M 2 = - Pe, while the condition at the built-in end (sup-
9 9
208 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
$-
!-- l /
c--1
P (a)
discussion all of the beams considered were of prismatical
form. More elaborate investigation shows that equations
(56) and (57), which were derived for prismatical bars, can
also be used with sufficient accuracy for bars of variable cross
section provided the variation is not too extreme. Cases of
abrupt changes in cross section, in which considerable stress
concentration takes place, will be discussed in Part 11.
FIG. 183. As a first example of a beam of a variable cross section
let us consider the deflection of a cantilever beam of uniform
. 6. Determin~ the bending moments at the supports of a con-
~muous beam With seven equal spans when the middle span alone strength, i.e., a beam in which the section modulus varies along
Is loaded by a uniformly distributed load q. the beam in the same proportion as the bending moment.
Answer. Then, as is seen from eqs. (60), (ux)max remains constant along
q/2 l I the beam and can be taken equal to <Tw. Such a condition is
M a= M 4 = - 18.9; M2 = M. = - 3.75 Ma; Mi= M6 = "is M1., favorable as regards the amount of material used, because
each cross section will have only the area
7. A cc:intinuous beam having four equal spans of length 16 ft.
each Is unifor1:1ly loaded ov~r the last span. Draw the shearing necessary to satisfy the conditions of ~ J t
force and bendmg moment diagrams if q = 400 lbs. per ft. strength. P x
. _8. ~olve problem 5 assuming that a uniform load of intensity q For a cantilever with an end load (Fig. y ,
Is distnbuted al_ong the en_tire length of the beam and that e = !/':'.. 184), the bending moment at a cross sec- z
Draw the shearmg force diagram for this loading condition. . a d"1stance x from t he load 1s
t1on . numer- FIG. I 84.
zM 6Px 6Pl
= bh2 = bhl = const.,
209
210 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BEAMS OF VARIABLE CROSS SECTION 211
in which ho is the depth of the beam at the built-in end. Then The deflection at the end of a circular are can be taken, for
h2 = ho2x. small deflections, equal to
l /2 pa
lt may be seen that in this case the depth of the beam vares 8 = 2r = 2Elo ( 122)
following a parabolic law. At the loaded end the cross- or, by using (e),
sectional area is zero. This result is obtained because the /2
shearing stress was neglected in the derivation of the form of 8 = (o-x)max hE (123)
the beam of uniform strength. In practica! applications this
stress must be taken into account by making certain changes lt is seen from this equation that for this type of cantilever of
in the above form at the loaded end to have a cross-sectional uniform strength the deflection at the end vares as the square
area sufficient to transmit the shearing force. The deflection of the length and inversely as the depth.
of the beam at the end is found from eq. (93): These results may be used to compute the approximate
8
_ f'
- J 0
12Px2dx _ 12P/3 i 2
Ebh - Ebho3
lo
1
_ 2 P/3
,{xdx - 3 Elo' (121)
stresses and deflections in a spring of lea/ type. The triangular
plate considered above is thought of as divided into strips,
arranged as shown in Fig. 185 (b, e, d). The initial curvature
where lo= bh 0/12 represents the mo- and the friction between the strips are neglected far a first
p 1
l
fa)
r -~
~ ment of inertia of the cross section at approximation and eq. (123) can then be considered as
l
the built-in end. Comparison with sufficien tl y accura te. 1
1
1
eq. (95) shows that this deflection The conjugate beam theory can also be used in calculating
is twice that of a prismatical bar the deflection of beams of variable cross section. In this
having the flexura! rigidity El0 and connection it is only necessary to bear in mind that the
subjected to the same load. That curvature of the deflection line at any cross section is equal to
is, the bar has the same strength, the ratio M/EI, (eq. 56, p. 91). Therefore an increase in
but not the same stiffness as the pris- the flexura! rigidity at a given section will have the same
matical bar. effect on the deflection as a decrease of the bending moment
As a second example we considera there in the same ratio. Consequently the problem of the
(d)_' cantilever of rectangular cross section deflection of beams of variable cross section can be reduced to
Fm. 185. of constant depth h and variable that of beams of constant cross section, by using the modijied
width b (Fig. 18 5a, b). As the section 1 This solution was obtained by E. Phillips, Annales des Mines,
modulus and moment of inertia I, of a beam of triangular Vol. 1, pp. 195-336, 1852. See also Todhunter and Pearson, History of
shape increases with x in the same proportion as the bending Elasticity, Vol. 2, part 1, p. 330, and Theorie der Biegungs- und Torsions-
moment, the maximum stress (o-x)max and the curvature (see Federn v. A. Castigliano, Wien, 1888. The effect of friction between
the leaves was discussed by G. Mari, Annales d~s Mines, Vols. 7-9,
eq. 56) remain constant along the beam and the magnitude 1905 and 1906. D. Landau and P. H. Parr investigated the distribution
of the radius of curvature can be determined from the equation ofload between the individual lea ves of the spring, Journ. of the Franklin
(see eq. 55): Inst., Vols. 185, 186, 187. A com.plete bibliography on mechanical
hE springs was published by the Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng., New York, 1927.
(O")
X m&X
- -r "
- (e) See also the book by S. Gross and E. Lehr, "Die Federn," V. D. I. Verlag,
2
1938.
212 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 213
BEAMS OF VARIABLE CROSS SECTION
bending moment diagram in which each ordinate is multiplied the conjugate beam, instead of being a single parabola indi-
by Io/1, where I is the moment of inertia at that cross section cated by the dotted line, is taken as represented by the shaded
and lo is the constant mt>ment of a uniform bar to the de-
flection of which we will reduce our bar of variable cross section.
,Ir
For example, the problem of the deflection of a circular ~L
3. Determine the width d of a carriage leaf spring (Fig. 185) 6. Determine the deflection of a steel plate in. thick shown in
and its deflection if P = 6,000 lbs., h = in., / = 24 in., <rw = Fig. 190 under the action of the load P = 20 lbs. at the middle.
70,0C>O lbs. per sq. in., and the number of lea ves n = 10. Solution. Reducing the problem to
Solution. Considering the lea ves of the spring as cut out of a that of the deflection of a plate of con- f i tp
triangular plate (Fig. 185, b), the maximum stress will be stant width = 4 in., the transformed ,o ---.!;
moment rea far this case will be repre-
6Pl sented by the trapezoid adeb, and we
<1max = ndh2' obtain
II P/3
from which -----,
- 8 48Elz ,.,,.,,,.~, .............
d = 6Pl = 6 X 6,000 X 24 X 4 = in where lz is the moment of inertia at the _,,, '-..,........
nuwh2 IO X 70,000 494 1/
middle of the span. The numerical a b
The deflection is determined from eq. (123), value of the deflection can now be easily F10. 190.
calculated.
70,000 X 242 7. Determine the maximum deflection of a leaf spr}ng (Fig.
= i X X s = 2.69 m. 185) if / = 36 in., h = in., E = 30 X I06 lbs. per sq. m., <rw =
2 30 IO
60,000 lbs. per sq. in.
4. Compare the deflection at the middle and the slope at the dnswer. = 5.18 in. . .
ends of the shaft shown in Fig. 186 with those of a shaft of the
same length but of constant cross section whose moment of inertia l 8. A simply supported rectangular beam carnes a load P wh1ch
moves along the span. How should the depth h of the beam vary
is equal to lo, Take 1 1 : 1 0 = 2. in arder to have a form of equal strength if the width b of the
Solution. Due to the greater flexura! rigidity at the middle, rectangular cross section remains constant along the beam? .
the slopes at the ends of the shaft shown in Fig. I 86 will be less Solution. For any given position of the load, the max1mum
than those at the ends of the cylindrical shaft in the ratio of the moment occurs under the load. Denoting the distance of the load
shaded area to the total area of the triangle A1C1B1. The total area
is the loading far the case of the
from the middle of the span by x,
the bending moment under the
load is
cylindrical shaft. Far the val u es
given, this ratio is 5/8 : l.
M=
P(~-x)(~+x)
The deflections at the middle
x for the two types of shaft are in
The required depth h of the beam under the load is obtained from
the ratio given by the bending mo-
ment produced by the shaded area, the equation
6M
divided by that produced by the <1w = !Jh2 >
Fm. 1 89. area of the triangle .d1C 1B 1 This
will be 9/16 : I. from which
5. A beam supported at the ends is loaded as shown in Fig. 189.
How should the depth h of the beam vary in arder to have a form
of equal strength if the width b of the rectangular cross section and
remains constant along the beam? h2 x2
---+-=1.
dnswer. 6Pl/4buw /2/4
/r = ho2
( I - 8 ~) lt may be seen that in this case the depth of _the be~m varies fallow-
ing an elliptical law, the semi-axes of the elhpse bemg
//2 and ..J6Pl/4h<1.,,.
1 '
216 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
BEAMS OF VARIABLE CROSS SECTION 217
p
9 Determine the bending
~..L.:.J~r
r
_ _.__-'-1.I, moments at the ends of the of the interna! forces unchanged, far a given curvature, i.e.,
beam AB shown in Fig. 191 far a given elongation and contraction, the thickness b1 of this
M A
z --i.-c__ 1 fa) z with built-in ends and centraui web must be as fallows:
~r
if z i/ loaded. Take ///0 = 2.
Solution. A solution is ob- (a)
t~ined by combining the two
simple cases shown in (b) and
(b} I\ (e). I t is clear that the con-
In this manner the problem is reduced to that of the bending
dition at the built-in ends will of a steel beam of T section, which can be sol ved on the basis of
be satisfied if the slopes at the the previous theory. Consider, far instance, a simply sup-
ends are equal to zero, i.e., if ported beam IO feet long loaded at the middle by 1,000 lbs.
the reactions due to the imag- The cross-sectional dimensions of the wooden part of the beam
inary loading (see p. 154) repre-
are b = 4 in. and h = 6 in. and at the convex side it is re-
sented by the shaded areas in
(b) an? (e) are equal.. Therefore the equation for calculating the inforced by a steel plate I inch wide and inch thick. As-
numencal value of M 1s suming Ew/E. = 1/20 and using eq. (a), the equivalent section
PI I 3 PI I MI will have a web 6 X 0.20 and the flange I X 0.50. The dis-
- - - - - -- = MI - - tances of the outermost fibers from the neutral axis (Fig.
4 2 8 4 2 4
from which 192, b) are h1 = 2.54 in. and h2 = 3.96 in. The moment of
M = 5/4SPI. inertia with respect to the neutral axis is lz = 7.37 in.4, whence
IO. Solve th~ above problem on the assumption that two equal
1
1;
the stresses in the outermost fibers are (from eqs. 61, p. 92)
loads P are apphed at C and D.
Answer. M = Pl/6. 30,000 X 2.54
<lmax = =----"------~ = 10,300 lbs. per sq. in.,
7.37
47. Beams of Two Different Materials.-There are cases Mmaxh2 30,000 X 3,96 lb ,
w~en beams of two or more different materials are used. <min =- I =- = - 1 6 ,ooo s.persq.m.
z 7.37
~1gure 192 (a) represents a simple case, a wooden beam re-
mfarce? by a steel plate bolted to the beam at the bottom. To obtain the maximum compressive stress in the wood of the
Ass~mmg th_at there is no sliding between the steel and wood actual beam the stress <min obtained above far steel must be
durmg bendmg, the theory of solid beams can also be used multiplied by Ew/E. = 1/20.
~ere. According to this theory elonga- As another example of the bending of a beam of two different
t10ns and contractions of longitudinal materials !et us consider the case of a bi-metallic strip built up of
fibers are proportional to the distance nickel steel and monel metal (Fig. 193). The bending of such a
from the neutral axis. Due to the fact strip by externa! forces can be discussed in the same manner as
that the modulus of elasticity of wood is in the above problem of wood and steel, it being necessary only to
know the ratio Em/E,, in which Em and E, are respectively the
much smaller than that of steel, the
(q) (b)
moduli of elasticity of monel metal and steel. Let us consider now
wooden part of the beam in bending the bending of such a strip due to a change in temperature. The
will be equivalent to a much narrower coefficient of thermal expansion of monel metal is larger than that
web of steel as shown in Fig. 192 (b). To have the moment of nickel steel and when the temperature rises bending will occur
concave on the side of the steel. This phenomenon of bending of
BEAMS OF VARIABLE CROSS SECTION 219
218 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
another equation for determining P and r can be d.erived fro!11 the
bi-metallic strips under varying temperatures is used in various condition that at the joining surface, e-e, the umt elongat1on of
automatic instruments for regulating temperature 3 (thermostats). monel metal and steel must be the same; therefore
Let h/2 be the thickness of each metal, b the width of the strip,
t the. increase in temperature, r the radius of curvature, and am 2Pi h 2A h
1 + E,hb + 4r = ami - Emhb 4r
e{
::
tt,J
~
l'f
m
~e
~-
[ "'" ,3>-~
(6) mf!"''
or
1'
b1 r (E.I, + EJm) ( l. + lm) = (exm -
2 a,)t - :r (d)
n n,
f:}_ Substituting in this equation
Fm. 193. bh3
I. = Im = 96 and
the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and monel respec-
tively, E.I. = the flexura! rigidity of the steel, EJm = the flexural the following approximate equation is obtained:
rigidity of monel metal. When the temperature rises, the strip of 1 3 (exm - a,)t (e)
monel metal, having a greater coefficient of expansion, will be sub- ;.=; h .
jected to both bending and compression and the steel will be sub-
jected to bending and tension. Considering an element of the strip Now, from eq. (b),
cut out by two adjacent cross sections mn and m1n1 (Fig. 193, e), bh
the internal forces over the cross section of the steel can be reduced P = .J. (exm -
~
a8 )t(E,J, + EJm) = - (a,,,
32
- a,)t(E. + E,,.) (J)
to a tensile force P 1 and a couple M 1 In the same manner for
and
the monel metal, the internal forces can be reduced to a compressive _ J (exm - a,)t E . _ J. (exm - a,)tE I
force P 2 and a couple M 2 The interna! forces over any cross Mi - h 1 , M2 - h mm (g)
2 2
section of the beam must be in equilibrium; therefore
From eqs. (J) and (g) P, M_1 and ~ 2 can be ?etermined. T.he
maximum stress in the steel 1s obtamed by addmg to the tens1le
and stress produced by the force P the tensile stress due to the curva-
ture I/ r: bh
(a)
u max = -bh
2P + -h4 E.
-r = 4 (
bh2 r E.I. + E,,.,,,. + -16 E )
T .
Using equations:
_ E.I. Assuming, for example, that both metals have the same modulus
M1 -
E, we obtain
r '
hE
Then, from eq. (a), Umu: = - >
3r
Ph E.I. EJm
-2
=r- + r- (b) or, by using eq. (e),4
Umax = Et(am - a,).
Sce author's paper in Journal of the Optical Soc. of Amer., Vol.
3 I 1,
4 This equation holds also for E. = E,,..
1925, p. 233.
220 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
BEAMS OF VARIABLE CROSS SECTION 221
For E =27 X 106 lbs. per sq. in., t = 200 degrees Centigrade and
am - = 4 X 10-6 we find tension is taken by the steel and all the compression by the
<Tmax = lbs. per sq. in.
10,800 concrete. Replacing the tensile forces in the steel bars by
The distribution of stresses due to heating is shown in Fig. 1 3 (e). their resultant R, the distribution of interna! forces over any
9 cross section mp will be as shown in Fig. 194 (b). Assuming
Problems as before that cross sections remain plane during hending
. 1. Find the safe bending momen t for the wooden beam rein- and denoting by kh the distance of the neutral axis nn from
fo~ced by a steel plate, Fig .. 192, if b = 6 in., h = 8 in., and the the top,5 the maximum longitudinal unit contraction in the
th1ckne~s of the steel plate 1s in. Assume Ew = 1.5 X 106 lbs. concrete Ec, and the unit elongation of the axes of the steel
per sq. m., E. = 30 X 106 lbs. per sq. in., <Tw = 1,200 lbs. per sq. in. bars Es, are given by the following:
for wood and <Tw = 16,000 lbs. per sq. in. for steel.
. 2. Assume that the_ wooden beam of the previous problem is kh (1 - k)h
remforced at the top w1th a steel plate 2 in. wide and I in. thick Ec = - r; Es = r (a)
and at the bottom with a steel plate 6 in. wide and in. thick.
Calculate the safe bending moment if E and <Tw are the same as in Concrete <loes not follow Hooke's law anda compression
the previous problem. test diagram for this material has a shape similar to that for
Answer. M = 308,000 in. lbs. cast iron in Fig. 2 (b). As the compression stress increases, the
3. A ~imetallic strip has a length l = 1 in. Find the deflection slope of the tangent to the diagram decreases, i.e., the modulus
at the m1ddle produced by a temperature increase equal to 200 of concrete decreases with an increase in stress. In calcu-
degrees Centigrade if E, = I.I 5Em and am - = 4 X 10-6,
lating stresses in reinforced-concrete heams it is the usual
48. Reinforced-Concrete Beams.-It is well known that practice to assume that Hooke's law holds for concrete, and to
the strength of concrete is much greater in compression than in compensate for the variable modulus by taking a lower value
tension. Hence a rectangular heam of concrete will fail for this modulus than that obtained from compression tests
from the tensile stresses on the convex side. The heam can when the stresses are small. In specifications for reinforced-
he greatly strengthened by the addition of steel bars on the concrete it is usually assumed that E./Ec = 15. Then, from
convex side as shown in Fig. 194. As concrete grips the steel eqs. (a), the maximum compressive stress in the concrete and
m
strongly there will he no slid- the tensile stress in the steel 6 are, respectively,
-:t-o-t::c::F--r-
ing of the steel bars with re-
kh u. = (1 - k)h Es.
R spect to the concrete during ue =--E
r e, (b)
____________ hending and the methods de- r
-----{b)____ veloped in the previous article We will now calcula te the position of the neutral axis from
Fm. 194 _ can also he used here for the condition that the normal forces over the cross section mp
calculating hending stresses. reduce to a couple equal to the bending moment. The sum of
In practice the cross-sectional area of the steel bars is usually the compressive forces in the concrete must equal the tensile
such that the tensile strength of the concrete on the convex force R in the steel bars, or
side is overcome before yielding of the steel hegins and at
larger loads the steel alone takes practically all the tension. bkhuc _ A
- 2 - <Ts s, (e)
Hence it is the established practice in calculating bending
stresses in reinforced-concrete beams to assume that all the 5
k is a numerical factor less than unity.
6
The cross-sectional dimensions of the steel bars are usully small
and the average tensile stress is used instead of the maximum stress.
222 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL$ BEAMS OF VARIABLE CROSS SECTION 223
wher~ d. is the total cross sectional area of steel. Using the in the steel is 12,000 lbs. per sq. in., the maximum compressive
notat10n d,/bh = ni and E./E = n, we get from (e) and (b)
0 stress in the concrete is 645 lbs. per sq. in., and E,/ Ec = n = 15.
Solution. From eq. (125) k = 0.446. Then, from eq. (d),
k2 = 2(1 - k)nni, (d)
from which k2
n1 = 2 (I -
'-) n =
re
0.012.
k = - nni + -v(nni) + 2nn 2
(12 )
4 1
3. Determine the ratio n1 if the maximum compressive stress
After determi_ning the position of the neutral axis from eq. in the concrete is one-twentieth of the tensile stress in the steel.
(124), the ratto between the maximum stress in the concrete Answer. ni = 0.0107.
and the stress in the steel becomes, from eqs. (b), 4. If n = I 5 and the working compressive stress for concrete
is 650 lbs. per sq. in., determine the safe load at the middle of a
U'c k reinforced-concrete beam IO feet long supported at the ends and
- u. = (1 - k)n (125) having b = 10 in., h = 12 in., A. = 1.17 sq. in.
Answer. P = 5,570 lbs.
The dist~nce a betwe~n the resultants R of the compressive 5. Calculate the maximum moment which a concrete beam will
and tenstle forces actmg over the cross section of the beam safely carry if b = 8 in., h = 12 in., A. = 2 sq. in., E,/Ec = 12,
(Fig. 194, b) is and the working stress for steel is 15,000 lbs. per sq. in. and for
concrete 800 lbs. per sq. in.
Answer. M = 16,000 ft. lbs.
a = ikh + (1 - k)h =( I -1) h (126) 6. Determine the value of k for which the maximum permissible
stresses in the concrete and the steel are realized simultaneously.
and the mo?1ent of the interna! forces equal to the bending Solution. Let " and " be the allowable stresses for the concrete
moment Mis and the steel. Then taking the ratio of these stresses, as given
by formulas (b), and considering only the absolute value of this
akbh ratio, we obtain
- -2-u = M,
kEc
from which (1-k)E.'
M from which
u.= aA.' (127) k = <1c
E.
U'c = (128)
" + " E.
If this condition is satisfied the beam is said to have balanced
By using eqs. (124) to (128) the bending stresses in reinforced- reinforcement . . Having k and using equation (126) the depth is
concrete beams are easily calculated. . obtained from equation (128) and the area A, from equation (127).
7. Determine the ste.el ratio n1 = A./bh if " = 12,000 lbs. per
Problems sq. in., " = 645 lbs. per sq. in., and n = E,/E. = 15.
Solution. From the formula of the preceding problem we find
l. lf E./E_. = I 5 and A. = o.oo8bh, determine the: distance of
the neutral axis from the top of the beam (Fig. 1 ). k = 0.446.
94
Solution. Subs~itutingineq. (124) n = 15, ni= o.oo8, weobtain
k = 0.384 and _the d1stan~e from the tor of the be_am is kh = 0.384h. Then, substituting in equation (d), we obtain
2. Determme the ratio ni = A./bh 1f the max1mum tensile stress- n1 = 0.012.
224 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BEAMS OF VARIABLE CROSS SECTION 225
8. Design . beam 10 in. wide to_withstand safely a moment of in the steel bars at these two sections is
22,500 ft. lbs. 1f <Te ~ 7 50 lbs. per sq. m., u. = I 2,000 lbs. per sq. in.,
and E./Ec = 12. Fmd the depth h and the steel area A.. Assume dR = Vdx.
balanced reinforcement as in problem 6. a
49. Shearing Stresses in Reinforced-Concrete Beams.- This difference is balanced by the shearing stresses distributed
Using the same method as in arti- over the surface of the bars. Denoting by A the total laterai
cle 26, by considering an element surface of all the steel bars per unit length of the beam, the
mnm1n1 between the two adjacent shearing stress over the surface of the bars is
cross sections mp and m1p 1 (Fig. dR V 3V
195) it can be concluded that the (130)
Adx = Aa = (3 - k)hA .
Fm. _ maximum shearing stress Txy will ':
195 This stress becomes larger than the stress on the neutral
act over the neutral surface nn 1
Denoting by dR the difference between the compressive forces surface (eq. 129) if A is iess than b. To increase A and at the
on the concrete on cross sections mp and m 1p 1, the shearing same time keep the cross sectional area of steel constant, it is
stress Tz11 over the neutral surface is found from the following: only necessary to increase the number of bars and decrease
their diameter.
(rxv)maxbdx = dR,
from which
1dR
( TxJmax = b dx (a)
(b)
bending, if the bending moments at d and at B are numerically Fig. 203 (b), and bending in one of the principal planes by
equal. the couple Pe producing bending stresses, - (Pey/1,.), as
Solution. From the equality of the bending moments at d and shown in Fig. 203 (e). The total stress is then
B, it follows that the' force P passes through the midpoint D of
the bar dB. Then P,, = Pl/2a, and the P Pey (a)
components P,, and PY may now be calcu- ux = - A-1..
lated. The rotation of the cross section
B dueto bending of the portian dB by the The distribution diagram of this total stress is shown in Fig.
_ _.___-'~ component PY is Pl2/2EJ in a clockwise 203 (d). It is assumed that the maximum bending stress is
direction. The rotation of the same less than the direct stress; then there will be compressive
P cross section due to the component P,, is
stresses all over the cross section of the bar. If the maximum
Fm. 202 _ P,,al/EI in a counter-clockwise direction.
The rotation of the cross section C with bending stress is larger than the direct compressive stress,
respect to the cross section B, due to bending of the portian BC of there will be a line of zero stress parallel to the z axis, dividing
the bar, is P,,a2/2EJ in a connter-clockwise direction. The total the cross section into two zones with tensile stresses on the
angle of rotation of the end C in a clockwise direction is left and compressive stresses on the right. For a rectangular
Py/2 P,,al P,,a 2 P,,a 2 cross section with sides h and b (Fig. 203, a) eq. (a) becomes
2EI El 2EI - - 2EJ . P 12Pey
<1':r; = - bh - bh3 (a')
51. Eccentric Loading of a Short Strut.-Eccentric load-
ing is a particular case of the combination of direct and and we obtain, by putting y = - (h/2),
bending stresses. When the length of the bar is not very
P
large in comparison with its lateral (o-x)max = - bh + 6Pe
bh2 =
P(
bh - I + 6e)
h , (b)
dimensions, i ts deflection is so small
that it can be neglected in compar- and, by putting y = h/2,
ison with the initial eccentricity e;
P 6Pe P(
hence the method of superposition (o-x)min = - bh - bh2 = - bh I + h6e) (e)
may be used. 1 Take, for example,
the case of compression by a longi- I t may be seen that when e < h/6 there is no reversa} of sign
tudinal force P applied with an eccen- of the stresses over the cross section; when e = h/6, the
tricity e (Fig. 203) on one of the two ~(d) maximum compressive stress, from eq. (e), is 2P/bh, and
principal axes of the cross section. the stress on the opposite side of the rectangular cross section
Then, if we put two equal and oppo- is zero; when e > h/6, there is a reversa} of sign of the stress
site forces P at the centroid O of the and the position of the line of zero stress is obtained by
cross section, the problem is not equating to zero the general expression (a') for ux, giving
Fm. 203.
changed, as they are equivalent to h2
y= (d)
zero, and we obtain an axial compression by the force P pro- I2e
ducing direct compressive stresses, - (P/A), as shown m
or, usmg the notation k,. for the radius of gyration with
1 For the case of eccentric loading of long bars see art. 53.
COMBINED BENDING AND TENSION 233
232 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
~
portion of the cross sect10n 1s equal to t~e load P, and (3) the
sect1on and there w11l be no reversa! in the sign of the stress. i.
moment of these forces with respect to nn 1s equ_al to the ~oment
For an I section (Fig. 2rn) the extreme
Pb of the load P with respect to the same axis.. Denotmg the
r
8
Pthositidons otf the lhines of zero. stress, in which maximum compressive stress by <Tmax, the compress1ve stress at any
ey. o no cut t e cross sect10n, are given by
the s1des AB and CD and by the dotted lines distance y from nn is
h -f~?r--'--.-' AC and BD. The corresponding positions J<Tmax
u= - -
L e
,
Y D
of the point of application of the load may be
?etermined from eq. (131). From symmetry
1t may be concluded that these points will
b+c
and the equations for determining b become
Fw. 2rn. bF~ the corners of a rhombus, shaded in J<Tmax dd = p. Jy2<Tmax dA = Pb
1g. 210.
J b+c ' b+c '
If the point of application of the eccentric load is outside the
core of ~ cross section, the corresponding line of zero stress crosses from which
the _sect10n and the load produces not only compressive but also b = fnn, (a)
tens1le stresses. If the material does not resist tensile stresses at Qnn
all, part ?f the cross section will be inactive and the rest will carry in which Inn = fy2d.d is the moment of inertia of the working
compressr~e stresses only. Take, for example, a rectangular cross portion of the cross section with respect t<? the nn axis and (Jnn
sect1on (F1g. 211) with the point of application .d of the load on = f yd.d is the moment of the working port1on of the cr~s~ sect10n
the I?rincipal axis y and at a distance e from the edge of the section. with respect to the same axis. By usin~ eq. (a) the posltlon of d
lf e 1.5 less th_an h/3, part of the cross section will not work. The for any given position of nn may eas1ly be found. 1:'he same
workmg port10n may be found from the condition that the distri- equation may also be used for other shapes of cross se7t1ons, pro-
vided A is on one of the principal axes. 2 If the load 1s not_ on a
principal axis, the problem of. determ_ining ;he working port10n of
the cross section becomes more comphcated.
By using the notion of the. cor~, the _calcula~io? of maximum
bending stresses when the bendmg 1~ no~ m a prmc1pal plane m~y
be greatly simplified. For example, m F1g. 209 let mm be the axial
2 For the cases of circular cross sections and circular ring sections,
plane of the beam in which a bending moment M acts and nn the which A = 23.33 sq. in., I. = 2,087 in.4, k. = 94? in., 111 = 42.9
corresponding neutral axis, which makes an angle a with the plane in.4, k 11 = 1.36 in. The width of the fla?-ges ~ = 7 m.
mm (see p. 166). Denoting by <Tmax the maximum stress in the most Answer. The core is a rhombus wtth dtagonals equal to 14.9
remote point e and by d its distance from the neutral axis nn the in. and 1 .06 in. . . .
Determine the radius of the core of a circular rmg sectton
stress at any other point, distant w from nn, is u = <Tmaxw/d,' and 2
the moment of all forces distributed over the cross section with if Ro = 10 in. and R. = 8 in. .
respect to the axis nn is Answer. The radius of the core a = 4.10 m. .
. Determine the core of a cross section in the form of an equ1-
<TmaxW dA = <Tmax J 3
d d nn, (b) lateral triangle. . .
. Determine the core of the cross sectton of a square thm_ tube.
4
in which Inn is the moment of inertia of the cross section with So/ution. If h is the thickness of the tube and b the s1de of
respect to the n-n axis. The moment of the externa! forces with the square cross section, we have
respect to the same axis is M sin a. Equating this to (b), we have
2
Mdsin a I. = Iv ,,,. - h!r;
Umax = (e) 3
The core is a square with diagonal
This equation may be gr:atly simplified by using the property of
the core of the cross sect10n. 4 Let O be the point of intersection
k2 2b
d=2-=-
of the plane mm with the core and r its distance from the centroid b 3
of the cross section. From the property of the core it follows that
a compressive force P at O produces zero stress at the corner e 53. Eccentric Compression of a Slender Column.-I_n dis-
he~ce t~e tensile stress pr?duced at e by the bending moment Pr: cussing the bending of a slender column under the action of
actm~ m the plane mm, 1s numerically equal to the direct com- an eccentric load, Fig. 213, the deflection
presstve stress P/A, or, substituting Pr for M in eq. (e), we obtain o can no longer be neglected as being small
P Prdsin a in comparison with the eccentricity e.
A= fnn Assuming that the eccentricity is in the
from which direction of one of the principal axes of the
d sin a I cross section of the column, the deflection
--y:;-= Ar (d)
occurs in the same axial plane xy in which
Substituting this into eq. (e), we obtain the load P acts, and the bending moment
M at any cross section mn is
=Ar
<Tmax
M = - P(o +e - y). (a)
The product Ar is called the section modulus of the cross section
in the plane mm. This definition agrees with the definition which
In determining the sign of the moment it Fw. 21 3
we had previously (see p. 92), and for bending in a principal plane should be noted that by rotating Fig. 213 . . .
Ar becomes equal to Z. in the clockwise direction by an angle 1 /2 the same d1rect1ons
Problems of the coordinate axes are 0btaned as those used in deriving
I. Determine the core of a standard I beam, 24" depth, for equation (79). Hence, to follow the ~ule s~ow~ in Fig. 58
4 See R. Land, Zeitschr. f. Architektur und lngenieurwesen, 1897,
(b), the moment (a) is taken with a ?1.mus ~1gn ~mee the de-
p. 291.
flection curve is concave in the pos1t1ve direct1on of the Y
240 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS COMBINED BENDING AND TENSION 241
axis. The differential equation of the deflection curve ob- Substituting this into equation (f) we obtain the deflection
tained by substituting (a) in equation (79) is curve
J2y e(1 - cos px)
El. dx 2 = P(li +e- y). (b) Y= cospl (137)
Using the notation
p By using this equation the deflection at any cross section of
2
El~ = P ( 1 35) the column can readily be calculated.
In the case of short columns, which were considered in
we obtain from equation (b) Art. 51, the quantity pi is small in comparison with unity and
J2y it is sufficiently accurate to take
dx2 + p2y = p2(li + e). (e)
(g)
By substitution it can be readily proved that
Using this value of cos pi and neglecting the quantity p 2l 2/2
y = Ci sin px + C2 cos px + li + e (d) in the denominator of expression (136), as being small in
is the solution of equation (e). This solution contains two comparison with unity, we obtain
const~nts of integration C1 and C2 whose magnitudes must ep212 ePl2
be adJusted so as to satisfy the conditions at the ends of the li = -2- = 2EI,. (h)
column if we are to obtain the true deflection curve of the
column. A t the lower end, which is built-in, the con di tions are This represents the magnitude of the deflection at the end of a
(dx-dy).:z:=o =o
cantilever bent by a couple Pe applied at the end. Hence the
(y).:z:=0 = o, (e) use of the approximate expression (g) is equivalent to neglect-
ing the effect of the deflections upon the magnitude of the
Usng these conditions together with express1on (d) and its bending moment and taking instead a constant moment
first derivative, we obtain equal to Pe.
C2 = - (li + e). If pi is not small, as is usually the case when the column
is slender, we must use expression (136) in calculating li. In
The equation of the deflection curve (d) thus becomes this way we find that the deflection is no longer proportional
y = (li + e)(1 - cos px). (J) to the load P. Instead, it increases more rapidly than P,
as is seen from the values of this deflection as given in the
To obtain the magnitude of the deflection li at the upper end
second line of the table below.
of the column, we substitute x = I in the right side of equation
(f). The deflection y on the left side must then be equal to li DEFLECTIONS PRODUCED BY AN EccENTRIC LONGITUDINAL LOAD
from which
lj = (li + e)(I - COS pi) .................. o.005e o.139e o.85u 13.Ie 00
The maximum bending moment occurs at the built-in end two component couples each acting in a principal plane of
of the column and has a magnitude the column. The deflection in each of the two principal planes
can then be investigated in the same
Mmax = P(e + o) = Pe sec pi. (138) manner as discussed above.
A series of values of sec pi is given in the fourth line of the The preceding discussion of bending
above table. These values show how rapidly the moment of a column built-in at one end can also
increases as pi approaches the value 1r/2. This phenomenon be applied to the case of a strut eccen- 11z
will be discussed in the next article. trically compressed by two equal and
Here, however, we should like to repeat that in the case opposite forces P, Fig. 214. From sym-
metry it can be appreciated that the y
under discussion there is no proportionality between the mag- A
cross section A at the middle <loes not ro-
nitude of the compressive force and the deflection o which it
tate during bending and each half of the
produces. Hence the method of superposition (p. 147) cannot
strut in Fig. 214 is in exactly the same
be used here. An axially applied force P produces only
condition as the strut in Fig. 213. Hence
compression of the bar; but when the same force acts in
the deflection and the maximum bending
conjunction with a bending couple Pe, it produce not only
moment are obtained by substituting l/2
compression but also additional bending, so that the resulting
for / in equations (136) and (138). In Fro. 214.
deformation cannot be obtained by simple superposition of
this way we obtain
an axial compression due to the force P and a bending due
to the couple Pe. The reason why in this case the method of
superposition is not applicable can readily be seen if we ' e( 1 - COS Pf)
compare this problem with the bending of a beam by trans-
o= l (139)
cos 1!.___
2
verse loads. In the latter case, it can be assumed that small
and
deflections of the beam do not change the distances between pi
the forces, and the bending moments can be calculated without M max = Pesec-
2
considering the deflection of the beam. In the case of
Problems
eccentric compression of a column the deflections produced
by the couple Pe entirely change the character of the action of 1. Find the deflection at the middle and the maximum tensile
the axial load by causing it to have a bending action as well and compressive stresses in an eccentrically compressed strut IO
ft. long with hinged ends if the cross section is a channel of 8 in.
as a compressive action. In each case in which the deforma- depth with lz = 1.3 in.4, ]y = 32.3 in.4, and A = 3.36 sq. in. The
tion produced by one load changes the action of the other distance between the centroid and the back of the channel is 0.58
load it will be found that the final deformation cannot be ob- in., and the compressive forces P = 4,000 lbs. act in the plane of
tained by the method of superposition. the back of the channel and in the symmetry plane of the channel.
2. A square steel bar 2 by 2 in. and 6 ft. long is eccentrically
In the previous discussion bending in one of the principal
compressed by forces P = 1 ,ooo lbs. The eccentricity e is directed
planes of the column was considered. lf the eccentricity e along a diagonal of the square and is equal to I in. Find the
is not in the direction of one of the principal axes of the cross maximum compressive stress, assuming that the ends of the bar
section, it is necessary to resolve the bending couple Pe into are hinged.
244 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS COMBINED BENDING AND TENSION 245
3. A steel bar 4 ft. long and having a rectangular cross section proa.ches its critical value (141), and all the curves have as
I by 2 in. is compressed by two forces P = 1,000 lbs. applied at the
corners of the end cross sections so that the eccentricity is in the their assymptote the horizontal line P/Pc, = l.
direction of a diagonal of the cross section and is equal to half The differential equation of the deflection curve (79),
the length of the diagonal. Considering the ends to be hinged, find which was used in the discussion of the preceding article, was
the maximum compressive stress. derived on the assumption that the deflections are small in
54. Critica! Load.-lt was indicated in the previous article comparison with the length l of the column. Hence formula
that the deflection of an eccentrically compressed column (136) for the deflection o cannot give us an accurate result
increases very rapidly as the quantity pi in equation (136) w hen P is very el ose to P cr However, the curves in Fig. 21 5
approaches the value 1r/2. When pi becomes equal to 1r/2,
the formula (136) for the deflections and (138) for the max-
imum bending moment both give infinite values. To find the
corresponding value of the load we use formula (135). Sub-
stituting p = 1r/2l in this expression we find that the value of
08
-~ .
1/
;~
t/~
--
1
j
the load at which the expressions (136) and (138) become o1
/
infinitely large is 06
/
05
'/
I
04
curves in Fig. 216 show the results of such experiments as Equations (139) and (140) give infinite values when
obtained by several experimenters. It may be seen that
with increasing accuracy in the application of the load the pl = ~.
2 2
curves become closer and closer to the vertical axis and the
rapid increase in the deflection as the load approaches its Subst:ituting for p its value from formula (135) we obtain
critical value becomes more and more pronounced. The loads
2
P which are clase to their critical values always produce large P cr = 1r Elz.
/2
deformations which usually go beyond the elastic limit of the
material, so that after such a loading the column loses its This is the critica! value of the compressive force
for a strut with hinged ends.
In the case of compression of columns with r'
built-in ends the deflection has the form shown in '
90 .,''
i:: Fig. 217. The deflection curve can be considered '
I
-~ 80 l
as consisting of four portions each similar to the
'5
.....
e
70 curve previously obtained for a column with one
~
I t i;,; seen that for a given material the value of the critical pression for the critical load is based on the use of the differ-
stress depends on the magnitude of the ratio l/k., which is ential equation (79) for the deflection curve, which equation
called the slenderness ratio. In Fig. 219 the curve ACB assumes that the material is perfectly elastic and follows
represents 8 the relation between <Ter and // k, for the case of Hooke's law (see art. 31). Hence the curve ACB in Fig. 219
steel having E = 30 X 106 lbs. per sq. in. It will be appreci- gives satisfactory results only for comparatively slender bars
ated that the curve is entirely defined by the magnitude of for which <Ter remains within the elastic region of the material.
the modulus of the material and is independent of its ultima te For shorter struts, for which <Ter as obtained from equation
strength. For large values of the slenderness ratio l/k. the (144) is higher than the proportional limit of the material, the
critical stress becomes small, which indicates that a very Euler curve does not give a satisfactory result and recourse
~s 510 4 1
..,\
"
i.: A ie/cl, omf \
g ""
4-to4 410 4 ~
3104
210 4
3104 E= 2!1410 6LiJ. per in 2
'~ ~
dimensions and calcula te k. and // k. for these dimensions. 7. A column 10 ft. long with hinged ends is made of two channels
Then the safe value of the compressive stress is obtained from 8 in. deep having 1. = 1.3 in.4, 1 11 = 32.3 in.4, d = 3.36 in. 2 and a
the diagram of Fig. 221. Multiplying this value by the area distance of e = 0.58 in. between the centroid and the back of
channel. Find the safe load on the column if the back to back
of the assumed cross section, the safe load on the column is
distance between the channels is 4 in.
obtained. If this load is neither smaller nor overly larger 8. Determine the cross-sectional dimension of a square steel
than P, the assumed cross section is satisfactory. Otherwise strut 6 ft. long if the load P = 40,000 lbs. and the ends are hinged.
the calculations must be repeated. In the case of built-up Use Fig. 121.
columns the gross cross section is used in calculating k., 9. Solve the preceding problem assuming that the ends of the
strut are built-in. Use Fig. 121.
since the rivet hales do not appreciably affect the magnitude
of the critica! load. However, in calculating the safe load 56. Design of Columns on Basis of Assumed Inaccuracies.
on the column the safe stress is multiplied by the net cross- -In the preceding article the safe load on a column was
sectional area in arder to insure against excessive stresses in obtained by dividing the critica! load for the column by a
the column. proper factor of safety. The weakness of that method lies in
a certain arbitrariness in the selection of the factor of safety
Problems which, as we have seen, vares with the slenderness ratio. To
1. A steel bar of rectangular cross section I by 2 in. and ha ving
make the procedure of column design more rational, another
hinged ends is compressed axially. Determine the mnimum length method based on assumed inaccuracies has been developed. 9
at which equation (144) for the critical stress can be applied if the On the basis of existing experimental data we can assume
limit of proportionality of the material is 30,000 lbs. per sq. in. and certain values for the magnitude of the unavoidable ec-
E = 30 X I06 lbs. per sq. in. Determine the magnitude of the centricity e in the application of the compressive force P.
critical stress if the length of the bar is 5 ft. Then, by using these values in the formulas of Article 53, we
dnswer. Mnimum length = 28.9 in. The critica! stress for
can calculate the magnitude PY. P. of the load at which the
l = 5 ft. is 6,850 lbs. per sq. in.
2. Solve the preceding problem assuming a bar with a circular
. maximum stress in the compressed strut becomes equal to
cross section I in. in diameter and built-in ends. the yield point stress of the material. The safe load is then
3. Determine the critica! compressive load for a standard I obtained by dividing the load PY.P. by a proper factor of safety.
section 6 ft. long and 6 in. deep assuming hinged ends. 1. = 1.8 Thus instead of using the critica! load, which is equivalent
in.4, 111 = 21.8 in. 4 and d = 3.61 sq. in. Determine the safe load to the ultimate load, we use the load at which yielding begins
from the curve of Fig. -121. as a basis for calculating the safe load.
4. Solve the preceding problem assuming that the ends of the
This method of column design can be simplified by the
column are built-in.
__ 5. Calculate, by the use of Fig. 221, the safe use of diagrams the calculations of which will now be ex-
I~ load on a member built-up of two I beams of the plained. Taking the case of a strut with hinged ends, Fig.
same cross section as those in problem 3, Fig. 222. 214, the maximum bending moment is obtained from equation
_IY The length of the member is 10 ft. and the ends (140) and the maximum compressive stress is
1---'!.4 are hinged. Assume that the connecting details
are so rigid that both I beams work together as a P Pe 1/ l
A+ z '\Ju
FIG. 222
single bar. umax = sec 2 (a)
6. Solve the preceding problem assuming that the ends of the 9 See paper by D. H. Young, Proceedings Am. Soc. Civil Eng.,
member are built-in. December, 1934.
-~
256 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS COMBINED BENDING AND TENSION 257
The first term on the right side is the direct stress and the if e/r and l/k, are given. The safe load is then obtained by
second is the maximum compressive bending stress. The load dividing PY.P. by the factor of safety.
at which yielding begins is obtained by substituting <Ty_ P. for We assumed in the foregoing discussion that the unavoid-
<Tmax in this equation, which gives able inaccuracies in the column could be represented by an
eccentricity of the load. In a similar manner we can also
PY.P.( consider the inaccuracies to be equivalent toan initial crooked-
<Ty_ P. = --;- I + re SeC 2 k,/ '\Ju
~)
(b)
ness of the column. Denoting the maximum initial deviation
of the axis of the column from a straight line 10 by a, curves
We now introduce the notations r = Z/A for the radius of the
similar to those shown in Fig. 223 and representing <Te as a
core of the cross section (see p. 238) and k. = .../J,/A for the
function of the ratio a/r and the slenderness ratio l/k. can be
smaller principal radius of gyration. The quantity Py_ P./A is
obtained.
the average compressive stress or centroidal compressive stress
at which yielding begins. Denoting this stress by <Te we obtain 36,-.----i--r-----r-""T""T--r---.--,-~-
3 2 1---l-"k-"~--
<Ty_ P. = <Te ( I
l
+ re sec 2k. Fo)
'\JE (e)
e
&28
~24
(1)
From this equation, for a given value of the eccentricity ratio a.za
.ri
e/r, the value of <Te can readily be obtained for any value of the ....1 16 t----+--+--+-l--+-~""1------le---l---l
o
slenderness ratio l/ k.. The results of such calculations for a ) g 12 t----+--+--+-l--+----f-----"!.~e---l---1
~~
structural steel having <Ty_p_ = 36,000 lbs. per sq. in. are repre- ~ 8t--t-~----t-f--t----f--+---l~lllilll,,d'
.~ 4 r----t--t--+-1--+--+---+---l--l---l
~
.rt-+411...:::::::~~~~;:::-H
12 Taking a certain magnitude for that ratio, 11 the magnitude
of a is calculated and the value of <Te is then obtained from the
~4f-+----f--+---j--l--+--+-+-I--I above-mentioned curves. The results obtained in this way
0
00,__.,___,___,_---1..__,_J...-_.___,__.....i..---J200 t for three different values of the ratio a/l and for <Ty_p_ = 36,000
40 80 120 160 R
Voilues of Sleno!erness Rot+io z lbs. per sq. in. are shown for an I section in Fig. 224. For
FIG. 223. very short columns all three curves give <Te = 36,000 lbs.
10 A half wave of a sinusoidal form is usually taken as rcpresenting
sented by curves in Fig. 223. By the use of these curves the the initial crookedness of a column.
average compressive stress <Te and the compressive load 11 lt is usually taken within the limits __!_~a ~ _l_.
PY.P. = <Te at which yielding begins can readily be calculated 400 1000
258 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS COMBINED BENDING AND TENSION 259
per sq. in. Far very slender columns the values given by the given by the Rankine formula is
curves approach those obtained from the Euler curve. Using
one of the curves and dividing the value <Ye from the curve by a
a proper factor of safety, say by 2, the safe value of the average <Yw =
I + b ( -k./ )2 >
(a)
per sq. m.
Determine
the power transmitted if the maximum shearing stress is 4,500 lbs.
from which
4
where I P = (1r/32) (d - d1 4) is the polar moment of inertia of 16 X 16 X 8,000 X 12 X 33,000
d- - - -- - - ' ' - - - - - -= = - - = l 8.2 in.
the ring section. Then - ~ 15 X 21r X 100 X 1r X 4,500
Then d1 = 9.1 in.
32M, M,
8 60. The Shaft of Rectangular Cross Section.
= 1r(d4 - d1 4)G = Glp -The problem of the twist of a shaft of rectangu-
and the angle of twist will be lar cross section is complicated, due to the
warping of the cross section during twist. This
warping can be shown experimentally with a rec-
Mi tangular bar of rubber on whose faces a system
cp = el= Glp. ( 1 53)
of small squares has been traced. It is seen
from photograph 231 that during twist the lines
Substituting eq. (152) in eq. (146), we obtain
originally perpendicular to the axis of the bar be-
come curved. This indicates that the distortion
of the small squares, mentioned above, varies
along the sides of this cross section, reaches a
maximum value at the middle and disappears at
the corners. We therefore expect that the
We see from eqs. (153) and (154) that by taking, for instance, shearing stress vares as this distortion, namely,
d1 = d the angle of twist and the maximum stress, as com- is maximum at the middle of the sides and zero Fm. 2J1.
pared with the same quantities far a salid shaft of diameter d, at the corners of the cross section. Investigation
270 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION 271
1
of the problem indicates that the maximum shearing stress occurs
61. Helical Spring, Close Coiled.-Assume that a helical
at the middle of the longer sides of the rectangular cross section
and is given by the equation: spring of circular cross section is submitted t? t?e action ?f
axial forces P (Fig. 232), and that any one coil hes nearly in
Mt a plane perpendicular to the axis _of the helix. . Considering
Tmax = abc2 > (I 55)
the equilibrium of the upper port10n of the spnng bounded
in which b is the longer and e the shorter side of the rectangular by an axial section such as mn (Fig. 232, b), it can be concluded
cross section and a is a numerical factor depending upon the ratic from the equations of statics that the stresses over the cross
b/c. Several values of a are given in Table 3 below. It is interesting
section mn of the coil reduce to a shearing force P through
to note that the magnitude of the maximum stress can be calculated
with satisfactory accuracy from the following approximate equation: the center of the cross section anda couple acting in a counter
clockwise direction in the plane of the cross section of mag-
Tmax
Mi( J + .8 be)
= bc2 I
TABLE 3
DATA FOR THE TwrsT OF A SHAFT oF RECTANGULAR CRoss SECTION
b
- = 1.00 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.50 3.00 4.00 6 8 ro 00
e
a= 0.208 0.231 0.239 0.246 0.258 0.267 0.282 0.299 0.307 0.313 o.333
{3 = 0.141 0.196 0.214 0.229 0.249 0.263 0.281 0.299 0.307 0.313 o.333
The angle of twist per unit length in the case of a rectangular
cross section is given by the equation: F10. 232.
Mt
8
= /3bc 3G. nitude PR, where R is the radius of the cylindrical surface
containing the center line of the spring The couple P R
The values of the numerical factor /3 are given in the third line of the twists the coil, and causes a maximum shearing stress given
above table.
by eq. (149), which becomes here
In all cases considered the angle of twist per unit length
is proportional to the torque and can be represented by the 16PR
T = 7d3 ' (a)
equation ' ,
number of coils is 20 and G = 12 X w 6 lbs. per sq. in. compressed between two parallel planes. Determine the maximum
Answer. stress in each spring if d = 0.5 and P = 100 lbs.
Tmax = II,300 lbs. per sq. in., = 4.17 in. Solution. From eq. (159) it follows that the load Pis distributed
between two springs in inverse proportion to the cubes of the radii
2. Sol ve the. previo1;1s problem, assuming that the coil has a of the coils, i.e., the forces compressing the outer and the inner
square cross sect10n o.8 m. on a side. springs will be in the ratio 27 : 64. The maximum stresses in these
Solution. Assuming that the. correction factor for the shearing springs are then (from eq. 158) 2,860 lbs. per sq. in. and
force and the c~rvature of the c01ls (see eq. 1 58) in this case is the 5,380 lbs. per sq. in. respectively.
same as for a circular cross section, we obtain from eq. (155) 6. What will be the limiting load for the spring of
problem I if the working stress is Tw = 20,000 lbs. per sq.
Tmax = PR 1 14 - 250 X 4 X 1.14 1 lb . in.? What will be the deflection of the spring at this
0.208 X b - 0 _20 3 X 0 _83 = 0,700 s. per sq. m. limiting load?
Answer. 442 lbs. = 7.38 in.
In caku\ating extension o.141d4 (see eq. 156) instead of 1rd4/32 must 7. A conical spring (Fig. 236) is submitted to the ac-
be used m eq. (159); then tion of axial forces P. Determine the safe magnitude of
P for a working stress rw = 45,000 lbs. per sq. in.; diam-
= 4.171r eter of the cross section d = I in.; radius of the cone at
32 X o.141 = 2.90 in.
the top of the spring R 1 = 2 in.; and at the bottom,
3 C?mpare the weights of two helical springs, R 2 = 8 in. Determine the extension of the spring if the number
one of circular, the other of square cross section of coils is n, and the horizontal projection of the center line of the
desi?ned for the conditions stated in problem I and spring is a spiral given by the equation
havmg the same maximum stress. Take the cor-
rectio1: factor in both cases as L14. Compare the ,
deflect10ns of these two springs.
Soluti~n. _The length of the side of the square
~oss sec~10n 1s foun1 from t~e equation 1rd3/i6 ' Solution. For any point A of the
- o.2o~b, from wh1~h b = _-vo.944d = 0.981d. spring, determined by the magnitude of
The we1ghts of the spnngs are m the same ratio as the angle a, the distance from the axis of
the cross-sectional areas, i.e., in the ratio , the spring is
Fro. 234.
(a)
The deflections of the two springs are in the ratio and the corresponding torque is
1rd4
o.141b 4 : -
32 = 0.141
. _!!__ = 1.33 .
X o .926 . 32
4 ~ow w!ll the load P be distributed between the two ends 0 { The maximum torque, at a = 21rn, is
th 7 hehcal sp=mg_ shown in Fig. 234 if the number of coils above the PR2. The safe limit for P, from eq.
pomt of apphcat1on of the load is 6 and that below this point is 5? (158), will be
Answer. Rr : R 2 = 5 : 6.
5 Tw? helical springs of the same material and of equal circular P = 45,000 X 1r = b
1,0101s. Fro. 236.
cross sect10ns and lengths, assembled as shown in Fig. 235, are I6X 8 X 1.09
276 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION 277
The deflection of the spring will be obtained, from eq. (e) (see p. 273), M, (2) normal stresses due to the bending moment (a), and
as follows: (3)' shearing stresses due to the shearing force P. The maxi-
mum torsional stress occurs at the circumference of the shaft
and has the value
16M1
Tmax = 1rd3 (b)
8. Determine the necessary cross sectional area of coils of a The maximum normal stress <Tx due to bending occurs in the
conical spring, designed for the same con di tions as in the previous fibers most remate from the neutral axis at the built-in end;
problem, but of a square cross section. Take 1.09 as the correction where the bending moment is numerically a maximum, it has
factor (see previous prohlem).
Answer. b2 = o.96o sq. in. the value
M 32M
62. Combined Bending and Twist in Circular Shafts.-
(ux)max = = 1rd3 z (e)
In the previous discussion of twist (see p. 261) it was assumed The stress dueto the shearing force is usually of only secondary
that the circular shaft was in simple torsion. In practica! importance. Its maximum value occurs at the neutral axis
applications we often have cases where torque and bending where the normal stress due to bending is zero; hence the
moment are acting simulta- maximum combined stress usually occurs at the point where
neously. The forces trans- stresses (1) and (2) are a maximum, in this case at the top and
mi tted to a shaft by a pul- bottom surface elements at the built-in end.
ley, a gear or a flywheel Figure 237 (b) is a top view of the portian of the shaft at
can usually be reduced to a the built-in end, showing an element and the stresses acting
torque and a bending force. on it. The principal stresses on this element are found from
A simple case of this kind eqs. (72) and (73) (p. 122):
i'J is shown in Fig. 237. A
circular shaft is built in at <T max = -<Tx
2
+ -21 -,Jux 2 + 4r2 ,
one end and loaded at the
other by a vertical force P or, using eqs. (b) and (e),
(11) at a distance R from the
Fm. 237.
axis. This case reduces to <Tmax = 2
~ (M + ..JM + M1
2 2
)
one of loading by a torque
M, = PR and by a transverse force P at the free end.3 The = :;3 (M + ..JM2 + M, 2 ). (160)
torque is constant along the axis and the bending moment
due to P, at any cross section, is In the same manner using eq. (73)
M = - P(l- x). (a) <Tmin
I
= 2Z (M - ..JM2 + M, 2 )
In discussing the maximum stress produced in the shaft it 16 6 ,
is necessary to consider (1) shearing stresses dueto the torque = 1rd3 (M - -..JM2 + Mi2).
,-,------=-:e-,,
(1 0)
1 The weight of the shaft and of the pulley is neglected in this problem.
278 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION 279
lt will be noted that O"max would have the same value for a
case of simple bending in which the equivalen! bending moment
If sevetal parallel transverse forces act on the shaft, the total
lS
bending moment M and the total torque M1 at each cross
section must be taken in calculating the necessary diameter at
Mequlvalent = (M + ..JM2 + Mt 2). that point, from eq. (162) or (166). lf the _transverse forces
The maximum shearing stress at the same element (Fig. 237, acting on the shaft are not parallel, the bendmg moments due
b), from eq. (34) (p. 49), is to them must be added vectorially to get the resultant bend-
ing moment M. An example of such a calculation is discussed
Tmax: = in problem 3 below.
-16
z= 1r(d4 - d14) = 1rd3[1 - (d1)4] Fm. 238.
' Fw. 239.
32d 32 d '
and setting di(d = n, eqs. (160) and (160') for a hollow shaft stress at cross section mn if the horizontal pulls in the upper and
become lower portions of the belt are 1,750 lbs. and 250 lbs. respectively.
Solution. At cross section mn,
M 1 = (1,750 - 250)15 = 22,500 lbs. ins.,
U= dE52. Structural
2/ (169) steel. .... 7.8 30 X 10
6 28,000 13. l inch lbs. 46 inch lbs.
Too! steel... 7.8 30 X 106 120,000 240 " " 850 " "
Copper ..... 8.5 16 X 106 4,000 .5 " " 1.6 " "
The first of these gives the strain energy as a function of the Oak .... ... l,O 1.5 X 106 4,000 5.3 " " 146 " "
load P and the second the same energy as a function of the Rubber .... .93 150 300 300 " " 8,900 " "
elongation 5. Far a bar of given dimensions and given
modulus of elasticity the strain energy is completely deter-
This indicates that the quantity of energy which can be stored
mined by the value of the force P or the value of the elon-
in a given weight of rubber is about 10 times larger than far
gation 5.
tool steel and about '20? larger than far structural steel.
In practica! applications the strain energy per unit volume
is often of importance; this is, from eqs. (168) and (169): Problems
U u 2
EE 2 I. A prismatical steel bar 10 inches long and 4 sq. ins. in cross
w = di= 2E' (170) or w = 2' (171) sectional area is compressed by a force P = 4,000 lbs. Determine
the amount of strain energy.
in which u = P/d is the tensile stress and E = 5// is the unit .dnswer.
elongation. U= inch lb.
The greatest amount of strain energy per unit volume 2. Determine the amount of strain energy in the previous
which can be stored in a bar without permanent set 1 is found problem if the cross-sectional area is 2 sq. in. instead of 4 sq. in.
by substituting the elastic limit of the material in place of u in .dnswer.
U= 1 inch lbs.
eq. (170). Steel, with an elastic limit of 30,000 lbs. per sq. in.
and E = 30 X I06 lbs. per sq. in., gives w = 15 inch lbs. per 3. Determine the amount of strain energy in a vertical uniform
steel bar strained by its own weight if the length of the bar is
cubic inch; rubber, with a modulus of elasticity E = 150 lbs.
100 feet and its cross-sectional area I sq. in., the weight of steel
per sq. in. and an elastic limit of 300 lbs. per sq. in., gives being 490 lbs. per cubic foot.
w = 300 inch lbs. per cubic inch. lt is sometimes of interest .dnswer.
to know the greatest amount of strain energy per unit weight U= 0.772 inch lb.
of a material W1 which can be stored without producing 4. Determine the amount of strain energy in the previous
permanent set. This quantity is calculated from eq. (170) problem if in addition to its own weight the bar carries an axial
by substituting the elastic limit far u and dividing w by the load P = I ,ooo lbs. applied at the end.
weight of one cubic inch of the material. Several numerical .dnswer.
U= 27.58 inch lbs.
results calculated in this manner are given in the table on the
following page. 5. Check the solution of the problem shown in Fig. I 5 for the
case in which all bars have the same cross section and the same
1 This quantity sometimes is called the modulus o/ resilien,e.
284 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 285
modulus by equating the strain energy of the system to the work
done by the load P. a very narrow groove and a large outer diameter, although its
diameter at the weakest place is equal to that of the cylindrical bar.
Solution. If X is the force in the vertical bar, its elongation is
Xl/AE and the work done by P is P(Xl/AE). Equating this to 64. Tension Produced by Impact.-A simple arrangement
the energy of strain, we obtain for producing tension by impact is shown in Fig. 243. A
P Xl = X l + 2 (X cos2 a) 2l,
2 weight W falls from a height h onto the flange mn
AE 2AE 2AE cosa and during the impact produces an extension of ,.~~~~
from which the vertical bar AB, which is fixed at the upper
X= _ _P_ _ end. If the masses of the bar and flange are w
I + 2 cos3 a' small in comparison with the mass of the falling
which checks the previous solution. . body, a satisfactory approximate solution is
6. Check problem 2, p. 9, by showing that the work done obtained by neglecting the mass of the bar and
by the load is equal to the strain energy of the two bars. assuming that there are no losses of energy dur- FIG. 243,
7. A steel bar 30 inches long and of I sq. in. cross-sectional ing impact. After striking the flange mn the
area is stretched 0.02 in. Find the amount of strain energy. body W continues to move downward, causing an exten-
Answer. From eq. (169),
d .,,,_T'Q U
__ (0.02) 2 X 30 X
2 X 30
106
= 200
mch lbs.
sion of the bar. Due to the resistance of the bar the ve-
locity of the moving body diminishes until it becomes zero.
At this moment the elongation of the bar and the corre-
IJJfa)
Zd
P
(b)
P
(e)
8. Compare the amounts of strain
energy in the two circular bars shown
in Fig. 242 (a) and (b) assuming a uni-
sponding tensile stresses are a maximum and their magnitudes
are calculated on the assumption that the total work done by
the weight W is transformed into strain energy of the bar. 2
Frn. 242. form distribution of stresses over cross If 5 denotes the maximum elongation, the work done by W is
sections of the bars.
Solution. The strain energy of the prismatical bar is W(h + 5). The strain energy of the bar is given by eq. (169).
Then the equation for calculating 5 is
p2
U= 2AE.
1- - W(h + 5) = AE 52
2/ '
(a)
The strain energy of the grooved bar is from which
p2 l p2l 7 p2
Ui = 2AE + 8AE = 16 2AE .
Hence where
U1: U= ?6 Wl
5.1 = AE
For a given maximum stress the quantity of energy stored in a is the static elongation of the bar by the load W and v = ..J2gh
grooved bar is less than that in a bar of uniform thickness. It
is the velocity of the falling body at the moment of striking
takes only a very small amount of work to bring the tensile stress
to a dangerous limit in a bar such as shown in Fig. 242 (e), having the flange mn. If the height h is large in comparison with
2
In actual cases part of the energy will be dissipated and the actual
elongation will always be less than that calculated on the bove as-
sumption.
286 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 287
st, this reduces to approximately load, the elongation of the bar and the stress in the bar are
zero at the beginning and the suddenly applied load begins to
= ~i stfr. fall under the action of its own weight. During this motion
the resisting force of the bar gradually increases until it just
The corresponding tensile stress in the bar is equals W when the vertical displacement of the weight is . 1
But at this moment the load has a certain kinetic energy,
(173) acquired during the displacement .1; hence it continues to
move downward until its velocity is brought to zero by the
The expression under the radical is directly proportional to resisting force in the bar. The maximum elongation for this
the kinetic energy of the falling body, to the modulus of condition is obtained from eq. (172)
elasticity of the material of the bar and inversely proportional by setting v = o. Then 1r
to the volume Al of the bar. Hence the stress can be di- = 2st, (175)
minished not only by an increase in the cross-sectional area but p
also by an increase in the length of the bar or by a decrease in i.e., a suddenly applied load, due to
the modulus E. This is quite different from static tension of dynamic conditions, p;oduces a de-
a bar where the stress is independent of the length / and the flection which is twice as great as
modulus E. that which is obtained when the load
By substituting the wo~king stress for u in eq. (173) we is applied gradually.
obtain the following equation for proportioning a bar sub- This may also be shown graphic-
mitted to an axial impact: ally as in Fig. 244. The inclined line
,, ,
0.d is the tensile test diagram for the
Al= 2E. Wv2 (174) bar shown in Fig. 243. Then for Fro. 244.
2
<Tw 2g ' any elongation such as OC the area
AOC gives the corresponding strain energy in the bar. The
i.e., _for a given ~ate:ial the volume of the bar must be pro-
porttonal to the kmet1c energy of the falling body in order to horizontal line DB is at distance W from the axis and the
keep the maximum stress constant. area ODBC gives the work done by the load W during the
Let us consider now another extreme case in which h is displacement OC. When is equal to .1, the work done by W
equal ~o zero, i.e., the body W is suddenly put on the support is represented in the figure by the area of the rectangle
mn (F1g. 243) without an initial velocity. Although in this ODA1C1. At the same time the energy stored in the bar is
case we have no kinetic energy at the beginning of extension of given by the area of the triangle O.d1C1, which is only half the
the bar, the problem is quite different from that of a static area of the above rectangle. The other half of the work done
loading of the bar. In the case of a static tension we assume is transformed into the kinetic energy of the moving body.
a gradual application of the load and consequently there is Due to its acquired velocity the body continues to move and
always equilibrium between the acting load and the resisting comes to rest only at the distance = 2.1 from the origin.
forces of elasticity in the bar. The question of the kinetic At this moment the total work done by the load W, repre-
energy of the load <loes noten ter into the problem at all under sented by the rectangle ODBC, equals the amount of energy
such conditions. In the case of a sudden application of the stored in the bar and represented by the triangle OAC.
288 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 289
The above discussion of impact is based on the assumption in comparison with the mass of the falling body W. Only then
that the stress in the bar remains within the elastic limit. mav we assume that the total energy of the falling body is trans-
Beyond this limit the problem becomes more involved, for~ed into strain energy of the bar. The actual conditions of
impactare more complicated and when the bar has an appreciable
because the elongation of the bar is no longer proportional to mass a part of the energy will be lost during impact. It is well
the tensile force. Assuming that the tensile test diagram known that when a mass W/g moving with a velocity v strikes
<loes not depend upan the speed of straining the bar,3 elonga- centrally a stationary mass Wi/g and the deformation at the point
tion beyond the elastic limit during of contact is plastic the final common velocity Va, of the two bodies, is
p
impact can be determined from an w
8 ordinary tensile test diagram such (b)
1
1
1 as shown in Fig. 245. Far any
1
1 assumed maximum elongation In the case of the bar shown in Fig. 243 the conditions are more
1 the corresponding area OADF complicated. During impact the upper end A is at rest while the
t
1 gives the work necessary to pro- lower end B acquires the velocity of the moving body W. Hence,
e 4 to calculate the final velocity Va from eq. (b) we use a reduced mass
duce such an elongation; this must in place of the actual mass of the bar. Assuming that the velocity
Frn. 245. equal the work W(h +
) produced of the bar vares linearly along its length, it can be shown that
by the weight W. When W(h + ) the reduced mass in such a case is equal to one third of the mass
is equal or larger than the total area OABC of the tensile test of the bar. 5 For a bar of weight q per unit length, eq. (b) becomes
diagram, the falling body will fracture the bar.
From this it follows that any change in the form of the bar
which results in diminishing the total area OABC of the
diagram diminishes also the resisting power of the bar to
impact. In the grooved specimens shown in Fig. 242 (b) and This is the common velocity of the load W and the lower end of
(e), far instance, the plastic flow of metal will be concentrated the bar which is established at the first moment of impact. Assum-
at the groove and the total elongation and the work necessary ing plastic deformation a_t the surface of contact between the falling
to produce fracture will be much smaller than in the case of the load and the support mn (Fig. 243) so that there will be no question
of rebounding, the corresponding kinetic energy is
cylindrical bar shown in the same figure. Such grooved
specimens are very weak in impact; a slight shock may v2 Wv 2 I
___<:__
2g
(W + ql/3) = - 2g
produce fracture, although the material itself is ductile.
Members having rivet hales or any sharp variation in cross
section are similarly weak against impact. 4 This quantity must be substituted for
In the previous discussion we neglected the mass of the bar Wv2 = Wh
2g
3
Experiments with ductile steel show that with a high velocity of
straining the yield point is higher and the amount of work necessary m eq. (a) in arder to take into account the loss of energy at the
to produce fracture is greater than in a static test. See N. N. Daviden-
koff, Bulletin Polyt. lnstitute, St. Petersburg, 1913; also Welter, Ztschr. 6 This solution was obtained by H. Cox, Cambridge Phi!. Soc. Trans.,
f. Metallkunde, 1924. 1849, p. 73. See also Todhunter and Pearson, History, Vol. 1, p. 895.
4
See Hackstroh, Baumaterialienkunde, 1905, p. 321, and H. Zim-
mermann. Zentralbl. d. Bauverw., 1899, p. 265.
290 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 291
first moment of impact. Then, instead of eq. (172), we obtain Answer. u = 2,000 lbs. per sq. in. .
3. A weight W = 10,000 lbs. atta~hed to the end of a ~teel w1re
= ,t-!- ,i2
l
+ g-,1v 2
--- - (176) rope (Fig. 246) moves downwards w1th a co_nstant veloc1ty v =. 3
q1 feet per sec. What stresses are produced m the rope when 1ts
+ 3W upper end is suddenly stopped? The _free length of t~e rope at
. the moment of impact is / = 60 feet, 1ts net cross-sect10nal area
The method described gives satisfactory results as long as the mass ' is A= 2.5 sq. in. and E= 15 X 106 lbs. per sq. in. .
of the bar is small in comparison with the mass of the falling body. Solution. Neglecting the mass of the rope and assummg that
Otherwise a consideration of longitudinal vibrations of the bar the kinetic energy of the moving body is completely trans(ormed
becomes necessary. 6 The local deformation at the point of contact into the potential energy of strai?- of the rope, t~e equat10n for
during impact has been discussed by J. E. Sears 7 and J. E. P. determining the maximum elongat1on of the rope IS
Wagstaff. 8
Problems AE2 - AE.l = W v2 + W( - ,1), (d)
2/ 2/ 2g
A weight of 10 lbs. attached to a steel wire in. in diameter
I.
(Fig. 246) falls from A with the acceleration g. De- in which 081 denotes the statical elongation of the rope. Noting
termine the stress produced in the wire when its upper that W = AE. 1/ / we obtain, from eq. (d),
e1;d A is suddenly stopped. Neglect the mass of the
w1re. AE Wv 2
Solution. If the acceleration of the weight W is -
2/
( - ,1) 2 = --,
2g
equal to g, there is no tensile stress in the wire. The
FIG. 24 6. stress after stopping the wire at A is obtained from eq. from which
(173), in which t
is neglected. Substituting v2 = 2gh /Wv2/
and / = h, we obtain = ,1 + '\j AEg
~ __ 2EW __ /2x 3ox10 6 X10xs 2 __ Hence, upon sudden stopping of the motion, the tensile stress in
v '\J~ '\J _
0 78 5
22 1 X ra3 lbs. per sq. in.
the rope increases in the ratio
lt may be seen that the stress <loes not depend upon the height h
V~ V (e)
through which the load falls, because the kinetic energy of the body ,t= l +,t AEg= I + Vgst
0
Solution. ., = 0.192 + 0.5 X 10 = 5.192 in. Substituting into in which r = P/A is the shearing stress and 'Y = o// is the
eq. (e), shearing stain. The amount of shear energy per unit
- = 1 + o.So = 1.80; <1 = 1.80 ,,
w= 7,200 lbs. per sq. .m.
volume, which can be stored in the block without permanent
,t n set, is obtained by substituting the elastic limit for T in
5. For the case shown in Fig. 243 determine the height h far eq. (179);
which the maximum stress in the bar during impact is 30,000 lbs. The energy stored in a twisted circular shaft is easily
per sq. in. Assume W = 25 lbs.,/= 6 feet, A = sq. in., E = 30 calculated by use of eq. (179). If Tmax is the maximum
X 106 lbs. per sq. in. Neglect the mass of the bar. shearing stress at the surface of the shaft, then Tmax(2r/d) is
Answer. h = 21.6 in. the shearing stress ata point a distance r from the axis, where
65. Elastic Strain Energy in Shear and Twist.-The d is the diameter of the shaft. The energy per unit volume at
strain energy stored in an element submitted to pure shearing this point is, from eq. (179),
stress (Fig. 247) may be calculated by the method used in the
2T~o.xr2
case of simple tension. If the bottom side ad of the element is w = Gd2 . (a)
taken as fixed, only the work done during
strain by the force P at the upper side be The energy stored in the material included between two
need be considered. Assuming that the cylindrical surfaces of radii r and r dr is +
material follows Hooke's law, the shearing
2T~axr2
strain is proportional to the shearing stress Gd 2 21rlrdr,
and the diagram showing this relationship is
Fm. 247. analogous to that shown in Fig. 241. The where l is the length of the shaft. Then the total energy
work done by the force P and stored m stored in the shaft is ,
the forro of elastic strain energy is then (see eq. 167) l d2/ 2
i
d/2 2 2 2
u= Tmaxr 21r/rdr = - ~ Tmax (I 81)
U= Po. 0 Gd 2
2 4 2G
2
Remembering that This shows that the total energy is only half
what it would be if all elements of the shaft
O T p
7 ='Y= G = AG' were stressed to the maximum shearing Me
Stress T max
we obtain the following two equations from (167'): The energy of twist may be calculated
p2 from a diagram of twist (Fig. 248) in which
U= 2A.G' (178) the torque is represented by the ordinates Of---+-+--+,....._'P
and the angle of twist by the abscissas.
We obtain two expressions for the shearing strain energy per Within the elastic limit, the angle of twist Fm. 2 4s.
unit volume by dividing these equations by the volume Al of is proportional to the twisting moment, as
the block: represented by an inclined line OA. A small area shaded in
T2 ,,2G the figure represents the work done by the torque during an
w=- w =2- , (180)
2G' increase dp in the angle of twist p. The area OAB = M,p/2
294 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 295
represents the total energy stored in the shaft during twist For steer
Recalling that cp = Mtl/GIP, we obtain
r =u~= o.62u.
2.6
or U= cp2GJ~. z. Determine the deflection of a helical spring (Fig. 232) by
2/
using the expression for the strain energy of twist.
Solution. Denote by P the force acting in the direction of the
In the first of these two equations the energy is represented as axis of the helix (Fig. 232), by R the radius of the coils and by n
a function of the torq ue, in the second as a function of the the number of coils. The energy of twist stored in the spring,
angle of twist. from eq. (182), is
In the general case of any shape of cross section and a
torque varying along the length of the shaft, the angle of
twist ?etween the two adjacent cross sections is given by the , Equating this to the work done, P/2, we obtain
equat10n (see p. 270)
21rnPR 64nPR
dcp
-dx
Mt
= -dx
0
= Glp Gd4
dx e . 3. The weight of a steel helical spring is 10 lbs. Determine
the amount of energy which can be stored in this spring without
The strain energy of one element of the shaft is producing permanent set if the elastic limit in shear is 74,300 lbs.
per sq. in.
Solution. The amount of energy per cubic inch, from eq.
(179), is
= 240 lbs. ms.
(74,300)2 .
and the total energy of twist is w =
2 X 11.5 X 10 6
U=- c (dcp)2
2 0
1
-
dx
dx.
The energy per pound of material (see p. 282) is 8 50 lbs. ins. Then
the total energy of twist 9
which can be stored in the spring is
X 10 X 850 = 4,250 lbs. ins.
Problems 4. A solid circular shaft and a thin tube of the same material
1. Determine the ratio between the elastic limit in shear and and the same weight are submitted to twist. In what ratio are
the elastic limit in tension if the amount of strain energy per cubic the amounts of energy in shaft and tube if the maximum stresses
inch, which can be stored without permanent set, is the same in in both are equal?
tension and in shear. dnswer. : 1.
Solution. From eqs. (170) and (179),'
5. A circular steel shaft with a flywheel at ot1e end rotates. at
120 r.p.m. It is suddenly stopped at the other end. Determme
2E 2G' the maximum stress in the shaft during impact if the length of
from which ,, the shaft / = 5 feet, the diameter d = 2 inches, the weight of the
flywheel W = 100 lbs., its radius of gyration r = 10 inches.
Solution. Maximum stress in the shaft is produced when the
9
The stress distribution is assumed to be the same as that in a twisted
circular bar.
296 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 297
total kin~_tic energy of the fly_whe_el is transformed into strain energy as a function of the maximum normal stress O'maz = Mmax/Z;
of the tw1sted shaft. The kmet1c energy of the flywheel is thus, for a rectangular bar CTmu: = 6M/bh 2 or M = bh 20'max/6,
Wr 2w2 100 X 1a2 X (41r) 2
and eq. (184) becomes
-;- = 2
X
386
= 2,050
lbs. ms. 2
U = ~ bh/ O'max (186)
3 2E
Substituting this far U in eq. (181),
In this case the total energy is evidently only one third as
/16 X 11.5 X 10 6 X 2,050 .
Tmax = '\J 7r X 4 X 60 = 22,400 lbs. per sq. m. much as it would be if all fibers carried the stress <Tmax
In the discussion of bending by transverse forces, the
6. Two circular bars of the same material, the same length but strain energy of shear will be neglected, at first. The energy
different cross sections A and A 1, are twisted by the same torque. stored in an elemeri t of the beam of length dx is, from eq s. ( 184)
In what ratio are the amounts of energy of strain stored in these and (185),
two bars?
Answer. Inversely proportional to the squares of the cross dU = M2dx or
sectional areas. 2El,
66. Elastic Strain Energy in Bending.-Let us begin with Here the bending moment Mis variable with respect to x, and
pure bending. For a prismatic bar built in at one end and
bent by a couple M applied at the other dcp = rdx = lddx2y dx
2
1
i'
y
FIG. 249.
El,
This displacement is proportional . to the U --i1 0
M2dx
2El,'
(187) or U=
0
El, ( 2y
-
2
- 2
dx
)2 dx. (188)
bending moment M and by using a diagram similar to that
in Fig. 248 we may conclude from similar reasoning that the Take, for instance, the cantilever AB (Fig. 250). The
work done during deflection by the bending moment M, or bending moment at any cross section mn is M = - Px.
also the energy stored in the bar, is Substitution into eq. (187) gives
Mcp
U=- (b)
U = .[1 p2x2dx
o 2El,
= p213 .
6El,
(e)
2
By use of eq. (a) this energy may be expressed in either of For a rectangular bar, O'max =
these forms: 6Pl/bh2, and eq. (e) may be put in
the form
M2z - cp2E1, 2
U=--
2El,' U - 2l . (185) u= ~ bhJ CTmax (e') FIG. 250.
9 2E
It is sometimes useful to have the potential energy expressed
This shows that the quantity of energy which can be stored
298 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 299
ENERGY OF STRAIN
in a rectangular cantilever beam, loaded at the end, without
)2 bdxdy = -P./h2
ptoducing permanent set, is one third of that for pure bending
of the same bar and one ninth of that for the same bar in
U=
J:
o
l i+h/2 }J'la ( h2
-ht 2
- - - - y2
8Gl.2 4
-
20GI.
(e)
simple tension. This consideration is of importance in de.. . fhis must be added to the right side of eq. (d) above 10 to obtain
: the equation for determining the total deflection:
signing springs, which must absorb a given amount of energy
without damage and yet have as small a weight as possible. Po P./3 P.lh2
The capacity of a cantilever to absorb energy may be in- z = 6EI, + 20GI. ; (j)
creased by giving it a variable cross section. Far example, a consequently
cantilever of uniform strength with a rectangular cross section (g)
of constant depth h (Fig. 185), and with the same values for
P, h, and <Tmax, has a deflection and hence an amount of stored , The second term in, the parentheses represents the effect of the
energy 50 per cent greater than for the prismatical bar. At i shearing stresses on the deflection of the beam. By use of the
, method developed in article 39 under the_ assumption. th:i-t the
the same time the bar of uniform strength has half the weight element of the cross section at the centr01d of the bmlt-m end
of the prismatical bar, so it can store three times as much : remains vertical (Fig. 250, b), the additional slope due to shear is
energy per pound of material.
Tmax 3 P
Returning to eq. (e) and equating the strain energy to the 'Y= e = 2 bhG'
work done by the load P during deflection, we obtain
and the addi tional deflection is
Po p2a
(d) 3 Pl.
2 = 6EI.' 2/ihG'
from which the deflection at the end is , hence
pa O= 31::;. + i ~~ = 31::;. ( + i ; ~)
I (g')
o = 3EI.' It will be seen that eqs. (g) and (g') do_ no~ coincide.. The dis-
crepancy is explained as follows: The denvat1on of art1cle 39 was
which coincides with eq. (95).
based on the assumption that the cross sections of the beam can
warp freely under the action of shearing stresses. In such a case
The additional deflection due to shear may also be determined the built-in cross section will be distorted to a curved surface mon
from the potential energy of strain. For the cantilever shown in , (Fig. 250, b) ancl in calculating the total work done on the_cantilever
Fig. 250, with a rectangular cross section, the shearing stress at a we must consider not only the work done by the force P, F1g. 250 (a),
distance y from the neutral axis is (see eq. 65) but also the work done by the stresses acting on the built-in cross
_?_ (h2 _
21. 4
y2).
section, Fig. 250 (b). If this later work is taken into account, the
10 Such an addition of the energy of shear to the energy dueto normal
stresses is justified, because the shearing stre~ses acting on an eleme~t
The energy of shear in an elemental volume bdxdy is, therefore, (Fig. 247) do not change the lengths of the s1des of the elem:nt and_ 1f
from eq. (179), normal forces act on these sides, they do no work during shearmg stram.
}J'la
8G/,2
(
4h2 - y2
)2 .bdxdy, Hence shearing stresses do not change the amoun t of energy d_ue to
tension or compression and the two kinds of energy may be s1mply
added together.
300 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ENERGY OF STRAIN 301
deflection calculated from the consideration of the strain energy
coincides with that obtained in article 39 and given in equation determined by the method used in the case of impact causing
(g') above. 11 tension (art. 64). Take, as an example, a simply supported
In the case of a simply supported beam loaded at the middle, beam struck at the middle (Fig. 251), and assume that the
the middle cross section does not warp, as can be concluded from
considerations of symmetry. In such a case equation (g), if applied
mass of the heam may he neglected in comparison with the
to each half of the beam, will give a better approximation for the , mass of the falling body, and that the heam is not stressed he-
deflection than will equation (g'). This can be seen by comparing ;' yond the yield point. Then there will he_no loss of e?er~y dur-
the approximate equations (g) and (g') with the more rigorous . ing impact and the work done by the we1ght W durrng 1ts fall
solution given in article 39. is completely transformed into strain energy of hending of the
beam. 12 Let denote the maximum defl.ection of the heam
Problems
during impact. If we assume that the defl.ection curve during
I. A wooden cantilever beam, 6 feet long, of rectangular cross
11 impact has the sanie shape as that during
section 8" X 5 carries a uniform load q = 200 lbs. per foot. De-
termine. the amount of strain energy stored if E= r.5 X W6 lbs. static defl.ection, the force which would
per sq. m. cause such a defl.ection is, from eq. (90),
dnswer.
P -_ s.
u
48EI .
/3 (a) Fro. 251.
U= --1!!_ = r2oo2 X 72 X 12 = 2 lbs. ins.
40EI. 40 X r.5 X 10 6 X 5 X 83 4
The total energy stored in the heam is equal to the work done
2. In what ratio does the amount of strain energy calculated by the force P:
in the previous problem increase if the depth of the beam is 511
and the width 8"? _ Po _ s2 24EI .
U - 2 -u a
dnswer. The strain energy increases in the ratio 82/ 52
3. Two identical bars, one simply supported, the other with
built-in ends, are bent by equal loads applied at the middle. In
, If h denotes, as befare, the dis tance fallen, the equation far
what ratio are the amounts of strain energy stored? determining o is
dnswer. 4 : I.
4. Solve the above problem for a uniformly distributed load of
W(h + o) = 52 24f;1' (b)
the same intensity q for both bars. from which
5. Find the ratio of the amounts of strain energy stored in
beams of rectangular section equally loaded, having the same length
and the same width of cross sections but whose depths are in the
= t +~o.?+ i o,1rr, ( I 89)
g
(W + (17/35) ql) =
Wv2
2g
l +Hw
ql;
105
l [ I +2( I + a/2b )2] r_g/
r
4. What stress is produced in the beam of the previous problem
by a 200 lb. weight falling onto the middle of the beam from a
height of 6 in.? .
Problems Answer. Umax = 28,900 lbs. per sq. m.
I. A simply supported rectangular wooden beam 9 feet long is
5. A wooden cantilever beam 6 feet long and of square cross
section 12" X 12" is struck at the end by a weight W = 100 lbs.
struck at the middle by a 40 lb. weight falling from a height h = 12
falling from a heighi: h = 12 in. Determine the maximum deflec-
in. Determine the necessary cross-sectional area if the working
tion, taking into account the loss in energy due to the mass of the
stress is Uw = 1,000 lbs. per sq. in., E= 1.5 X 10 6 lbs. per sq. in.
beam.
Solution. Using eq. (e), p. 302,16
Solution. Neglecting ,, in comparison with h, the equation
Wv2 18E 18 X 1.5 X 10 6 analogous to eq. ( l 90) beco mes
A= - -- = 40 X 12----"----- = 120 sq. in.
2g luw2 9 X 12 X l,ooo2 2
J
,tV
2. In what proportion <loes the area in the previous problem = g 33 ql
change (1) if the span of the heam increases from 9 to 12 feet; 1+--
140W
(2) if the weight W increases by 50 per cent?
Answer. (1) The area diminishes in the ratio 3 : 4. (2) The For ql = 40 X 6 = 240 lbs.,
area increases by 50 per cent.
3. A weight W = 100 lbs. drops 12 inches upon the middle of ~- 15.3
J
24 _ X 100 X 72 3
st - ~"------'-- = o. 271 m.
a simply supported I beam, IO ft. long. Find safe dimensions if = 33 X 240 3 X 6 1. 5 3 X 10 X 12
Uw = 30 X I03 lbs. per sq. in.
Solution. Neglecting 8 t in comparison with h (see eq. e), the
1
+ 140 X 100
ratio between the dynamic and the static deflections is 6. A beam simply supported at the ends is struck at the middle
by a weight W falling clown from_ the height h. _Neglecting '. in
~- u2 - /2h. comparison with h, find the magmtude of the rat10 ql/W at wh!ch
Ost - \Jgi;; - \J st the effect of the mass of the beam reduces the dynamical deflect1on
If the deflection curve during impact is of the same shape as for by 10 per cent.
static deflection, the maximum bending stresses will he in the same Answer.
ratio as the deflections; hence ql
W = 0.483.
Wl . Z 6EWh
;--Z = Uw, from wh1ch - = - -2- - , 68. The General Expression for Strain Energy.-In the
' 4 e <J'w 1
discussion of problems in tension, compression, twist and
in which Z is the section modulus and e is the distance from the bending it has been shown that the energy of strain can be
neutral axis of the most remote fiber, which is half the depth of
represented in each case by a function of the second degree in
15
Local deformation at the surface of contact of the load and the the external forces (eqs. 168, 177 and 184) or by a function of
beam is n.:glected in this calculation.
the second degree in the displacements (eqs. 169, 178 and
306 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 307
185)._ This is al~o true for the most general deformation of an i.e., the total energy of strain is equal to half the sum of the
elast1c body, w1th the following provisions: the materiai products of each externa! force and its corresponding displace-
f~llows Hooke's law; the conditions are such that the small ment.18 On the assumptions made above, the displacements
d1splacements, due to strain, do not affect the action of the 1, 02, a, are linear functions of the forces P 1, P 2 , P 3 ,
ex~ernal forces and are negligible in cal.::-ulating the stresses.16 The substitution of these functions into eq. (191) gives a
W1th these two provisions, the displacements of an elastic general expression for the strain energy in the form of a
system are linear functions of the externa! loads. if thes homogeneous function of the second degree in the externa!
1. oa d s m~rease
a certam
m proportion, all the displacemen
' tse forces. If the forces be represented as linear functions of
mcrease 1~ the same proportion. Considera body submitted displacements and these functions be substituted into eq.
to the act1on of_ the externa! forces P 1, P 2, P 3, (Fig. 252) (191), an expression for the strain energy in the form of a
and s~pp?rted 1:1 such a manner that movement as a rigid homogeneous function of the second degree in displacements
body 1s 1mposs1ble and displacements are due to elastic ' is obtained.
deformations only. Let 1, 2, a, denote the displace- In the above discussion the reactions at the supports were
ments of the points of application of the not taken into consideration. The work done by these
forces each measured in the direction of reactions during the deformation is equal to zero since the
the corresponding force.17 If the externa! displacement of an immovable support, such as A (Fig. 252),
forces increase gradually so that they are is zero and the displacement of a movable support, such as B,
I' always in equilibrium with the resisting in-
is perpendicular to the reaction, friction at the supports
terna! _elastic forces, the work which they being neglected. Consequently, the reactions add nothing to
do durmg deformation will be equal to the the expression for the poten tial energy ( 191).
Fw. 2 52 strain energy stored in the deformed body. As an example of the application of eq. (191) let us consider
The amount of this energy <loes not de- the energy stored in a cubic element submitted to uniform tension
pend upon the order in which the forces are applied and is in three perpendicular directions (Fig. 50). If the edge of the cube
completely determined by their final magnitudes. Let us is of unit length, the tensile forces on its faces are numerically u,,,
uy, u z and the corresponding elongations, E,,, Ey, E,. Then the strain
assume th~t all externa! forces P 1, P 2, P 3, increase simul- energy stored in one cubic inch, from eq. (191), is
taneously ~n the same ratio; then the relation between each
<lxEx <lyEy <lzEz
force ?d lts corresponding displacement can be represented w=-+-+-
2 2 2
by a diagram analogous to that shown in Fig. 2 4 1, and the
work done by all the forces P1, P2, Pa, , equal to the strain Substituting, far the elongations, the values given by (43), 19
energy stored in the body, is l
W = 2 E (u/+ 2
u / + u, ) - E (u,,uy + <ly<lz + u,u,,). (192)
U = P11
2
+ P22
2
+ P 2 +3 3
(191) 18 This conclusion was obtained first by Clapeyron; see Lam,
16
Such_ proble?1s as the bending of bars by lateral forces with simul- Le~ons sur la thorie mathmatique de l'lasticit, 2 ed., 1866, p. 79.
19 Here the changes in temperature due to strain are considered of
taneous axial tens10n or compression do not satisfy the above condition
and are exc_luded from this discussion. Regarding these exceptional no practica! importance. For further discussion see the book by T.
cases see art1cle 72. Weyrauch, "Theorie elastischer Korper," Leipzig, 1884, p. 163. See
17
The displac_ements of the same points in the directions perpendicular also Z. f. Architektur- und lngenieurwesen, Vol. 54, 1908, p. 91 and
to the correspondmg forces are not considered in the following discussion. p. 277.
308 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ENERGY OF STRAIN 309
This expression can also be used when sorne of the normal stresses
a_re compressive, in which case they must be given a negative the case of simple tension (Fig. 1 ), the strain energy as given
s1gn. by eq. (168) is
lf in addition to normal stresses there are shearing stresses
acting on the faces of the element, the energy of shear can be added
to the energy of tension or compression (see p. 299), and using
eq. (179) the total energy stored in one cubic inch is By taking the derivative of this expression with respect to P
we obtain
W = 2
~
2
(u,, + ui + 2
<Iz ) - (u,,u 11 + <Iy<Iz + <Iz<rz) dU PI
1 dP =A.E= ,
+ 2 G (rxi + r ,2 + r.,:2).
11 (193)
i.e., the derivative of the strain energy with respect to the
As a second example let us consider a beam supported at the load gives the displacement corresponding to the load, i.e., at
ends? loaded at the middle by a force P and bent by a couple M the point of application of the load in the direction of the
apphed at the end A. The deflection at the middle is, from eqs.
(90) and (rn5), load. In the case of a cantilever loaded at the end, the strain
energy is (eq. e, p. 297)
P/3 M/2
0 = 48E/ + 16E1 (a) p23
U= 6El
0
The slope at the end A is, from eqs. (88) and (104),
The derivative of this expression with respect to the load P
8- p2 Ml gives the known deflection at the free end P/3/3EI.
- 16EI+ 3EI
0
(b)
In the twist of a circular shaft the strain energy is (eq. 18 2)
Then the strain energy of the beam, equal to the work done by the MN
force P and by the couple M, is
2Glp.
2 3
_ Po MO _ _
1 ( P l M 2l MP/2 )
U- 2 + 2 - El 96 + 6 +I 6 . (e) The derivative of this expression with respect to the torque
g1ves
This expression is a homogeneous function of the second degree in dU Mil
the external force and the externa! couple. Solving eqs. (a) and dMe = Glp = cp,
(b) (or M an~ P and substituting in eq. (e), an expression for the
stram energy 1n the form of a homogeneous function of the second which is the angle of twist of the shaft, and represents the
degree in displacements may be obtained. lt must be noted that displacement corresponding to the torque.
when external couples are acting on the body the corresponding When several loads act on an elastic body, the same
displacements are the angular displacements of surface elements on
which these couples are acting. method of calculation of displacements may be used. Far
example, expression (e) of the previous article gives the strain
69. The Theorem of Castigliano.-From the expressions energy of a beam bent by a load P at the middle and by a
for the energy of strain in various cases a very simple method couple M at the end. The partial deriva ti ve of this expression
for calculating the displacements of points of an elastic body with respect to P gives the deflection under the load and the
during deformatiori may be established. For example, in partial deriva ti ve with respect to M gives the angle of rotation
of the end of the beam on which the couple M acts.
310 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 31J
The theorem of Castigliano is a general statement of these modified by the load dP n previously applied 21 and the work
20
results. If the material of the system follows Hooke's law done by these loads will be equal to U (eq. a), as before. But
and the conditions are such that the small dispiacements due during the application of these forces, however, dPn is given
to deformation can be neglected in discussing the action of sorne displacement On in the direction of Pn, and does the
forces, the strain energy of such a system may be given by a work (dPn)On. The two expressions for the work must be
homogeneous function of the second degree in the acting equal; therefore
forces (see art. 68). Then the partial derivative of strain
energy with respect to any such force gives the displacement
corresponding to this force (exceptional cases see art. 72).
U + :l (dP n) = U + (dP n)on,
au
The terms "force" and "displacemen t" here ma y ha ve their
generalized meanings, that is, they include "couple" and
n = aPn .
"angular displacement" respectively. As an application of the theorem let us consider a can~i-
Let us consider a general case such as shown in Fig. 252. lever beam carrying a load P and a couple Ma at the end,
Assume that the strain energy is represented as a function of Fig. 253. The bending moment at a cross section mn is
the forces P1, P2, P3, , so that M = - Px - Ma and the strain energy, from equation
( I 84), is
(a)
i
1
M 2dx
U= 2EJ .
.
If a small increase dP n is given to any externa! load P
stram energy will increase
the
also and its new amount will be
~
But the magnitude of the strain energy does not depend upan
the order in which the loads are applied to the body-it
depends only u pon their final values. I t can be assumed, for Substituting for M its equivalent expression, m terms of F
instance, that the infinitesimal load dP n was applied first, and and Ma, we obtain
afterwards the loads Pi, P2, P3, . The final amount of
1
Pl3 Mal 2
strain energy remains the same, as given by eq. (b). The load
dPn, applied first, produces only an infinitesimal displacement,
so that the corresponding work done is a small quantity of the
o=
1
El 1
o (Px + Ma)xdx = 3EI+ 2EI.
The same expression would have been obtained by applying
second arder and can be neglected. Applying now the loads one of the previously described methods, such as the area
P1, P2, Ps, , it must be noticed that their effect will not be moment method.
20
_ Se~ t?e paper by_ ~~~tigli~no, "Nuova Teoria Intorno dell' Equi- To obtain the slope at the end we calculate the partial
librio de1 S1stem1 Elast1c1, Att1 della Academia delle scienze Torino
21
187 5. See also his "!horie de l'.quilibre des systemes lastique;," Turin: This follows from the provisions made on page 306 on the basis of
1879. For an Enghsh translat10n of Castigliano's work see E. S. An- which the strain energy was obtained as a homogeneous function of the
drews, London, 1919. second degree.
312 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ENERGY OF STRAIN 313
derivative of the strain energy with respect to the couple
Ma. Then These equations, derived far the particular case shown in
Fig. 253, also hold far the general case of a beam with any
au
8 = aM 1
= El
J: M aM
O
aM 1
dx
kind of loading and any kind of support. They can also be
used in the case of distributed loads.
Let us consider, far example, the case of a uniformly loaded
I il p2 Ml
m B = El o (Px + Ma)dx = 2EJ + El . and simply supported beam, Fig. 255, and calculate the de-
n
flection at the middle of this beam by using the Castigliano
,. The positive signs obtained far o and () theorem. In the preceding cases concentrated forces and
indicate that the deflection and rotation couples acted, and partial derivatives with respect to these
FIG. 253. of the end have the same directions re- forces and couples gave the corresponding displacements and
spectively as the force and the couple in
Fig. 253.
It should be noted that the partial derivative aM/aP is
the rate of increase of the moment M with respect to the
increase of the load P and can be visualized by the bending e ~
H'~.Y=,'~/.,,
l w ,"----1~w
FIG. 255.
0 = El.
2 t' 2
aM forces are given in column 4 of the table. The strain energy
J M aP dx
0
-_ - :2
Elz
O
11
~ ( qlx - -qx 2 ) x-dx
-
2 2 2
TABLE OF DATA FOR THE TRUSS IN FIGURE 257
I 2 3 4 5 6 7
I If it is required to calculate
S,S/1,
250
i
in. 2
6
!:J\
tn.
-i3.75
S/
-0.625
--
S/'
o
I 358
have only to assume an infi- 2 150 3 8.25 o.375 155 I
3 200 2 8.oo o o o
nitely small couple Mb applied
4 150 3 8.25 o.375 155 I
(6) at B. Such a couple does not 5 250 2 3.75 0.625 293 o
Frn. 2 6.
5
change the bending moment 6 300 4 -10.50 -0.750 59 o
diagram in Fig. 255 (b). The 7 250 2 6.25 0.625 488 o
8 150 3 6-75 o.375 127 o
partial derivative oM/oMb is then as represented in Fig. 256 9 200 2 4.00 o o o
(a) and 256 (b). The required rotation of the end B of the 10 250 6 - 1 I.25 -0.625 293 o
beam is then 11 150 3 6-75 o.375 127 o
i
0 = au =
0Mb
_1_
Elz.o
[l M 0Mb
aM dx i=m
L
S,S//
- A = 2,055 tns. per inch.
i=I i
= _1_
Efz Jo
t ( qlx -
2
qx2 ) :_ dx
2 /
of any bar i, from eq. (168), is SNd2AiE. The amount of
strain energy in the whole system is
q/3 P,8t. P,4t, /;4t.
= 24EJ,. (4}
S/. The equation for calculating the deflections then truss produced by the loading shown in Fig. 257 (e). These
becomes are tabulated in column 7. Substituting these forces into
f=m SS'/ eq. (d), we find that the horizontal displacement of A is equal
:E i i i
0n = =1 AiE . ( 1 9 8) to the sum of the elongations of the bars 2 and 4, namely,
Consider for instance the deflection 02 corresponding to P2 at A
in Fig. 257 (a). The magnitudes S/ tabulated in column 5
o,. = E
1(S2l2
A.2 + S4/4)
.4
150X2,ooo .
= 3 X 30 X 106 (8.25 + 8.25) = o.055 m.
above are obtained by the simple principies of statics from the In investigating the deformation of trusses
loading conditions shown in Fig. 257 (b), in which all actual it is sometimes necessary to know the change
loads are removed and a vertical load of one ton is applied at in distance between two points of the system.
the hinge A. The values tabulated in column 6 are calculated This can also be done by the Castigliano
from those entered in columns 2 through 5. Summation and method. Let us determine, for instance, what
division by the modulus E = (30/2,000) X 106 tns. per sq. in. decrease o, in the distance between the joints (d)
gives the deflection at A, eq. (198), A and B (Fig. 258, a), is produced by the loads
P1, P2, Pa. At these joints, two equal and
2,055 X 2,000 .
02 = X 6 = o. 137 m. opposite imaginary forces Q are applied as in-
JO IO
dicated in the figure by the dotted lines. I t
The above discussion was concerned with the computation follows from the Castigliano theorem that the
of displacements 01, 02, correspondingto the given external partial deri,vative (a U/iJQ) Q=o gives the sum
forces P1, P2, . In investigating the deformation of an of the displacements of A and B, in the direction AB, produced
elastic system, it may be necessary to calculate the displace- by the loads Pi, P2, Pa. Using eq. (194), this displacenent is 22
ment of a point at which there is no load at all, or the dis-
placerrient of a loaded point in a direction different from that o=(U) 'i:m 'i:m
= SJ oS = SJ . S/ (199)
aQ Q=o =1 AiE oQ =1 AiE '
of the load. The method of Castigliano may also be used
in which Si are the forces produced in the bars of the system by
here. We merely apply at that point an additional infinitely
the actual loads P1, P2, Ps; S/ are the quantities to be
small imaginary load Q in the direction in which the displace-
determined from the loading shown in Fig. 258 (b), in which all
ment is wanted, and calculate the derivative aU/aQ. In this
actual loads are removed and two opposite unit forces are
der.ivative the added load Q is put equal to zero, and the
applied at A and B; and mis the number of members.
desired displacement obtained. For example, in the truss
shown in Fig. 257 (a), let us calculate the horizontal displace- Problems
ment of the point A. A horizontal force Q is applied at this I. Determine by the use
....__ _ _ _ _ _....,;.-------11PB
of Castigliano's theorem the
point, and the corresponding horizontal displacement is
h = ()
aQ Q-o
= (.3:2!_)
3.dE Q-o
= o
8. Determine the increase in the distance AB produced by
forces H (Fig. 264) if the bars AC and BC are of the same dimen-
sions and only the bending of the bars need be taken into account.
5. Determine the angular displacement of the bar AB produced I t is assumed that a is not small, so that the effect of deflections on
by the load Pin Fig. 261. the magnitude of bending moment can be neglected.
. Solution. An imaginary couple M is ap- /11 Answer.
phed to the system as shown in the figure by / 2 H sin 2a /3
dotted lines. The displacement correspond- ' 13
0
= El 3
ing to this couple is the angular displacement
ip of the bar A B due to the load P. The 9. Determine the deflection at
~orces S .. in this case are: P +
1/-{J(M/l) A
a distance a from the left end of
the uniformly loaded beam shown
m the bar AB and - P - 2/-{J(M/l) in the
bar AC. The strain energy is in Fig. 255 (a).
Solution. Applying an infi-
U=
1
-
2.dE [(P+1/~~)
l
2
FIG. 261.
(6)
nitely small load P at a distance
a from the left end, the partial
derivative aM/aP is as visual-
+( - p - 2/ ~ ~y], FIG. 265.
ized in Fig. 265 (a) and 265 (b).
Using for M the parabolic diagram in Fig. 255 (b), the desired
320 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 321
U=~+~= ( - --
2 cos a
P - x) -A E~cos
2
1 x1
- - + - -E a 2.d
2
(e)
Fro. 268.
(e}
24 I t is assumed tha t all bars ha ve the same cross-sectional a rea A shown in Fig. 268 (a). The reactions here are statically deter-
and the same modulus of elasticity E. mnate, but when we try to compute the forces in the bars,
we find that there is one redundant member. Let us consider
324 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 325
the bar CD as this redundant member. Cut this bar at any This process may be extended to a system in which there are
point and apply to each end F and F1 a force X, equal to that several redundant bars.
in the bar. We thus arrive ata statically determinate system The principie of least work can be applied also when the
acted upon by the known force P, and, in addition, unknown statically unknown quantities are couples. Take, as an
forces X. The forces in the bars of this system are found in example, a uniformly loaded beam on three supports (Fig.
two groups: first, those produced by the externa! loading P 269). If the bending moment at the middle support be
assuming X = o, Fig. 268, b, and denoted by S;, where i in- considered the statically indeterminate quantity, the beam is
dicates the number of the bar; second, those produced when cut at B and we obtain two simply supported beams (Fig.
the externa! force P is removed and unit forces replace the
A~l~~lllllllllllll,llllll~ l~~o)
X forces (Fig. 268, e). The latter forces are denoted by S/.
Then the total force in any bar, when the force P and the
1
forces X are all acting, is ,4~\llllllIDM\ldl (ei]Wffili\11~'
z1 ~ M ~ z,
S; = S; 0 + S/X. (e) (b}
FIG. 269.
The total strain energy of the system, from eq. (196), is
'=m s.2.
U=-'-'='
'=m(S + S'X)2f.
' ' (j)
269, b) carrying the unknown couples Mb in. addition to the
,=1 2A;E ,=1 2A;E ' known uniform load q. There is no rotation of the end B'
with respect to the end B" because in the actu.al case (Fig.
in which the summation is extended over all the bars of the 269, a) there is a continuous deflection curve. Hence
system including the bar CD, which is cut. 25 The Castigliano
theorem is now applied and the derivative of U with respect dU
(202)
to X gives the displacement of the ends F and F 1 towards each
dMb =
other. In the actual case the bar is continuous and this Again the magnitude of the statically indeterminate quantity
displacement is equal to zero. Hence is such as to make the strain energy of the system a minimum.
dU Problems
dX = o, (g)
I. The vertical load P is supported by a vertical bar DB of
i.e., the force X in the redundant bar is such as to make the length l and cross-secti~nal area .d and by two
strain energy of the system a minimum. From eqs. (J) and (x) equal inclined bars of length l and cross sec-
__!_ I: (S; + S/X) l; = I: (S; + S/X)l;S/ =
2
0
tional area A1 (Fig. 270). Determine the forces
in the bars and also the ratio .d1/.d which will
dX ,=1 2A;E ,= 1 A;E ' make the forces in all bars numerically equal.
from which Solution. The system is statically indeter-
minate. Let X be the tensile force in the ver-
L S .,-0 S-'l
1=m 1, ,
tical bar. The compressive forces in the inclined
=1 A;E bars are 1/..;;_(P - X) and the strain energy of FIG. 2 7
X= S-''/. (201)
L _,_,
t=m
the system is
=t A;E X 2l (P - X)2/
U = 2.dE + 2A1E .
25 For this bar Sl = o and S/ = 1.
326 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 327
The principie of least work gives ing X= o, S' the force produced in the same bar by unit forces
which replace the X forces (Fig. 272, b). The values of S, 0 and S/
dU XI (P - X)! are determined from statics. They are given in columns 4 and 5 of
dX= AE - = o,
the table below. Then the total force in any bar is
from which
p S, = S; + S;'X.
X=--
/
I +-
/ /; A; S; 0 S;'I; S/2/,
i
m. in. 2
S, S/
A;
-A,
Substituting this into equation
I I 180.3 5 -1.803P 1.202 - 78.1P 52.0
p X = {i. (P - X), 2 158.1 3 1.581P -2.108 -175-7P 234
3 50.0 2 1.000P -1.333 - 33.3P 44.5
4 180.3 5 -1.803P 1.202 - 78.1P 52.0
5 158.1 3 1.581P -2.108 -175-7P 2 34
A1 = {i.A.
eq. (201). This equation is of the same kind as eq. (/) in problem 3 bars on the sides of the hexagon will have tensile forces X, bars 8, 9,
but in the system of Fig. 273 there is the additional horizontal
11 and 12 have compressive forces X, and bars 7 and 10 have the
bar. The force produced in this bar by the force P alone (X= o) force P - X. The strain energy of the system is
is zero, i.e., So = o. The force produced by two forces equal to x 21 (P - X) 21
unity (Fig. 273, b) is So' = I. The additional term in the numer- U = 10 2AE 2
2AE+ .
ator of eq. (/) is From the equation dU/dX = o we obtain
SoSo'lo
-;;-=o. p
X=6
The additional term in the denominator is
7. Determine the forces in the system shown in Fig. 268,
2
S 0' lo llo 300 assuming the cross-sectional areas of all bars equal and taking the
Ao = Ao = Ao force X in the diagonal AD as the statically indeterminate quantity.
Solution. Substituting the data, given in the table below, in
Then, by using the data of problem 3, eq. (201),
540.9P
X=-~---
300 -
Ao + 616.5
j / S;" S.' S, 0 S;'l, s;121,
Taking, for instance, A 0 = 10 sq. in.,
1 a p -1/-y2 -aPj-../2 a/2
a p -1/-y2 -aPh/2 a/2
X= 54o.9P = o.8 36P. '.2
U=2
I
o
h H 2x 2dx
--+
2El1
1
(M0 -Hh) 2dx
2El '
(g)
degrees which brings point
C1 in coincidence with point
A't-- d-r
0
D and point D1 with point
in which Mo denotes the bending moment for the horizontal bar C. Hence the deflection at
calculated as for a beam simply supported at the ends. Substi- C in Fig. 277 (c) is equal (e}
tuting in equation: FIG. 277.
to the deflection at D in
dU
dH = o, (h) Fig. 277 (a). This means that if the load P is moved from
we find point C to point D, the deflection which in the first case
2H h 3 Hh 2l h {1 of loading was measured at D will be obtained in the
El1 3+ El = El J0 Modx. (k)
second case at point C. This is a particular case of the
reciproca! theorem.
The integral on t!he right side is the area of the triangular moment
diagram for a beam carrying the load P. Hence To establish the theorem in general form 27 we consider an
elastic body, shown in Fig. 278, loaded in two different
i o
l l
Modx =- Pe(/ - e).
2
manners and supported in such a way that displacement as
a rigid body is impossible. In the first state of stress the
Substituting in (k), we obtain for H the same expression as in (n4). applied forces are Pi and P2, and in the second state Pa and P 4
(See p. 192.) The displacements of the points of application in the directions
II. Find the statically indeterminate quantities in the frames
of the forces are 01, 02, oa, 04 in the first state and oi', 02', oa', o/
shown in Figs. 166, 169 and 171 by using the principle of least
work.
in the second state. The reciprocal theorem states: The work
12. Find the bending moment in Fig. 269 assuming that '1 = 2/2. done by the forces of the first state on the corresponding
displacements of the secona. state is equal to the work done
71. The Reciproca! Theorem.-Let us begin with a prob- by the forces of the second state on the corresponding dis-
lem of a simply supported beam shown in Fig. 277 (a) and
calculate the deflection ata point D when the load Pis acting 27 A particular case of this theorem was obtained by J. C. Maxwell,
at C. This deflection is obtained by substituting x = d into loe. cit., p. 317. The. theorem is due to E. Betti, 11 nuovo Cimento
(Ser. 2), V. 7 and 8 (187'.2). In a more general form, the theorem was
equation (86) which gives given by Lord Rayleign, London Math. Soc. Proc., Vol. 4 (1873), or
Scientific Papers, Vol. 1, p. 179. Various applications of this theorem
(a) to the solution of engineering problems were made by O. Mohr, loe. cit.,
p. 327, and H. Mller-Breslau, loe. cit., p. 327.
332 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 333
placements of the first. In symbols this means (a), (b) and (e), is
P101' + P202' = Paoa + P404. (203), U = P101 . P202 + Paoa' + P40/ + p 11O, + p O'.
2 + 2 2 2 22
(d)
To prove this theorem let us consider the strain energy of the
body when all forces P1, P4 are acting together and let us In the second manner of loading, let us apply the forces Pa and
P4 first and afterwards P1 and P2. Then, repeating the same
reasoning as above, we obtain
U= Paoa'
2
+ P40/
2
+ P101
2
+ P202
2
+p 3O3
+p 0
4 4 (e)
r
The second state is indicated in Fig.
as shown in Fig. 279 (b),
I
y = 6EI (l - x)2(2! + x). (J)
280 (b), in which the load P is re-
moved and the reaction X is replaced A
by a unit force upward. This second
state 'of stress is statically determin-
f 7'Z, :
C
Zz:J'
8/a)
Let denote the deflection at the end and y the deflection at ate and the deflection curve is known A ~ B ( / , )
IV T y ,t ~l
distance x from the left support. Then, applying the re- (eqs. 86 and 87, p. 142); hence the
ciproca! theorem, the work done by the forces of the first deflections and y can be calculated. ~--J'tJ
Then the work done by the forces of
state on the corresponding displacements of the second state is
the first state on the corresponding Fro. 280.
X - Py. displacements of the second state is
In calculating now the work done by the forces of the second X - Py.
30
state, there is only the unit force on the end, and the corre- The work of the forces of the second state (farce-unity) on the
sponding displacement of the point A in the first state is equal corresponding displacements of the first state (zero deflection at
to zero. Consequently this work is zero and the reciprocal C) is zero; hence
theorem gives X - Py = o; X= pl.
X.- Py = o, o
from which
Hence the deflection curve of the second state is the influence line
X= pl. (g) far the reaction X. In arder to get the influence line far the reac-
.
31 The use of models in determining the influence lines was developed
30
The reactions at the built-in end are not considered in either case by G. E. Beggs, Jourp.al of Franklin lnstitute 1927.
because the corresponding displacement is zero.
336 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ENERGY OF STRAIN 337
tion at B, the second state of stress should be taken as shown in the deflection curves of the second state represent the influence line
Fig. 280 (e). for M 0 Noting t_hat
2. By using the influence line of the previous problem, deter-
mine the reaction at B if the load P is at the middle of the first
span (x = /i/2) (Fig. 280, a).
dnswer. Reaction is downward and equal to and that the defl.ection at the middle of the second span is
3P 1i2 l /2
2
Solution. The actual condition (Fig. 282, a) is taken as the tractions a~d elongations and considering only the bending of the
first state of stress. In the second state the load P is removed beam AB.
and the forces X are replaced by unit forces (Fig. 282, b). Due to Answer. The line will be the same as that for the middle
these forces, upward vertical pressures equal to (1 h)/c are trans- reaction of the beam on three supports (see problem 1, p. 335).
mitted to the beam AB at the points F and H and the beam de- 8. Construct the influence line for the bar BC which supports
flects as indicated by the dotted line. If y is the deflection of the the beam AB. Find the force in BC when P is at the middle
beam at the point corresponding to the load P, and is the dis- (Fig. 284).
placement of the points C and D towards one another in the second Answer. Neglecting displacements dueto elongation of the bar
state of stress, the reciproca! theorem gives BC and contraction of the beam AB, the force in BC is 1\ (P/sin a).
72. Exceptional Cases.-In the derivation of both the Cas-
X - Py = o and X= pl. (i) tigliano theorem and the reciproca! theorem it was assumed that
the displacements due to strain are proportional to the loads acting
Hence the deflection curve of the beam AB in the second state is on the elastic system. There are cases in which the displacements
the requ~red infl_uence line. T!1e ~ending of the beam by the two are not proportional to the loads, although the material of the
sym~etn~ally s1tuated loa?s 1s d1scussed in problem 1, p. 15 9 . body may follow Hooke's law. This always occurs when the dis-
Sub~t1tutmg (1 h)/c for P m the formulas obtained there, the de- placements due to deformations must be considered in discussing
flect10n of the beam at F and that at the middle are the action of externa! loads. In such cases, the strain energy is no
ch
longer a second degree function and the theorem of Castigliano
(y)_c = E (3l - 4c) and does not hold. In order to explain this limitation let us consider
6 1 a simple case in which only one force P acts on the elastic system.
respectively. Assume first that the displacement is proportional to the corre-
. ~onsidering the r?tation of the triangle AFC (Fig. 282, e) as sponding force P as represented by the straight line OA in Fig. 285
a ng1d bo1y, t~e horizontal displacement of the point C is equal
to the vertical d1splacement of the point F multiplied by h/c; hence
h h2
= 2 ~ (y)_,, = 3EI (3! - 4c).
Substituting this and the deflection at the middle into eq. (i) gives
X = p 312 - 4c2 .
8h 3l - 4c
Fm. 285.
(a). Then the area of the triangle OAB represents the strain
energy stored in the system during the application of the load P.
For an infinitesimal increase d in the displacement the strain energy
increases by an amount shown in the figure by the shaded area
and we obtain
JU= Pdo. (a)
Frc. 283. With a linear relationship the infinitesimal triangle ADC is
similar to the triangle OAB; therefore
7. Find the influence line for the force in the bar CD of the
system shown in Fig. 283, neglecting displacements due to con- d = i J. = d"/: (b)
dP p or u p
340 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ENERGY OF STRAIN 341
Substituting this into eq. (a),
In this ca~e the displacement is not proportional to the load P,
dU = p dPo, although tne material of the bars follows Hooke's law. The rela-
p tion between o and P is represented in Fig. 28 5 (b) by the curve
OA. The shaded area OAB in this figure represents the strain
from which the Castigliano statement is obtained: energy stored in the system. The amount of strain energy is
dU
dP = (e)
U = J: 6
Pdo. (h)
An example to which the Castigliano theorem cannot be applied is Substituting, from (205),
shown in Fig. 286. Two equal horizontal bars AC and BC hinged at
A, B and C are subjected to the ac- (i)
tion of the vertical force P at C. Let we obtain
C 1 be the position of C after deforma-
. tion and a the angle of inclination of U = AE t o3do
4
= AEo = Po = PI a[P (/)
either bar in its deformed condition. /
3
Jo 4/ 3
4 4 '\JTE
The unit elongation of the bars, This shows that the strain energy is no longer a function of the
from Fig. 286 (a), is second degree in the force P. Also it is not one half but only one
C,
quarter of the product Po (see art. 68). The Castigliano theorem
p = ( - / - / ) : /. (d) of course <loes not hold here:
cosa
Fro. 286.
If only small displacements are con- dU = _i_ ( PI 31/) = !-__ l 31/ = !-__
0
sidered, a is small and r/cos a = r + (a2/2) approximately. Then,
dP dP 4 '\JTE 3 '\JTE 3 .
from (d), Analogons results are obtained in ali cases in which the displace-
2 ments are not proportional to the loads.
=- .
2
(1)
Fra. r. Fra. 2.
i
h/2
f z = 2 y2bdy = bh3/I'2. ( 2)
0
with respect to the y-axis is From its definition, eq. (1), it follows that the momerit of
12 inertia of an area with respect to an axis has the dimensions
fu = 2 J:b z 2
hdz = hb3 /12. of a length raised to the fourth power; hence, by dividing the
moment of inertia with respect to a certain axis by the cross
Equation (2) can also be used for calculating I., for the sectional area of the figure, the square of a certain length
parallelogram shown in Fig. 3, because this parallelogram is obtained. This length is called the radius of gyration with
can be obtained from the rectangle shown by dotted lines by a respect to that axis. For the y and z axes, the radii of gy-
displacement parallel to the axis z of elements such as the one ration are
shown. The areas of the elements and their distances from k. = -vl./A.
the z-axis remain unchanged during such displacement so that
1 z is the same as for the rectangle. Problems
I. Find the moment of inertia of the rectangle in Fig. 2 with
y J respect to the base. (Ans. I. = bh3/3.)
T~-- ------7--'
B D 2. Fi?d the !11-oment of inertia of the triangle ABC with respect
to the axis z' (F1g. 4).
Solution. This moment is the difference between the moment of
h "4--f""f""'-"\. /
1 inertia of the oarallelogram A BDC and the triangle BDC. Hence,
1,, = bh 3 /3 - bh 3/12 = bh3/4.
~-~~-+~----z y y 1
Fw. 3. Fw. 4.
moment of inertia with respect to the ~oint, where the axis with respect to the z-axis are in the ratio b3 /a 3 The moments
intersects the plane (point O in Fig. 1), It is defined as the of inertia of the ellipse and of the circle are evidently in the
integral same ratio; hence, the moment of inertia of the ellipse is
lp = l r 2dA, (4) (8)
---,,~-7
---i--=- -'\ T
Referring back to Fig. 1, r 2 = y 2 +
z2, and from eq. (4) \ b
1
(5) ,
~-Lt-.--'4--.,..J.-----J.'L...L-Z
1 1
That is, the polar moment of inertia with respect to any point O
y is equal to the sum of the moments of in-
\
\ ----.1.-- /
"'-.,
1
1 ///
/1
1
1
in which A 1s the area of the figure and d is the distance of its coordinates and integration is extended over the entire
between the axes. This can be prf ved as follows: from area A of a plane figure, is called the product of inertia of the
eq. (1) figure. If a figure has an axis of symmetry which is taken for
Problems
Find / 11,z1 for the rectangle in Fig. '.l. (Ans. Iv'z' = (b2h2/4).)
1.
Fw. 14.
z. Find the product of inertia of the r
angle section with respect to the y and z r the new axes Y1 and z1 (Fig. 14). Considering an elementary
axes. Do the same for the J1 and Z1 axes
/
/ 1 area dA, the new coordinates from the figure are
(Fig. 13).
Solution. Dividing the figure into two Y:_,
rectangles and using eq. (a) for each of ',
a
/'
/
/~s j
'.1_
z1 = z cos cp +y sin cp; y1 = y cos cp - z sin cp, (e)
these rectangles, we find ' / : z in which cp is the angle between z and z1 Then,
/..- a
1 11 , = a2h2/4 + h (a
2
. .
- h2)/4.
. .
/
Fw. 13. I,,, =
JAf yi2dA = i A
(y cos cp - z sin cp) 2dA = i y 2 cos2 cpdA
A
Problems
I. Determine the directions of the centroidal principal axes of
the Z section (Fig. 5c) if h = h1 = 1"; b = 5"; a= 10".
2. Find the directions of the centroidal principal axes and the
corresponding principal moments of inertia for an angle sectiQn AUTHOR INDEX
511 X 2" X ". (Ans. tan 2cp = o. 547; I max = 9.36 in. 4; I min = 0.99 Andre, W. L., 193 ' Kidwell, E., 127
in. 4 .) Andrews, E. S., 310 Kleinlogel, 193
3. Determine the semi-axes of the ellipse of inertia for an Arnold, R. N., 303
elliptical cross section (Fig. 7). (Ans. k, = b/2; ky = a/2.) Arnovlevic, l., 131 Lam, 307
4. Under what conditions does the ellipse of inertia become a Land, R., 239
circle? (Ans. When the moments of inertia with respect to the . Bach, C., 6o Landau, D., 211
principal axes are equal.) Beggs, G. E., 335 Lehr, E., 211
Bertot, 203 Love, A. E. H., 117
Betti, E., 331
Boussinesq, l., 290 Mari, G., 211
Maxwell, C., 317, 331, 333
Castigliano, A., 211, 310, 320 Menabrea, F., 320
Clapeyron, 203, 307 Michell, J. H., 11 5
Cox, H., 289, 303 Mohr, O., 38, 144, 321, 331
Moore, H. F., 130
Davidenkoff, N. N., 288 Mller-Breslau, H., 321, 331
Dreyer, G., 237
Navier, 97, 290
Engesser, F., 237, 321 Nisida, M., 303
Esling, F. K., 237
Ostenfeld, A., 259
-Euler, L., 136, 244
Parr, P. H., 2II
Filon, L. N. G., 115, 174
Perry, J., 248
Finniecome, J. R., 272
Phillips, E., 211
Foppl, A., 62
Pohl, K., 237
Fuller, C. E., 259
Poisson, 51
Green, C. E., 144 Ramsauer, C., 290
Gross, S., 211
Rayleigh, Lord, 331
Grueneisen, 7 Roever, V., 272
Grning, M., 321 Ros, M., 303
Hackstroh, 288 Saint Venant, 97, II0, u7, 270, 290, 303
Henkel, O., 237 Salmon, E. H., 258
Hooke, R., 2 Sears, J. E., 290
Southwell, R. V., 249
Johnston, W. A. 259
Jouravski, II0 Todhunter and Pearson, uo, ::.u, 258,
270, 289
Karman, Th., 174 Tschetsche, 303
Keck, Z., 237 Tuzi, Z., 303
355
356 AUTHOR INDEX
Voigt, W., 115 Westergaard, H. M., 62
Weyrauch, T., 307
Wagner, l., 124
Wahl, A.M., 272 'Young, D. H., 255 SUBJECT INDEX
Wahstaff, J. E. P., 290
Welter, 288 'j .limmermann H., 288
Numbers rqer lo pages
A c
Cantilever beam, 81, 138, 147
Angle of twist, 264 deflection of, 147
Assembly stresses, 25 Castigliano, theorem, 308
deflection of trusses by, 314
solution of statically indeterminate
B
problems by, 320
Beams, Chapters III, IV, V, VI, VII Circular shaft in torsion, 261
tantilever, 81, 138, 147 ring, extension of, 29
continuous, 200 ring, rotating, 30
deflection of, Chap. V Clapeyron's theorem of three moments,
normal stresses in, 102 203
of built-up sections, 126 Columns, Chapter VIII
of reinforced concrete, 220 design of, 249, 255
of two different materials, 216 factor of safety in, 256
of variable cross section, 209 Combined bending and direct stresses,
on three supports, 197 Chapt. VIII, 226
principal stresses in, 121 bending and twist, 276
shearing stresses in, 109 stresses, Chap. II, 35
simply supported at ends, 68, 137, 140 stresses represented by Mohr's circle, 38
with built-in ends, 184 Compression, 4
with overhanging ends, 162 eccentric, 230
Bending and direct stresses, 226 Compressive strain, 4
and twist combined, 276 stress, 4
in a plane inclined to principal planes, Conical springs, 27 5
166 Continuous beam, 200
moment, 68 wi th the supports not on the same level,
moment diagram, 74 204
moment diagram modified, 211 Contraction, lateral, 50
moment equivalent, 278 Core of a section, 235
of bi-metallic strip, 217 Cri ti cal load, 244
of continuous beams, 200 Cross sections of beams, various shapes,
of frames, 188 97
of ..l beam, 100 Curvature of beams, 91, 134
potential energy of, 296 Cylindrical boiler, 42
pure, 88 Cylindrical tubes, thermal stresses in, 31
theory of, Chapters III, IV, V, VI, VII
Bi-metallic strip, 217 D
Boiler, cylindrical, 42 Deflection curve, differential equation,
Built-in ends, 176 1 34
Built-up beams, 126 by using bending moment diagram, 144
357
358 SUBJECT INDEX SUBJECT INDEX 359
/
Deflection of beams, Chap. V, 134 I R compressive, tensile, 4
cantilever, 147 lmaginary loading in the theory of bend- principal, 46
due to impact, 300 ing, 154 Radius of curvature, 91 principal in bending, 121
due to shearing force, 170 lmpact in bending, 300 Radius of gyration, Appendix shearing in bending, 109
of variable cross section, 209 tension, 28 5 Reciproca! theorem, 330 shearing in tension, 36
simply supported at ends, 1 53 torsion, 29 5 Reduced mass, 289, 303 working, 7
under direct and bending load, 239 lndeterminate systems, 19, 175 Redundant constraint, 176 Struts, 239
uniformly loaded, 137, 156 lnertia, moment of, Appendix Reinforced concrete beams, 220 short, eccentrically loaded, 230
with built-in ends, 184 Resilience, 282
lnfluence line, 335
with overhangs, 162 lnitial stresses in tension, 25 Rigidity modulus, 56
T
Deflection of helical springs, clase coiled, lsotropic material, 51 Rings, circular, 23
Tensile test, 1
rotating, 30
2 73 Tensile test diagram, 6
L Rivet stress, 60, 130
canica!, 276 Tension and compression, Chap. I
ofleaf-type, 2II Lateral contraction, 50 impact in, 285
Diagrams of bending moment, 74 Least work, principie of, 320 s strain energy of, 281
shearing force, 74 Limit of proportionality, proportional Safety factor, 8 Thermal stresses in bending, 96, 187
Dilferential equation of deflection curve, limit, 6 Section modulus, 92, 238 in tension, compression, 25
1 34 M Set, permanent, 2 Three moment equation, 203
Shafts, of circular cross section, 26i Thrust on columns, 230, 239
E Modulus of elasticity in shear, 56
hollow, 268 Torque, 264
in tension and compression, 3
Eccentric longitudinal loading, 230 under bending and twist, 276 Torsion circular shafts, 261
of volume, 63
Elastic, perfectly, partially, 2 Shapes of cross sections of beams, 97 combined with bending, 276
Modulus of resilience, 282
Elastic strain energy, Chap. X, 281 Shear, pure, 54 hollow shafts, 268
Modulus of section, 92, 238
Elasticity, 2 Shear in beams, 109 rectangular shafts, 269
Mohr circle, 38
modulus of, 3 deflection due to, 170 strain energy of, 293
Moment, bending, 68
Elongation in simple tension, 4 in rivets, 6o, 130 Torsional rigidity, 270
of inertia, Appendix
under combined stress, 52, 62 Shearin_g force in bending, 68 Trajectories of stresses, 123
Energy of strain, 1, Chap. X, 281 diagram, 74
N elfect on deflection, 170
in bending, 296
Neutral axis, 89 Shearing stress in beams, 109
u
in shear, 292 surface, 89 of circular section, 1!6 U!timate strength, 7
in tension, 281 Normal stress, 36 Uniform strength in tension, 17
of I Section, 1 18
in torsion, 293 in bending, 209
of rectangular cross section, 113
Equal strength in tension, 17 p Unit elongation, 4
of reinforced concrete, 224
in bending, 209 Permanent set, 2 in tension, 36
Equation of three moments, 203 Poisson's ratio, 50 Springs, helical close coiled, 271 V
of deflection curve, I 34 Polar moment of inertia, Appendix conical, 275 Variable cross section of tensile bars, 11
Potential energy of strain, Chap. X, 281 leaf-type, 2II
Principal axes of inertia, Appendix of beams, 209
F Strain, tensile, compressive, 4
planes of bending, 93, 166 Volume change, 63
Factor of safety, 8 energy in bending, 296
stresses, 47 Volume modulus of elasticity, 63
Flexura! rigidity, 91 energy in shear, 292
stresses in beams, 121 energy in tension, 281
Frames, 188
stresses in shafts, 277 general expression, 305 w
Principie of superposition in bending, 144 shearing, 55 Working stress, 7
H
of least work, 320 Strength, ultimate, 7
Helical springs, clase coiled, 2,1 Product of inertia, Appendix bar of equal, 17 y
Hollow shaft, 268 Proportional limit, limit of proportion- Stress, 3 Yielding, 6
Hooke's law, 2 ality, 6 combined, 41 Yielding point, 6
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
PART II
Advanced Theory and Problems
/ S TIMOSHENKO
Professor of Theoretical and Engineering M echanics
Stanford University
In the fourth chapter are discussed problems of stress f decided practica! . interest in modern machine design.
distribution in parts having the form of a generated body , ihese problems are treated more particularly with reference
and symmetrically loaded. These problems are especially to new developments in these fields. . .
important for designers of vessels submitted to interna! In concluding, various strength theor1es are cons1dered.
pressure and of rotating machinery. Tensile and bending The important subject of the relation of the theoi:ies to the
stresses in thin-walled vessels,stresses in thick-walled cylinders, method of establishing working stresses under var10us stress
shrink-fit stresses, and also dynamic stresses produced in conditions is developed.
rotors and rotating clises by inertia forces and the stresses It was mentioned that the book was written partially for
due to non-uniform heating are given attention. teaching purposes, and that it is in tended also to be used for ad-
The fifth chapter contains the theory of sidewise buckling vanced courses. The writer has, in his experience, usually
of compressed members and thin plates due to elastic in- divided the content of the book into three courses as follows:
stability. These problems are of utmost importance in many (i) A course embodying chapt~rs I, 3, and 5 prin~ipal~y far ad-
modern structures where the cross sectional dimensions are vanced students interested m structural engmeenng. (2)
being reduced to a minimum due to the use of stronger ma- A course covering chapters 2, 3, 4, and 6 for students whose
terials and the desire to decrease weight. In many cases, chief interest is in machine design. (3) A course using chapter
failure of an engineering structure is to be attributed to elastic 7 as a basis and accompanied by demonstrations in the
instability and not to lack of strength on the part of the material testing laboratory. The author feels that such a
material. course, which treats the fundamentals of mechanical proper-
In the sixth chapter, the irregularities in stress distribution ties of materials and which establishes the relation between
produced by sharp variations in cross sections of bars caused these properties and the working stresses used under various
by hales and grooves are considered, and the practica! sig- conditions in design, is of practica! importance, and more
nificance of stress concentration is discussed. The photo- attention should be given this sort of study in our engineering
elastic method, which has proved very useful in investigating curricula.
stress concentration, is also described. The membrane anal- The author takes this opportunity of thanking his friends
ogy in torsional problems and its application in investigating who have assisted him by suggestions, reading of manuscript
stress concentration at reentrant corners, as in rolled sections and proofs, particularly Messrs. W. M. Coates and L. H.
and in tubular sections, is explained. Circular shafts ar Donnell, teachers of mathematics and mechanics in the
variable diameter are also discussed, and an electrical analogy Engineering College of the University of Michigan, and Mr.
is used in explaining local stresses at the fillets in such shafts. F. L. Everett of the Department of Engineering Research of
In the last chapter, the mechanical properties of materials the University of Michigan. He is indebted also to Mr. F. C.
are discussed. Attention is directed to the general principles Wilharm for the preparation of drawings, to Mrs. E. D.
rather than to a description of established, standardized Webster for the typing of the manuscript, and to the D. Van
methods of testing materials and manipulating apparatus. Nostrand Company for their care in the publication of the
The results of modern investigations of the mechanical hook.
properties of single crystals and the practica! significance of s. TIMOSHENKO
ANN ARBOR, M1cHIGAN
this information are described. Such subjects as the fatigue
May 1, 1930
of metals and the strength of metals at high temperature are
NOTATIONS
to y and z axes
k11, kz . ..... Radii of gyration corresponding to 1 11, lz
' lp . ........ Polar moment of inertia
Z ... ....... Section modulus
C ... ....... Torsional rigidity
l ......... . Length of a bar, span of a beam
P, Q . ...... Concentrated forces
t ........ Temperature, thickness
ix
X NOTATIONS
d4y
El. d;4 = q, (a)
in which q denotes the intensity of the load acting on the heam.
1
The beam is inbedded in a material capa ble of exerting downward
as well as upward forces on it.
2
See S. Timoshenko and B. F. Langer, Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 54,
P 277, 1932. The theory of bending of a bar on elastic foundation has
been developed by E. Winkler, Die Lehre v. d. Elastizitat u. Festigkeit,
P~ag, 1867, p. 182. See also A. Zimmermann, Die Berechnung des
E!senbahn-Oberbaues, Berln, 1888. Further development of the theory
will be found in the following publications: Hayashi, Theorie des Tragers
auf elastischer Unterlage, Berlin, 1921; Wieghardt, Zeitschrift fr ange-
wandte Math. u. Mech., Vol. 2 (19'l'l); K. v. Sanden and Schleicher,
Beton und Eisen, 1926, Heft 5; Pasternak, Beton u. Eisen, 1926, Heft 9
and 10; W. Prager, Zeitschrift f. angewandte Math. u. Mech., Vol. 7,
19 2 7, p. 354; M. A. Biot, Journal Appl. Mech., Vol. 4, p. 1A, 1937.
3
See "Strength of Materials," Part 1, p. 137.
l
3
PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS
2 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
'the deflection curve mst have a horizontal tangent; therefore
For an unloaded portian the only force on the beam is the
continuously distributed reaction from the side of the founda-
dy)
tion of intensity ky. Hence q = - ky and equation (a) ( -dX x=O = o,
becomes
d4y or substituting expression (e) for Y
El. dx4 = - ky. (1)
e-f1x(C cos {jx + D sin {jx + e sin (,x - D cos [,x)x=O = o
Using the notation
the general solution of eq. (1) can be represented as follows: Equation (e) therefore becomes
y = ce-llx(cos (,x + sin r,x). (d)
y = ef1x(A cos {jx + B sin {jx)
+ e-f1x(C cos {jx + D sin {jx). (b) The consecutive derivatives of this equation are
This can easily be verified by substituting (b) in eq. (1). dy = - 2r,Crflx sin {jx,
In particular cases the arbitrary constants A, B, C, and D of dx
the solution must be determined from the known conditions at 2 (e)
certain points. dY = 2{j2ce-flx(sin (,x - cos f,x),
dx2
Let us consider, as an example, the case of a single concen-
trated load acting on an infinitely long beam (Fig. 1), taking d3y = 4r,3ce-flx cos {jx. (/)
the origin of coordinates at the point of application of the dx 3
force. From the condition of symmetry, The constant C can now be determined from the fact th_at
x only that part of the beam to the right of at x = o the shearing force for the right part of the beam (F1g.
the load need be considered (Fig. 1, b). 1, b) is equal to - (P/2). T~e minus sign follows from our
In applying the general solution (b) to convention for signs of sheanng forces (see P 72, Part I).
';m;;)7)h
htr',.;;,o _ _ __
this case, the arbitrary constants must first Then
be fopnd. It is reasonable to assume that
FIG. I. at points infinitely distant from the force
P the deflection and the curvature are
( V)x=O =( t t= = - El ( ~;a t= = - ~'
equal to zero. This condition can be fulfilled only if the or using eq. (/)
constants A and B in eq. (b) are taken equal to zero. Hence
the deflection curve for the right portian of the beam be-
comes fmm which
y = e-f1x(C cos {jx + D sin {jx). (e)
- P/3
+ sin 3x), (3)
-' ,, r 1 {Jx ,, r
2 k e-llx(cos 3x
1 (J (J
2
- /1:I "' 1 1
"'
M = - El d y - p e-fJ x (sin
~
1/
2
......
'i"
r----..
~-- ~
5 ,8x
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
-0.0056
-0.0166
-0.0254
-0.0320
-0.1282
-0.1149
-0.1019
-0.0895
-0.0669
-0.0658
-0.0636
-o.o6o8
0.0613
0.0492
0.0383
0.0287
6.o
6.1
6.2
6.3
0.0017
0.0018
0.0019
0.0019
0.0031
0.0026
0.0022
0.0018
0.0024
0.0022
0.0020
0.0018
-0.0007
-0.0004
-0.0002
+0.0001
o.z 2.8 -0.0369 -0.0777 -0.0573 ).0204 6.4 0.0018 0.0015 0.0017 0.0003
'
0.4
j / 2.9
3.0
-0.0403
-0.0423
-0.0666
-0.0563
-0.0534
-0.0493
0.0132
0.0070
6.5
6.6
0.0018
0.0017
0.0012
0.0009
0.0015
0.0013
0.0004
0.0005
0.6 / j
V 3.1
3.2
3.3
-0.0431
-0.0431
-0.0422
-0.04~
-0.0383
-0.0306
-0.0450
-0.0407
-0.0364
0.0019
-0.0024
-0.0058
6.7
6.8
6.9
0.0016
0.0015
0.0014
0.0006
0.0004
0.0002
O.COI I
0.0010
0.0008
0.0006
0.0006
0.0006
08 / 1/ 3.4
3.5
-0.0408
-0.0389
-0.0237
-0.0177
-0.0323
-0.0283
-0.0085
-0.0106
7.0 0.0013 0.0001 0.0007 0.0006
1.0 ~
o 1 2. 3 ,... o
F10. 2.
6 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS JN BENDING OF BEAMS 7
Using the notation (6) and equations (d)-(f) we obtain )ength l then becomes
P/3
Y = 2k cp({3x),
dy p132
dx = - T t(f3x),
f1' qdx fJ
y= Jo Sf3 3EJ/- "'(cos f3x + sm
.
{3x) +
.[S{3qdxEI/-fJx(cos 13.,.,.- + sm {3x )
0
3
Using the first of equations (7), we find the deflection at a distance spacing is 22 inches; then
x from the origin: 10,000
k = --'--- = 1,500 lbs. per square inch.
P/3 0,3 X 22
y= k {<,0(/3x) - <,0[/3(x
2
+ e)]}
For the case of a single wheel load P, eqs. (8) and (9) are used
Mo/3 <,0({3x) - <,0[/3(x + e)] M 0{3d<,0 for the maximum deflection and maximum bending moment. The
= 2k e = - 2k dx maximum stress due to the bending of the ral will be
Since, from equations (7), Mmax P P 4 {EJ. (i)
<Tmax = ~ = 4/3Z = 4Z '\Jk_k_'
d<,0 = - 2{3!;,
dx where Z denotes the section modulus of the ral. 5
In order to compare stresses in rails the cross sections of which
we obtain for the deflection curve produced by the couple M 0 the are geometrically similar, eq. (i) may be put in the following form:
following equation:
Mo/3 2 p ,;J{/J. 4f4E (;')
Y = -k- !:(f3x). (10) <T max = / '--T '\J k ,
By differentiating this equation, we obtain in which / is the area of the cross section of the ral. Since the
second factor on the right side of eq. (j) remains constant for
dy Mo/3 3 geometrically similar cross sections and since the third factor does
dx = -k-if({3x),
not depend on the dimensions of the rail, the maximum stress is
2 inversely proportional to the area of the cross section, i.e., inversely
M = - El d y = Mo 0({3x) (10') proportional to the weight of the ral per unit length.
dx 2 2 '
An approximate value of the maximum pressure Rmax on a tie is
d 3y Mo/3 obtained by multiplying the maximum depression by the tie spacing
V= - EI.-d3 = - - <,0(/3x). / and by the modulus of the foundation. From eq. (8)
X 2
Using these equations together with Table 1, one can readily calcu- R = P/3 lk = P/31 = !:_ 4fkl4. (k)
late the deflection, the slope, the bending moment, and the shearing max 2k 2 2 '\J~
force for any cross section of the beam.
We shall now consider the case of severa! loads acting on a It may be seen from this that the pressure on the tie depends prin-
beam. As an example bending of a rail produced by wheel-pressures cipally on the tie spacing /. It should be noted also that k occurs
of a locomotive will be discussed. The following method of ana- in both eqs. (j) and (k) as a fourth root. Hence ari error in the
lyzing stresses in rails is based upon -i:he assumption that there determination of k will introduce a much smaller error in the
is a continuous elastic support under the ral. This assumption is magnitude of umax and Rmax
a good approximation, 4 since the distance between the ties is small 4 See author's paper on "Strength of Rails," Transactions of the
in comparison to the wave length a of the deflection curve, given lnstitute of Way of Communications, St. Petersburg, Russia (1915),
by eq. (5). In order to obtain the magnitude k of the modulus and author's paper in Proc. of the Second International Congress for
of foundation, the load required to depress one tie unit distance Applied Mechanics, Zrich, 1926. See also reference 2.
must be divided by the tie spacing. It is assumed that the tie is 6 In writing eq. (i) it was assumed that the elementary beam formula
symmetrically loaded by two loads corresponding to the rail pres- can be used at the cross section where the load P is applied. More
sures. Suppose, for instance, that the tie is depressed 0.3 inch detailed investigations show that, due to local stresses, considerable
under each of the two loads of 10,000 pounds and that the tie deviation from the elementary eq. (i) should be expected.
10 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 11
When several loads are acting on the ral, the method of super- iine of the numerical table 2, we find the following deflection under
position must be used. To illustrate the method of calculation we
the first wneel:
shall discuss a numerical example. Consider a 100-lb. ral section
with 1, = 44 in. 4 and with a tie spacing such that k = 1,500 lbs. P/3 P/3
per sq. in.; then from eq. (2) O= 2k (1 + 0.230 - 0.042 - 0.012) = I.18 2k"
4fk ~ l 500 l
/3 = \JJfY. = 4 X 3 ~ I0 6 X 44 = 433 in.-r, The deflections at other points can be obtained in a similar manner.
It will be seen that the method of superposition is easily applied
and from eq. (5) to determine the cffect of a combination ofloads having any arrange-
271" ment and any spacing.
a= /3 = 272 m. The analysis is based on the assumption that the rail support
is capable of developing negative reactions. Since there is play
We take, as an example, a system of four equal wheel loads, 66 between the rail and the spikes, there is little resistance to the
inches apart. If we fix the origin of coordinates at the point of upward movement of the ral and this tends to increase the bending
contact of the first wheel, the values of {3x for other wheels will be moment in the rail under the first and the last wheels. Other
those in the table 2 below. The corresponding values of functions elements enter into the problem and these may affect the accuracy
'/J and y; taken from the numerical table on p. 5 are also given. of the analysis. Nevertheless, in general, the above theory for the
bending of the rail, caused by static loading, is in satisfactory
TABLE 2 agreement with the experiments which have been made.
Loads 2 3 4
Problems
fJx........................ . . o 1.52 3.o5 4.57
,{, ........................... . -0.207 -0.051 0.008 I. Using the information given in Table 2, construct the bending
<P ......... 0.230 -0.042 -0.012 moment diagram for the rail assuming that the wheel pressures are
equal to 40,000 lbs. Such a diagram should show that the moments
are negative in sections midway between the wheels, which indi-
Now, after superposing the effects of all the four loads acting on the cates that during locomotive motion the rail is submitted to the
rail, the bending moment under the first wheel is, from eq. (4), . action of reversal of bending stresses which may finally result in
p p fatigue cracks.
Mi = /3 (1 - 0.207 - 0.051 + 0.008) = 0.75 /3, 2. Find the bending moment at the middle of the loaded portian
4
i.e., the bending moment is 25 per cent less than that produced by
a single load P.
4 of the beam shown in Fig. 3 and
the slope of the deflection curve
at the left end of the same portian.
T
Proceeding in the same manner for the point of contact of the 3. Find the deflection at any
second wheel we obtain point A under the triangular load
acting on an infinitely long beam
p p on elastic foundation, Fig. 5.
M2 = (1 - 2 X 0.207 - 0.051) = 0.535 .
413 413 Answer. Proceeding as in the
derivation of equation (g), p. 7,
It may be seen that dueto the action of adjacent wheels the bending we obtain Fm. 5.
moment under the second wheel is much smaller than under the
first. This fact was proved by numerous experimental measure- qo l
ments of track stresses. Using eq. (3) and the values in the last y= (jk/[y;(/3c) - y;([jb) - 2(j!0(/3b)
4
+ 4[jc].
PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 13
12 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2. The Semi-infinite Beam on an Elastic Foundation.-If a simply supported end, Fig. 7a, the reacti~n R is found fi:om the
condition that the deflection at the support 1s zero. Observmg that
long beam on an elastic foundation is bent by a force P and a mo-
ment Mo applied at the end as shown in Fig. 6, we again can use the at a large distance from. the
general solution (b) of the preceding article. support bending of the beam
Since the deflection and the bending moment is negligible and that its de-
approach zero as the distance x from the loaded pression into the foundation can
end increases, we must take A = B = o in be taken equal to q/k, we cal-
that solution and we obtain culate the value of R by sub-
Fw. 6. stituting Mo = o and 5 = q/k
y = e-Px(c cos {3x + D sin {3x). (a) into equation (u'). This yields
For determining the constants of integration C and D we have the the result:
conditions at the origin, i.e., under the load P:
d2y)
2X x::O = - Mo,
EJ. (
The deflection curve is now
obtained by subtracting de- Fra. 7.
EI.(dd3~)
X x::O
= - V= P. flections given by equation (Ii)
for P = R, Mo = o from the uniform depression q/k of the beam,
Subst!tutit:g expression (a) in these equations, we obtain two linear which gives
equat10ns m C and D, from which
q e-P"' q
l Mo y = - - - E l R cos {3x = -k (1 - e-Pz cos f3x). (14)
C = 2f33EJ. (P - f3Mo);
k 2/33 z
D= 2132EJ.
In the case of a built-in end, Fig. 7b, the magnitudes of the
Substituting in equation (a), we obtain i-eaction R and of the moment Mo are obtained from the conditions
e-Px that at the support the deflection and the slope are zer_o. _Observing
Y = 2{3Elz [P cos {3x - f3Mo(cos {3x - sin {3x)J that at a large distance from the support the defle~tlon 1s equal_ to
q/k and using equations (n') and (12), we obtam the followmg
2(3
= k {P0(f3x) - f3Mo[0(f3x) - f(f3x)]). (II) equations for calculating R and Mo: 6
To get the deflection under the load we must substitute m (II) - Z= - 2/3:EI. (R + f3Mo)
x = o. Then
T
and
l
5 = (y)x::0 = 2{3;EI. (P - f3Mo). ( l l ')
o = +
2{3 2EI, (R 2{3Mo),
The expression for the slope is obtained by dia-erentiating eq. (II). from which
At the end (x = o) this becomes R = 4{3 3EI.r_ = r_f3
k
dy) l
(12)
( dx z::O = - 2[32Efz (P - 2/3Mo). The minus sign of Mo indicates that the moment has the direction
shown by the arrow in Fig. 7b.
Usi~~ these equatio:s in conjunction with the principie of super-
pos1t1on, more complicated problems can be solved. 6 In equations (u') and (12), P = - R is substituted, since the
If a uniformly loaded long beam on an elastic foundation has a positive direction far the reaction is taken upwards.
14 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 15
Problems Solution. Assume that the beam is extended to the left of the
I. Find the deflection curve for a semi-infinite beam on an
end A as shown by the dotted line. In such a case equation (3)
elastic foundation hinged at the end and acted upon by a couple gives the deflection curve for x > o
and at the cross section d of the p
Mo, Fig. 8.
~ M0 So!ution. The reaction at the fictitious infinite beam we have,
from equations (7), using the
~~~"-.."'--~~~ ll hinfe is ?bt~ined from ~qua~ion
1P J (11 ) subst1tutmg = o, wh1ch g1ves
condition of symmetry:
{a)
Fw. 8. p p y
P = /3Mo. M = -iJ;(3c), V=- 0(3c). (e)
4/3 2
Substituting this value of Pin equation (II) we obtain
To obtain the required deflection
- ~ -/Jx. -~ curve for the semi-infinite beam,
y - 23 2Elz e sin 3x - 23 2EJJ(f3x). (16) free at the end d, we evidently
must superpose the deflection of
By subsequent differentiation, we find the semi-infinite beam produced Fw. w.
by forces shown in Fig. 10b on
dy 23 3Mo
dx = -k~--ij;(3x), the deflection of the fictitious infinite beam. By using equations
(3), (11) and (e) in this way we obtain for x > o:
d 2v
M = - Elz d; 2 = Mo0(3x), (b) P/3
y = 2
k ,p(3x) + -k23 V0[3(x + e)]
3
d v
J/ = - El. d; =3 - 3M0 ,p(3x). + 3M0[3(x + e)] -- 3Mt[f3(x + c)]l (d)
P/3
Find the bencl.ing moment Mo and the force P acting on the
2. .= 2
k ,p(3x) + 3P
k (0(3c)0[3(x + e)]
end of a semi-infinite beam on an elastic foundation, Fig. 9, if the
deflection and the slope i at the end are given. + f(3c)0[3(x + e)] - f(3c)t[f3(x +e)]}.
This expression can also be used for - e < x < o; in this case we
have only to substitute the absolute value of x, instead of x, in ,p(3x).
w]~~)~- -l (a)
M" = Qo [1
~
+ ir(/3/)] + Mo [1 + 0(3/)],
2
}
w
y 1 V" = - Qo [1 - 0(3/)] - Mo/3 [1 - cp({3l)].
t pl1
1
1
2 2
rJr$#$$wJ
1 1 (b)
Jt
The proper values of Mo and Q0 are now obtained from the equations
M'+ M" =
V'+ V" = o,
'} (e)
Q . l ~'y
which can be readily solved in each particular case by using Table I.
0
Once Mo and Q0 are known, the deflection and the bending
A B
moment at any cross section of
the actual beam, Fig. I 1a, can be ~Yp
obtained by using equations (7),
"~CZ. }PB
..,_......,...,..~_.,:,i..,..,...,...,..,..,.-r,.~--r-"
(10) and (10') together with the
Fxo. u. method of superposition. The
particular case shown in Fig. l 2
the infinitely long beam. In Fig. IIc the infinitely long beam is is obtained from our previous Fm. 12.
load~d by forces Qo and moments Mo, both applied outside of the discussion by taking e = o. . .
Proceeding as previously explained we _obtam for_ the deflect10ns
portian Al! of the beam and infinitely clase to points A and B
at the ends and at the middle the followmg expressions:
correspondmg to the free ends of the given beam, Fig. 11a. It is
easy to see that by a proper selection of the forces Q0 and the 2P{3 cosh {3! + cos {3! (d)
moments Mo, the bending moment and the shearing force produced Ya = Jb = -k- sinh 3/ + sin {3!'
by the forces P at the cross sections A and B of the infinite beam
{3! {3!
(sho:wn in Fig._ l 1b! can be made to equal zero. Then the middle cosh- cos -
portian o~ the mfimte beam will be evidently in the same condition 4P{3 2 2 (e)
as t!ie fimte b~am repr:sented in Fig. 11a, and all necessary infor- Je = k sinh 3/ + sin {31
mation regardmg bendmg of the latter beam will be obtained bv
superposing the cases shown in Figs. ub and 1 Ic. To establish The bending moment at the middle is
the eq~ations for determining the proper values of Mo and Q0 , let . h {3! . {3!
us con_si~er the cross se_ction A of t~e infinitely long beam. Taking P sm 2 sm 2
2
(J)
the ongi? of the coord1?ates at this point and using equations (7),
the bendmg moment M and the shearing force V' produced at this
Me = - 7 sinh fjl + sin {3!"
18 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 19
The case of a single load values of Q0 and M 0 , the system of equations similar to equations
at the middle, Fig. 13, can (a), (b) and (e) can be readily written. As soon as Q0 and Mo are
~
also be obtained from our calculated, ali necessary information regarding the bending of the
previous case, shown in Fig. beam shown in Fig. 14a can be obtained by superposing the cases
r/ ~ z 1 I a. I t is onl y necessary to
take e = l/2 and to substitute
shown in Figures 14b and 14c.
Having the solutions for the symmetrical and for the anti-
1
FIG. 13. P for 2P. In this way we symmetrical loading of a beam, we can readily obtain the solution
obtain for the deflections at for any kind of loading by using the principie of superposition.
the middle and at the ends the following expressions: For example, the solution of the unsymmetrical case shown in
Fig. 1 5a is obtained by superposing the solutions of the symmetrical
{3! {31
cosh - cos - and the anti-symmetrical cases shown in Figs. I 5b and 15c. The
2P{3 2 2
Ya = Jb = -k- sinh {31 +
sin {31'
(g)
P{3 cosh {31 +
cos {31 +2 (h)
p
Ye = 2k sinh {31 + sin {31
For the bending moment under the load we find
P cosh {31 - cos {31
(i)
Me = +
4{3 sinh {3/ sin {31
FIG. 16.
loaded beam on an elastic foundation. The intensity of the load Substituting this value in equation (k), we find the reaction at the
and the modulus of foundation are given by the expressions (/). middle support of the vertical beam, which intersects the beam AB
In discussing the deflection of the beam we can use the method of at its mid-point. I t is interesting to note that this reaction may
superposition previously explained or we can directly integrate become negative, which indicates that the horizontal beam actually
equation (m). Using the latter method, we may write the general supports the vertical beams only if it is sufficiently rigid; otherwise
integral of the equation (m) in the following forro: it may actually increase the bending of sorne of the vertical beams.
we find
. {31 . {31
2 s1n - s1nh--
q1 2 2
- k cos {31 + cosh {31 '
{31 {31 FIG. 18. FIG. 19.
2 cos - cosh ~
q1 2 2
k cos {31 + cosh {3t .dnswer.
2M0 {3 2 sinh {31 - sin {31
The deflection curve then is Ya = Jb = - - k - sinh {31 +
sin {31'
. {JI {31
. {31 . h {31
2 s111- Sin - s1nh - cos -
2 2
+ cosh {31
2
. {31
- sm -
2
q1 [
J = k l cos {3! : cosh ~/ sin {3x sinh {Jx Me = 2Mo . h {3/ + s1n
sm . {3/
cos {!.!_ cosh ~I
2 ] 3. Find the deflection and the bending moment at the middle of
2 2 the beam with hinged ends and on an elastic foundation, the load
h {3! cos {Jx cosh {Jx . (o)
cos {3 1 cos + being applied at the middle of the beam, Fig. 19.
Answer.
The deflection at the middle is obtained by taking x = o which
P{J sinh {31 - sin {31
Je = 2k cosh {JI+ cos {31'
- 2 cos {31
- cosh {31)
--
q1 sinh {JI + sin {JI
= -P -
2 2
(p) -----
(y)x~ = k( 1
- cos {31 + cosh {3! Me
4{3 cosh {31 + cos {31
24 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 25
4. Find the deflection and the bending moment at the middle of 7. A beam on an elastic foundation and with hinged ends is
the uniformly loaded beam with hinged ends on an elastic founda- bent by a couple M 0 applied at the end, Fig. 23. Find the deflection
tion, Fig. 20. curve of the beam.
Answer. Answer.
2 cosh I!!. cos I!!. }
q 2 2
= k(cos h 2Mof12
l
[ h l . . h (/
l) cos (3 sm f1x sm (3 - x
)
Ye= k { 1
- coshf1/ + cosf1/ ' Y f1 - cos
2 2
f1
- cos (31 sinh f1x sin f1(l - x)].
. h -sm-
sm f1/ . f1/
q 2 2 4. Combined Direct Compression and Lateral Load.-
Me = 2/1 cosh {3/ + cos f1l
2 Let us begin with the simple problem of a strut with hinged
ends, loaded by a single force P, and centrally compressed by
5. Find the bending moments at the ends of the beam with .
built-in ends and on an elastic foundation. The beam is carrying two equal and opposite forces S, Fig. 24. Assuming that the
a uniform load anda load at the middle, Fig. 21.
p
B .s -x
/
e--- e
z
y
Fw. 24.
C 2 sin p(l - e) = C4[sin p(l - e) - tan picos p(! - e)], we obtain from equation (18)
C2p cos p(l - e)
e - p sin pe P sinp(l - e) The first factor in expression (24) represents the deflection
2
- Sp sin pi' Sp tan pi produced by the lateral load P acting alone. The second
factor indicates in what proportion the deflection produced
Substituting in equation (e) we obtain for the left portian of by Pis magnified by the axial compressive force S. When S
the strut: is small in comparison with Euler load (Se = EI1r 2 /l 2 ), the
P sin pe . Pe quantity u is small and the second factor in equation (24)
y = S p sm
. p1sm px - SI x. (18)
approaches unity, which indicates that under this condition
the effect on the deflection of the axial compressive force is
From this, by differentiation, we find:
dy P sin pe Pe
dx = S sin pi cos px - SI '
1 negligible. When S approaches the Euler value, the quantity
u approaches the value 1r/2 (see eq. 23) and the second factor
in expression (24) increases indefinitely, as should be expected
from our previous discussion of critica! load (see p. 244,
d 2y Pp sin pe .
Part I).
-dx 2 = - S sm
. p I sm px.
The maximum value of the bending moment is under the
The corresponding expressions for the right portian of the load and its value is obtained from the second of equations
strut are obtained by substituting (/ - x) instead of x, and (19), and
(! - e) instead of e, and by changing the sign of dy/dx in 2
equations (18) and (19). These substi~utions give: Mmax = -EJ(d y) = EJPptanpl =PI tan u_ (25)
dx 2 x=lt2 2S 2 4 u
_ P sin p(! - e) . p(I _ , ) _ P(! - e) (I _ x) ( 2 o) Again we see that the first factor in expression (25) represents
y - S psmp
. I sm x SI '
28 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 29
the bending moment produced by the load P acting alone, Mo acting alone (see p. 158, Part 1), and the second factors
while the second factor is the magnification jactar representing represent the effect of the axial force S.
the action of the axial force S on the maximum bending Considering equations (18) and (26), we see that the lateral
moment. force P and the couple M 0 occur in these expressions linearly,
Having solved the problem for one lateral load P, Fig. 24, while the axial force S occurs in the same expressions in a
we can readily obtain the solution for the case of a strut bend more complicated manner, since p also cont2ins S (see eq. 17).
by a couple applied at the end, Fig. 25. lt is only necessary From this we conclude that if at point C, Fig. 24, two forces
p and Q are applied, the deflection at any point may be
obtained by superposing the deflections produced by the load
Q and the axial forces S on the deflection produced by the
load P and the same axial forces. A similar conclusion can
be reached regarding couples applied to one end of the beam.
Fro. 25.
The conclusion regarding superposition can be readily
to assume that in our previous discussion the distance e is generalized and extended to cover the case of seve al loads,
indefinitely diminishing approaching zero, while Pe remains a Fig. 26. For each portion of the strut an equatio~1 similar to
constant equal to M 0 Substituting Pe = Mo and sin kc = kc
in equation (18), we obtain the deflection curve: P.
M 0 (sinpx x) .s
Y =S sin pi - 7 '
from which
r!J_ _ Mo (P cos px _
dx - S sin pi
!_).
I
Fro. 26.
(dy)
dx
_SMo(_P _ !_)
tan pi I
x=l -
ohtained by superposing the deflections produced at that
point by each of the lateral loads acting together with the
~~. 3 ( 2U t;n 2U -
axial force S. Let us consider a general case when n forces
= (2~) 2 ) 28 )
( are acting and m of these forces are applied to the right of
the cross section for which we are calculating the deflection.
Again the first factors in expressions (27) and (28) taken The expression for this deflection is obtained by using equation
with proper signs represent the slopes produced by the couple (18) for the forces P 1, P 2 , Pm and equation (20) for the
30 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 31
forces Pm+i, Pm+ 2, Pn. In this way we obtain the required By differentiating equation (30), we readily obtain the ex-
deflection: pressions for the slope and for the bending moment. The
y = S
smpx
i=m
+
.
L Pi sm
P sm P1 i=1
pe i
_ !!__
SI
dy ql tan pi
q/3 tan u -
2
(dx )._, - 2S [ p; - ' - 24El Ju'
l u
(32)
p stn P1 i=m+l
The maximum bending moment is at the middle where
_Mmax = - El (ddxy)
2
2
X=l/2
y = S
sin px
.
p sm p1 o
il-x q sin pe de - SI
Xil-x qedc
o
indeterminate cases of bending
of struts can be readily solved. l 11111111111111!111 ~;.
+ sinp(/. - x)
Sp sm pi
i l-X
1
q sm p(/- e)de - I-SI
- x.rl-x
1
q(I - e)de.
Taking as an example the case
of a uniformly loaded strut FIG. 27.
/,
Y
= _!i_
cos ( pl
2
- px )
- 1
1 - _!l_ x(l - x) (30)
using equations (28) and (32) this condition is found to be
sp2 pi 2S
and
l cos -
2
q/3 tan u - u
- 24El u 3 + 3El
Mol ( 3
2u tan 2u - (2u) 2
3 )
= 0
'from which
2
u)
~
I ql2 4 tan 2u(tan u - u)
Jmax = (y)x=l/2 S~2 ( COS U - I - 2 Mo = - - . ~ - - - - - - -
2
8 u(tan 2u - 2u)
I U
f ql2 COSU - I - 2 In the case of a uniformly loaded strut with both ends
(3 I)
= 384 El . (5/24)u 4 huilt-in the moments M 0 at the ends are obtained from the
32 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL<:: PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 33
equation: the force S. Thus the usual method for determining the
proper dimensions by taking 10
q/3 tan u - u + Mol [ 3 3 ]
- 24E/ u 3 3EI 2u tan 2u - (2u) 2 U'yp
1U'max 1 = n' (g)
-
Mol( 6
6EI 2u sin 2u -
6 )
(2u) 2 = o,
from which where n is the factor of safety, fails in this case.
_ ql 2
tan u - u If the strut must be designed so that it will begin to yield
Mo = -- --. (35) when the forces S and q increase n times, the cross section
12 u tanu
2
Answer. Solution. The moments Mo are found from the conditions that
p l - COS U p /2 I - COS U
the ends of the strut do not rotate. By using the answer of the
2S cos u 16EI u cos u2
p Zb p
2.Find the slopes at the ends of a strut carrying a triangular ,5
load, Fig. 28. - 1(
'e~
T y
l
Fw. 29.
preceding problem and also equations (27) and (28), the following
equation for calculating M 0 is obtained:
z----, Mol Mol P(cospb )
FIG. 28.
6EI + 3EI {3 + S p i -
1
= 0
,
cos -
2
+ sinp(/
S . l
- x)
p smp
f. 1
z-x 1
qoc .
-
l-
smp(l - c)dc - -
81
x1
l-z
1
qoc
-
1
(l- c)dc.
from which 3. Find the right side of the three moment equation if the load
(f) is as shown in Fig. 32.
Answer.
Equation (39) in such a case is replaced by the f.:>llowing equation:
I. Write the right side of the three moment equation if there curve for each portion of the rod in exactly the same manner
is a concentrated force P in the span n + I at a distance Cn+1 from as w: did for a strut, Art. 4. lt is only necessary to change
the support n + I. the s1gn of S. In such a case instead of quantities p 2 and u 2
Answer.
defined by expressions (17) and (23), respectively, we shall
have - p2 and - u 2 , and instead of p and u we shall have
f--r=-i = pi and u--r=-i = ui. Substituting - S, pi, and ui
m the place of S, p and u in the formulas obtained for the
2. Write the right side of the three moment equation if the nth
strut in Fig. 24, we obtain necessary formulas for the tie-rod
span is loaded as shown in Fig. 29, p. 35, and if there is no load
on span n + I. in Fig. 33. In making this substitution we use the known
Answer. Using the solution of problem 3, p. 34, we obtain the
rela tions: ,
following expression: sin ui = i sinh u, cos ui = cosh u, tan ui = i tanh u.
1~ this way we obtain for the left portion of the tie-rod in
F1g. 33, from equations (18) and (19):
P sinh pe . Pe
y = - Sp sinh pi stnh px + SI x, (4I)
dy P sinhpe Pe }
dx = - S sinh pi cosh px +SI'
d2y Pp sinh pe . h
Fro. 32. dx 2 = - S sinh pi stn px.
40 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 41
Similar formulas can also be obtained far the right-hand simple beam by factors <P1(u) and y; 1 (u), depending on the
portion of the tie-rod by using equations (20)-(22). Having magnitude of the axial tensile force S. The numerical values
the deflection curye far the case of one load P acting on the of these factors are given in Table 3. 15
tie-rod, we can readily obtain the deflection curve far any In the case of bending of a tie-rod by a couple applied at
other kind of loading by using the method of superposition. the right-hand end, the deflection curve is obtained from
Considering, far example, a uniformly loaded tie-rod and equation (26), from which
using equations (30) and (31) for a strut, we obtain:
Y
= Mo(~
S l
_sinhpx).
sinh pl
y = S2
q cosh (pl
2
- px)
l - 1
1+ q
2S x(l - x),
lf there are two equal and opposite couples applied at
the ends of a tie-rod, the deflection curve is obtained by the
p
l cosh p_
2 method of superposition:
and the maximum deflection is = Mo(~ _s~nhpx) M [! - x _ sinhp(l- x)] 0
Y S l smh p! + S l sinh p!
Jmax
where
= (J)x=l/2
5 q/4
= 384 El .
1
coshu - 1
(5/24)u4
u2
+2 5 qf4
= 384 El . <P1(u), (43)
= ~o l I - coshp
cosh
Gp_~ x) 1
2
(47)
(d-dy)
equation (32), is
Mo h Mol tanh u
X =O
= - 8 p tan u = 2 El U
:::iF'z
in Fig. 34, the deflection at any point
x ma_y be represented by the following i mrx l
sm2 --dx = - and
1 n1rx . m1rx
sm-sm--dx =o
F
e o /
t_"' senes:
...._ _ _.___ _ _ _ _ _ 2 o / / '
-----, ,a, where
,o, . 1rx . '.2:1rx
~ ----, -~ (b) y = a1 sm T + a 2 sm - -
1 n ~ m.
-----;a- n an
4
= Sin - -,
1
4q/4
Y= - -5
Ehr n=l
L3 5 -n15s.mn1rx
l
- (55)
from which
Taking the first term only, the deflection at the middle of a uni-
2P/3 1 . n1rc formly loaded beam is
a,, = EJ1r4. n4 sm -l-.
4q/4 q/4
=-- =--
From this we can determine each of the coefficients in the series 5
Eb 76.5EI
(a) and the deflection curve becomes
Comparing this with the exact solution
2Pl3 ( 1C 1X l . 27C . 27X )
5 q/4 q/4
y= EiwA sin sin +;:sm--sm-- + ...
1 1 1 1 =--=--
00
384 El 76.8El'
2Pl3 l . n1rc . n1rx
= - - -s m-sm- (54) we find that the error in taking only the first term was less than
EI'l'1n=In4 l l
per cent in this case.
From this the deflection may be calculated for any value of x. The trigonometric series (a) is especially useful when the beam
For example, the deflection at the middle when the load is at the is submitted to the action of a longitudinal compressive or tensile
middle, e = x = l/2, will be force in addition to lateral loading. In the problem shown in
3
Fig. 35, the hinge B approaches the fixed hinge A during deflection
2Pl
O = (y)=ll2 = Ef14
(
l +? +
1
s4 +
1
...
)
- EJ1r4 n=I
1
' n4
. 1 .[
o
19
cos2 - d x = -
f 2' 1 o
n1rx
l
m1rx
cos-cos--dx = o
l '
n -;e. m.
are small in comparison with their length and so long as we this non-uniformity of stress distribution it can be concluded
are considering points at a considerable distance from the that in applying to the beam in Fig. 41a the simple beam
ends. In practica! applications we sometimes use beams with formula for maximum bending stress we must use a somewhat
reduced width 2Xx instead of the actual width 2b of the two
t fl.anges, in order to obtain the correct value of the maximum
~ - - - :-- " o stress. This reduced width, usually called the ejfective width,
(a)
can be calculated if the compressive stress distribution, shown
Z c:r=:J by the shaded area in Fig. 41c, is known. lt is only necessary
to make the area of the rectangle, indicated in the figure by
TIJ
(b)
the dotted lines, equal to the shaded area. lts magnitude,
wide flanges, to which the ele- 2Xx, usually varies along the span of the beam, for it depends
mentary beam formula cannot
,..........~~~-'--t-'-jL-'-~-'--'-'-~
on the proportions of the beam and also on the shape of the
: .>..---J z be applied with sufficient ac- bending moment diagram.
1 curacy. Take, asan example, In the particular case when the width of the flange is very
l the case of a beam consisting of large, say 2b ~ l, and the bending moment diagram is given
l a .rib and a wide fl.ange shown by the sine curve:
: in Fig. 41. Assuming that the . 7rX
--(c-)--'-t-----------' beam is simply supported at M = M1 Sln /' (a)
"Fro. 41. the ends and loaded in the the reduced width becomes constant and equal to
middle plane xy, we observe
4/
that there are shearing stresses acting between the flanges and 2X,, = 1r(1 + )(3 - )'
the rib at the surfaces of contingency mn, Fig. 41a, and directed
as shown in Fig. 41b. lt is seen that these stresses tend to where is Poisson ratio. For = 0.3 we obtain
reduce the deflection of the rib, to make it stiffer. At the 2X,, = 0.363/.
same time they produce compressi,:m of the flanges. Con- Hence, in this particular case the actual beam can be replaced
sidering a flange at one side of the rib as a rectangular plate by an equivalen! T beam of a constant cross section and with
submitted to the action of shearing forces along one edge, the width of the two fl.anges equal to 0.363/. Applying to
Fig. 41e, we see that the compressive stresses will not be this beam the simple beam formulas, we obtain the same
uniformly distributed along the width of the flange, and a maximum stress and the same flexural rigidity as the actual
rigorous analysis shows 25 that the distribution will be such as beam has.
is indicated by the shaded area, the maximum stress in the In a general case of transverse loading, the bending moment
flange being the same as in the utmost fibers of the rib. From diagram can be represented by a sine series:
25 The discussion of the rigorous sol u tion, obtained by Th. von . n1rx
Karman, is given in the "Theory of Elasticity," p. 156, 1934. See also
M,, = '1:,Mn sm-1- , (b)
W. Metzer, Luftfahrtforschung, vol. 4, p. 1,' 1929. K. Girkmann, der
Stahlbau, vol. 6, 1933, p. 98; H. Reissnei, Z. angew. Math. Mech., in which the coefficients Mn can be calculated, in each particular
vol. 14, 1934, p. 312; E. Reissner, Der Stahlbau, vol. 7, 1934, p. 206; case, from the known formula: 26
E. Chwalla, Der Stahlbau, vol. 9, 1936, p. 73. 26
See Article 7.
58 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMs 59
1
2 ( n7rx rectangular slab, reinforced by a system of identical and equidistant
Mn = Jo Mxsm-1- dx. (e) ribs. In ali these cases the problem is reduced to that of calculating
In the case of a uniform load, far example, we have stresses and deflections in an equivalent beam. 27
10. Limitations of the Method of Superposition.-In dis-
Mx = qx(l - x)
2
cussing the bending of beams (see p. 146, Part 1) it was shown
and formula (e) gives that the calculation of the deflections can be greatly simplified
by using the method of superposition. This method can
(d) always be used if the bending of the beam does not introduce
where n = 1, 3, 5, .... changes in the action of the external forces. For instance,
H_avin~ the coefficients Mn in the series (b), we obtain the small deflections of beams by lateral loads do not change the
effect1v~ w1dth from the rigorous solution, which, in the case of a
large w1dth of the flanges, gives bending moment diagrams for these loads, and superposition
can be successfully used. But if we have bending combined
l Mx
-2Xx = (3 ---------4 with axial tension or compression, the deflection produced by
, n7r'X
the lateral loads changes the action of the axial forces, and the
Mn Sin - -
1 latter produce not only axial tension or compression but also
n-1,3,5, ... k
4 + ~ n7r sorne additional bending. In such cases, as we have seen (see
Art. 4), there are sorne limitations of the method of super-
in which (3 = tl/dh is the ratio of the area tl to the cross-sectional position; we can use this method only with regard to the
area of the rib, and lateral loads, assuming that the axial force always remains
(1+)(3-) constant. There are other cases in which small deflections of
k = ----'---""--_:_;_ = 0.878 far = 0.3.
4 beams may introduce considerable changes in the action of
Taki~g, ~or example, the case of a uniformly distributed load and forces. In such cases the method of superposition fails.
subst1t:1tmg the expression (d) far Mn in formula (64), we find that Sorne examples of this kind will now be discussed.
far vanous values of the ratio (3 the variation of the effective width As a first example let us consider the bending of the
along the length of the beam is as cantilever AB, Fig. 43, if during bending it comes gradually
shown in Fig. 42. It is seen that into contact with a rigid cylindrical supporting surface AC
in the middle portion of the span
QJ7S l for fJI
having a constant curvature 1/R anda horizontal tangent at
t_he effecti~e width varies very
httle and Is approximately the A. It is seen that as long as the curvature of the beam at
z~. same as far a sinusoidal bending the end A, as given by the formula
moment diagram (see eq. 63), I M PI
When the effective width is r = Elz = El.' (a)
Fw. 4 2. found . from formula (64) , the 27
. max1mum stress and maximum These rigorous solutions found sorne application in specifications
deflect10n are found by applyng simple beam formulas to the equiv- for concrete slabs reinforced by ribs. In airplane design the fact of
alent beam. non-uniform stress distribution in wide flanges is taken care of by using
an approximate theory, the discussion of which can be found in papers
We disc~ssed the case in which the flanges of the beam have a
by P. Kuhn, National Adv. Committee for Aeronautics, Reports No.
ver_r large w1dth. There are also rigorous solutions for the case in 608, 1937, No. 636, 1938. See also H. Ebner, Luftfahrt-Forschung,
wh1ch the flanges are not so very wide and far the case of a long vol. 14, 1937, p. 93 and vol. 15, 1938, p. 527.
60 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 61
is less than the curvature of the support 1/R, the cantilever and (3) deflection representing the distance of the point D
will touch the surface AC only at the point A, and the de- from the horizontal tangent at A, which is
flection o at the end B will be given by the known formula:
pa
- (l - x)2 -
03 - 2R -
(z - El,)2_1
PR 2R
. (g)
o=--
3El,
(b)
Summing up these three parts, we obtain the total deflection:
From the equation
I Pl I /2 I (El,)2
r =El,= R. (e) o= 01 + 02 + 03 = 2
R - 6 p 2R 3 (h)
we can obtain the limiting value of the load P, far which the This expression for the deflection must be used instead of
beam begins to come into contact with the cylindrical sup- equation (b), if Pis larger than thelimiting value P1 = El,/lR.
porting surface beyond the point A. Let P1 = El,/lR be this Note that the deflection is no longer proportional to P. lf,
limiting value of the load; then for P > Pi a part AD of the in addition to P, there is a load Q applied at the end B of the
beam will be supported as indi- cantilever, the total deflection will not be equal to the sum of
cated in Fig. 43 by the dotted the deflections produced by P and produced by Q if both are
line. The length x of the un- considered to be acting alone. Hence the method of super-
supported portian of the canti- position <loes not hold in this case.
lever is obtained from the con-
Fro. 43
dition that at D the curvature, fj
1/r, of the beam is equal to the curvature of the supporting
surface; hence
Px I
Frc. 44.
El,= R.'
and we obtain As a second example let us consider the case of a uniformly
loaded beam with built-in ends, as shown in Fig. 44. It is
(d) assumed that during bending the middle portian of the beam is
supported by a rigid horizontal foundation so that along this
The total <;leflection at the end B of the cantilever consists
portian the deflection is constant and equal to o. It is seen
of three parts: (1) deflection of the portian DB of the beam
that if the deflection at the middle is less than o, we have
as a simple cantilever, which is
an ordinary case of bending of a beam with built-in ends.
Px 3 (El,) 2 The limiting value q1 of the load is obtained from the known
o1 3El, 3P2R3' (e)
= = equation:
(2) deflection owing to the slope at D, _I_ q1/4 = o (i)
384 El,
~ _x(l-x) _ El(z_El,) (/)
u2 - R - p R2 pR ' Far an intensity of the load larger than qi, a portian of the
62 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS PROBLEMS IN BENDING OF BEAMS 63
th~t the cro~s section at C does not rotate during bending and instead of force P, there is a uniformly distributed load q.
2. Find an expression for the defl.ection at the middle of a beam,
usmg equat10ns (94) and (rno) from Part I (see p. 147 and supported by two identical cylindrical surfaces of the radius R and
p. 149), we obtain loaded at the middle, Fig. 45.
qa 3 Xa 2
6Elz = 2EJ,' p
64 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
E1 ~~l! j jl~~A:\M
'),.,,
span AB.
5. A long, uniformly loaded beam
is supported by a horizontal, rigid
foundation, Fig. 46. Find the angle
CHAPTER II
CURVED BARS
a of rotation of the end A and
:Frn. 46. the length x which will be bent by u. Bending Stresses in Curved Bars.-ln the following
the moment Mo applied at the end. discussion it is assumed that the center fine 1 of the bar is aplane
Solution. The length x is found from the equation: curve and that the cross sections have an axis of symmetry in
qx 3 MoX this plane. The bar is submitted to the action of forces lying
24EJ = 6EI. in this plane of symmetry. Let us consider first the case of a
The angle of rotation at the end A is bar of constant cross section in pure bending, produced by
couples applied at the ends (Fig. 47). The stress distribution
MoX qx 3
a=-----
3EI 24EJ
Frn. 47.
of the bar.
2
This approximate theory was developed by H. Rsal, Annales des
Mines, 1862, p. 617, and by E. Winkler, Der Civilingenieur, Vol. 4, 1858,
p. 232; see also his book, "Die Lehre von der Elastizitat und Festig-
keit," Prag, 1867, Chapter 15. Further development of the theory was
made by F. Grashof, "Elastizitat und Festigkeit," 1878, p. 251, and by
K. Pearson, "History of the Theory of Elasticity," Vol. 2, part I, 1893,
p. 422. The exact solution of the same problem was given by H. Golo-
vin, Bulletin of the lnstitute of Technology at St. Petersburg, 188 I.
See also C. Ribiere, C. R., Vol. 108, 1889, and Vol. 132, 1901, and L.
Prandtl in the paper by A. Timpe, Zeitschr. f. Math. u. Phys., Vol. 52,
1905, p. 348. The above approximate theory is in good agreement with
the exact solution. See "Theory of Elasticity," p. 58, 1934.
65
156 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 67
denote two neighboring cross sections of the bar and let dcp Equation (b) contains two unknowns, the radius r of the
denote the small angle between them before bending. As a neutral surface and the angle D.dcp which represents the
result of bending, the cross section cd rotates with respect to angular displacement due to bending. To determine them
ab. Let D.dcp denote the small angle of rotation. Dueto this we must use the two equations of statics. The first equation
rotation the longitudinal fibers on the convex side of the bar is based on the condition that the sum of the normal forces
are compressed and the fibers on the concave side are extended. dstributed over a cross section is equal to zero. The second
If n-n denotes the neutral surface, the extension of any equation is based on the condition that the moment of these
fiber a distance 3 y from this surface is yD.dcp and the corre- normal forces is equal to the bending moment M. These
sponding unit elongation is equations are:
yD.dcp
E= (r - y)dcp'
where r G.enotes the radius of the neutral surface and the
(a)
f uxdA = ED.dcpf ydA = o,
dcp r - y
(e)
is no lateral pressure between the longitudinal fibers, 4 the The integration in both equations is extended over the total
bending stress at a distance y from the neutral axis is area of the cross section. The integral in eq. (d) may be
sim plified as follows:
EyD.dcp
UX = (r - y) d ({J
(b)
of the normal forces distributed over the cross section is zero, The first integral on the right side of eq. (e) represents the
it can be concluded that the neutral axis is displaced from the moment of the cross sectional area with respect to the
centroid of the cross section towards the center of curvature of neutral axis and the second, as is seen from eq. (e), is equal to
the bar. In the case of a rectangular cross section, the shaded zero. Hence
area (Fig. 47, e) in tension must equal that in compression;
hence the greatest bending stress aGts on the concave side. In
order to make the stresses in the most remote fibers in tension
J y2dA = A.e
r -y , (/)
/
68 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 69
stresses in the bar are symmetry of the curved bar, the forces acting upan the
(o-x)max = 1: 1
and (o-x)min = - AJ;/, (66)
portian of the bar to one side of any cross section may be
reduced to a couple anda force applied at the centroid of the
in which h1 and h2 are the distances from the neutral axis to cross section. The stresses produced by the couple are
the most remate fibers and a and e are the inner and outer obtained as explained above. The force is resolved into two
radii of the bar. The radius r is determined from eq. (e). components, a longitudinal force N in the direction of the
Several examples of such calculations are shown in the next tangent to the center line of the bar and a shearing force V
article. in the 'plane of the cross section. The longitudinal force
If the depth of the cross section is small in comparison produces tensile or compressive stresses uniformly distributed
with the radius R of the center line of the bar, y may be over the cross section and equal to N/A. Due to these
neglected in comparison with r in eqs. (e) and (d). Then, stresses the center line of the bar undergoes extension or
from (e), we obtain contraction and the angle dcp between the two adjacent cross
sections changes by the amount
JydA = o, Nds 1
!::.idcp = AE . R . (68)
i.e., the neutral axis passes through the centroid of the cross
section. From eq. (d) The transverse force V produces shearing stresses and the
distribution of these stresses over the cross section can be
Et::.dcp !_z _ M
dcp R - (h) taken the same as far a straight bar. 5
12. Particular Cases of Curved Bars.-lt was shown in
Substituting this into eq. (b),
the previous article (eq. 66) that bending stresses in curved
My bars are readily calculated provided the position of the
O"x = f z
neutral axis is known. In the following examples the calcu-
Hence, in the case of a relatively small depth h, the distribution lation of the distance e of the neutral axis from the centroid
of the bending stress es o- x approaches a linear one, and the same of the cross section is given far severa! particular cases.
equation as used far straight bars can be used to calculate Rectangular Cross Section.-The magnitude of the radius r
them. of the neutral surface is determined from eq. (e) of the
From eq. (h) we obtain far a thin bar previous article, from which
V
e are the inner and the outer radii of the Error in <Tmax
a Linear
curved bar. Substituting in equation Hyperbolic due to assuming
stress distribution stress distribution
(69), we obtain linear law
o o bh h
Fro. 48. r = re
bdv e R/h
Umax
-- --
Umin Umax
- - --
<Tmin
%
Ja V logna- M/AR M/AR M/AR M/AR
(b)
This indica tes that for R/h > IO a linear stress distribution
we obtain can be assumed and the straight beam formula for maximum
bending stress may be used with suffi-
r f( r
R
e=R-r=R---~~~~-~~---- cient accuracy.
1+ 1(2~ + 2~ +
Trapezoidal Cross Section. The length T
A first approximation for e is obtained by taking only the two of an elemental strip at distance v from the ...L..,f----~~
first terms in the denominator on the right side. Then axis 0-0 (Fig. 49) is
When b1 = b2 = b, the above equation coincides with eq. (70) for The first integral on the right side represents a modified area of
a rectangle. When b2 = o, the case of a triangular cross section is the cross section and can be represented as follows:
obtained.
l. Cross Section. In this case eq. (69) gives (Fig. 50)
+ b?f~ + b2J~
f yidA = mA,
R - y1
(d)
r =
b1
I
a
bif1
dv
-
V
+ b2 cj; =
d
-
V
bif1
b1 logn -
a
d
+ b2 logn -dc
where m denotes a number to be dctermined in each particular case.
The second integral on the right side of eq. (c) can be transformed
as follows:
b,
,,
f~ R - y1
= !:_J
R
( r +R- Y -
- y1
1
) dA = A (r
R
+ m). (e)
T-
R
e
R
from which
mA _ e(r + m)A = 0
R '
m
e=R--
al o Q r+m
Fm. 50. Fm. 51. In calculating m from eq. (d) the factor r/(R - y1) can be expanded
in the series
I Cross Section. From eq. (69) (Fig. 51) I I (
R - J1 = R l
J1
R + + yi2 )
R2 +
btJ1 + bz/2 + baf3
r=---~-~~-~--- Then
b1 logn -
a
d g
+ b2 logn -d + b3 logn g-
c
J
y1dA
--=-
R - J1 R
r f (r+-+-+
J1
R
y1
R2
2
)
y1dA
lt may be seen that a suitable choice of proportions in the cases and
of l. and I sections will so locate the centroid that eqs. (66) will
give the same numerical values for <Tmax and <Tmin Such propor- m = ;Rf ( r +i+ ~:+ )y dA. 1 (77)
tions are desirable if the material is equally strong in tension and Asan example, for a rectangular cross sec-
compression, as, for instance, structural steel. tion A = bh, dA = bdyi, and substituting in
In the previous discussion the distance e from the neutral axis (77),
to the centroid of the cross section was determined as the difference 2
+ -yR1+ "2yR +
2
m =-
r f_+hf ( 1 )
J1dy1
R - r. As h/ R decreases, this difference becomes small. To de- I
hR
r f( r ~ r
-ht 2
termine it with sufficient accuracy, r must be calculated very
accurately. In arder to avoid this difficulty and to obtain e directly,
the following method ma y be used. If we let y1 denote the distance = i( 2~ + 2~ + ( 2~ + -...
of any point in the cross section from the axis through the centroid
parallel to the neutral axis, then y 1 = y + e and eq. (a) for deter- This series converges very quickly and m can ~.L-----~-
be calculated very accurately. Substituting
1
mining the position of the neutral axes becomes Fm. s:2.
m in eq. (76), the distance e is obtained.
f (y1 - e)dA =
R - y1
f Ry1dA
- J1
_ ef--.!!!!_ = o.
R - J1
(c)
For a circular cross section (Fig. 52),
(j)
74 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 75
Substituting into eq. (e), maximum stress from equation (66). But we can also proceed in
a somewhat different way and continue to use distance y1 from the
~R (1 + m) = 2l+h12 -'1 ~ - J12dy1
Y1
= 21r(R - ~R2 - !!:_),
4
(g) centroidal axis instead of distance y from the neutral axis. Sub-
-h12 - stituting y 1 - e instead of y into equation (g) (p. 67), we obtain
from which, using the series M(y1 - e) M ( y1 )
u,, = Ae(R - y1) = AR mu - 1 ' (So)
~
'\ji<." -
4=
[ R 1
h - -1 (
--- 1
2 4R2
2
8
-h
4R2
2
)
2
where vis the distance of the point from the axis through the center
It is seen that the numerically largest stress is the tensile from which
stress at the intrados, which is obtained by multiplying the 2ac 2 X3 X7 .
stress P/A by the stress factor:
r = a +e= 3 +7 = 4.20 m.
7 At h/2R = o.6 the factor k has its minimum value. o.288b1 + o. 154(5 - b1) = 1.667 - 0.406 = 1.261 in.,
b1 = 3.67 in.; ba = 5 - 3.67 = 1.33 in.
78 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 79
O"max = 8,200 + 1,200 = 9,400 lbs. per sq. in., in which the integration is extended
O"min = - 4,~00 + 1,200 = - 3,600 lbs. per sq. in. along the tot'al length s of the bar.
Equation (83) is analogous to that (187)
6. Find the maximum stress in a hook of circular cross section
if the diameter of the cross section is h = 1 in., radius of the central 8
See p. 308, Part l.
axis R = 1 in., and P = 1,000 lbs. 9
The case in which the cross-sectional dimensions are not small is
discussed in problem 6, p. 87.
80 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 81
10
(see Part I) for straight beams, and the deflection of the opposi te forces P acting along the vertical diameter (Fig. 58).
point of application of any load P acting on the bar in the
Due to symmetry only one quadrant of the ring (Fig. 58, b)
direction of the load is
need be considered, and we
0 = au. can also conclude that there
aP are no shearing stresses over
Asan example, take a curved bar of uniform cross section the cross section mn, and that
whose center line is a quarter of a circle (Fig. 57), built in the tensile force on this cross
at the lower end A with a vertical tangent and loaded at section is equal to P/2. The
the other end by a vertical load P. The bending moment magnitude of the bending mo-
' ' , , __ -~-'(a)
/
at any cross section mn is M = PR cos cp. Substituting in ment M 0 acting on this cross
p
eq. (83), the vertical deflection of the end B is section is statically indeter-
Fro. 58.
minate, and we shall use the
-
_ .!_ r.,,.
dP Jo
12
M 2Rdcp __1_
2Elz - El.
J:" 12
dM
M dP Rdcp
Castigliano theorem to find it. It may be seen from the con-
0 dition of symmetry that the cross section mn <loes not rotate
I
= -El. l"/2
0
7f PR3
PR 3 cos2 cpdcp -- -4 -El-.
during the bending of the ring. Hence the displacement cor-
responding to Mo is zero and
If the horizontal displacement of the end B is needed, a dU
dMo = o, (a)
horizontal imaginary load Q must be added as shown in the
figure by the dotted line. Then
in which U is the strain energy of the quadrant of the ring
M = PR cos cp + QR(1 - sin cp) which we are considering. For any cross section m1n1 at an
and angle cp with the horizontal the bending moment is 11
aM
- = R(1 - sin cp). p
M = M0 R(1 - cos cp) (b)
The horizontal deflection is
- -
2
and
from which For calculating the decrease of the horizontal diameter of the
Mo = p: ( I - ; ) = o. I 82P R.
ring in Fig. 58, two oppositely directed imaginary forces Q are
applied at the ends of the horizontal diameter. Then by
calculating (a U/aQ) Q-o we find that the decrease in the
Substituting into eq. (t), horizontal diameter is
The bending moment at any cross section of the ring may be Thick Ring.-When the cross sectional dimensions of a curved
calculated from this expression. The greatest bending bar are not small in comparison with the
moment is at the points of application of the forces P. radius of the center line, not only the strain
Substituting cp = 1r/2 in eq. (e), we find energy due to bending moment but also N 1\CJ,'\M N
~
that dueto longitudinal and shearing forces
PR must be taken into account. The change
M = - - = - o.318PR.
7r in the angle between two adjacent cross sec-
tions (Fig. 59) in this case, from eq. (65), is
\1,./--dF
\ I
The minus sign indicates that the bending moments at the
Mdip Mds
\I
.
points of application of the forces P tend to increase the t:..dip = - - = - - Fra. 59
AEe AEeR
curvature while the moment M 0 at the cross section mn tends
to decrease the curvature of the ring, and the shape of the and the energy due to bending for the element between the two
ring after bending is that indicated in the figure by the dotted adjacent cross sections is
line. M 2ds
dU1 = Mt:..dip = 2AEeR (d)
The increase in the vertical diameter of the ring may be
calculated by the Castigliano theorem. The total strain The longitudinal force N produces an elongation of the element
energy stored in the ring is between the twc adjacent cross sections in the direction of the
center line of the bar equal to Nds/AE and increases the angle dip
- (.-12 M2 Rdcp by Nds/AER (~q. 68). The work done by the forces N during
U - 4 Jo 2EI, ' their applicatio :1 is N 2ds/2AE. During the application of the forces
N the couples M do the negative work - MNds/AER. Hence
in which M is given by eq. (e). Then the mcrease 111 the the total energy stored in an element of the bar during the appli-
wrtical diametcr is cation of the forces N is
N 2ds MNds
dU 4 ("
12
dM dU2 = 2AE - AER . (e)
0 = dP = EI,J M dP Rdcp
0
__ PR3 -.-1 2 )2 dcp The shearing force V produces sliding of one cross section with
EJ. 1 (
cos cp -
2
-7r
respect to another, of the amount aVds/AG, where a is a numerical
factor depending upon the shape of the cross section (see p. 170,
Part 1). The corresponding amount of strain energy is
=(!!:._.::.)PR3 =o.149PR3. (86)
4 1r EJ. El, aV2ds
dUa =- - (/)
2AG
84 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
CURVED BARS 85
tdding (d), (e) and (J) _and integrating along the length of the bar
t e total energy of stram of a curved bar becomes ' combining analytical and experimental methods of investi-
gation.12
U= 1 (o
M
2AEeR
2
+ 2AE
N
2
MN
- AER + 2aV2
AG
)
ds. (88)
In a recent paper 13 the particular case of an eye-shaped
end of rectangular cross section, Fig. 6ob, was investigated.
Lft ~~ use this ~q_uation t~ sol":e the problem represented in Fig. In this discussion it was assumed that there are no clear-
57 a mg as pos1t1ve the d1rect10ns shown in Fig. , we have ances and that the bolt is absolutely rigid. The maximum
59
tensile stress occurs at the intrados in the cross sections
M = - PR cos O; N = - p cos Oi V= p sin O,
perpendicular to the axis of the bar, and its magnitude can
where R is ~he radius of the center line. Substituting in equation be represented by the formula:
(88). and usmg the Castigliano theorem, we find the vertical de-
flect1on of the point B to be 8P
Urna.X = a 2 (g)
1r rat '
dU PRl.-12 (R cos2 O E )
= dP = AE O
e - cos 2 O +~ sin 2 O d\O in which P is the total tensile force transmitted by the bar,
a is the numerical factor depending on the ratio ra/ri between
1rPR(R aE ) the outer and the inner radii of the eye, and t is the thickness
= 4AE --; +G - 1 .
of the eye perpendicular to the plane of the figure. For ra/ri
If the eros~ section of the bar is a rectangle of the width b and equal to 2 and 4 the values of a are respectively 4.30 and 4.39.
depth h, usmg for e the approximate value (7r) and taking - The values obtained from formula (g) are in satisfactory
E/G = 2.6, a - r.2,
agreement with experiments.14
1r P R ( 12R2
0 -_ 4AE -- + 2. I 2 )
Problems
When h i_s small in comparison with R the second term in th 1. Determine the vertical deflection of the end B of the thin
parenthes1s representing the influence on 'the deflection of Na d ; curved bar of uniform cross section and semicircular center line
c(an be neglected and we arrive at the equation obtained b:fore (Fig. 61).
see p. So).
'1
12 For a theoretical investigation of the problem, see H. Reissner,
The above theory of curved bars is often applied in Jahrbuch der wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft fr Luftfahrt, 1928; also
J. Beke, Der Eisenbau, 1921, p. 233; Fr. Bleich, Theorie und Berechnung
calculating stresses in such machine der eis. Brcken, 1924, p. 256; Blumenfeld, V. D. l., 1907, and Bau-
elements as links and eye-shaped mann, V. D. l., 1908, p. 397. Experiments have been made by Dr.
ends of bars (Fig. 60). In such cases Mathar, Forschungsarbeiten nr. 306, 1928; see also D. Rhl, Disserta-
tion, Danzig, 1920; Preuss, V. D. l., Vol. 55, 1911, p. 2173; M. Voropaeff,
a difficulty arises in determining the Bulletin of Polytechnical Institute, Kiew, 1910; E. G. Coker, "Photo-
load distribution over the surface of elasticity," Journal of the Franklin lnst., 1925.
the curved bar. This distribution 13
H. Reissner und Fr. Strauch, lngenieur Archiv, vol. 4, 1933, p. 48 r.
14
depends on the amount of clearance See G. Bierett, Mitt. d. deutsch. Mat.-Prf.-Amtes, 1931, sonder-
heft 15. The photo-elastic investigation of the eye-shaped end was
between the bolt and the curved made by K. Takemura and Y. Hosokawa, Rep. Aero. lnst., Tokyo, vol.
Fm. 6o. bar. A satisfactory solution of the 18, 1926, p. 128. See also M. M. Frocht and H. N. Hill, Journal of
problem may be expected only by Applied Mechanics, vol. 7, p. 5. In the latter paper the effect of clearance
between the bolt and the hole is investigated.
86 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 87
Solution. The strain e~ergy of bending is
4. A link consisting of two semicircles and of two straight
u= r,r M 2Rd<p = r,r P2R2(1 - cos <p) 2 Rd<p portions is submitted to the action of two equal and opposite forces
acting along the vertical axis of symmetry (Fig. 63). Determine
Jo 2El, J 0 2El,
the maximum bending moment, assuming that the cross sectional
The deflection at the end is dimensions of the link are small in comparison with the radius R.
Solution. Considering only one quarter of the link (Fig. 63, b),
dU PR
= dP = El
[,r (1 - 311" PR 3
cos 'P)2d'P = - - .
we find the statically indeterminate moment Mo from the condition
, , o 2 El, that the cross section, on which this moment acts, <loes not rotate.
Then
p
dU
e dMo = o.
A
ZR
Noting that for the straight portian M = Mo and that for a curved
B portian M = Mo - (P/2)R(1 - cos <p) and taking into considera-
p D
tion the strain energy of bending only, we find
p
Answer.
2PR from which
6 = }11, .
PR2 11" - 2
~
A
Answer. The bending moment at points A is
1--~ p
p
M _ P R 2 (7 - 2)
1
- 2
+ 2Rl + l
1R + 2/
2
(b) For l = o, the equation coincides with that for a circular ring.
For R = o, M1 = Pl/ 4 as for a bar with built-in ends.
6. Determine the bending moment Mo and the increase in the
vertical diameter of the circular ring shown in Fig. 58, assuming
Fro. 63. that the cross section of the ring is a rectangle of width b and
CURVED BARS 89
88 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
depth h, which dimensions are not small in comparison with the 7. Determine the bending moments. in a thin ring with two
radius R of the center line. axes of symmetry submitted to the act10n of a uniform internal
Solution. If we use eq. (88) for the potential energy and eq. (b) pressure p. y
for the bending moment, the equation for determining M 0 is Solution. Consider one quadrant of B
dU
dMo -
-1"
o
12
( kl _
AEe AE
..!!._) dcp -_ o,
the ring (Fig. 64), with semi-axes a and
b. If Mo represents the static~lly indeter-
minate moment at A, the bendmg moment
from which
at any cross section C with coordinates x
Mo = PR(1
2
-~+~)
11'R
71'
and y is
.Y
p(a-x)2 py2
Comparing this with eq. (84) we see that the third term in the M = Mo-pa(a-x)+ 2
+2
parenthesis represents the effect of the longitudinal force and of pa.
the non-linear stress distribution. The magnitudes of the errors in pa2 px2 py2
=M--+-+- (g)
using the approximate eq. (84) instead of the above accurate o 2 2 2
equation are given in the table below.
Substituting into equation dU/dMo = o, we find
R/h = I 1.5 2 3
Error in
e/R = 0.090
% = 15.8
0.038
6.7
0.021
3.7
0.009
1.6
(Mo
2
_P:
) s +~(I,, +!y)= o,
It can be seen that in the majority of cases the approximate eq. in which s denotes the length of the quadrant of the ring,
(84) can be used for calculating M 0 and that the error is substantial
only when h approaches R or becomes larger than R. I. = y2ds and
The increase in the vertical diameter of the ring is obtained
from equation Then
pa2 P
dU
=-
Mo = - - - (J,,
2 2S
+ Jy). (h)
dP
If the ring has the shape of the link shown in Fig. 63, with a = R
Using eq. (88) for U and substituting in this equation
and b = l + R, we obtain
PR P
M = Mo - - (1 - cos cp); N = -cos cp V= 11'
we find
2 2 ' s=b-a+ 2 ;
For an elliptical ring the calculations are more complicated. 16 The integral on the right side of t~is eq:1ation represents the m_o-
Using the notations Ix + ly = aa 2b, Mo = - {3pa 2, the moment at ment of the center line of the spnng w1th respect to the X axis.
B (Fig. 64) = M 1 = -ypa2 , and the values of the numerical factors This moment is obtained by multiplying ~he total length s. of the
a, (3 and 'Y, for different values of the ratio a/b, are as given in the spiral by the distance of its center of grav1ty fro~ th~ x axis. In
table 5 below: the usual case, it is sufficiently accurate to ta~e th1s d1stance equal
to r, the distance from the center of the spmdle to the force P.
TABLE 5. CONSTANTS FOR CALCULATING ELL1PT1CAL R1NGS
Then, from eq. (k),
a/b = 1 0.9 o.8 0.7 o.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 Prs Mos (/)
ip------
- - - ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Elz - EJ.
.... 1.571 1.663 I.795 1.982 2.273 2.736 3.559 5-3 27
(3 ..... ..... o 0.057 0.133 0.237 0.391 0.629 1,049 1.9 2 7 If the end A is pin-connected, the turning moment M_o applied at e
1' .......... o 0.060 0.148 0.283 0.498 0.870 1.576 3.128 produces a reactive force P ~t fi~ed end A of the spnng. As long
as the thickness of the spnng 1s very small and the number of
8. A flat spiral spring (Fig. 65) is attached at the center to a windings of the spiral is large and the coils do not touch, the _above
spindle C. A couple M 0 is applied to this spindle to wind up the assumption that the force P remains horizontal can be cons1dered
spring. It is balanced by a horizontal force P at the outer end as sufficiently accurate; hence _eq. (l) holds.17 . . . .
of the spring A and by the reaction at the axis of the spindle. . Assuming that the spnng represented m F1g: 65 1s m :1
9
Establish the relation between Mo and the angle of rotation of the unstressed condition and pin-connected at A, determ1~e the m~x1-
spindle if all the dimensions of the spring are given. I t is assumed mum stress produced and the amount of energy stored 1:1 the spnng
that the angle of twist is not large by three com~lete tu:ns of t_he spindle .. Take the sprmg to be of
enough to cause adjacent coils to touch y steel, inch w1de, -lo !11Ch th1ck and 120 !11Ch~s long. (/)
each other. !5 Solution. Substituting the above figures mto eq. ,
Solution. Taking the origin of co-
120 X 40 3 X 12
ordinates at A, the bending moment at
67!" = Mo 30 X w6 X ,
any point of the spring at distance y
from the force P is M = Py. The , - -
change in the angle between two adja- 1 from which Mo = 3.07 lbs. ins.
r The amount of energy stored is
cent cross sections at the point taken,
from eq. (67), is
(' M2ds p2 (' p2 ( 2 sr2)
t:,d<P = Mds = Pyds.
X p
U= J0 2
2EI = 2EI J0 y ds = 2EI sr +4
Elz El, 5Mb .
= El = 36.1 lbs. m.
The total angle of rotation of one end of the spring with respect 8
to the other during winding is
The maximum bending stress is at point B, where the bending
sPyds = - P [s yds.
0
<P =
I
0
~
1~I. Elz. o
(k) moment can be taken equal to 2Pr = 2Mo, then
Umax = 3.07 X 2 X 402 X 6 X 2 = II8,ooo lbs. per sq. in.
See J. A. C. H. Bresse, Cours de Mchanique applique, 3d ed.,
16
Paris, 1880, p. 493. See, also, H. Rsal, Journal de Math. (Liouville) (3), 11 A more complete discussion of the problem _is given in t,~e b?ok
Vol. 3, 1877; M. Marbec, Bulletin de l'Association Technique Maritime, by A. Castigliano, "Theorie d. Biegungs-u. Tors10ns Federn, W1en,
Vol. 19, 1908; M. Goupil, Annales des Ponts et Chausses, Vol. 2, 1912, 1888. See also E. C. Wadlow, "Engineer," Vol. 150, p. 474, 1930, and
p. 386, and Mayer Mita, V. D. l., Vol. 58, 1914, p. 649. W. F. Burke, J. A. Van den Broek, Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 53, P 247, 1931.
Nat. Adv. Com. Aeron., Techn. Notes, 444, 1933.
92 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
CURVED BARS 93
10. A_piston ring of a c;:cular outer boundary has a rectangular
cross sect10n of constant w1dth b and of a variable depth h (Fig. nng. Substituting h = ho and <P = 1r in eq. (/),
66). Determine the law of variation of the
depth h to obtain a ring which, when as- 12pr2
sembled with the piston in the cylinder, pro-
O'n1ax =---;;-, (g)
y 2ds where Ao and Elo are respectively the cross sectional area and
the fl.exural rigidity of the arch at the top, cp is the angle
Tak~, for example, the case of a parabolic arch carrying a between the cross section and the y axis and h is the depth of
contmuous load uniformly distributed along the length of the the cross section at the top. Equation (e) was used in calcu-
span with a center line given by the equation:
lating the value of Hin the ratio dH/H.
_ 4fx(l - x) This shows that the error of equation (e) has perceptible mag-
y - l2 . (e) nitude only for fl.at arches of considerable thickness.
Then As the supports of the arch are a fixed distance apart, a
Mo f
= x(l - x). (d)
change in the temperature may produce appreciable stresses in
the structure. To calculate the thrust due to an increase in
Substituting (e) and (d) into eq. (91), we obtain temperature of t degrees, we assume that one of the supports is
movable. Then, thermal expansion would increase the span
q/2
H = 8f. (e)
of the arch by lat, where a is the coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion of the material of the arch. The thrust is then
The actual thrust, H, will be less than that obtained from found from the condition that it prevents such an expansion by
eq. (e). To give sorne idea of the possible error dH the ratios producing a decrease in the span equal to alt. Using the
(dH)/H for various proportions of arches are gi;en in the Castigliano theorem, we obtain
Table 6 below. 20 In calculating this table the whole expres- 2 2
dU d {' ( M N ) (j)
TABLE 6 dH = dH J0 2EI. + 2AE ds = alt.
l -+ 1 -
h
-
I
-
l I l I l l l
H = alt . (92)
- = - - - - - - -
l 2
y ds ds
'
--- - -
t.H
10 20
- -- -- -- -- -- -- -
30 I0 20 30 I0 20 30
0 El. o AE
-= 0.1771 0.0513 0.0235 0.0837 0.0224 0.0101 0.0175
H o.oo444 0.00198 A more detailed study of stresses in arches may be found in
books on the theory of structure. 21
20
See author's paper, "Calcul des Ares lastiques," Paris, 1
9
22.
Branger, Ed. 21
Johnson, Bryan and Turneare, "Modern Framed Structures,"
Part 11. See also Weyrauch, "Theorie d. Elastischen Bogentrager";
E. Morsch, "Schweizerische Bauzeitung," Vol. 47.
98 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 99
15. Stresses in a Flywheel.-Due to the effect of the spokes, The bending moment for the same cross section is
the rim of a rotating flywheel undergoes not only extension but qw 2R 3 ,p XR ,p
also bending. We take as the free body a portion of the rim (Fig. M = M 0 -N0 R(1-cos ,p)+-- 2 sin2 - =M0 +-.- sin2 - . (e)
g 2 sm a 2
69, b) between two cross sections which bisect the angles between U2 = (R Ni2dr. (e)
the spokes. Let J
0 2AiE
R = the radius of the center line of the rim The equations for calculating Mo and X are
A = the cross sectional area of the rim a
A1 = the cross sectional area of a spoke oMo (Ui + U2) = o, (j)
I = moment of inertia of the cross section of the rim a
2a = the angle between two consecutive spokes ax<Ui + U2) = o. (g)
q = the weight of the rim per unit length of the center line
q1 = the weight of a spoke per unit length Substituting (d) and (e), we obtain, from eqs. (j) and (g),
w = the angular velocity of the wheel.
From the condition of symmetry there can be no shearing stresses Mo = _ XR (-.1_ _
2 sma a
!._) ,
over the cross sections A and B and the forces acting on these 2 qw 2 R 2
cross sections are reducibk to the longitudinal force No and the 3
X = -g- . AR2 A '
bending moment M 0 If X denotes the force exerted by the spoke / J2(a) + Ji (a) + Ai
? t~e rim, the equation of equilibrium of the portion AB of the
rtm IS in which
2N0 sin a+ X - 2R2 sin aJl-w 2 = o,
g
from which
(a)
22
lt is assumed that the thickness of the rim is small in comparison
The longitudinal force N at any c.oss section mn is
with R and only the energy of the bending and tension is taken into
X cos ,p account.
+ qw R . o R
2 2 2
IJW
N = No cos ,p --2R s1n 2 - = - - - - ---'- (b) 23
The length of the spoke is taken equal to R. In practice it will
g '.2 g 2 sin .:y
be somewhat less than R.
100 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 101
several values of the functions J1 and f 2, for various numbers of The maximum stress at this cross section is
spokes, are given in the table 7 below.
No A~ .
TABLE 7 ITmax = _d - Z = 10,780 lbs. per sq. tn.
n= 4 6 8 For the cross section of the rim at the axis of the spoke, eqs. (b)
and (e) give
/t(a) 0.643 o.957 I. 2 74
qw2R2 qw2R2
/,(a) o.oo6o8 0.00169 0.00076 (N)"'- = 0.923 - - ; (M)"'- = 0.476--
g g
From this table the force X in the spoke is determined from The maximum stress at this cross section is
eq. (94) and the bending moment Mo from eq. (93). Then the
longitudinal force and bending moment for any cross section mn ITmax = 12,100 lbs. per sq. in.
of the rim may be found from eqs. (a), (b) and (c). 24
Take, as an example, a steel flywheel making 600 r.p.m., with In this case the effect of the bending of the rim on the maximum
stress is small and the calculation of the stresses in the rim, as in a
radius R = 60 in., cross section of the rim a square 12 X 12 sq.
in., and with six spokes of cross sectional area .d1 = 24 sq. in. free rotating ring, gives a satisfactory result.
The rim is considered as a rotating ring which can expand freely;
then the tensile stress dueto centrifugal force is, from eq. (I 5), Parti, 16. Defl.ection Curve for a Bar with a Circular Center
Line.-In the case of a thin curved bar with a circular center
uo = 0.106 X w2 X R2 = 0.106 X 62.8 2 X 52 = 10,450 lbs. per sq. in. line the differential equation for the deflection curve is analo-
In the case of six spokes, a= 30,J1(a) = o.957,J2(a) = 0.00169. gous to that for a straight bar (eq. 141, p. 182, Part 1). Let
Then the force in each spoke is, from eq. (94), A.BCD (Fig. 70) represent the center line of a circular ring
2 qw2R 2 l qw 2R 2 after deformation and let u denote the small radial displace-
X= 3-g-. 300 X 0.00169 + 0.957 + 6 = 089 3 -g-. ments during this deformation. The variation in the curva-
ture of the center line during bending can be studied by
The longitudinal force for the cross section bisecting the angle
considering one element mn of the ring and the corresponding
between the spokes is, from eq. (a),
element m 1n 1 of the deformed ring included between the same
qw2 R2 qw2 R2 qw2 R2 radii (Fig. 70, b). The initial length of the element mn and
No = - - - 0.0893 - - = 0.91 l --
g g g its initial curvature are
The bending moment for the same cross section, from eq. (93), is
ds = Rd<P; (a)
qw2R2
Mo = - 0.242---
g
For small deflections the curvature of the same element after
The above theory was developed by R. Bredt, V. D. l., Vol. 45
24
deformation can be taken equal to the curvature of the element
(1901), p. 267, and H. Brauer, Dinglers Polytechn. Journ., 1908, p. 353,
m1 n 1 This latter is given by equation:
see also J. G. Longbottom, lnst. Mech. Eng. Proc., London, 1924, p. 43;
and K. Reinhardt, Forschungsarbeiten, nr. 226, 1920. A similar problem
arises when calculating stresses in retaining rings oflarge turbo-generators,
I d<{J + f:.d<{J (b)
see K Schwerin, Electrotechn. Ztschr. 1931, p. 40. Ri ds + t:.ds '
102 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
cross sections m1 and n1 of the deformed bar and ds + M.r the d2u
I
dcp +d S
2 ds
R1= ds ( I - R_ u)'
n or neglecting the small quantities of higher arder,
\
\ dcp(
\
\ du
1
R 1 = ds 1 + R.u) + ~u
ds = 2
I ( 1
R + R.u) + d~
ds
2 '
da
\ from which
\
(b}\
\
::>
m, (e)
Then
This is the differential equation far the deflection curve of
(e) a thin bar with circular center line. Far an infinitely large R
this equation coincides with eq. (79), Part I, far straight bars.
In comparing the length of the element m1 n 1 with that of the As an example of the application of eq. (95) let us
element mn, the small angle du/ds is neglected and the length consider the problem represented in Fig. 58. The bending
m1n1 is taken equal to (R - u)dcp. Then moment at any cross section m1n1 is, from eq. (e), p. 82,
uds M = p2R ( cos cp - .: ) ,
!::..ds = - udcp = - R (d) . 71"
J 1.f (;; r
u = El7r - 4El 'P sm 'P - 4El cos 'P
[ d(yid~ Jo) dx - dx
PR
(u)"'= = El
3
( I I)
;. - 4 ; (u)"'=" 12 = PR
El
3
( 1 1r)
; - 8 .
= :C2
2 "'
n~l n 2anbn + :E n an
"'
2 2
). (96)
1C 1X 21C 27X i.e., such a longitudinal force reduces the initial ordinates of the
P/3 sm / sm l sm - -sm - - bar by half.
2 1 1
Yi = El 74
(
1- a + 24 - 22a +
18. Bending of Curved Tubes.-ln discussing the dis-
+ a ( --+
l - a 2
.
b1 sm
1X
-
27X
b2 sm - -
2 -
1
a
+ ... ) tribution of bending stresses in curved bars (art. I 1) it was
assumed that the shape of the cross section remains un-
changed. Such an assumption is justifiable as long as we have
The first member of the right side of eq. (97) represents the deflec- a salid bar, because the very small displacements in the
tion of a straight bar (see eq. 58), while the second gives the addi-
plane of the cross section due to lateral contraction and ex-
tional deflection due to the initial curvature.
Take, for example, a bar which has an initial deflection pansion have no substantial effect on the stress distribution.
Jo = b sin (7x//). The maximum deflection is at the middle of the The condition is very different, however, in the case of a thin
span and is equal to b. If only the longitudinal forces S act on curved tube in bending. lt is well known that curved tubes
the bar (P = o), the deflection at the middle produced by these with comparatively thin walls prove to be more flexible during
forces is obtained from eq. (97) by substituting P = o; b1 = b; bending than would be expected from the usual theory of
b2 = ba = = o. Then
':" 1X
curved bars.27 A consideration of the distortion of the cross
ab sm T section during bending is necessary in such cases. 28
J1 = 1-a
(d) Consider an element between two adjacent cross sections
of a curved round pipe (Fig. 71) which is bent by couples in
The total ordinates of the center line after bending are the direction indicated. Since both the tensile forces at the
1X 27 Extensive experimental work on the flexibility of pipe bends was
absm-
/ b . 1X b . 1X done by A. Bantlin, V. D. l., Vol. 54, 19m, p. 45, and Forschungs-
J = Y1 + Jo = -1----a- + sm T = 1 - a sm T .... arbeiten, nr. 96. See also \V. Hovgaard, Journal of Math. and Phys.,
Mass. lnstitute of Technology, Vol. 7, 1928, and A. M. Wahl, Trans.
Dueto longitudinal compressive forces S the ordinates of the center Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng., Vol. 49, 1927.
28 This problem for the pipe of circular section was discussed by
line increase in the ratio 1/(1 - a), i.e., the increase of ordinates
depends upon the quantity a, which is the ratio of the !ongitudinal Th. v. Krmn, V. D. l., Vol. 55, p. 1889, 1911. The case of curved
force to the critica! force. If, instead of compressive forces, longi- pipes of rectangular cross section was considered by the author; see
Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng., Vol. 45, p. 135, 1923.
108 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 109
convex side of the tube and the compressive forces at the Hence a very small flattening of the cross section produces a
concave side have resultants towards the neutral axis, the substantial decrease in the stress at the outermost fiber ab. A
previously circular cross sections are flattened and become similar conclusion may be drawn for the fiber cd on the concave
elliptical. This flattening of the cross section affects the side of the bend. A change in the direction of the bending
strain of longitudinal fibers of the tube. The outer fiber ab
takes sorne position a1b1 after bending; den'Jte its displace-
ment towards the neutral axis by o. The total elongation of
the fiber is
a1b1 - ab = a1b1 - a1e1 - (ab - a1e1). (a)
et d
I I
1
The angle between the adjacent cross sections ac and bd is
\ ~'3dY:,
denoted by d'P, its variation during bending by j,_dp, the 1/ /
radius of the center line by R, and the radius of the middle
fi
'{ /
surface of the tube by a. lt is assumed that the ratio a/R is. ~
, cdfJ
\ I
,..
small enough that the neutral axis can be taken through the \ I
1/
centroid of the cross section. Then, from the figure we obtain
Fro. 71
a1b1 - a1e1 = (a - o)j,_dp ""' aj,_d'f!. 29
moment causes a change of sign of the normal stresses andas a
The total elongation of the fiber ab as given by eq. (a) is
result, instead of a flattening of the tube in the radial direction,
aj,_dp - odp there is a flattening in the direction perpendicular to the plane
of Fig. 71 and the fiber ab, due to this flattening, is dis-
and the unit elongation is placed outward. From the same reasoning as above it may
aj,_d <P - odp a j,_dp o be shown that here again the flattening of the cross section
1: = (R + a)dp R +a dp - R +a (b) produces a decrease in the stress at the most remate fibers.
lt may therefore be concluded that the fibers of the tube
The first term on the right side of this equation represents the farthest from the neutral axis do not take the share in the
strain in the fiber due to the rotation of the cross section bd stresses which the ordinary theory of bending indicates.
with respect to the cross section ac. This is the elongation This affects the bending of the tube in the same way as a
which is considered in the bending of solid bars. The second decrease in its moment of inertia. lnstead of eq. (67)
term on the right side of eq. (b) represents the effect of the which was derived for solid curved bars, the following equation
flattening of the cross section. lt is evident that this effect must be used in calculating the deflections of thin tubes:
may be of considerable inportance. Take, for instance, R a + MRdp
= 60 in.ando = 0.02 in. Then o/(R a) = 1/3,000 and the+ j,_dp = kEI. ' (100)
corresponding stress for a steel tube is 10,000 lbs. per sq. in.
in which k is a numerical factor, less than unity, which takes
The displacement is considered as very small in comparison with
29
the radius a. care of the flattening. This factor depends upan the pro-
portions of the bend and can be calculated from the following
110 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 111
approximate formula 30 It is seen that when tR/a 2 is small, the actual maximum stress
9
is considerably greater than that given by the usual theory
k = l 2
(101)
which neglects the flattening of the cross section.
tR )
10 + 12 ( 2
'
A theory analogous to the above may also be developed
in the case of a tube of rectangular cross section. 32 For
in which t is the thickness of the tube. This indica tes that the
example, in the case of a thin tube of square cross section, the
effect of the flattening depends only upon the magnitude of the-
coefficient k in eq. (100) is found to depend upon the magni-
ratio tR/a 2 tude of the ratio
As for the effect of the flattening on the stress distribution, b4
Krmn showed that, instead of the simple equation for n = R212'
normal bending stresses 31 u = My/1. in which y denotes the
in which t is the thickness of the wall, R the radius of the
distance from the neutral axis, the following more complicated
center line of the bend and b the length of the side of the cross
equation must be used: section. Then
(J' = My ( I - P.y2) (e) k = 1 +
0.0270n
(103)
kl. ~ a2 ' I +
0.0656n
in which For instance, if b/R = o.I and b/t = 50, we obtain n = 25
6 and, from (103), k = 0.63. The maximum stress in tubes of
fJ =
5 + 6 -2
('R )2 rectangular section increases in the
cr
same proportion as the flexibility, i.e.,
The maximum stress, obtained from (e), is in the above example the distortion
of the cross section increases the
Md t
<1max = k1 ], , (102) maximum stress approximately, by 60
2
per cent. (a) ~
in which d is the outer diameter of the tube and If a cross section of a curved bar ~
2
has flanges of a considerable width, (b)
k --- again the question of distortion of ~
1 - 3k~
the cross section becomes of practi- Fro. 72.
is a numerical factor which depends upon the proportions of ca! importance. Such a problem we
the bend. Several values of k 1 are given below: have, for example, when investigating bending stresses at a
TABLE 8
comer of a rigid frame of an J section, Fig. 72a. Considering
an element of the frame between the two consecutive cross
tR sections mn and m1n1, we see that the longitudinal bending
- = 0.3 0.5 1.0
a stresses u in the flanges give the components in a radial
k1 = 1.98 1.30 o.88 direction which tend to produce bending of the flanges, Fig.
72b. This bending results in sorne diminishing of longitudinal
32
ao See paper by Th. Krmn, loe. cit., p. 107. Such a problem occurs, for instance, in the design of a Firbairn
31I t is assumed that R is large in comparison with a and that a crane. See reference 28.
linear stress distribution is a sufficiently accurate assumption.
112 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS CURVED BARS 113
we apply the same formulas as we already had far a straight higher order. Hence there will be no bending of the ring in
bar (see pp. 294 and 297, part 1). Thus the expression far the its plane and no forces or moments in that plane at the ends
strain energy of our bar is A and B. Considering the built-
2 2
in end B, we conclude from the
Mx Mz )
equilibrium conditions that there
U= [o ( 2Elx + 2C Rd<P, (b)
will act a vertical reaction P/2
where C denotes the torsional rigidity of the bar. 37 The and the moment Mx. = PR/2.
required deflection is then obtained from the equation: The moment Mz will also act,
0
we obtain aU
aMZo = o. (d)
= PR [ {sin2 (a -
Elx o <P)
In deriving the strain energy of the bar we represent the
+C Elx [
I - COS (a - <P)] 2 lf d<{). moments applied at the end B by the vectors PR/2 and Mz 0,
_PR[1r
-
(31r
Efx 4 + I.J 4 - 2 )] = I. 248
PR
Efx . (105) and the expression far strain energy is
+ (;1 Jor"
12
(j)
- 2P R S111
. cp COS cp
) d cp
[ P R S111
2
. cp COS cp
(rn6) Problems
I. A curved bar with circular axis and with a = 1r/2 (Fig. 73)
The minus sign indicates that the direction of M is opposite is loaded at end B by a twisting couple M. = T. Find the deflec-
to that shown in Fig. 74a. Knowing M. we obtain the bend- 0 tion of the end B in a vertical direction.
ing and the twisting moments at any cross section from the Answer. Assuming El,, : C = 1.3,
expressions (e) and (j).
The maximum deflection is evidently under the load and TR2
= 0.506 El,,
we readily obtain it from Castigliano's equation:
2. Solve the preceding problem assuming that at end B a
= au. (h) bending couple, M,, = Mo, is applied in the vertical plane tangent
aP
to the center line at B.
Substituting expression (g) for U and observing that Answer.
aMx R ( . )
ap = 2 COS cp - S111 cp ,
Answer.
+ Efx [ (2 - 0.363) ( + ; ) + ~ - 4 + 0.363] } M. 0
= - ; P R ( ; - cos (3 - (3 sin (3)
PR3
= o.514 2EJ,,. (rn7)
4. Solve the preceding problem for the case of a uniform vertical
In the calculation of the partial derivatives (i) we disregarded load of intensity q distributed along the entire length of the bar.
Answer.
the fact that the twisting moment M. is not an independent 0
8
Lhat a rectangular plate of uniform thickness h is bent to a
cylindrical surface 1 (Fig. 76). In such a case it is sufficient
to consider only one strip of unit width,
such as AB, as a beam of rectangular
cross section and of the length l. From A 1 13
the condition of continuity it may be
concluded that there will be no distor-
tion in the cross section of the strip
during bending, such as shown in Fig.
77b, p. 89, Part l. Hence a fiber length-
wise of the strip such as ss (Fig. 77)
suffers not only the longitudinal tensile stress <rx but also
tensile stress u z in the lateral direction, which must be such
as to prevent lateral contraction of the fiber. We assume, as
befare (see p. 88, Part I), that cross sections of the strip
remain plane during bending. Hence the unit elongations in
the x and z directions are
y (o)
(b} IJ
Fro. 77.
E:
X
= .'..
r ) E:z = O.
acting forces do not vary along the length of the plate and if only the
portion at a sufficient distance from the ends is considered.
119
120 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 121
The corresponding stresses in x and z directions are then ture 1/r can be replaced by its approximate value d 2y/dx 2 and
obtained as in the case of tension in two perpendicular direc- the differential equation for the deflection curve of the strip is
tions. By use of eqs. (38) (p. 52, Part 1), dZy
D dx2 = - M. ( II o)
exE Ey ,Ey
Clx = l - , 2 = (1 - , 2 )r;
Clz = (1 - , 2)r The discussion of bending of a plate to a cylindrical surface
We proceed as in the case of bending of a bar and calculate involves the integration of this equation. A particular case
the bending moment at any cross section of the strip. Then in which the bending to a cylindrical surface is done by a
uniformly distributed load is discussed in the next article.
M = [
+h/2
ClxJdy = (1 -
E 2
, )r
i+h
-hJZ
12
y2dy - - ~Eh
-
- -2-
12(1 - , )r'
2r. Bending of a Long Uniformly Loaded Rectangular Plate.-
-h/2 If a rectangular plate whose length is large in comparison with the
width is uniformly loaded, then it may be assumed that near the
from which
I M center, where the maximum deflection and stresses occur, the de-
(108)
r= D' flection surface is nearly a cylindrical one and eq. (110) may be
used to calculate these. 3 Let us consider this important problem 4
where for two extreme conditions: (1) the edges of the plate are simply
Eh
D = -l2-(-1---,-
2)
sul?p~rted and can rotat~ ~reely during bending and (2) the edges are
bmlt-m. In both cases It Is assumed that there are no displacements
at the edges in the plane of the plate. Then an elemental strip such
This quantity is called the flexura! rigidity of a plate and as AB in Fig. 76 is in the same condition as a tie-rod with uniform
takes the place of El z in discussing bending of beams. Com- l~teral loading (see a~ticle 6) and the tensile forces S. The mag-
parison of eq. (108) for the strip mtude of the forces SIS found from the condition that the extension
M i-- 1, ~ with eq. (56), Part I, for a bar of the. strip is equal to the difference between the length of the
M(,------7)----\J,w-:;
1 1
1a
11
QI
shows that the rigidity of the strip deflect10n curve and the length l of the chord AB (Fig. 76).
Simply Supported Edges. In the case of simply supported edges,
y CC4.l (bJ in the plate is larger than that of
1 a good approximation for S is obtained by assuming that the de-
Fw. 78. Y an isolated bar of the same cross flection curve is a sine curve
section in the ratio I : (1 - , 2). . 'lX
The experiments show that, in the case of bending of an y= sm
1 , (a)
isolated thin strip of considerable width b, distortion of the
where denotes the deflection at the middle. Then by using eq.
cross section takes place only near the edges (Fig. 78, b) and (56), p. 47, the extension of the center line of the strip is
the middle portian aa of the strip is bent into a cylindrical
form; 2 hence eq. (108) is applicable in calculating deflections X = .:J:1 (dydx )2dx =
2
7r202.
4!
(b)
and the strip will prove more rigid than will be expected from 0
Taking for the deflection at the middle the approximate equation Then eq. (112) becomes
(59), we have a(1 + a) 2 = 290, (g)
oo from which
o=--, (e) 7r
l +a = 597 and u = -{a = 3.83.
2
in which
5 q/4 sz2 The tensile stress produced by the longitudinal force Sis
oo=-- and a = S : Ser = D1r 2 (1 l l)
384 D
S aScr a1r2 D .
Substituting in equation (b), we obtain u,,
1
= h= h = -;;- = 11,300 lbs. per sq. m.
7r2 2
>-=-----2 and the maximum bending moment at the middle of the strip, from
4/ (1 + a) (d)
eq. (45), is
q/2
The lateral contraction of the strip in the plane of the plate during Mmax = S 1/(u). (h)
bending is assumed to be zero; hence from eqs. (109) and (111) the
elongation of the center line of the strip produced by forces Sis By using the table 3, mentioned above, we find by interpolation, for
S/(1 - 2) 7r2ah2 u = 3.83, 1/(u) = 0.131. This shows that, dueto the action of the
>. = Eh = -;;. (e) longitudinal force S, the bending moment is greatly diminished and
is only about 13 per cent of that which is producc:;d by the action of
Equating (d) and (e), the equation for determining a, i.e., for transverse loading alone. Using eq. (h),
determining the longitudinal force S, is obtained in the form:
10 X 45 2
3002 Mmax = 8
X 0.131 = 332 lbs. ins.
a(1 + a) 2
= h2 (112)
The corresponding maximum bending stress is
If the load q and the dimensions of the plate are given, the right
6Mmax 6 X 332 X 82
side of eq. (112) can easily be calculated. The solution of eq. (112) CT _~" = -- = 32
= 14,200 1bs. per sq. m.
can be simplified by letting
l +a= X. (j) and, superposing the tensile and bending stresses, the maximum
stress is
Then this equation becomes
3002 CTmax = ux' + u,," = l l ,300 + 14,200 ""' 25,500 lbs. per sq. in.
x3 - x2 = h2'
lt may be seen that, dueto the action of the longitudinal force,
i.e., the quantity x is such that the difference between its cube and the maximum stress does not increase in the same proportion as the
its square has a known value. It can be determined from a slide intensity of the load. For instance, in the above numerical example
rule or a suitable table and a found from eq. (j). The deflection with q = 20 lbs. per sq. in., from (g)
and stresses in the strip AB are then calculated by using the table a(1 + a) 2
= 290 X 4 = 1,160,
given for tie-rods (see p. 43). In using this table it is necessary from which
to remember that, from eqs. (23) and (111), u = 4.93.
u = 1!!_ = 7!_ ../a. (r 13) The tensile stress produced by the longitudinal force Sis
2 2
the maximum stress is not proportional to the load q; far large values an additional deflection is produced, accompanied by an extension
of q this stress <loes not vary much with the thickness of the plate. of the middle surface 9 of the plate. As befare, let S denote the
In Fig. 80 the curves far maximum stress in the case of plates tensile force on the strip AB of unit width and a the ratio of this
with built-in edges are given. It is seen that far small values of force to the critica! force Ser = 1r2 D/f2. Then the additional deflec-
the intensity of the load q, when the effect of the axial force on the tion produced by the load q is
deflections of the strip is small, the maximum stress increases ap-
o 1rx ab . 1rx
proximately in the same ratio as q increases. But far larger values J1 = ---sm- - --sm- (b)
of q the relation between the load and the maximum stress becomes i+a l i+a l
non-linear. The first term on the right side represents the approximate ex-
pression far the deflection of a straight line strip, which was used
4QOOO 1---1--1---1--.r----;-t--+---t,'-i-,.'--+--t---,"'-f---+-----+--1------+-----+-----,
.E
&
V)
....
~ 30,000 >---+--1-+--J.___,__,__,_.,,--t---;--,<---+--+----+--,-+---+--+----+--+---+---1
<l) _,
..D
<l)
~ 20,000 l - - - - - h & . i i ' ~ - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - 1 - - - - l - - - - - , ' - - - - - 1 ' - - - - I s
....
)
~
~ 20,0001----tl.l++Y-----A---cY-----t------t--+-----+--+-----+--+-----+--+-----+---i
~
V,
Stresses in Steel Plates
witll Built-in Edges
Ratio of Width to Thickness = l/h
Ratio Width: Thickness= l/h
10,000
O~--~--:-~--~--::"::----'---:"----'-----'
O 10 20 30 40
Load in Lb per Sq. In.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
load in Lbs.per-Sq. In.
Fm. 79.
Fm. So.
22. Deflection of Long Rectangular Plates Having a Small
befare far flat plates; the second member represents the effect of
Initial Cylindrical Curvature. 8-In this problem, we may use the the initial curvature (see eq. (d), p. I06). By adding (a) and (b)
results already obtained far the bending of bars with small initial
we obtain the total deflection
curvature (p. 104). The edges of the plateare assumed to be simply
supported and the coordinate axes andan elemental strip are taken . 'TrX o 7rX
as in Fig. 76. Let J = Jo + J1 = b sm / + 1 + a sm 1
Jo= b sm-
. 'T'X
(a) ab .
- - - s i n - = - - s m -
1rx b + o 1rx
(e)
i+a l 1+a l
represent the small initial deflection of the plate, with the maximum The magnitude of a is determined from the consideration of
deflection at the middle equal to b. If a uniform load q is applied, extension of the strip AB. Using the same reasoning as in the
128 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 129
preceding article we obtain the following expression for this ex- This stress is somewhat less than the corresponding stress for the
tension flat plate (see p. 123). In calculating bending stresses it should be
A = .:
2 )0
(l ( dydx )2dx - .:.[1 (dyo
dx
)2dx.
2
noted that the deflection given by eq. (b) consists of two parts.
The first is the same as that for a flat plate and the second,
0
Substituting (a) and (e) for yo and y and integrating, we have ab , 7rX
- --sin--,
l+ a /
A= :~[(!!:)2-b 2
]- represents the effect of the initial curvature. The maximum
bending stress corresponding to the first part of the deflection for
Setting this equal to the extension produced by the longitudinal
force S (eq. e, p. 122), we obtain a = 5.45; u = '!!:
2
-./a = 3.67 and Yll = 0.142, from table 3 on p. 43,
~[(~)
4/ I +-b2] 12/a
2
is I 5,300 lbs. per sq. in. The bending moment corresponding to the
second part of the deflection is
or
a1r2bD
a(I + a)2 = 3 ( b- +
h- )2 - 3 h2b2 (I + a)2. (II 5)
- d2 (
- D dx 2 - l
ab . 1rx)
+ a sm l = - (1
. 1rx
+ a)/2 sm- (e)
I
130 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 131
of the edges parallel to the x axis. The plane midway be- These stresses are proportional to the distance z from neutral
tween the faces of the plate, the so-called middle plane of the surface. The moments of the internal forces acting on the
plate, is taken as the xy plane and the z axis is perpendicular sides of the element are equaled to the moments of external
to this plane and downward. An element is cut out of the couples, giving the following equations:
/
qM~, 4
(d)
(e)
/y z
Fro. 81.
Substituting (b) and (e) for ux and uy and noting that
plate by two pairs of planes parallel to the xz and yz planes
(Fig. 82). The theory of pure bending of the plate is based - -2
E i+h/2 z?.dz = Eh3
= D,
l - _ 1112 l 2(l - 2)
on the assumption that during bending the lateral sides of
this element remain plane and rotate about the neutral axes where D denotes the flexura! rigidity of the plate (eq. 109), we
n-n. For moments as indicated in Fig. 81 the upper part find
of the element is under compression and the lower part under
(116)
tension. The middle plane nn <loes not undergo any defor-
mation during this bendng of the
plate and is therefore a neutral sur- (117)
f ace. Let 1/r1 and 1/r2 denote the
+---+--x curvatures of this neutral surface which correspond to eq. (56), p. 91, Part I, for the pure
in sections parallel to the zx and bending of a straight bar. Denoting by w small deflections
the zy planes respectively; then of the plate, the approximate formulas for curvatures are
IZ
the unit elongations in the x and l
y directions of an elemental sheet and
FIG. 82.
abcd, a distance z from the neutral
surface, are found as in the case of a beam (p. 90, Part 1) In terms of w, eqs. (116) and (117) become
and are equal to
z z (II8)
E = -
r1, E11 = -. (a)
X
r2
Using eqs. (38) (p. 52, Part 1), the corresponding stresses are
ux = Ez
1 -
2 ( .!_
r1
+ .!_r2 ) ' (b) These correspond to eq. (79) (p. 135, Part I) for the deflec-
tion curve of a straight bar. In the particular case in which
(e) M1 = M2 = M, the curvatures of the deflection surface in
two perpendicular directions are equal and the surface is
132 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 133
spherical. The curvature of the sphere, from eq. (u6), is or, noting that
l M rcp2 .
r = D(1 + ). (120) o = r(1 - cos cp) = 2 approx1mately,
we obtain
Such a spherical deflection surface is obtained for a plate of o
any shape if the bending moments M are uniformly dis- E=-. (k)
3r
tri bu ted along i ts edge.
In the above, it was assumed that there is no change in This represents the upper limit of circumferential strain at
the length of the fibers of the middle surface, i.e., that this the edge. lt was obtained by assuming that the meridional
surface is the neutral surface in the bent plate. This condi- strain is zero. Under actual conditions there will be a certain
tion can be rigorously satisfied only if the surface of the bent amount of strain in the meridional direction and the true
plate is a developable surface, such for instance as a cylindrical circumferential compression will be smaller than that given
surface discussed in the previous article. For non-develop- by eq. (k). 10
able surfaces the above assumption is sufficiently accurate The approximate theory of the bending of plates neglects
only if the deflection w of the plate is small in comparison entirely the strain in the middle plane and considers only
to its thickness h. To show this, consider the bending of a strains such as given by eqs. (a), the maximum value of which
circular plate produced by couples M uniformly distributed in the above example is h/2r. Hence a strain such as that
along the edge. lt follows from the previous theory that the given by (k) can be neglected and the middle surface can be
deflection surface is a sphere with the radius given by eq. considered as unstrained if o/3r is small in comparison with
(120). Let AOB (Fig. 83) represent the h/2r, i.e., if the deflection o is small in comparison with the
0 thickness of the plate h. Only in this assumption can the
(; ----g-,.,--!r diametral section of the bent circular
~M___ c ---- r,rM, plate, a its outer radius, and o the deflec- results given later for sorne special cases of bending of plates
a, r tion at the middle. We assume first that be used wi th sufficien t accuracy.
1' there is no stretching of the middle plane
24. Thermal Stresses in Plates.-Equation (120) of the
of the plate in its meridional direction;
previous article, for deflection to a spherical shape, is very
FIG. 83. then are OB = a, cp = a/r, and CB = a 1
useful in calculating thermal stresses produced in a plate by
= r sin cp. In such a case the deflection non-uniform heating. Let t denote the difference in tempera-
of the plate is obviously accompanied by a compressive strain
ture of the upper and lower faces of the plate and a the
in the circumferential direction. The magnitude of this strain
coefficient of linear expansion of the material. Assuming that
for the edge of the plate is
the variation of the temperature through the thickness of the
a - a1 rcp - r sin cp 10
If the deflections are not small and the strain in the middle surface is
E = a rcp taken into consideration, it has been shown that in the case of pure
bending of a circular plate, of radius a = 23h, the circumferential com-
For a small deflection o, the angle cp is small and sin cp cp pressive stress in'the middle surface at the edge is about 18 per cent of the
cp3/6 approximately, giving maximum bending stress when the deflection at the middle is equal to six
tenths the thickness of the plate. See author's paper in Memoirs of the
cp2 lnstitute of Ways of Communication, St. Petersburg, 1915. See also
E= 6' (J) "Theory of Plates and Shells," 1940.
134 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 135
plate follows a linear law, the corresponding expansions follow of the plate, and to the modulus of elasticity. The difference
the same law, and if the edge of the plate is free, the deflection in temperature t is likely to increase with the thickness of
produced by these expansions will be a spherical one.11 The the plate; therefore greater thermal stress can be expected in
difference between the maximum expansion and the expansion thick plates than in thin ones. I t is interesting to note that
at the middle surface is at/2, and the curvature resulting eq. (122), developed for flat plates, can also be used with
from this non-uniform expansion is given by the equation sufficient accuracy in cases of spherical and cylindrical shells
at h (see p. 262).
2 = 2r'
from which 25. Bending of Circular Plates Loaded Symmetrically
with Respect to the Center.13-The deflection surface in this
(121) case is symmetrical about the axis perpendicular to the plate
through its center and the consideration of a diametral section
This bending of the plate <loes not produce any stresses,
through this axis is sufficient for calculating deflections and
provided the edges are free and the deflection is small as
stresses. Figure 84 represents such a diametral section, with
compared with the thickness.
the axis of symmetry oz. Let w denote the deflection of the
lf, however, the edge of the plate be clamped, heating plate at any point A a distance x
will produce bending moments along the edge. The magni-
from the axis, and restrict it to small fJ
tude of these moments is such as to eliminate the curvature
produced by the non-uniform heating and given by eq. (121),
values. Let -.j);;~
// 1
as only in this manner can the condition at the clamped edge dw 1I 1
between the two faces of the plate and not that between liquids or gases 13 This case of bending was developed by Poisson, Pars, Mm. de
in contact with the plate. The latter, due to abrupt change in tempera- l'Acad., Vol. 8, 1829.
ture at the plate surface, may be much greater than t.
136 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THJN PLATES AND SHELLS 137
W e proceed in the same manner as in the bending of a bar higher arder, a shearing force of the same magnitude acts on
and assume that there is always the same relation between the the side ab. These two forces give a couple in the plane xz
bending moments and the curvatures as in the case of pure equal to
bending of a plate (art. 23). Equations (116) and (117) can Vxd0dx. (J)
therefore be used here also. Substituting (a) and (b) into Summing up moments (e), (d), (e) and (J) with proper signs,
these equations we find the equation of equilibrium of the element abcd is
dcp <P)
Mi= D ( dx + x ' (123)
( M1 + dM1
dx dx ) (x + dx)d0 - M1xd0 - M2dxd0 + Vxdxd0 = o,
M2 = D ( x<P + dcp)
dx . from which we find, by neglecting small quantities of higher
arder,
Here, as befare, M1 and M2 denote bending moments per dM1
unit length, M1 along circumferential sections of the plate
M1. -d +
X x - M2 Vx = o. + (g)
such as mn, and M2 along diametral sections xz. Equations Substituting expressions (123) and (124) for M 1 and M 2, eq. (g)
( 123) and ( 124) contain only one variable <P, which is deter- becomes
mined from the equilibrium of an element abcd (Fig. 85) cut
out from the plate by two cylindrical sections ab and cd and
by two diametral sections ao
and bo. The couple acting on In any particular case of a symmetrically loaded circular
X ~Cip~----~
M,+~~dx V
--- l
M
, V --~
the side cd of the element is
(e)
plate, the shearing force V may be determined from statics;
then eq. (125) can be used far determining the slope <P and the
,-dx-i----x z deflection w of the plate. Take, far example, a circular plate
/(
--
---
-r=r--4_~~ .
0
b
cr-1
'y
The corresponding couple on
side ab is
loaded by a uniformly distributed load of intensity q and a
concentrated load P applied at the center. Taking a section
of the plate by a cylindrical surface with axis oz and radius x,
Fw. 85.
( M1 + dM1
dx dx ) (x + dx)d0. (d) the shearing force V per uni t length of this section is found
from the statement of the equilibrium of the inner part of
The couples on the sides ad and be are each M2dx, and they the plate cut out by the cylindrical surface. The load acting
have a resultant in the plane xz equal to on this part of the plate is P +
1rx2q. This load must be
(e) equal to the resultant of the shearing forces distributed over
the cylindrical section; hence
In addition to these couples there are shearing forces V
on the si des ab and cd. 14 lf V represen ts the shearing force 21rxV = P + 1rx2q
per unit length, the total shearing force acting on the side and
cd of the element is Vxd0. Neglecting small quantities of qx p
V=--+-
2 27X
(126)
I t follows from symmetry that there are no shearing forces on the
14
The integration of
(t:; -et - ~ ) X""" = o,
(h) gives
(
qx 3
I 6D
C1x
2
e;)
X x~o - o,
qx p ( X2 logn X X2)
4
X
X c p = - - - - - ~ - - - +C1-+C2
2
from which
16D 21rD 2 4 2
or and (a)
cp = - t:;- 8~;(2 logn X - 1) + Ct + : 2
, (127) and these, put in eq. (127), give
from which, by integration, The constant C3 is found from the condition that at the edge
2
the deflection is zero. Hence
qx 4 2
W = 6 D
4
+ 8Px
1rD (logn x- 1)-
Cix
4 -C2 logn x+C3 (128) qa4 qa4
64D - 3 2D +C 3 = o,
The constants of integation Ci, C2 and Ca must be determined in from which
each particular case from the conditions at the edge of the qa4
plate.
c364D
= --.
In the above discussion it was assumed that the middle Substituting in equation (b), we obtain
surface of the plate is a neutral surface, i.e., that there is no
strain in this plane. This assumption is justified only if the (130)
edges of the plate are free from stresses in the middle plane
of the plate and the deflections are small in comparison with
the thickness of the plate.
140 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 141
The maximum deflection is at the center of the plate and is dueto pure bending is obtained from eq. (120). Substituting
in this equation M = qa 2/8, we find
qa4
= 64D. (131) 1 qa 2
r = 8D(1 + ).
This deflection is equal to of the deflection of a strip (Fig.
76) clamped at the ends and of length equal to the diameter The corresponding deflection at the middle for a sphe;ical
of the plate. The bending moments are obtained from eqs. surface is (see p. 94, Part I)
(123) and (124); expression (129) for (p) is substituted into a2 qa4
these equations, which gives 01 = 2r = 16D(1 + ) .
At the edge (x = a) these equations give For = 0.3, this deflection is about four times as great as it
qa2 qa2 is when the edges are clamped.
8 ;
Mi= - M2 = - - - (e)
8 In calculating bending moments, the constant bending
moment qa 2 /8 must be superposed on the moments (e) and
At the center (x = o),
(d) found above for the case of clamped edges. Hence
1+ 2 (j)
M1 M2 ~qa.
= =
Mi = 1q6 (3 + ) (a2 - x2),
The maximum stress is at the edge and is equal to
6 qa 2 3 qa2
M2 = t6 [a2(3 + ) - x2(1 + 3)].
(u.,)max = h2 8 = h2 (132)
4 The maximum bending moment is at the center, where
Simply Supported at the Edge. The method of superpo-
3+
sition is used in calculating deflections of a plate simply Mi = M2 = ~ q a2
supported at the edge. lt was shown (eqs. e) that in the
case of clamped edges there are negative bending moments The corresponding maximum stress is
M 1 = - (qa 2/8) acting along the edge,
Fig. 86 (a) . If this case is combined
with that of pure bending shown in
Fig. 86 (b), so as to eliminate the For comparison of the bending stresses u., and o-11 at the lower
bending moment at the edge, we get sides of the plates with clamped and simply supported edges,
the bending of a plate simply sup- the variation in these stresses along the radius of the plates
FIG. 86. is graphically represented in Fig. 87. Measuring the ordi-
ported at the edge. The deflection
142 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 143
nates from the horizontal axis passing through the point O, surface and its magnitude at a distance x from the center of
we obtain the stresses for the plate with the clamped edges. the plate is
Adding to these stresses the constant value 3qa2 / 4h 2~ i.e., 3 V 3 qx
r=--=--
measuring the ordinates from the horizontal axis passing 2 h 4 h
thrnugh the point 01 in Fig. 87, we obtain the stresses for the The corresponding shearing strain at the middle surface of
the plate is
0x; cry
_ T _ 3 qX
-y-----,
C 4Ch
and the additional deflection due to distortion of such an
element as abcd in Fig. 8 5 is
i
\
,..,: 1
with the thickness. For larger deflections the stretching of made on thin membranes are in good agreement with eq.
(138).19
the middle surface of the plate must be considered. lf this
is done it can be shown that at larger deflections the plate In the case of a uniformly loaded circular plate of variable
becomes stiffer than the above theory 16 indicates and the thickness the variation of the thickness with the radial dis-
deflections are no longer proportional to the load. tance can be expressed with sufficient accuracy by the equa-
In the case of a uniformly loaded circular plate clamped at tion:
the edge the deflection can be calculated from the following _h = e-f3x2 /6a 2
ho '
equation: 17
/5 3 qa 4 in which h/ho is the ratio of the thickness at the radial distance
o+ o.58 -;2 = 64D' ( 1 37) x to the thickness ho at the center, and /j is a constant. The
which is in good agreement with experiments.
In practica! applications, very thin uniformly loaded (3=4
plates are sometimes used. In such cases the bending stresses lt--t--+---+---t--lf---+---+---t-----1---ll
(3=3
may be small in comparison with the stresses due to the
1\\-\---l--t--t--t--l---+--+---l---+--J'-I-A /J=2
stretching of the middle surface and the plate can be con- -3= 1
sidered as a thin membrane which has no flexura! rigidity at -(J =O
l;::-"s~t---t--+---+---+---+--+--if---......Jl~/3 =-1
13 =-2
all. 18 The deflection at the middle of a uniformly loaded shapes of the diametrical sections of plates for various values
circular membrane is given by the equation of the constant /j are shown in Fig. 88. The maximum bend-
ing stress <1x in radial direction at a radial distance x from the
3/qa center can be expressed by the equation:
o = 0.662a '\JEJi (138)
3qa2
We obtain an analogous equation by neglecting o in com- <1x = 'Y ho2 ,
parison with the term containing /5 3 in eq. (137). Experiments
In which 'Y is a factor varying with the radial distance x.
See author's paper, loe. cit., p. 133. See also "Theory of Plates
16
19 Bruno Eck, Zeitschr. f. angew. Math. und Mech., Vol. 7, 1927,
and Shells," 1940. p. 498. lnformation on corrugated diaphragms see in "Techn. Notes"
17 See "Theory of Plates and Shells," p. 336, 1940.
18 See H. Hencky, Zeitschr. f. Math. u. Physik, Vol. 63 (1915), p. 311. 738, 1939, Nat. Adv. Comm. Aeron.
146 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 147
The values of this factor 20 for a plate with clamped edges are The equation for the deflection surface is obtained by sub-
given by the curves in Fig. 89. For a simply supported plate stituting q = o and the values (e) of the arbitrary constants
these values are given in Fig. 90. into eq. (128), which gives
x - 1) + C3.
o,-=---,----,----,---,----,--....,...----,----,-----,.-~- 2
w = 8Px
1r-D
(
logn a 2 (e)
Pa2 p a2 P a2 3 +
(ux)max = ~ (1 + ) ( 0.485 log X+ 0.52) o= 161rD + 81r(1 + )D = 161rD. 1 + ,.
Although the compressive stresses at the top of the plate may This deflection is about 2. 5 times as great as that for the
be many times as large as the tensile stresses at the bottom case of a clamped plate.
in the case of a strong concentration of the load, they do not The expressions for bending moments are found by adding
represent a direct danger because of their highly localized P/41r to the moments (g) and (h) obtained above for a clamped
character. The local yielding in the case of a ductile material plate. The maximum tensile stress is obtained by adding
will not affect the deformation of the plate in general if the 6/h 2 P/41r to the stress calculated from formula (142).
tensile stresses at the bottom of the plate remain within safe
28. Circular Plate Concentrically Loaded.-We begin with the
limits. The compressive strength of a brittle material is case in which the load is uniformly distributed along a circle of
usually many times greater than its tensile strength, so that radius b (Fig. 91). In this case we consider
a plate of such a material will also be safe if the tensile stress separately the portian of the plate insidel:,, a{=i=b bia j,_,
this circle and the portian outside. For J<_ _..;,.._.__--+_,...__-+.
at the bottom is within the limit of safety.
each portian the general eq. (128) is used,
Simply Supported Edge. The deflection of a plate simply
with q = o for both portions and P = o FIG. 91.
supported at the edge is obtained by the method of super- for the inner portian. The arbitrary con-
pos1t1on. On the deflections (j) found above for the case of stants are determined in such a manner as to satisfy the conditions
a clamped edge, we superpose the deflection produced in the of continuity at the circle x = b. 23 Denoting by P the total load,
the following results are obtained: 24
21 Local stresses at the point of application of a concentrated load are
23 The effect of shearing stress which produces discontinuity in the
discussed in the paper by H. Hencky, Der Spannungszustand in recht-
eckigen Platten, Darmstadt, 1913, p. 54. See also A. Nadai, "Elastische slope at the circle x = b is neglected in this case; see paper by G. A.
Garabedian, J. de l'cole Polytechnique, 2 Ser., C. no. 26, 1927.
Platten," p. 97, 1925. 24 See note of article 45 of St. Venant's translation of the book by
22 This question is discussed in "Theory of Plates and Shells," p. 75.
Clebsch, "Theorie der Elasticitat fester Korper," Pars.
150 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 151
Clamped Edge. For inner portian (x < b), If e = a, this equation coincides with eq. (131) for a uniformly
loaded plate. By substituting in eq. (144) e = . and _~c2q = P,
w = S:D[ - (x 2 +b 2
) logn i + (xz - bZ) eq. (139) for deflection by a concentrated load 1s obtamed. To
determine bending moments and stresses at the center of the pl~te,
+ 2I ( l + ~b2) (a2 - x2) ]. (a) we calcula te the second deriva ti ve with respect to x of the express1on
(a). Setting x = o and P = 2~bqdb in this deriva ti ve, the curvature
For outer portian (x > b),
at the center, produced by the elemental ring loading (Fig. 92), is
W = S:D [ - (x
2
+ b2) logn; + ~ ( 1 + ~) (a2 _ x2)]. (b) b( - 2 logn i+ l - ~) bdb.
4
Simply Supported Edge. For inner portian (x < b), The curvature at the center produced by the entire load is then
1 +
2
= !L[-
4D
~log ~-
4 ne
1-c4 + a2c2].
l~ 4
(144)
M1a and M 1b the bending moments
per unit length on the outer and
Fm. 93.
inner edges respectively (Fig. 93, a). For this case let P = q = o
152 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 153
in eqs. (127) and (128) and we find from which
C1x C2
,p=-+-,
2 X
(a) Ci = D[a2(1 + ) + b2(1 - )]'
Cix 2 x a 2b2M1a
w = - -
4
- C, logn -
a
+ Ca. (b) C2 = - D[a2(1 + ) + b2(1 - )]
The arbitrary constants are now to be determined from the con- Substituting into (a) and (e),
ditions at the edges. Substituting (a) into eq. (123) we obtain 2 2
a M 1a b
2(-1----)J x - --;
( ) (e)
<P = _D_[_a2-(1_+__)_+--=---b- '
= D [ C1
- - -C22 + ( -C1 +x2
-C2)] .
M1
2 x
equations for determining C1 and C2: Bending by Load Uniformly Distributed along Inner and Outer
Edges. If bending is produced by a loading uniformly distributed
D[ ~ 1
(1 + ) - ~!(1 - )] = M1a, along the edges (Fig. 94, a), q = o and P is equal to the entire
load on the inner edge. These values are substituted into eqs. (127)
and (128). Then, from eq. (127),
D [ C1 (1 + ) C2 ]
- b2 (1 - ) = M 1b,
2 Px C1x C2
from which
,p = - -81rD (2 log n X - 1) +-2
+ -X (g)
2(a2M1a - b2M1b) The arbitrary constants C1 and C2 are to be determined from the
C1 = (1 + )D(a2 - b2) ; conditions at the edges. For exampl, if the plate is clamped at the
edges (Fig. 94, b), the arbitrary constants are determined from the
The constant Ca is determined from a consideration of the deflection conditions ,p = o for x = a and x = b. Then, from eq. (g),
of the plate. Assume, for instance, that the plate is supported at
the outer edge; then the deflection at this edge is zero and Ca is Pa C1a C2
calculated from (b), which becomes - D (2 logn a - 1) +-+-=o,
8 1r 2 a
C1a2 Pb C1b C2
- -+Ca= o. - S1rD (2 logn b - 1) + 2 + b = o.
4
substituted into eq. (g). The bending moments may then be of the type:
qa2 kP
calculated from eqs. (123) and (124). O'max = k h2 or O'max = h2,
In the case of a uniformly distributed load (Fig. 95, a) the
shearing force V at any point a distance x from the center is depending on whether the applied load is uniformly distributed over
l qx qb2 the surface or concentrated along the edge. The numerical values
V = - 1rq(x2 - b2) = ~ - -
27X 2 2X
Case 1
This quantity must be substituted into eq. (125), and eqs. (127)
and (128) become
qx3 qb2x C1x C2
<P = - 16D+8D (2lognx - 1) +2 +-;, Wmax
4 2 2 2
qx b qx Cix
W = 6 D - SD (logn
4
X - 1) -
4 - C2 logn X+ C 3
in which a is the shorter side of the plate, h the thickness of the plate TABLE II,-CONSTANTS F0R UNIFORMLY LOADED RECTANGULAR PLATES
and a is a numerical factor depending on the WITH CLAMPED EDGES
a
x magnitude of the ratio b/a. As before, we ~se b/a = I.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 C()
the notations M 1 and M2 for the bendmg a = 0.0138 0.0199 0.0240 0.0264 0.0277 0.0284
moments per unit length on the sections paral- {3 = 0.0513 0.0665 o.o757 0.0806 0.0829 0.0833
lel to the y and x axes respectively. The
maximum bending moments occur at the cen- This indicates that clamping the edges of the plate diminishes
ter of the plate and are considerably its maximum deflection. The
effect of clamping on the magnitude of the Bvittin
(M1)max = f31qa 2; (M2)max = f32qa2, (152) maximum bending stress is not so large. Also
Fw. 97.
in which {31 and {32 denote numerical factors in the case of clamped edges the maximum
depending upon the ratio b/a. Several values of the coefficients a, deflection and the maximum bending moment
(31 and {3 2 are given in Table IO. These values are calculated on for b/a = 2 nearly coincide with those ob-
the assumption that Poisson's ratio is equal to 0.3. tained for b/a = oo. This justifies the use of
the results obtained in art. 21 for bending to
2s The complete discussion of bending of rectangular plates is given
a cylinder, when we make calculations for comparatively long rec-
in "Theory of Plates and Shells," 1940.
tangular plates (b/a :::> 2) with clamped edges.
158 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 159
Plate with Two Opposite Sides Supported, Third Side Buit-In shown in Fig. 99 (b). 29 The problem may be solved by using the
and the Fourth Side Free (Fig. 98). In the case of a uniformly methods developed in art. 29.
distributed load, the maximum deflection is at the middle of the The bending of rectangular plates on an elastic foundation in
free side at the point d. This deflection can be represented by the connection with the stress analysis in concrete roads was discussed
equation: by H. M. Westergaard. 30
31. Thin-walled Vessels Submitted to Internal Pressure.
-This consideration will be confined to vessels having the
The values of the numerical factor a in this equation are given in
the table below. The maximum bending moment M 1 also occurs form of a surface of revolution, which are subjected to a
at the point d, and its magnitude is given by the equation: continuous interna! pressure of intensity p, not necessarily
uniform but symmetrically distributed with reference to the
(M1)max = fJ1qa 2 (155)
axis of revolution 0-0 (Fig. rno). If the thickness of the
The maximum bending moment M 2 occurs at the point B, at the
middle of the built-in side, and is given by the equation:
(r 56) ...,...;;:--..J ~hds,v;
--- -,......!_
.rie:-- -- -...
Several values of the coefficients {J1 and {J 2 are given in the table
r,'--!!.. ds1
below. (/ --t.
hds2 6
TABLE 12.-CONSTANTS FOR UNlFORMLY LOADED RECTANGULAR PLATE SHOWN
IN Fro. 98
b/a = o 1/2 2/3 o
= 1.37 0.635 0.366 0.123 Fro. 100.
{J = o 0.0293 0.0558 0.0972
fJ2 = 0.500 0.319 0.227 O.II9 wall is small in comparison with the radii of curvature and
there are no discontinuities such as sharp bends in the merid-
+ + + + + It can be seen from the table that when a is ional curves, the streS'Ses can be calculated with sufficient
e large compared to b the middle strip dB ap-
+ + 'f+ +
+j,~- + + proaches the condition of a cantilever built-in
accuracy by neglecting the bending of the wall of the vessel,
i.e., by assuming that the tensile stresses in the wall are
+ at B and uniformly loaded.
+ Uniformly Loaded P/ate Supported at Man y uniformly distributed through the thickness. 31 The magni-
+ + + +
Equidistan! Points (Fig. 99). In this case tudes of the stresses may then be easily calculated from the
we can obtain a good approximation to the equations of statics.
maximum stress and to the stress distribution Let us consider an element mnsq, cut from the wall of
near a support as follows. A part of the plate
the vessel by two meridional sections such as mn and sq and
near the support, bounded by a circle of radius
a = o.zzc (where e is the distance between sup- two sections ms and nq normal to the meridians. From the
ports), is considered as a circular plate simply 29
See paper by H. M. Westergaard and A. Slater, Proceedings of the
supported at the outer edge loaded at the Amer. Concrete lnst., Vol. 17, 1921. See also V. Lewe, "Die strenge
inner edge by the load, P = qc2 acting up- Losung des Pilzdeckenproblems," Berln, 1922.
30
ward and uniformly loaded by a load of in- See his paper in "Ingeniaren," Copenhagen, Denmark, 1923, p. 513,
tensity q acting downward. This loading is and also in "Public Roads," Vol. 7, 1926, p. 25.
31
Fro. 99 Shells which do not resist bending are sometimes called "mem-
4 branes" and the stresses calculated by neglecting bending are called
membrane stresses." It is assumed that the externa! forces, uniformly
distributed along the edge of the shell, are tangent to meridians.
160 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 161
condition of symmetry it is seen that onlv normal stresses Conical Tank. Let us consider an open conical tank filled
act on the sides of this element. Let with a liquid (Fig. 101). In this case, the curvature of the
<T1 be the tensile stress in the meridional direction, i.e., the meridian 1/r1 = o and the hoop stress <T2 due to the liquid
meridional stress, pressure can be calculated from eq. (157).
cr2, the tensile stress along the parallel circle, i.e., the hoop The internal pressure at points m-n a
stress, distance d - y from the surface of the
h, the uniform thickness of the shell, liquid is
ds1, the dimension of the element in the meridional direction, p = -y(d - y),
ds2, the dimension of the element in the direction of the par- Fro. 101
where 'Y is the weight per unit volume
allel circle, of the liquid. The radius of curvature r2 at these points is
r1, the meridional radius of curvature,
r2, the radius of curvature of the section perpendicular to y tan a
the meridian. r 2 = cosa
Then the total tensile forces acting on the sides of element Equation ( 157) then becomes
are hu1ds2 and hu2ds1. The tensile forces hds2u1 acting on the
cosa -y(d - y)
sides ms and nq of the element have a component in the (j
2 -
y tan a - h
direction normal to the element equal to (see Fig. rno, b)
from which
-y(d - y)y tan a
(a) <T2 = h cosa (d)
In the same manner the tensile forces acting on the sides mn The maximum value of this stress occurs at points where the
and sq have a normal component,
product (d - y)y is a maximum. If we set the derivative of
_ hu2ds1ds2 (d - y)y equal to zero, we find y = d/2 and the stress at this
hdS1<T2d 02 - --- (b)
r2 point is
The sum of these normal components is in equilibrium with
the normal pressure on the element; hence (e)
hu1ds1ds2 +-
hu2ds1ds2
-- = pds1ds2 (e)
The stress u 1 at the level m-n is found from the condition
r1 r2 that the vertical components of the meridional tensile forces
or in the shell support the weight of the volume tmons of the
(I 57) liquid (Fig. 101); hence
This stress is maximum when y = jd. Substituting m eq. the compressive force in the ring is (Q/21r) cot ex. This is only an
(/), we find approximation obtained on the assumption that the cylindrical and
spherical portions are membranes, resisting only to tension. In
(g) calculating compressive stress in the ring adjacent portions of
cylindrical and spherical shells must be added to the cross section
Equations (d) and (J) represent the complete solution of the of the ring mn itself.
problehl as long as the bending stresses in the wall of the 2. Determine the stresses at the points mn of a cylindrical tank
ta_nk may be neglected. with a hemispherical bottom, which contains liquid at the level
indicated (Fig. 103).
In the case of a cylindrical shell of diameter d, submitted Solution. From eq. (157) for any point of the spherical portion
to uniform pressure p, we found befare (see p. 42, Part 1) at a distance x from the surface of the liquid we have
pd
<T1 = 4h; (a)
Problems
I. The tank of Fig.
tr,
102 contains liquid at the level shown.
a;
ld
f7 --~/ '
R Z / '
11
j a;
n_J
l~-~- >~-~fo}
~M
Fm. 102. Fm. 103. Fm. 104.
Determine the maximum stresses <r1 and 0-2 in the cylindrical and the Since the meridional forces along the section mn support the weight
spherical portions and also the compressive force in the reinforcing of the volume smont of the liquid, the second equation is
rmg mn.
Solution. The weight of the liquid in the container is <ri = ~R ( d - R + R 1 -
3
sin a ) (b)
h 2 3 cos2 ex
Q = [ 1rdr2 + 1r (} R 3
- R2t + ~) ] ~- and eq. (a) becomes
2
For the cylindrical portion of the tank, u = ~R ( d - R +~sin a + 3 sin a cos a - 1 ) .
2
h 2 3 cos2 ex
Q
u1 = - - = const. and
2trh 3. In Fig. 104 determine the relation between the outer diameter
of the tank, the diameter of the supporting ring mn and the depth d
For the spherical portion of the tank the maximum stress is at the of the liquid for which the ring mn is submitted to vertical pressure
bottom, where the liquid pressure is ~d1 and <r1 = u2 = ~d1RJ2h. only. The middle portion of the bottom of the tank is a spherical
The tensile force in the spherical portion of the tank per unit length surface of central angle 1r/2. The same angle has also the conical
of the ring mn is Q/(2tr sin ex). The radial component of this force, portion mm1nn1.
producing compression of the ring (Fig. 102, b), is (Q/21rr) cota, and Hint. The necessary relation may be obtained from the con-
164 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 165
dition that the pressures on the ring from the side of the spherical may be of practica! importance. This is especially so at the places
bottom and from the conical lateral surface both inclined 45 give of discontinuity in the meridian. If the meridian consists of curves
no horizontal component. From this it follows that the volume of which are not tangent, a reinforcing ring as shown in Fig. 102 is
the liquid indicated in the figure by the shaded areas is equal to the necessary in order to preven t large bending of the wall of the
volume mnst. vessel. The stresses may be high also at the junctions in a merid-
, 4. Determine the maximum stress in the tank represented in ian consisting of severa! curves tangent to one another. The ad-
Fig. 102 if R = 10 feet, r = 8 feet, d = 20 feet, -y = 62.5 lbs. per ditional stresses set up at such points will be called discontinuity
cubic foot and h = in. stresses.
5. Determine stresses u1 and <T2 in the wall of a torus submitted The method of calculating them will now be shown for the
to uniform inner pn.ssure p (Fig. 105). simple case of a cylindrical vessel with hemispherical ends submitted
to the action of uniform interna! pressure (Fig. 106). We consider
first the membrane stresses only, and find for the cylindrical portion
pr pr
<Ti = 2h; <T2 = h' (a)
pr
Fw. 105. <Tl = <T2 = (T = 2h .
Solution. The condition of equilibrium with respect to vertical The corresponding radial displacements for the cylindrical and
forces of the portian mnm 1n1 cut from the vessel by a vertical spherical portions are
cylindrical surface of radius a and conical surface mom 1 gives
pr2
,r(r2 - a2 )p - u1h2,rr sin a = o, and 2hE (i - )
from which
p(r2 - a2) respectively.
<T1 = . . If the spherical and cylindrical parts of the vessel were disjointed
2rh sm a
(Fig. 106, b), the difference in radii due to membrane stresses would
The stress can now be calculated from eq. (1 57).
<T2 be
6. Determine the maximum pr2
stress in the wall of the vessel rep- /;=- (b)
2hE
resented in Fig. 105 if a = 10',
b = 12', h = " and p = 50 lbs. In t?-e. actual vesst_:l, the head and the cylinder are kept together at
per sq. in. the Jomt by sheanng forces Po and bending moments Mo (Fig. 106,
32. Local Bending Stresses in b) per unit length of the circumference of the middle surface of the
Thin Vessels.-In the previous vessel. These forces produce bending of the adjacent parts of the
(o) article, bending of the wall of the yessel. In discussing bending in the cylinder, since the deformation
Fw. 106. vessel was neglected and only ten- is symmetrical with respect to the axis, it is sufficient to consider the
sile stresses, so-called membrane bei:idin~ of an elemental strip (Fig. 107), and the deflection of this
stresses, were considered. The displacements due to membrane strip w1ll be radial. For simplicity it is assumed the strip is of unit
stresses cause bending of the wall and the resulting bending stresses
166 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 167
width. If y denotes the radial displacement at any cross section of which is small in comparison with r if h is small. From this it can
the strip, then the radius of the cylinder shortens at this section by y be shown that bending at the joint of cylinder and head is of local
and as a result of this there is a compressive strain in the circum- character and has an appreciable effect on the stresses only in a
ferential direction of the mag- narrow zone in the vicinity of the joint. This narrow zone at the
nitude y/r. The corresponding edge of the head is nearly cylindrical in shape and hence eq. (e) can
compressive stress is Ey/r. Hence be used for calculating deflections and stresses in the head also. 33
when the strip deflects towards the In the simplest case, in which cylindrical wall and spherical
axis of the cylinder, lateral com- head are of the same thickness, the deflections and the slopes pro-
pressive forces T (Fig. 107, e) are duced at the edges of the spherical and cylindrical parts by the
produced whose magnitude per unit. forces Po are equal. The conditions of continuity at the joint are
length of the strip is satisfied if Mo = o and Po has such a magnitude as to produce a
deflection at the edge of the cylinder equal to /2. Putting Mo = o,
Ey
T=-h. (e) x = o in eq. (e), the equation for calculating Po is
r
Fro. 107. Po
Since the angle 0 is equal to 1/r, 2{3 3D = 2'
these forces give a radial resultant 32 from which
Eyh Eyh pr2 Eh p ",
--0 = --,
2 (d) 3
Po = /3 D = 2hE 4/3r2 = 8/3 .
r r
which opposes the deflection of the strip. These reactive forces are With Po known the deflection and the bending moment at any cross
distributed along the strip in proportion to the deflections y so that section of the strip may be calculated from eq. (e). The corre-
the strip is in the same condition with respect to bending as a beam sponding discontinuity stresses must be added to the membrane
on an elastic foundation (art. 1) with k = Eh/r2 Since any change stresses given by eqs. (a). If the head and the cylindrical portion
in the shape of the cross section of the strip is prevented by the of the vessel have different thicknesses, there will be both a shearing
adjacent strips in a manner similar to that in plates (see p. 119), force Po and a moment Mo at the joint. These two quantities are
D = Eh/12(1 - 2) is to be used for its flexura! rigidity. The calculated from the conditions: (1) the sum of edge deflections in the
differential equation of the deflection curve of the strip is then spherical and in the cylindrical parts must be equal to (Fig. 106,
(see eq. 1) b); (2) the angles of rotations of the two edges must be equal.
d4y Eh The above method can be used also in the cases of heads which
Dd------; = - - 2 y. are not of hemispherical shape. 34 If the thickness of the wall of
X r
33 The proof that this is a sufficiently accurate assumption was given
Introducing, as before, the notation
by E. Meissner, Schweiz. Bauzeitung, Vol. 86, 1925, p. I.
= 4{Eh = 4'3(1 - 2), 34 This method was used in investigating stress distribution in various
/3 '\J~ '\J r2h2 shapes of steam boiler heads. See E. Hohn and A. Huggenberger,
ber die Festigkeit der gewi:ilbten Boden und der Zylinderschale,
the deflection curve of the strip becomes (see eq. II, p. 12)
Zrich, 1927. See also W. M. Coates, "The State of Stress in Full
e-/JX Heads of Pressure Vessels," Transactions, A. S. M. E., Applied Mech.
y == ~D [Pocos {3x - f3Mo(cos {3x - sin {3x)]. (e) Div., 1929. It was used also in investigating local bending in tanks
2{3
containing liquid. See T. Pi:ischl and K. Terzaghi, Berechnung von
This is a rapidly damped oscillatory curve of wave length Behaltern, Berlin, 1926; H. Reissner, Beton und Eisen, Vol. 7, 1908, and
C. Runge, Zeitschr. f. Math. u. Phys., Vol. 51, 1904, p. 254. Cylindrical
271" 4/ r 2 h2 shells with flat ends were discussed by E. O. Holmberg and K. Axelson,
l =ti= 271"~3(1 - 2)'
~/) Trans. A. S. M. E. Vol. 54, p. 13, 1932. A further discussion of cylin-
drical shells see in "Theory of Plates and Shells," 1940.
3~ It i3 ::ssumed that 0 is a small angle.
168 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 169
pressure vessels is not small, the bending stresses in the wall may The maximum value of this stress can easily be found by the usual
y -- _!y_
2
{3D e
-fh;
cos {Jx, =J+"{V2r.
4 gE
we obtain
Po ,,~. Applying the same method as in the previous problem and con-
M = - e-.,.. sm {3x. sidering a strip of unit width, the magnitude of the shearing force
Po and the bending moment Mo at the edge mn is found by using
The numerical maximum of this moment is at {Jx = 1r/ 4, when Mmax eqs. (II) and (12). Consider the clises as very rigid in comparison
= 45.4 lbs. ins. The corresponding maximum bending stress in the with the drum and neglect the deformations produced in them by
strip is 6Mmax/h2 = 1,090 lbs. per sq. in. This stress must be added the forces Po and couples Mo, The equations for calculating Po and
to the membrane stress Mo are
pr l
0-1 = 2 h = l 50 X 25 = 3,750 lbs. per sq. in. 2
/33D (Po - /3Mo) = ,
The bending of the strip produces also hoop stresses. These are l
made up of two parts: (1) stresses preventing cross sections of the {3 D (Po - 2fJMo) = o,
2 2
strip from distortion (see p. 120) (the maximum value of these
stresses at any cross section of the strip is 6M/ h2 ) and (2) stresses from which
- (yE/r) due to shortening of the circumference. Substituting the
above expressions for y and M, the discontinuity stress, which must
Having these quantities, the deflections and the bending stresses
be added to the membrane stress u2, is are found from an equation analogous to eq. (11).
PoE -fJx 3. Determine the maximum bending stress in the drum of the
-
2
/3 3Dr e cos {3x + 6Po
{3h 2 e
-fJx .
sm {Jx previous problem if r = 25 in., h = in., v = 500 feet per sec. and
6Po fJ . the material is steel.
= {3h2 e- " (sm {3x - 1.83 cos {Jx). 4. Determine the bending stresses produced in a pipe by a
narrow ring shrunk onto it (Fig. 109).
36 See "Theory of Plates and Shells," 1940.
170 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 171
Solution. Considera longitudinal strip of unit width and denote
Hint. In calculating the pressure P per unit length of the ring
by P the pressure between the ring and the
we use the results obtained for the problem shown in Fig. 13, p. I 8.
r:: 212 11
---- - -
: ::
: 22
@@ul
pipe, per unit length of the circumference of
~~eth~e~f aTl~~~~na~i~~
~nt~fa:~~~Pf~u~~ast~::
which carries a single load P (art. r)_ The
Then the deflection produced in the pipe by the forces P is
P(3 cosh (31 + cos (31 +
2k sinh (31 + sin (31
2
=
P
8{3 3D
cosh (31
sinh (31
+
cos (31
+
sin (31
+2
Fm. 109. decrease in the radius of the pipe due to P,
from (eq. 8), is P/8(3 3D. The increase in the The equation for calculating P then is
radius of the ring is 36 Pr2/AE, where A is the cross-sectional area
of the ring. If is the initial difference in the inner radius of the
P cosh (31 + cos (31 +2 Pr2
ring and the outer radius of the pipe, the equation for calculating 8{3 3D sinh (31 +
sin (31 + AE =
Pis Find P for steel pipe if r = 25 in., h = in., I = 50 in., A = 4 sq.
in., and = 0.05 in.
6. A cylindrical pipe with simply sup-
ported edges is su bmi tted to a unifonn in-
or, by using eq. (r 58) and taking = 0.3, terna! pressure p. Find the longitudinal
bending stress and the deflection at the
p ( r)'2 Pr2 middle of the pipe, Fig. II0. The dimen-
0.643 E h + AE = . (g)
sions of the pipe are the same as in the
preceding problem.
P is determined from this equation, and the maximum bending Hint. From the results of the problem
moment in the strip is found from eq. (9). 37 The maximum bending shown in Fig. 20, p. 24, the deflection
stress in the strip is Fm. uo.
and the bending moment per unit length
~ ~~3(Ir~2 2)
of the circumference at the middle cross section e-e are
cr =
pr2 ( 2 cosh {!!_
2
cos (3I )
2
The same method is applicable also to cases in which a cylindrical
tube with reinforcing rings is submitted to either a uniform internal Je = Eh
1
- cosh (31 + cos (31 '
or a uniform external pressure. If the distance between the rings . (31 . (31
is so large that the effect of each on the deflections produced by the smh-sm-
others may be neglected, P can be obtained from _eq. (g) b)'. sub- P 2 2
stituting = pr2/Eh. This represents the change m the radms of M = 2(3 2 cosh (31 + cos (31
the pipe due to the uniform pressure. 38 7. Solve the preceding problem assuming that the edges of the
5. Salve the preceding proble~ a_ssuming t~at the length l of pipe are absolutely built-in.
the pipe is not large and that the nng 1s at the m1ddle of the length. Hint. Use the results of the problem shown in Fig. 21, p. 24.
8. A circular steel pipe is reinforced by rings, a distance l apart,
36 The dimension of the ring in the radial direction is assumed to be
Fig. I IIa, and submitted to interna! pressure p. Find the pres-
small in comparison with r.
37 An example of such calculations is given in the paper by G. Cook, sure P produced per unit length of the inner circumference of a
Engineering, Vol. II6, 1923, p. 479. See also R. Lorenz, V. D. l., Vol. 52, ring. Find the maximum bending stresses in the pipe.
1908, p. 1706; M. Westphal, V. D. l., Vol. 41, 1897, p. 1036. . Solution. Let us begin with a consideration of the portian of
38 The application of this method to the calculat10n of hull stresses m a the pipe between the two rings 39 under the action of shearing forces
submarine having a circular cross section is given in the paper by K. v. 39
The width of the ring is assumed to be negligible in comparison
Sanden in the periodical, Werft und Reederei, 1920, p. 189. with the distance / between the rings
172 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 173
Vo (Fig. II rb) and bending moments Mo (Fig. r r IC) per unit length from which
of the circumference of the pipe. Considering a longitudinal strip Mo = P sinh {3! - sin {31
(/)
of unit width as a beam on an elastic foundation and using the 4{3 cosh {3! - cos {31
In calculating P we assume first that the rings are absolutely rigid.
In such a case the defl.ection in the pipe produced by forces P under
T
Zr
the rings must be equal to the radial expansion pr2/Eh which the
pipe would have in the absence of the reinforcing rings. Hence the
l~~~
equation for calculating P is
pr2
''
~ i----1-V..-=x ( M. M. "jx or
(w1)x=O + (w2)x=0 = Eh
v.
y
(b}
-1,D)
V..
Fw.
M. {e) M.
III.
P{3r2 cosh {31
Eh sinh {Jl
+
+
cos {3/ P{3r2
sin {Jl - 2Eh
(sinh {Jl - sin {3/) 2
X (sinh {3! + sin {3!) (cosh {3! - cos {JI)
= Eh
pr2
(m)
'In each particular case this equation can be readily solved for P.
Substituting the value of P in expression (/), we obtain the required
results of the problems in Fig. 12, p. 17, and in Fig. 18, p. 23, we value of the bending moment M 0
find for the defl.ection and the slope at the left end of the strip in
To take into account the expansion of the reinforcing rings, we
Fig. IIIb: observe that the forces P produce an extension of the inner radius
__ 2V0{3r 2 cosh {31 + cos {31
( Wi ) x=O - (h) of the ring equal to Pr2/AE, where A is the cross-sectional area of
Eh sinh {3! + sin {31' the ring. By the same amount the defl.ection of the pipe is dimin-
dw 1 ) = 2Vof32r 2 sinh {3! - sin {3!. ished. Hence to obtain the force P in this case we have only to
(i) substitute
( dx x=o Eh sinh {3! + sin {3!
For the left end in Fig. r r re we obtain
_ 2M0{3 2r 2 sinh {3! - sin {31 instead of pr2/Eh into equation (m).
(w2) x=o - - Eh sinh {3! sin {3!' + (j) 9. Find the bending moment Mo -2r
and the shearing force Vo per unit
dw2) = 4Mo/3 3r 2 cosh {3! - cos {31 (k) length of circumference at the bottom 7
( dx x=o Eh sinh {3! + sin {3!
From our definition of P it follows that
p
of the cylindrical tank filled with
liquid, Fig. r r 2, if r = 30 ft., d = 26
ft., h = 14 in., 'Y = 0.03613 lb. per cu.
t d
the preceding article. of an elemental strip and then using Fro. IIJ.
Let us now consider the case in which there is a tempera- solution (11), p. 12, which gives
ture gradient in the radial direction. Assume that !1 and !2
are the uniform temperatures of the cylindrical wall at the Mo
y = - {3 D e-f!x (cos {3x - . {3x ) ,
sm (e)
inside and the outside surfaces, respectively, and that the 2 2
the pipe in the circumferential direction and consists of the spectively. Find the maximum stress in the tube if t1 - t2 = 10o F.
three parts: (1) stress (a), (2) stress (e), and (3) stress pro- and the edges are free.
Answer. o-max = 18,750 lbs. per sq. in.
duced by moments (j). Hence
4. Sol ve ~he_ preceding problem assuming that the edges of the
aE(t1 - !2) [ 2 tube were bmlt-m when the tube had a uniform tcmperature equal
<Tmax = (
2 l -
) l + ...J l "'<3-,- -
]
(160) to (t1 +t2)/2.
Far = 0.3 this stress is about 25 per cent greater than the 34. Twisting of a Circular Ring by Couples Uniformly
stress (a) calculated at points at a large distance from the Distributed along its Center Line.-There are cases in which
meta
ends. We can therefore conclude that if a crack will occur a circular ring of uniform cross sec-
in a brittle material such as glass due to a temperature differ- tion is submitted to the action of
ence / 1 - 12, it will start at the edge and will proceed in the twisting couples uniformly distrib-
axial direction. In a similar manner the stresses can also uted along its center line. 41 Taking {a) a x
be calculated m cases in which the edges are clamped or half the ring (Fig. 114, a) as a free
supported. 40 body, from the condition of equi-
librium with respect to moments (b)
Problems
about the diameter ox, there must
I. Find the thermal stresses produced in a long steel pipe with be a bending moment on each cross
built-in edges if r = 25 in., h = in., = 0.3, coefficient of thermal section m and n,
expansion a = 70. 10- 1 , and the increase in the uniform temperature y
of the pipe is 100 F. (a) F10. II4.
Solution. With the given dimensions we find
where a is the radius of the center line and M 1 is twisting
{3 = 0.364 in.- 1, D = 343.103 lb. in.
couple per unit length of the center line. Let us consider now
The free elongation of the radius of _the pipe due to temperature ~he deformation of the ring. From the condition of symmetry
rise is o= ar(t - to)= 702510010- 7 = 17510-4 in. Substi- lt can be concluded that during twist each cross section rota tes
tuting in the equations of the problem 2 of the preceding article,
we find the shearing force and the bending moment per unit length in its own plane through the same angle 0, which is assumed
of the circumference at the built-in edge: to be small in the following discussion. 42 Let C be the center
of rotation (Fig. 114, b) and B a point in the cross section at
Po = 40{3 3D = l 160 lbs. per in.
Mo = 20{3 2D = l 590 lb. in. per in. distance p from C. Due to rotation of the cross section the
point B describes a small are BB1 = p0. Due to this dis-
With these values of Po and Mo the stres'.3es in axial and circum-
p~acement the annular fiber of the ring, which is perpen-
ferential directions at the built-in edge can be readily calculated.
2. Solve the preceding problem assuming that the edges are
dicular to the section at the point B, increases its radius by
simply supported. B2B1. If the coordina te axes are taken as indicated, we have,
3. A steel tube of the same dimensions as in problem l has the 41
An instance of such a problem is the calculation of stresses in the
temperatures ti and t2 at the inside and the outside surfaces re- retaining rings of commutators of electric machines. Another is the
40 Severa! examples of this kind are discussed in the paper by C. H. stress analysis of pipe flanges.
42
Kent, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Eng. vol. 53, p. 167, 1931. The case of a A general discussion of the problem, when 6 is not small is given by
temperature gradient in the axial direction is discussed in "Theory of R. Grammel, Zeitschr. f. Angew. Math. u. Mech., Vol. 3, 1923: p. 4 29 , and
Plates and Shells," p. 423. Vol. 7, 1927, p. 198.
178 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 179
from the similarity of the triangles BB1B2 and BDC, i.e., the distribution of the normal stresses over the cross
section of the ring is the same as in the case of bending of
- -DB y (li)
B 1B2 = BB1 BC = p0 P = 0y. straight bars; the stress is proportional to the distance from
the neutral axis x and the maximum stress occurs at the
Let us consider first the case in which the cross sectional points most remate from this axis.
dimensions of the ring are small in comparison with the
radius a of the center line. Then the radii of all ring fibers As a second example let us consider a ring of rectangular cross
section (Fig. II 5) whose width b is not
may be taken equal to a without great error and the unit small in comparison with the radius a of
elongation of the fiber B, due to the displacement given by the center line. Let e and d denote the
eq. (b), is inner and outer radii of the ring respec-
0y (e) tively, and r the radius of any fiber of the
E=-
a ring, and assume as before that the de-
formation of the ring consists of a rota-
lf there is no lateral pressure between the nng fibers, the tion of i ts cross section 43 through an Fro. u5.
fiber stress, due to elongation e, is angle 8. The elongation of the fiber at
a radius r and the corresponding stress are
E0y (d)
(]' =--
a 8y EOy
E=- (J' =- (j)
r ' r
Now from the equilibrium of the half ring, the sum of all
the ~ormal forces acting on the cross section of the ring must The equation of equilibrium analogous to the second of eqs. (e)
be equal to zero and the moment of these forces about the becomes
x axis must be equal to M (see eq. a). lf dd denotes an .r+hf2Id EOy2drdy = M
elemental area of the cross section, these equations of equi- J-h/2 e r
librium become and, by performing the integration,
find
43
The possibility of distortion of the cross section is neglected in this
(162) consideration. The corresponding error is small, provided d/c < 1.5.
See A. M. Wahl, Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 1929.
180 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 181
The maximum stress is found at the inner corners of the ring, give the following equations for calculating Mo and Po:
where r = e and y = h/2:
l
6M (33D (Po - f3Mo) = o,
O'max = 2
d d
h 2c loge- h2c log e -e l
c - (3 2D (Po - 2(3Mo) = 0.
2
If bis small, eq. (163) can easily be changed to the form (161). Put
From the first of these equations
b b
d=a+-2 and c=a--
2' Po = f3Mo. (g)
then Then
b
Mo = 2(3D0 and (h)
d a+-2 ( b)
loge - = loge - -
e b
~ loge l + -a Far a pipe of thickness h1 an:d inner radius c,(3 is 45 given by eq. (158),
a--
2
- 4 /3 (l - 2) .
(k)
For small values of the ratio b/a the above logarithm is approximately (3 - ~ czhi2
equal to b/a. Substitution of this into eq. (163) gives eq. (161).
These results can be used in calculating the stresses produced at The torque per urtit length of the center line of the flange, produced
7) the joint of a pipe and a flange 44 by forces R by the forces shown in the figure, is
(Fig. II6). R is the force per unit length of
,--h,
the inner circumference of the pipe. The
force per unit length of the outer circum-
M 1 = ~[ R(d - e) - Mo - Po t]
__ _b
h
L-+---cf-L"-"-"-f"-"-'-4,r .-;
ference of the flange is R(c/d). Under the
action of these forces the cross section of the
flange rotates through the angle 0, and the
= ~ [ R(d - e) - Mo - Mo tl
(3 (/)
fa)
wall of the pipe bends as shown in Fig. 116 (b) The substitution of this into eq. (163) gives the angle 0 and from the
n by the dotted lines. Let Mo and Po be the first of eqs. (h)
/?
~
M';jJ_''
I I
P.
bending moment and the shearing force at the
r~::-=----1
R
,. . ,.
M.t: -----., 'bJ
R
joint per unit length of the inner circumfer-
ence of the pipe. The magnitude of these
quantities can be found from the condition
Mo = 2(:JD
l2C
Eh loge -
3
d [ R(d - e) - Mo - Mo h (3 ]
2
e
Fw. u6. of continuity at the junction of pipe and
flange. As ordinarily the flange is very rigid Replace D by its magnitude Ehi3/12(1 - 2 ), and
tn the plane perpendicular to the axis of the pipe, the radial displace-
ment produced in the flange by forces Po is negligible, and the
deflection at the edge of the pipe can be considered zero. The
Mo = R(d - e)
l
(3h
+ -2 + -2(3c- -h1 1 _
I
2 ( h ) d '
loge -
angle of rotation of the edge of the pipe is equal to 0, the angle of e
rotation of cross sections of the flange. Then eqs. (II) and (12) From eqs. (165) and (g) the quantities Mo and _Po can be _calculated
44 if we are given the dimensions of the pipe, Po1sson's rat10 and the
Another method of calculating these stresses is given by E. O.
Waters, Journal Appl. Mech., Vol. 59, 1937, p. 161. See also J. D. forces R. Then the bending stresses in the pipe may be found as
Mattimore, N. O. Smith-Petersen and H. C. Bell, Trans. A. S. M. E., in article 32.
Vol. 60, 1938, p. 297. 45
For small thickness of the pipe the difference between the inner
radius and the radius of the middle surface can be neglected
182 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS THIN PLATES AND SHELLS 183
~ 2 -73 .
{3 = _,----;- = o.784 m.-1, from which
"ICh1 d-c
d {3h a=-- (n)
log, - = 0.635; ~ = 0.564. d
e 2 log,-
c
Substituting in eq. (165), we have
The second of eqs. (m) becomes
Mo = o.459R(d - e); Po = {3Mo = o.360R(d - e).
+hJ2I EO
The maximum bending stress in the pipe is given by
,[-h/2 e r
- [y1 + {3(r - a)J2drdy1
6Mo
= EO [ :: log. ~ + ~c
2
u=--
2
h1 {3 2h ( d2
and by substituting eq. (n) for a we obtain for the vertical deflection
of the upper edge of the cone with respect to the lower
= O(d - e) =
E
[
12
h3
Rc(d - e)
tj_ 2
(d - e) log.. e + /3 h
(d + 2
e
-
d - e)
1oge~
d
l (p)
F10. u7.
This gives if we know the dimensions of the ring, the modulus of
spring. R is the load per unit length of the inner edge of the ring. elasticity of the material and the load R. This derivation neglects
Solution. Take, as before, the coordinates x and y with the the effect of the change in the angle {3 due to the rotation 0. 46
origin at the center of rotation C. The unit elongation and the
46 For larger deflections the change in the angle {3 must be considered.
stress for any fiber with the radius r are given by eqs. (f). From the
equilibrium of the half ring, we obtain In such cases the deflection is no longer proportional to the load. See
paper by W. A. Brecht and A. M. Wahl, Journal Appl. Mech. Trans.
2 A. S. M. E. Vol. 52, 1930, p. 52. See also papers by J, O. Almen and A
EOy iEOy
- d A = o; - d A = M = Rc(d - e). (m) Laszlo, Trans. Am, Soc. Mech. Engrs. Vol. 58, p. 305, 1936, and Siegfried
i A r A r
Gross, V. D. l. Vol. 79, p. 865, 1935.
The position of the center of rotation C can be determined from the
first of these two equations. Let a be the radius at the point C and
assume the angle {3 of the cone to be so small that we can take
sin {3 = {3; cos {3 = l. Then by taking the axes x1 and y 1 parallel
to the sides of the rectangular cross section and noting that y = y1
BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 185
1
For more information on buckling problems see, "Theory of Elastic of a compressed prismatical 1:-ar, were obtained first by L. Euler; see
Stability," 1936. , Additamentum, "De curvis ela.~ticis," in the "Methodus inveniendi
2
When the strut is not slender enough, lateral buckling occurs at lineas curvas maximi minimive prorrietate gaudentes," Lausanne, 1744.
a compressive stress above proportional limit. This case is discussed in See also Histoire de l'Acadtmie, Be.rlin, Vol. 13, 1757. An English
"Theory of Elastic Stability," p. 156, 1936. translation of this work is give1, in "Isis,' No. 58, Vol. 201, 1933.
184
186 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 187
again. By increasing P gradually we may arrive at a condi- The condition at the upper end is that
tion in which the straight form of equilibrium becomes un-
stable and a slight lateral force may produce a lateral deflec- (y)x=l = O.
tion which does not disappear with the cause which produces
it. The critica! load is then defined as the axial load, which is I t is satisfied if cos pl = o, i.e., if
sufficient to keep the bar in a slightly bent form (Fig. II8, b).
7r
This load is calculated by use of the differential equation pl = (2n + 1) 2' (J)
of the deflection curve (eq. 79, Part I). The axes are taken
as indicated in Fig. 118, b. Then the bending moment at any
where nis an integer. The smallest value of pl, and therefore
cross section mn is P(o - y) and the differential equation of of P, which satisfies eq. (J) is obtained by putting n = o.
the deflection curve is 4
Then, using eq. (c),
d2y
El dx 2 = P(o - y). (b) 1/ 7r
pl = l '\JE] = 2,
lt is clear that, with the upper end free, buckling of the bar from which
will occur in the plane of smallest flexura! rigidity which we will
call EJ. Let 1r2E1
p P cr = ---;;/2 (166)
p2 = ~. (c)
El
Equation (b) then becomes This is the critica! load for the bar represented in Fig. II8a,
i.e., the smallest load which can keep the bar in a slightly bent
d2y shape.
dx2 + p2y = p2o. (b')
With n = 1, n = 2, ,in eq. (J) we obtain
The general solution of this equation is
y= o+ C1 cospx + C2 sinpx, (d)
in which C1 and C2 are constants which must be adjusted to
The corresponding deflection curves are shown in Figs. II8 (c)
satisfy the conditions at the built-in end:
and u8 (d). For the shape shown in Fig. II8 (c) a force nine
dy) times larger than critica! is necessary, and for that in part (d)
(y)x~o = o; ( -dX x=O =o twenty-five times larger. These forms of buckling are un-
These conditions are fulfilled if stable and have no practica! meaning because the structure
fails as the load reaches the value (166).
The critica! load for sorne other cases can easily be obtained
Then from the solution for the foregoing case. For example, in the
y = o(l - COS px). (e) case of a bar with hinged ends (Fig. 119) it is evident from
4
For the deflection shown in Fig. JI8 (b) d2y/dx is positive, hence
2 symmetry that each half of the bar is in the same condition as
the positive sign on the right side of eq. (b). the en tire bar of Fig. I I 8. Hence the critica! load for this case
188 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 189
is obtained by using //2, instead of /, in eq. (166), which gives consider thefundamental case (Fig. 119). Divide eq. (167) by
ETrr 2 the cross sectional area A of the bar, and let k = -.JI/A be
Pe,= - 12- the smaller radius of gyration. Then the critica! value of the
compressive stress is
The case of a bar with hinged ends is very often encountered in
practica! applications and is called the fundamental case of
/
This equation is applicable as long as the stress 17c, remains
within the proportional limit. With this limit and also the
modulus E known for a given material, the limiting value of
the ratio l/k (which characterizes the slenderness of the bar)
y
can easily be obtained from eq. (169) for each particular case.
In the cases represen ted in Figs. 118 and 120, proceeding
as above, we find
buckling of a prismatical bar. In the case of a bar with built- The equation for the fundamental case (169) may be used for
in ends (Fig. 120) there are reactive moments which keep the these cases also if we use a reduced length !1 instead of the
ends from rotating during buckling. The combination of the length of the bar. In the case of a prismatical bar with one
compressive force with these moments is equivalent to the end built in and the other free the reduced length is twice as
compressive force P, Fig. 120, applied eccentrically. There great as the actual length /1 = 2/. In the case of a prismatical
are inflection points where the line of action of P intersects the bar with both ends built in the reduced length is half the
deflection curve, because the bending moment at these points actual length, /1 = l. The equation for the critical stress
is zero. These points and the mid point of the span divide the may consequently be represented in the form:
bar into four equal portions, each of which is in the same
condition as the bar represented in Fig. 118. Hence the (172)
critical load for a bar with built-in ends is found from eq. (166)
by using //4 instead of /, which gives in which {3 depends upon the conditions at the ends of the bar
and is sometimes called the length coefficient.
P cr = 41r2EJ.
/2 (168) In discussing the design of columns (p. 249, Pa1 t 1) the
fundamental case of a column with hinged ends was con-
1t was assumed in the previous discussion that the bar is sidered. The information given there can be applied to
very slender so that the bending, which occurs during buckling, columns, with other end conditions, provided the reduced
remains within the proportional limit. Only with this con- length, /1, instead of the actual length, !, is used. Thus in each
dition can eq. (b) be applied. To establish the limit of particular case the design of a column reduces to the deter-
applicability of the above formulas for critical loads let us mination of the proper value of the length coefficient.
)
r
190 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 191
As an example of the calculation of this coefficient, !et us y= p.I The Smallest root, obtained in this way, is
consider the case of a centrally compressed
strut with the lower end built in and the upper
pi= 4.493.
Then
end hinged (Fig. 121). The critica! value of the 20. 16El 1r2 El
2
compressive force is that value, Pe,, which can Pcr = p El = 12 ~ (0.71) 2 ( 1 73)
1
consider a strut on three sup-
The general solution of this equation with notation (e) is ports and centrally compressed
by forces P, Fig. I 23. In
y= C1 cospx + C2 sinpx + j (I - x). (h) calculating the critica! value of
the com pressi ve force we keep
For determining the constants C1 and C 2 and the unknown our previous definition and as-
rcaction Q, we have the following conditions at the ends: sume that Pe, is the force which
can keep the strut in a slightly
(-dy)
Fm. 122.
buckled shape. As a result
(y)x=O = O, (y)x=l =
dX X=O =o
O,
of buckling there will be sorne bendin_g momen_t M2 at the
middle s support, for calculation of wh1ch e~uat10n (38), de-
Substituting solution (h) for y we obtain
rived for contmuous struts, can
p 1 2 3 P be used. By observing that in
C1 + j1 = o, C1 cospl + C2 sin pi= o, pC2 - j = o. (i) our case the ends of the strut are
hinged, we obtain M1 = M3 = o
Determining the constants C1 and C2 from the first and the F10. 123. and equation (38) becomes
third of these equations and substituting in the second equa-
11 12) M
tion, we find ( /31 1i + /3 2 12 2 = o. (i)
tan pi= pi. (j)
This equation is satisfied and a buckled shape of the strut
The graphical method is useful in solving this trigonometric becomes possible if
equation. In Fig. 122 the curves represent tan pi as a func- (j)
tion of pi. These curves have the verticals pi= 1r/2, 31r/2,
as asymptotes, since for these values of pi, tan pi becmes 6 An exception is the trivial case when the two spans_ are equal and
infinity. The roots of equation (j) are now obtained as the the cross section is constant along the en tire length. In th1s cas~ ~ 2 = o
at the intermediate support, and each span is in the same cond1t1on as a
intersection points of the above curves with the straight line strut with hinged ends.
r
192 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 193
where f31 and f32 are (see expressions (36) p. 36) In the derivation of eq. (e) for the deflection curve after
bending, the maximum deflection 5 remained indeterminate,
i.e., at the critical load the bar may have any small deflection.
{3 1 = 3[ (2~1) 2 - 2U1 t;n 2U1]'
The above theory applied only to small deflections because
f32 = 3 [ (2~2)2 - (k) only for such deflections may we use the approximate expres-
and sion d 2y /dx 2 for the curvature, in place of the exact expression:
(l)
p _ 1.93 2El _ 3.72El _ 14.9El The relation between the FIG. 124.
12 CT- / 2
1
-
- / 2
2
load and deflection may be
I t is seen that the val u e of the cri tic al load les between the 7 Saalschtz, "Der Bel as tete Stab," Leipzig, 1880. See also Halphen
two values 1r2El/l1 2 and 1r2El/l2 2, calculated for separate spans Trait des Fonctions elliptiques, Vol. 2 (1888), p. 192.
8 See R. v. Mises, Zeitschr. f. Angew. Math. u. Mech., Vol. 4, 1924,
as if each were a strut with hinged ends. The stability of the
p. 435; see also O. Domke, Die Bautechnik, Vol. 4, 1926, p. 747, and
shorter span is reduced, owing to the action of the longer span, R. W. Burges, Phys. Rev., 1917.
while the stability of the longer span is increased. 9 lt is assumed that deformation remains within the proportional
represented graphically as shown in Fig. 124 by the curve The critica! stress for l = 5', from eq. (169), is
OAB, in which the load is represented by ordinates and the
deflections by the abscissas. As long as the load is smaller O"cr = r X 30 X 106
12
;
6O2
= 6,850 lbs. per sq. in.
than Pe, the deflection is zero. Beyond this limit the de-
2. Solve the above problem, assuming a bar of circular cross
flection increases rapidly with the load. 10
section 1 in. in diameter and built-in ends.
In experimental investigations of the lateral buckling of Answer. Mnimum length = 50 in. For l = 51 , O'cr = 20,800
compressed bars, the relation between the deflection and the lbs. per sq. in.
load depends very much upan the accuracy with which the 3. Determine the critica! compressive load for a standard I
load is centered and on the straightness and homogeneity of section 6' long, 6" depth, weight 12.5 lbs. per foot, and with hinged
ends.
the bar. The load deflection curve is usually like curve OD in Answer.
Fig. I 24. Due to inaccuracies of one sort or another deflection
1r 2 EI 9.87 X 30 X 10 6 X r.8
begins at small loads, but progresses very slowly as long as the Pcr = --:- = 2
103,000 lbs.
72
load is far below critica! but very rapidly when the load
approaches the critica! value. The more accurately the bar 4. Sol ve problem I assuming that one end "' z,
is made and loaded the more nearly the curve approaches the of the bar is hinged and the other built-in as p /--'?__ :!~_ p
theoretical curve OAB.11 in Fig. 121.
5. Determine the critical value of the \M.
1
I
I
I
z
1
forces P which compress the vertical mem- E'I
1
1 i
Problems
bers of the rectangular frame shown in Fig. 1
1
1
1
1
'
1
1
El ,.
125. . . 1
I
1
1
Solution. Buckhng produces reactive 1
,,
I 1
r. A steel bar of rectangular cross section I X 2 in. with hinged bending moments M 0 which resist free rota-
I
'Mo El,
\
\
Mo . pl pl Moli tan u
C1 +p = o; - Cip sm - + C2p cos - = o
2 2 '
8----
- 2El1 u '
where I"
These give the following transcendental equation for determining p Qli2 P,
and the critical load: u2 = - - .
4El1 Q
pl P/1
tan-+--= o
2 2pEI1 ' The equation for calculating the critical value of I
or, using notation (e), P is obtained by substituting l1u/tan u instead of
pl I lipl 11 in equation (a) of the preceding problem.
tan-+---= o (o) 7. A strut with hinged ends AB, Fig. 126,
2 11 / 2 .
is compressed by forces P 1 and P2. Find the
When (1/11) (lif l) is large, i.e., when the resistance of the horizontal critica! value of the force .Pi + P2 if (P 1 + P 2) :
members of the frame to buckling of the vertical members is small, Pi = m, 12 : 11 = n, !2/li = r.
Solution. Assuming that the buckled shape I
tan (plh) is a large negative number andpl/2 approaches 1r/2. The A
critical load then approaches the value 1r2El/l2 obtained befare for of the strut is as shown in Fig. 126 by the dotted Q y
a bar with hinged ends (eq. 167). line, there will be horizontal reactions Q = P 2/l
When (1/li)(li/l) is small, i.e., when the resistance of the hori- produced during buckling. The differential equa-
zontal members of the frame to buckling of the vertical members is tions of the upper and the lower portions of the
very great, tan (pl/2) is a small negative number and pl/2 approaches deflection curve are
1r. Then the critical load approaches the value 41r2El//2 obtained FIG. 126.
befare (eq. 168) for a bar with built-in ends.
In the case of a square frame with all members of the same cross
section l = li, 1 = 1 1, and the equation for determining the critical (r)
load becomes
pl pl
tan-+-= o
2 2 ' Using notations
from which 12
= Pi
which can be solved in each particular case by trial and error or
by plotting both sides of the equation and deter- tan p1l1 tan p2'2 -
p2
p 6~ mining the intersection point of the two curves. In the particular case when
n- / Taking, as an example, /1 = !2, /1 = /2 = / and
l P
t/
P1 = P 2, we obtain
] l1 f-11 p1'1 = p2'2 = 2'\JEi'
we obtain
l ,
li '""'"""'-y
Fw.127.
8. Find the critica! load for the column built-in
at the bottom and free at the top and consisting of
the two prismatical portions with moments of inertia
tan2 ( {
2
/p ) =
'\J El
i#i =
1
'
d2y2 J
36. Energy Method of Calculating Critica! Compressive
E/2 dx 2 = P( - y2). Loads. 14-Euler's formulas, given in article 35, were derived
14
See writer's papers in Bulletins of the Polytechnical lnstitute in
By making use of our previous notations (s) the solutions of these Kiev, 1910, and Annales des Ponts et Chausses, 1913, Paris.
200 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 201
by solving the differential equation of the deflection curve for action of a compressive load equal to the critical load (pi
a compression member with certain end conditions. There = 1r/2), is
are cases in which this equation is complicated and exact
y = o( 1 - COS
.7rX)
/ (a)
solution becomes difficult. We may then use an approximate 2
EJ1z (d2y
U = 2 0 dx 2
)2 dx = 6EI'
Q2za
p
U1 = P>. = 2
rz ( dydx )2 dx = 15p (EJ)2
Jo
Q2/5
.
Hence the error of the approximate solution is only 0.13 per
cent. In using expression (e), instead of expression (b), for
strain energy we introduce in our calculations the deflection
Substituting into eq. (175), Pcr = 2.5EI//2. Comparing this y of the assumed curve, instead of the derivative d 2y/dx 2.
result with the exact formula (166) ahove, we see that the Since y is represented with a much hetter accuracy than
error arising from this approximation is only about I per cent d 2y/dx 2 by the assumed curve, the second method of calcula-
This error can he considerahly reduced and a hetter ap- tion actually results in a hetter approximation for Pcr
proximation ohtained if we take for the strain energy of The energy method usually gives a very satisfactory a p-
hending the expression: proximation provided the assumed curve is properly chosen.
1
U= -2EI .[! M dx.
2
(e)
Sometimes we can make a very rough assumption for the
shape of the curve and still ohtain a satisfactory result. For
0
example, we might assume the deflection curve in the above
Substituting in this expression example to be a parabola given by the equation
Qx2 ] ox 2
The diminishing of the potential energy of the load Pis By substituting into equation (175),
curvature is proportional to the bending moment. lt is zero points of application of the loads Pi and P2 is
at the top of the bar and a maximum at the bottom.
Pi f 1
( dy ) 2 p 2 {z'2 ( dy )2 , 021r2
Applying the energy method with an assumed curve satis- U1 = 2 Jo dx dx + 2 Jo dx ax = -;; (P + A).
1
fying the end conditions, we always obtain a value for the
critical load which is higher than the true value. This follows Substituting in equation (175) and using our previous notations,
from the fact that the actual deflection curve of a buckled bar we obtain
is always the one that corresponds to the least resistance of the
bar. Only by the merest chance will an assumed curve be the
true curve of the least resistance. In almost every case the
m+-m(m
-- 2
- 1) --(m-1)+n [l
-+- -
m(m8
2 m - 1]
--1) +---- 8
assumed curve will be different from this curve of least re- 6 m m6 m
1r
2
m 1r
2
sistance, thus giving values too high for the critical loads.
3. Solve problem 8 of the preceding article by using the energy
Problems method.
Answer. Assuming the deflection curve
I. Salve the problem shown in Fig. 121 assuming the deflection
curve is the same as for a uniformly loaded beam with cine end
built-in and the other hinged.
J = ( l - COS : ; )
U=
i z Mi2dx
--+
112 2EI1
o
112 M2 2dx
--2EI2
be readily obtained by using the energy method.
As an approximate expression for the deflection curve let us take
= (a)
= _!_
2EI1
(Pi 2 {
4
+ P22 _!__
24
+ P1P2 21 ) 1r
2
J ( l - COS : ; )
which is the true curve for the case where buckling occurs under the
+ 2EI2 2 [
+ / / 2/] action of a compressive load applied at the end. The bending
P2) 2
4+ + P2)
2
(P1 P2
24
- P2(P1 p2 moment resulting from that portion of the load above a cross section
15
The diminishing of the potential energy due to lowering of the See "Theory of Elastic Stability," p. 115.
1
206 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
U-
-i1 o
M2Jx - 2q2za (~
2EJ
-
2EI 6
9 32)
+--- . 7r2 7a
(b)
y= sin-
7rX
dnswer. P+qt
In calcul_ating the decrea~e of the potential energy of the distributed
load durmg lateral bucklmg, we note that, owing to the inclination p - 1r2EJ - r}_.
cr - /2 2
FIG. 129.
of an element ds of the deflection curve at the cross section mn
the upper part of the load undergoes a downward displacemen~
equal to 38. Buckling of Bars of Variable Cross Section.-A bar of
ds - dx ~ l(-dydx )2 dx '
-
2
variable cross section symmetrical with respect to the middle and
having two axial planes of symmetry is shown in Fig.
130. The middle portion is of uniform cross section
and the corresponding reduction in the potential energy is with a smaller moment of inertia 10 At the ends the
cross section vares and the smaller moments of in-
2
l (Jy
dx
)2 q(l - x)dx.
ertia follow the la w:
(a)
The ~otal decrease of the potential energy of the load during buckling
then 1s
in which x and a are distances from a certain fixed
U1 = q Jo
t ( dxJy ) 2
o~q (
(l - x)dx = -8-
7r
2
4-
l l )
7r2 (e) point (Fig. 130) and mis a number depending u pon the
type of column. When the middle portion is a solid
Substituting expressions (b) and (e) into equation (175), we obtain cylinder and the ends are solid eones, I vares as the
fourth power of x and m = 4 in eq. (a). When the
02q2za ( ~
2EJ 6 +
2.. _ 32 ) _
7r2 7a -
0
7r2 2q (
8
~
4 -
2.)
72 '
column has a constant thickness in the direction per-
pendicular to the plane of Fig. 130, the moments of in-
F10. 130.
from which ertia I with respect to axes parallel to the plane of the
figure are proportional to x and m = 1 in eq. (a). When the column
(q/)cr = 7 8~EJ . consists of four angles connected by lattices, as in Fig. 131, the cross
sectional area remains constant and I can be taken proportional to
208 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 209
x 2 Then m = 2 in eq. (a). Calculations made for m = I, 2, 3, 4, As an example in the application of this table consider a wooden
show 16 that the critica! load within the elastic limit can be repre- strut 6' 6" long of rectangular cross section. The thickness of the
sented by the equation: / strut remains constant and equal to in. The width varies ac-
cording to a straight-line law and is 4 in. at the middle and 2.4 in.
at the ends. Determine Pcr if E = I.2 X 106. In this case
h/l = o, m = I and li/lo = 2.4/4 = o.6. From the above table
in which a is a numerical factor depending upon the ratios h/l and a = 8.60 and the critica! load, from eq. (179), is
li/10 , where 1 1 = l 0 (b/a)m is the moment of inertia of the end cross 6
1.2 X 10 X 4 X 33
sections. Assuming the ends of the column hinged, the magnitudes Pcr = 8.60 X X 82 = 239 lbs.
of a for various proportions are given in the table. lt can be seen 4 3
12 7
that as the ratio h/l or the ratio li/10 approaches unity the factor As a second example let us consider a pyramidal column (Fig. 131)
a approaches 1r2 and eq. (179) approaches eq. (167) for a pris- whose square cross section consists of four angles 3 X 3 Xi 1
matical bar. in. The outside width of the column at the ends is 12 in. and P
TABLE 13.-COEFFICIENT "' IN EQ. (179) at the middle 20 inches. The length of the column is 65 feet.
Determine the critica! load for this column, taking for struc-
li/Io h/1 = o 0.2 0.4 o.6 o.8 I tural steel E = 30 X 106 lbs. per sq. in. and assuming that
the lattice bars are rigid enough to allow the application of
m=I 6.48 7.58 8.68 9.46 9.82 1r' eq. (179), derived for solid bars. The cross sectional area
0.1
m=2 5.4o 6.67 8.08 9 25 9.79 " A= 2.48 X 4 = 9.92 in.; 11 = 2.9 X 4 + 2.48 X 4 X (6
m=3 5.01 6.32 7.84 9.14 9.77 " - 1.01) 2 = 259 in. 4 ; lo = 2.9 X 4 + 2.48 X 4 X (10.25
m=4 4.81 6.11 7.68 9.08 9.77 " - 1.01) 2 = 860 in. 4 Taking 11 : lo = 0.3, m = 2 approxi-
mately and h/l = o, we fi.nd from the above table by inter- p
111 = 1 7.01 7.99 8.91 9.63 9.82 "
m=2 8.61 9.81 " polation a = 7 approximately. Then, from eq. (179), rr-
1 -""1
6.37 7.49 9.44 1 1
0.2 1 1
m=3 6.14 73 1 8.49 9.39 9.81 " 30 X rn 6 X 860 ~---..
m=4 6.02 7.20 8.42 9.38 9.80 " Pcr = 7 X 6 52 X 122 = 297,ooolbs. Frn. 13 r.
m=I 7.87 8.60 9 19 9-7 9.84 "
m=2 7.61 8.42 9 15 9.63 9.84 " :-39. The Effect of Shearing Force on Critica! Load.--fo
0.4
m=3 7-5 2 8.38 9.IO 9.63 9.84 " the derivation of the critica! load, the differential equation
m=+ 7.48 8.33 9.IO 9.62 9.84 "
used for the deflection curve (see p. 186) neglected
m=I 8.6o 9.12 9.55 9.74 9.85 "
the effect of shearing force on the deflection.
A P
o.6
m=2 8.51 9.o3 9.48 9.74 9.85 " When buckling occurs, the cross sections of the
111=3 8.50 9.02 9.47 9.74 9.85 " bar are no longer perpendicular to the compres-
m=+ 8.47 9.01 9-45 9.74 9.85 "
sive force and there will be shearing forces. The
m=I 9 27 9.54 9.69 9.83 9.86 " effect of these forces may be found by use of the
m=2 9 24 9-5 9.69 9.82 9.86 " energy method developed in article 36. In using
o.8
m=3 9 23 9.5o 9.69 9.81 9.86 "
m=4 9 23 9.49 9.69 9.81 9.86 " this method the energy of shear must be added
to the ~nergy of bending in calculating the strain
1 ,r2 ,r2 ,r2 ,r2 7r2 " energy U due to buckling. Let AB (Fig. 132)
1
16 See A. Dinnik, Bulletins of Engineers (Westnik Ingenerov), 1927
P represent a salid strut with hinged ends, buckled
(Russian). The numerical table below is taken from this paper. FIG. 132, under the action of compressive force P. The
210 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 211
magnitudes of the bending moment and the shearing force at Substituting in eq. 175 we obtain
any cross section mn are 7r
2
E/ 1
Pcr = -,- El <X.11"2 (g)
M = Py; (a) 1
+ GA 72
From previous considerations (see art. 66, Part I) the potential Comparison with Euler's formula (167) shows that, dueto the
energy stored in an element of the bar is action of shear, the critical load is diminished in the ratio
2 2 1
dU = M dx + aV dx (b) '-.. El mr 2
(180)
2EJ 2GA ' 1
+GAP
where A is cross sectional area, Let
11"2EJ .
a is coefficient depending on the shape of the cross /2 = Pe; (h)
section such tha t
a.V/CA is the magnitude of the shearing strain at the neutral then eq. (g) becomes
axis (art. 39, Part 1). 1
Pcr = Pe p (181)
Accordingly, the displacement of the section mn with respect 1 +-'
pd
to m1n 1, dueto this shear,is (aV/GA)dx, and the second member
on the right side of (b) represents the potential energy of shear For solid bars, Pd is very large in comparison with P,, and the
stored in the element. By using (a) and (b), the energy stored effect of the shearing force can be neglected. In the case of
in the strut during buckling is latticed bars, especially when spacing plates or battens only are
used (Fig. 134, a), Pd may become of the same order as Pe, in
U = J
rz P2y2dx ri aP2 ( dy )2
2El + J 2GA dx dx. (e) which case the effect of shearing force can no longer be
0 0 neglected. This will now be considered.
The decrease in the potential energy of the load P is 40. Buckling of Latticed Struts. 17-Latticed struts are
used extensively in steel structures. Their resisting capacities
u = ?_ rl(dy)2 dx. (d) are always less than those of solid columns having the same
1
2 J
0 dx
. cross sectional area and the same slenderness ratio l/ k, and
Assuming that the deflection curve of the buckled strut is a depend greatly on the spacing details such as lattice bars,
sme curve, spacing plates and battens. This lowering of the critical
7l"X
y= sm7, (e) stresses is due principally to the fact that in the case of latticed
columns shearing forces produce a much larger effect on
and with this value in (e) and (d) deflections than in the case of solid bars. To calculate the
p2 p2 <X.11"2 17
See F. Engesser, Zentralblatt d. Bauverw., 1891, p. 483, and 1907,
U= 2 4El + 2 4GA/2' (j) p. 609; L. Prandtl, V. D. l., 1907, and also writer's paper in Bulletin of
the Polytechnical lnstitute at Kiev, 1908. These papers discuss the
~2 p7r2. problem of buckling of latticed struts in connection with the collapse
U1 = u ~ of the Quebec bridge.
212 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 213
effect of shearing force on the critical load, eq. (181), which
From (a) and (b), the angular displacement produced by the
was derived for salid bars, can be adapted to latticed struts.
shearing force V is
As befare, let Pe be the cri tic al load o btained from eq. ( l 67);
P d in eq. ( 18 1) has, in the case of so lid stru ts, a simple physical = 1 + 2 _ V + Vb .
'Y a - sin cp cos 2 cpEAb aEAb
meaning, namely, that V/Pd represents the additional slope
'Y in the deflection curve produced by shearing forces. Pd has
Then using the above definition V/Pd = 'Y, we find
the same meaning also in the case of latticed struts, provided
the number of panels is large. To determine Pd in any par- l l b
ticular case, therefore, we must investigate the lateral dis- P d = sin cp cos 2 cpEAd + aEAb
placements produced by the shearing force. Substituting in eq. (181),
Consider first one panel of the latticed bar shown in Fig.
133a. The displacement due to shear is that due to the 1r
2
EI l
p cr = ~ EJ ( l b )
elongation and contraction of the di- l + --
/2
71"2
~------::---=--=-
sin cp cos 2 cpEAd
+- -
aEAb
agonals and battens in each panel (Fig.
133, b). Assuming hinges at the joints, lf the sectional areas Ad and Ab are very small in comparison
the elongation of the diagonal pro- with the cross sectional area of the channels (Fig. 133, a), the
duced by the shearing force V is critical load (182) may be considerably lower than that
Va/sin cp cos cpEAd, in which obtained from Euler's formula (167).
cp is the angle between the batten and Equation (182) can be used also in the case represented in
the diagonal, Fig. 133 (d) if the angle cp is measured as shown in the figure
V and the member due to the deformation of the battens is
___f_
cos cp
is the tensile force in tht:: diagonal, omitted.
In the case of a strut made with battens alone as in Fig.
_j!__ is the length of the diagonal, 134a, to obtain the lateral dis-
V
sm cp
Ad is the cross sectional area of two di- placement produced by the
Fw. 133. agonals. shearing force V, we must con-
sider the deformation of an
The corresponding lateral displacement, Fig. 133b, is
element of the strut cut out
~2
01 = sin cp cos (~ by the sections mn and m1n1.
cpEAd
Assuming that the deflection a
z
The shortening of a batten and the corresponding lateral curves of the channels have
displacement (Fig. 133, e) is points of inflection at these sec-
(b) tions, the condition of bending
will be as shown in Fig. 134
where (b). 18 The deflection consists of
b is the length of the batten,
18
Ab is the cross sectional area of two battens. The tension and compression forces acting on the cords are not
shown in the figure.
214 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 215
two parts: the displacement 1 due to bending of the batten, From equations (182) and (183) we note that in calculating
and the displacement 2 due to bending of the channels. critica! loads for built-up columns the actual length of a
There are couples Va/2 at the ends of the batten and the column is replaced by a reduced length which is to be deter-
angle 0 of rotation of these ends of the batten is (see eqs. 103, mined in the case of a latticed column as shown in Fig. 133,
104, Part 1) from the equation:
Va b Va b Vab
0=-------=--
~ +
2
2 3El2 2 6El2 12El2' l1 _ l 1r El ( 1 _b )
-I /2 sin cp cos 2 cp EAd + aEAb
where b is the length of the battens and El 2 is their flexura!
rigidity. The lateral displacement 1 produced by this and, in the case of a batten-plate column as shown in Fig.
bending of the battens is 134, from the equation:
a Va 2b
, = 0 - = - - (e)
11 = /~i
2 2
i 24El2 El ( ab a
+~ 1r
12El2 + 24El1 )
.
The displacement 2 can be calculated from the cantilever
formula: When the reduced length of a built-up column is deter-
1 ..
mined, the allowable stress is obtained as for a solid column
(d) with the slenderness ratio equal to lif k. If the design is made
on the basis of the assumed inaccuracies (see art. 56, Part 1),
The total angular displacement produced by the shearing the proposed procedure results in a slightly higher factor
force V is of safety for built-up columns, which seems completely
1 + 2 Vab Va 2 satisfactory.
'Y = I!_ = 12El2 + 24El1; In the design of built-up columns the proper dimensioning
2
of the lattice bars and batten plates is of great practica! im-
portance. As a basis for determining stresses in these details,
then, since V/Pd = 'Y, we obtain an eccentricity in application of compressive forces should be
assumed in the design of shorter columns.19 If the eccentrici-
_!._ - ~ + __I!.:__
Pd - 12El2 24El1' 1'
ties at the two ends are equal to e and are in opposite direc-
tions, the compressive forces P forma couple of the magnitude
and eq. ( 181) for determining the cri ti cal load beco mes 1
2Pe which produces at the ends of the strut the shearing
El1r 2 1 forces:
Pcr = ~ 1r2El(
ab a2 )' 1
V_ 2Pe.
I + ~ 12El2 + 24El1 - l
where, as before, El1r 2 /l 2 represents the critical)oad calculated 19 This question is discussed in more detail in the paper by D. H.
from Euler's formula. It may be seen that when the flexurai Young, Proc. Am. Soc. Civil Eng., December, 1934, and another paper
by the same author in Pub. lntern. Assoc. Bridge and Structural Eng.,
rigidity of the battens is small the actual critica! load is much Zrich, vol. 2, 1934, p. 480. See also "Theory of Elastic Stability,"
lower than that given by Euler's formula. p. 197.
216 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 217
The maximum value of V is obtained by substituting in this and buckling occurs is known as the cri tic al pressure. I ts
equation for P the maximum load which the column can value will be obtained by use of the general equation (95, p.
carry. The eccentricity e is usually taken as a certain portion 103) for the deflection curve.
of the core radius r, say e/r = 0.3. The details should then Assume that under external pressure the ring (Fig. 135) is
be designed in such a way that the maximum stresses pro- buckled into an elliptical form as shown by the dotted line.
duced in them by V max <loes not exceed the yield point stress. Suppose that
In the case of a compressed latticed member of a truss q is external pressure per unit length, of the center line,
with rigid joints, sorne bending moments at the ends of the R is the radius of the center line of the ring,
member are produced during loading of the truss. If the u is radial displacements during buckling,
magnitudes M1 and M2 of these moments are calculated from u 0 is radial displacement for the cross section A,
the secondary stresses analysis, the corresponding eccentricities M 0 is bending moment at the cross section A,
e1 = Mi/P and e2 = M2/P in application of the compressive N 0 = q(R - u 0 ) is longitudinal compressive force at the cross
force P are known, and the magnitude of their algebraic sum section A.
must be substituted in equation (184) instead of 2e.
The bending moment at any cross section B of the buckled
41. Buckling of Circular Rings and Tubes under Ex-
nng 1s
terna! Pressure.-Buckling of a Circular Ring. It is well -- q -2
known that a circular ring or tube can collapse dueto external M = M 0 + qAOAD - AB (a)
2
pressure alone; and if the flexural rigidity of the ring is
insufficient, such a failure can occur at stresses far below the Now, in the triangle AOB,
OB 2 = AB2 + A0 2
- 2AOAD
or
AB 2 - AOAD = (OB 2 - AO2 )
= [(R - u) 2 - (R - uo) 2 ] .
Since u is small in comparison to R, terms in u2 or ui can be
neglected, whence
AB 2 - AOAD = R(uo - u).
Substituting this value in equation (a), we obtain
M = Mo - qR(uo - u).
FIG. 135.
Equation (95), page 103, becomes
elastic limit of the material. This phenomenon must be taken
into consideration in such problems as the design of boiler dzu
dcp2
+ u = - ERI2 [Mo - qR(uo - u)]
tubes submitted to external pressure and rein(orcing rings for
submarines. .~; or
MoR 2 + qR
3
d2 u ( qR3 ) - Uo
(b)
The pressure at which the circular form becomes unstable d cp2 -f- U I + -El = El
1.
1
BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 219
218 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
These higher forms of buckling are of interest in studying the
The general solution of this equation is stability of short cylindrical tubes with fastened ends.
. - M 0 R 2 + qR3 uo Buckling of a Circular Arch.-If a circular arch having
u = C 1 sm p cp +C 2 cos p cp + El + qR , (c) hinged ends be submitted to uniform pressure, it can buckle as
indicated by the dotted line in Fig. 136. The critica! value of
in which C1 and C2 are constants to be determined from the the pressure depends upon the magnitude of the angle a and
conditions at the cross sections A and F of the buckled ring, may be calculated from the equation: 21
and
qR
p2 = 1 +El. (d) qc, = !{ (4; 2
- 1) ( 186)
(dcpdu) (dcpdu)
Buckling of Circular Tubes.-The theory of buckling
- o - =O (e) developed above for a circular ring can also be used in the
q,=0 - ' q,=,r/2
case of a long circular tube submitted to uniform externa!
From the first of these conditions C1 = o and from the second, pressure. Consider an elementary ring cut out of the tube
. p1r by two cross sections unit distance apart. The moment of
sm- = o. (f) inertia of the cross section of this ring is
2
1 h3
The smallest root of this equation is
1 = ~'
p1r
- = 7r where h denotes the thickness of the wall of the tube. Since
2
or the cross section of the ring will not be distorted during
p = 2. bending,
E
Substituting this in (d), we ob- 1 - 2
tain the value for the critical
pressure 20 must be used instead of E. Equation (185), for calculating
3El the cri ti cal pressure, beco mes
qcr = R
Other roots of the eq. (j) 21 See author's paper on the stability of elastic systems, Bulletin of
such as p1r/2 = 21r, p1r/2 = 31r, the Polytechnical Institute in Kiev, 1910. French translation, Annales
Fw. 136.
etc., correspond to a larger des Ponts et Chausses, 1913. See also E. Hurlbrink, Schiffbau, Vol. 9,
number of waves in the buck- p. 640, 1907-1908; E. Chwalla and C. F. Kollbrunner, "Der Stahlbau,"
1937 and 1938; and the recent book by A. N. Dinnik, "Buckling of Bars,"
led ring and give greater values for the pressure q. Figure Moscow, 1939.
135 (b) shows, for instance, the buckled form for p1r/2 = 21r. 22 See K L. Nicolai, Zeitschr. f. Angew. Math. u. Mech., Vol. 3,
<TY.P.
= py_p_R
h
+ 6py_p_RUo
h2
. l
---- (e)
PY.P.
l ---
The solution of this equation satisfying the conditions of Pcr
continuity at the points A, B, C, and D is from which the value of the dangerous pressure PY.P. can be
calculated if <TY.P. and initial deviation u 0 are known. By using
U2 = -UoP
- - COS 2cp, (189) the notations
Pcr - P R Uo
:;=m and - = n (J)
R '
in which Pcr is given by formula (187). lt is seen that at
the points A, B, C and D the displacement U2 and its second the equation (e) for calculating pY.P. becomes
derivative vanish. Hence the bending moments at these
points are zero, as was previously assumed. The maximum p 2Y.P. - [ <TY.P.
----:;-- + (l + 6 mn )Pcr ] PY.P. + <TY.P.Pcr
m = o.
bending moment occurs at cp = o and cp = 7r where
From this equation the curves can be plotted giving the
UoP ) puoR average compressive stress pY.P.R/h as a function of R/h for
Mmax = pR ( Uo + Pcr _ p = p (190)
various values of the ratio u 0/R and for various values of <TY.P.
l - -
Pcr By using such curves, together with a proper factor of safety,
the suitable wall thickness of a pipe can be readily calculated.
It is seen that for small values of the ratio PfPcr the change lt should be noted that the pressure pY.P. determined in this
in the ellipticity of the tube dueto pressure p can be neglected, manner is smaller than the pressure at which the complete
and that the maximum bending moment is obtained by multi- collapsing of the tube occurs; hence by using PY.P. as the
plying the compressive force S = pR by the ini~ial dev~a~i?n ultimate value of pressure, we are always on the safe side.
u 0 If the ratio p/Pcr is not small, the change 1n the 1mtial In our preceding discussion it was assumed that the length
ellipticity of the tube must be considered, and equation (190) of the tube l is large in comparison with its radius, say
must be used in calculating Mmax l/R > 20. For shorter tubes, if the edges are built-in or
The maximum compressive stress is now obtained by supported, the value of Pcr is larger than that given by equa-
adding the maximum compressive stress due to bending tion (187) and depends on the ratio !/R. The theory of
moment Mmax to the stress produced by the compressive force buckling of such tubes is more complicated, 27 since the tube
pR. Thus we find: subdivides during buckling in severa! waves along the cir-
cumference and the number of these waves depends on the
pR 6pRu 0 l
(d) ratio l/R. 28
<T max = h +~ p
27
l -- For discussion of this problem see writer's "Theory of Elastic
Pcr, Stability," p. 445.
28
Sorne curves for calculating critica! pressures on short tubes are
The dangerous value of the pressure p is that value at which prepared by the Research Committee on the Strength of Vessels under
the yielding of the material begins. Denoting this value by Externa! Pressure, A. S. M. E., December 1933.
224 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS '225
The problem of the buckling of tubes closed at the ends lower edges of the vertical webs are free and the upper are
and submitted to uniform pressure on both the ends and the elastically built-in. 31
sides 29 has also been solved. 30 Rigorous solutions of the buckling problem for various
conditions along the longitudinal sides of a plate such as
r - i
a
7 r
,[! shown in Fig. 139 have been worked out. 32 We give here only
T
X
taneously, and each side can be considered as a compressed Math. Soc. Proc., Vol. XXII, p. 54, 1891. Other cases of buckling of
rectangular plate, all four sides of which are simply sup- rectangular plates were comidered by the writer. See author's papers:
(1) On the stability of compressed plates, Bull. of the Polyt. lnst. in
ported. In the cases shown in Figs. 138a and 138b, the Kiev, 1907; (2) Z. f. Mathematik und Physik, Vol. 58, 1910; (3) Der
Eisenbau, Vol. 12, 1921; Proceedings Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 55, 1929,
29 We have such a condition in the investigation of the stability of
p. 855. See also H. Reissner, Zentralbl. d. Bauverw. (Berln), p. 93,
the hull of a submarine between two reinforcing rings. 1909.
30 See paper by R. v. Mises in Festschrift von Prof. A. Stodola, 34
lt may be seen that this mnimum is equal to 4 and occurs when
Zrich, 1929. a = mb, i.e., when the plates subdivide during buckling in squares.
22 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 227
TABLE 14,-CONSTANTS F0R CALCULATING CRITlCAL COMPRESSlVE STRESS FOR of the longitudinal edges such as y = b (see Fig. 139) is free, the
S1MPLY SuPPORTED RECTANGULAR PLATEs previous equation (192) can be used for calculating the critical
, values of the compressive stress, taking the values of the coefficient
a/b = 0.4 o.6 o.8 I.0 I.2 r.4 r.6 ~ from the table 1 5.
Two Opposite Sides Simply Supported, the Third Built-In, and
f3 = 8.41 5.14 4.20 4.00 4 1 3 4.47 4.20 the Fourth Free. The sides x = o, x = a in Fig. 139 are considered
<T"r = 22,800 14,000 11,400 10,900 11,200 12,100 11,400 as simply supported and side y = o as built-in. The same equation
(192) can be used. The values of the coefficient ~ are given in
a/b = r.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.7 3 Table 16.
TABLE 16.-CONSTANT {3 F0R CALCULATING CRITlCAL COMPRESSlVE STRESS F0R A
f3 = 4.04 4.00 4.04 4- 1 3 4.o4 4.00
RECTANGULAR PLATE WlTH Two PPOSlTE SrnEs SlMPLY SuPPORTED,
<Ter= rr,ooo 10,900 rr,ooo rr,200 rr,ooo 10,900
THE TmRD Bu1LT-IN, AND THE FouRTH (y = b) FREE
For longer plates (a/b > 3)~ = 4 is always a good approxi- a/b = l.0 l.l l.2 r.3 1.4 1.5 r.6 L7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3
mation. The values of IJ'cr given in the above table are calculated -- - -- - - - -- - - - -- - -- - -
on the assumption that E = 30 X I0 6 lbs. per sq. in., = 0.3 and f3 = r.70 r.56 r.47 r.41 r.36 r.34 r.33 l.33 1 34 r.36 r.38 1 45 r.47 r.41 r.36 r.34
h/b = 0.01. The critical stress for any other value of the ratio h/b
can be obtained by multiplying the tabular values by I0 4 (h2 /b2 ). For larger values of the ratio a/b, a good approximation 1s
To illustrate, consider a long steel plate having a yield point stress
~ = 1.33.
of 40,000 lbs. per sq. in.; suppose we wish to determine the value of Two Opposite Sides Simply Supported and Other Two Built-In. 35
the ratio b/h at which the critical stress is equal to the yield point The sides x = o and x = a are considered simply supported. The
stress. Assuming ~ = 4 and using Table 14, corresponding values of the coefficient ~ in eq. (192) are given in
h2 . the table below:
IJ'cr = rn,900 X 104 X b2 = 40,000 lbs. per sq. m.,
TABLE 17,-CONSTANT {3 F0R CALCULATING CRlTICAL COMPRESSlVE STRESS F0R A
from which RECTANGULAR PLATE, Two PPOSITE SrnEs oF WmcH ARE
b SlMPLY SuPPORTED, AND Two THERS Bu1LT-IN
h - 52.2. (b)
a/b = 0.4 0.5 o.6 0.7 o.8 0.9 I.0 I.2 r.4 r.6 r.8 2,l
For larger values of the ratio b/h failure occurs by buckling at a --------------------
compressive stress smaRer than the yield point of the materiaL f3 = 9.44 7- 6 9 7.o5 7.00 7 2 9 7.83 7.69 7.o5 7.00 7 2 9 7.o5 7.00
The values of the numerical coefficient {3 are given m the table Taking, for instance, h/b = 0.01, we find
below. <Ter = 10,900 lbs. per sq. in.
TABLE 18.-CONSTANT {J FOR CALCULAT!NG CRITICAL STRESS FOR A RECTANGULAR
This stress is far below the proportional limit of structural steel
PLATE SurroRTED oN FouR SmEs AND SuBMITTED TO
If the longitudinal edges of the same plateare assumed to be built in.
THE AcTION oF A UNIFORM SHEAR
~fi~ ,
1.2 1.5 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.5 <Ter -- 7<Te = -7 10,900 = 19,100 lbs. per sq. in.
00
a/b = 1 1.4 3
------------------ 4
{J = 9-4 2 8.o 7.3 7-I 7.0 6.8 6.6 6.3 6.1 5.4
In cases (a) and (b) (Fig. 138) the compressed vertical steel
plates may be considered as long plates built-in 37 along the upper
This table can be used in choosing the thickness of the web of a edge and free along the lower edge. The critica! stress is therefore
plate girder. Near the supports the shearing force is the most
important factor. Therefore the part of the web between two 1.331r2 h2 E
(J'cr = 1.33<1e = - - - --2 - - -2 (d)
stiffeners may be considered as a rectangular plate with supported 12 b 1 -
edges, subjected only to the action of shearing stresses. For
instance, if the distance between the stiffeners is 5 ft., E = 30 X 10
6 Ag~in the stabilitr of the plate depends on the magnitude of the
lbs. per sq. in. and = 0.3, the following values of critica! stress in rat10 b/h. Assummg that the yield point of structural steel is
30?000 lbs .. per sq. in., the value of b/h which makes <Ter equal to
lbs. per sq. in. are obtained for girders of thickness h and depth b by
th1s stress 1s, from (d),
using the above table: 36
TABLE 19 b f 1.331r2 30 X 10 6
h = '\J 12 X 30,000 X o. 9 1 ""'35
b h = 3/S" h = 7/16" h = 1/2" h = 9/16"
--- Consequently, if b/h > 35, the critical stress becomes less than
5' 9,980 13,600 17,700 22,400 yield point of the material. This fact must be considered in
10,500 13,700 17,400
7' 7,73
12,400 15,700
choosing the magnitude of working stress. The stability of the
1o' 6,990 9,5 10 plate can be increased by reinforcing the free edge of the plate.
1
In all the above cases it was assumed that the critical stress is
~el?w the prop?rtion~l limit. For stresses beyond the proportional
The necessary thickness of steel plates to be used in the built-up hm1t our equat10ns g1ve exaggerated values of the critical stresses. 38
compression members whose sections are shown in Fig. 138 can be
obtained from Tables 14-19. If the sides of the hollow section
43. Buckling of Beams without Lateral Supports.-lt is well
(Fig. 138, c) are considered to be long rectangular plates simply
known that, in the absence of lateral supports, I beams loaded in
supported, the critical compressive stress is then
the plan_e of_ the web may p~o':e to be insufficiently stable in a
1r2h2 E l~te_ral direct10n. If the load 1s mcreased beyond a certain critica!
<Ter= 4u. = -b2 - - -. (c) ltmtt, such heams buckle sidewise, and further loading causes them
3 l - "
37
This assumption gives an upper limit for the critica! stress The
More data regarding the buckling of the web anq design of stiffeners
36
~rue critica! stress will be somewhat lower, dueto the fact that the fasten-
are given in the writer's papers, Proc. Am. Soc. C. E., Vol. 55 (1929), mg of the upper edge is not absolutely rigid.
p. 855, "Engineering," Vol. 138, p. 207, 1934. See also E. Chwalla, 38
This question is discussed in "Theory of Elastic Stability," p. 384
Reports Second Congress lnternational Assoc. for Bridge and Structural 1936. '
Eng., Berln, 1936; "Der Stahlbau," 1936, Heft, 21 and 22.
230 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 231
to collapse.39 The energy method may be used to determine this is accompanied by a lowering of its point of application. Let U1
limit. denote this decrease in the potential energy of the load, U the strain
As an illustration consider a beam AB (Fig. 141) of narrow energy due to bending in the lateral direction, and U2 that due to
rectangular cross section with a central concentrated load P acting twist. Then the critical load is determined by eq. (175) (p. 200),
in the longitudinal vertical plane of symmetry. If this force is which becomes
(a)
1t=,-----L., ,J X We must now calculate the quantities entering into this equation.
The bending moment in the vertical plane at any cross section a dis-
tance x from the left support (see Fig. 141) is Px/2. In calculating
sidewise buckling, the bending moment with respect to the z1 axis
(Fig. 141, c) must be considered. This moment is equal to (Px/2)cp,
in which cp denotes the small angle of twist, variable along the
length of the beam. Then for small lateral deflection 40 we have
the following differential equation:
d 2y Px
El. d2
X
= - -2 cp. (b)
small the deflection of the beam is in the vertical plane only and this The corresponding strain energy of bending is
plane' form of bending is a stable one. If the beam is deflected
sidewise by a lateral force, this deflection disappears with the l(d2y)2 p2 .[1 x 2cp2dx.
removal of the force and the beam returns to its initial form. If P
is increased, a limiting value is reached at which the plane form of
U= El.
i 0
-
dx 2
dx = - -
4Elz o
(c)
bending becomes unstable. The beam then buckles sidewise and The strain energy of twist is (see eq. 210, Part I)
large lateral deflections may occur with a very small increase of t~e 1
load. This limiting value of P is called the critica! load. It 1s
determined by considering the potential energy of the system. Any
U2 = e fo ( ~: )2 dx, (d)
lateral deflection of the beam is accompanied by an increase of the
in which the torsional rigidity C for a rectangular cross section is
strain energy. Since after a small lateral buckling we have not
obtained from eq. (156), Part I.
only the strain energy of bending in th~ vertical plane, wh\ch 1:1Y be
Let us consider now the lowering of the point of application of
considered unchanged, but also stram energy of bendmg m the
the load P due to the lateral deflection. Take two symmetrically
lateral direction and strain energy of twist. At the same time, the
situated elements dx of the beam (Fig. 141, b and c) and consider the
potential energy of the load diminishes, because sidewise buckling
effect of the bending in the plane xy1 of these two elements only.
39 The collapse of girders as a consequence of sidewise buckling is The angular deflection dueto this bending is equal to - (d2y/dx 2)dx.
i!lustrated by the bridge disaster near Tarbes, France. See La Revue As this bending occurs in the plane xy, inclined at an angle cp to the
Technique, November 15, 1897. The lateral buckling of bea~s of a horizontal (Fig. 141, c), it causes a lowering of the load P equal to
narrow rectangular cross section was discussed by L. Prandtl, D1sserta- - xcp(d2y/dx 2 )dx. The total lowering of P due to such bending of
tion, Nrnberg, 1899, and A. G. M. Michell, Phi!. Mag., Vol. _48, 1899. all the elemnts of the beam in buckling is therefore
Buckling of I beams was discussed by the writer; see Bulletm of the
Polytechnical Institute, St. Petersburg, Vols. 4 and 5, 1905, 1906. See
also Annales des Ponts et Chausses, 1913, and Transactions Amer. Soc. = -
rz
Jo
d2y
xcp dx2 dx,
C. E., Vol. 87 (1924), p. 1247. The practica! application of the theory
is discussed by E. Chwalla, "Die Kipp-Stabilitat gerader Trager m1t 40
In this case it is legitimate to take d2y/dx 2 for the curvature instead
doppelt-symmetrischem I-Querschnitt," Berlin, 1939. of d2y/dx 2
r
BUCKLING OF BARS, PLATES, AND SHELLS 233
232 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
critica! load is
ar, using eq. (b).
lJ p
= --
2EJ; o
il x 2 ip 2dx.
_ 4.01-fcEY..
P cr - 2
Hence In the case of an I beam, the equations far the critica! loads have
(e) the farm obtained above far a beam of narrow rectangular cross
section except that the numerical factor in the numerator on the
right side is not a constant but depends upon the magnitude of the
Substituting (e), (d) and (e) in eq. (a), we find expression: 43
1 2
4ElzC [ ( ddp ) dx
ex = _2_ ( 2/)2. (h)
Elz h
p2- O X
a= O.I I 2 4 6 8 12
The critica! value of the load thus depends u pon the product of the P= 143.0 53.o 42.6 36.3 33.8 32.6 31.5
torsional and lateral flexura! rigidities of the beam. <Ter= 8,520 9,95 11,300 13,600 I 5,600 17,300 20,300
It was assumed that the load Pis applied at the centroid of the Uc/ = 5,510 6,810 8,070 10,300 12,200 13,800 16,800
middle cross section of the beam. lf the point of application is at a 11
<Ter = 13,200 14,500 15,800 18,000 20,000 21,500 24,500
distance a above the centroid, the right side of eq. (195) must be
multiplied by [1 - 1.74(a/2/)-..JEiz/C]. 42 a= 16 20 32 50 70 90 100
lf the load is unifarmly distributed along the central axis of the
beam (Fig. 141), its critica! value is P= 3o.5 30.I 294 29.0 28.8 28.6 28.6
<Ter = 23,000 25,200 31,200 38,600 45,3 00 51,000 53,700
28.3'VCEI. <Ter ' = 19,400 21,600 27,600 35,000 41,600 47,400 50,000
<T.,, --
(2qf)cr = (2 /) 2 CT 27,200 29,400 35,300 42,600 49,200 55,100 57,6oo
/
/
For a cantilever of length / loaded at the center of the free end, the
lt will be seen that as ex increases the constant fJ approaches the
A more detailed investigation shows that the error of this approxi-
41 magnitude given befare far a beam of rectangular cross section. In
mate solution is about 1 per cent. Hence eq. (195) is accurate enough the third line of the table the magnitudes of the corresponding
for applications.
42 See writer's paper in Annales des Ponts et Chausses, 1913. See
43
Torsional rigidity C of 1-beams is discussed in art. 51, p. 275.
also "Theory of Elastic Stability," p. 254, 1936.
234 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
r
;
(k)
wise buckling may occur at stresses far less than the ultimate stress
of the material under direct compression and even less than the
elastic limit. This fact must be considered and the critica] stress
Here 1,/Iu is the ratio of lateral and vertical flexura! rigidities, and instead of yield point must be taken as the basis far determina-
h/2! is the ratio of the depth of the beam to its span. Far any other tion of working stresses. Far instance, with a factor of safety of 3,
proportions of the beam the critica! stresses are obtained by multi- the working stress will be equal to 26,900/3 = 8,970 lbs. per sq. in.
plying the figures of the third line by ~he num~er 10 4-y
The faurth and the fifth lines of th1s table g1ve the cnt1cal stress
when the load is applied to the upper or to the lower flange of the
beam respectively. All calculations are made assuming perfect
elasticity of the material. 44 Consider as an example a structural
beam of the following dimensions:
Length 2/ = 20 ft.
Depth h = 24 in.
Flange width b = 7 in.
Thickness of web 01 = 0.5 in.
Mean thickness of flanges = (0.60 + 1.14) = 0.87 in.
Area of section A = 23.3 sq. in.
Principal rigidity Ely = 2,087E lb. X sq. in.
Principal rigidity El, = 42.7E lb. X sq. in.
Using eq. (256), p. 275,
C = G(}b 3 + h1 3) = 4.07G.
Then, from eq. (h), assuming E = 2.6G,
a = 3.67,
and from eq. (k),
= 42.7 = 205 X 10-a.
'Y 2,087 X 100
Table 20 gives, by interpolation, far a = 3.67,
O"cr = II,300 + (13,600 - 11,300)1.67 = 13,200 lbs. per sq. in.
This is the critica! stress far 'Y = 0.0001. The critica! stress in
the example considered will be 13,200 X 'Y X 10 4 = 26,900 lbs. per
44
For more detailed investigation of this subject, see the writer's
paper, Trans. Amer. Soc. C. E., Vol. 87, 1924, p. 1~47! an~ "Theo:~ ~f
Elastic Stability," Chapter 5. See also E. Chwalla, Die K1pp-Stab1htat
gerader Trager," Berlin, 1939.
DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 237
<Tr + d<r
dr r.
d The unit elongation of the same element in the tangential
direction is equal to the unit elongation of the corresponding
Summing up the forces on the element in the direction of radius, i.e.,
the bisector of the angle d<.p gives us the following equation
u
of equilibrium: 1 Et= -
r
(d)
<Trrdcp + <Tidrdcp - ( <Tr + 7; dr ) (r + dr)dcp = o, (a)
From eqs. (38), p. 52, Part 1, the expressions for the stresses in
terms of the strains are
or, neglecting small quantities of higher arder,
(du
d<r
<t - <Tr - r dr = o. (b)
<T r =
E
1 - 2 dr + ru) '
<t = E ( !!_ + du).
This equation contains two unknowns, the stresses <Tt and <Tr. 1 - 2 r dr
The second equation necessary for the deterthination of these The normal stresses <Tr and <Tt are evidently not independent,
quantities is obtained from a consideration of the deformation as they can be expressed in terms of one function u. By
1 The weight of the element is neglected here.
236
238 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 239
substituting expressions (199) into eq. (b), we obtain the fai-
a2p; - b2po (p; - Po)a 2b2
lowing equation far determining u:
<Tr = b2 - a2 r2(/r - a2) '
2 (200)
du du u (e) a2p; - b2po (Pi - Po)a 2b2
dr 2 + r
I
dr - r2 = o. <Tt = b2 - 2 + r2(b2 - a2) .
The general solution of this equation is It is interesting to note that the sum of these two stresses
remains constant, so that the deformation of all elements in
(J) the direction of the axis of the cylinder is the same, and cross
sections of the cylinder remain plane after deformation.
which can be verified by substitution. The constants C1 and Let us consider the particular case Po = o, i.e., the cyl-
C 2 are determined from the conditions at the inner and outer inder is submitted to interna! pressure only. Then eqs. (200)
surfaces of the cylinder where the pressures, i.e., the normal become
stresses u,, are known. Substituting (j) into eqs. (199), we 2
obtain
a pi ( -
<Tr = b2 - a2 1 r2
~), (201)
2 2
<Tr = ~[c1(1
1 -
+ ) - C2 I-;;r ], (h) a p; (
<Tt = b2 - a2 1 +- .
b )
r2 (202)
over the thickness of the wall and use the equation: t the inner surface, from eq. (207), is
<Tt=b-a'
p;a
(u)r=a =
api (
E 2 +
b2
b2 - a2 +) . (208)
which coincides with equation on page 162 given for thin cyl- When the cylinder is submitted to external pressure only,
inders. The shearing stress is maximum at the inner surface p; = o, and the radial displacement at the outer surface is
of the cylinder where 2
2 2 2 2 2 (u)r=b = -
bp0
E ( a
2
+
b )
b2 - a2 - .
_ <Tt-<Tr --1[Pi(a +b ) Pi(b -a )]- pib
Tmax- 2 - 2 b2-a2 + b2-a2 - b2-a2 (n) .
The minus sign indicates that the displacement 1s towards
When only an externa! pressure acts on the cylinder, Pi = o, the axis of the cylinder.
and eqs. (200) give 45. Stresses Produced by Shrink Fits.-lf i t is necessary
2 to produce contact pressure between a hub and a shaft or
= Pob ( a2) (204) between two rings mcunted one inside the other, it is usual
<Fr - b2 - a? I - r2 '
practice to make the inner radius of the outer part smaller
+-2)
2
<lt = - b2Pob r2 .
(
(205) than the outer radius of the inner part and to assemble the
- a2 I
structure after a preliminary heating of the outer part. After
In this case <Tr and <Tt are both compressive stresses and <Tt is cooling, a contact pressure hetween the two parts is produced,
always numerically greater than <Tr. The maximum com- which is called the shrink.fit pressure. The magnitude of this
pressive stress is at the inner surface of the cylinder, where pressure and the stresses produced by it can easily be calcu-
lated with the equations of the previous article. Assume,
2pob2 for instance, that the external radius of the inner cylinder in
(<11)r=a = - b2 - a? (206)
an unstressed condition is larger than the internal radius of
lt is interesting to note that as the ratio b/a of the radu of the outer cylinder (Fig. 143) by the amount o. Then, after
the cylinder is increased, this maximum compressive stress assembly, a pressure p is produced between the cylinders; its
.Jpproaches twice the value of the external pressure acting on
the cylinder, namely, - 2Po-
Let us consider now the deformation aj the cylinder. Sub-
stituting expressions (m) for the arbitrary constants in eq.
(!), we find
l - a2pi - b2po l + a2b2 (pi - Po)
u = -p;- b2 - a2 r + -p;- (b2 - a2)r . (207} -14,600 "!.----'1 -JO, 5 oo
Fm. 143.
This gives the radial displacement of any point in the wall of
the cylinder. In the particular case of a cylinder submitted magnitude is found from the condition that the increase in
to internal pressure only, p 0 = o, and the radial displacement the inner radius of the outer cylinder plus the decrease in
242 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 243
the outer radius of the inner cylinder, produced by p, must pression which results in an increased pressure near the faces
be equal to 5 Hence, from eqs. (208) and (209), of the hub as indicated by the shaded areas. 3
If a built-up cylinder, such as represented in Fig. 143, is
bp ( b2 + c2 ) bp ( 2 + b2 - ) = 5
E c2 - b2 + +E b2 - a2 ' subjected to internal pressure, the stresses produced by this
pressure are the same as in a cylinder with a solid wall of the
from which thickness e - a. These stresses are superposed on the shrink
E5 (b 2 - a2) (c 2 - b2)
(210) fit stresses. The shrink fit produces a tangential compressive
P =b 2b (c2 2 - a 2)
stress at the inner surface of the cylinder which reduces the
Equations (201) and (202) then give the stresses in the oter maximum tangential tensile stress at this point produced by
cylinder and eqs. (204) and (205) the stresses in the inner the internal pressure so that a more favorable stress distribu-
cylinder. Usually the stresses to be considered in design are tion may be obtained than in the case of a solid tube (see
those at the inner surface of the outer cylinder. These problem 2, p. 244). This is one reason why cylinders built
stresses are up of several tubes are used in cases of very high internal
p(b2 + c2) pressures, such as are found in guns.
<Ft = c2 _ b2 , Ur = - p.
A distribution of initial stresses analogous to those de-
The max1mum shearing stress at this surface 1s (see eq. n, scribed above in the case of built-up cylinders can also be
obtained in a solid tube by applying a high internal pressure
p. 240)
pc2 sufficient to produce permanent set in the inner part of the
Tmax = C2 _ b2 tube. After removing this internal pressure sorne stresses
remain in the tube due to the permanent set, so that the
or, substituting expression (210) for p, inner part is then in a state of compression, and the outer in
E5c2 (b 2 - a2) a state of tension. 4
Tmax = b3(c2 _ a2) (211)
2
Problems
In the particular case of a solid shaft anda hub we have a = o,
I. Determine the tangential stresses at the inner and outer
from which
surfaces and at the middle thickness of the wall of a cylinder with
= E52 (c2 - b2) (212) inner radius 4 in. and outer radius 8 in. submitted to an internal
P 2bc '
pressure pi = 30,000 lbs. per sq. in.
E5 A.nswer. From eq. (202): (o-t)r=4" = 50,000 lbs. per sq. in.;
= 2b ' (213)
Tmax
(o-i)r=6" = 27,500 lbs. per sq. in.; (o-t)r=B" = 20,000 lbs. per sq. in.
3
i.e., the maximum shearing stress is the same An experimental investigation of shrink fit stresses is given in a
as in a simple tie rod which undergoes a unit paper by A. Huggenberger, Technische Blatter, Schweiz. Lokomotiv.
und Maschinenfabrik, Winterthur, 1926. A further discussion of shrink
elongation equal to /b. fit stresses see in the paper by W. Janicki, "Schweiz. Bauz.," Vol. 88,
Fm. 1 44 The above discussion assumed that both p. 93, 1926 and Vol. 90, p. 127, 1927. See also papers by J. W. Baugher,
cylinders have the same length. In dealing with a hu_b and a Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol. 52, 1930, and O. J. Horger and C. W. Nelson,
"Journal of Appl. Mech.," Vol. 4, p. 183, 1937 and Vol. 5, p. 32, 1938.
shaft (Fig. 144) the projecting portions of the shaft res1st com- 4
A further discussion of this question see in art. 71.
)44 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 245
2 Determine the stresses in a built-up steel cylinder (Fig._ 14~) 46. Rotating Disc of Uniform Thickness.-When a
~ub~itted to an internal pressure p, = 3?, lbs. per sq._ m. if
circular clise rotates about the axis of symmetry perpendicular
: =
4
in.; b = 6 in.; e = 8 in.; an1 ~h_e shnnkag~ = '?5 m.
Solution. Determine first the m1tial stresses m the cylmder due to the clise the inertia forces set up stresses which become
co shrinkage. From eq. (210) considerable at high speeds. These stresses are distributed
2 2 62 symmetrically with respect to the axis of rotation and may
30 X 106 X o.oo5(6 - 4 )( 82 - ) = 4 ,0 50 lbs. per sq. in. be calculated by the method indicated in article 44. lt is
P= 6 X 2 X 62(8 2 - 42)
assumed that the stresses do not vary over the thickness of
The tangential stresses produced by this pressure in the innet the clise and this thickness is taken equal to unity. The
cylinder, from eq. (205), are equation of equilibrium of an element such as mnm 1n1 in
2 2 Fig. 142 is derived by adding to the forces which were con-
2pb
- _ - 2 X 4,050 X 6 = - 14,600 lb s. per sq. m.,
- = - ---------=-"---"----,----
)
(<Itr=4"- b2-a2 62-42 sidered in article 44 the inertia force acting on the element
__ p(b +
2 2
) = - 10,500 lbs. per sq. in. -yw2r2
(<It ) r=6" - b2 _ a2 --drd8. (a)
g
The stresses for the outer cylinder, from eq. (202), are
Here -y is the weight per unit volume and w the angular
82
_ p(b2 +c 2
) = 4,o5o( 62 + ) = 14 500 lbs. per sq. in., velocity of the clise. The remaining notation is the same as
(Ut ) r=6" - c2 _ b2 32 _ 62 '
in article 44. The equation of equilibrium is now
2
2 pb2
(q t) r=8 - - - = 4 '050 X 2 X 6 = 10 400 lbs. per sq. m.; dur -yw 2r 2
11
- c2 - b2 32 - 62 '
Clt - Clr - r dr - g = o. (b)
the distribution of initial stresses Ut over the thickness of the wall is
shown in Fig. 143 (b) by the dotted lines mn and mini_, The stre_sses By substituting far the stresses their expressions as functions
produced by the internal pressure are the same as m the pr_ev1ous
of the displacement u (eqs. 199, p. 238), we obtain the follow-
problem and are represented in the_ fig~re by_ the dott~d !me _ss.
Superposition of the two stress distnbut10ns g1ves the d1stnbut1on ing equation:
represented by the shaded area. lt may be seen ~hat, ~ue to d 2u I du u -yw 2r
assembly stresses, the maxil?um stress when the cyhnder 1s sllib-
mitted to internal pressure 1s reduced from 50,000 to 42,000 s.
dr 2 + 1' dr - r2 + (I -
2
) gE = o.
- 3 t Na 2 + (1 + )C1 - (1 - )C2 : 2 = o,
(g)
(<T,)max =
'Y'lr 3 +
g -8 - (1 - a)2.
- 3 t Nb 2 + (1 + )C1 - (1 - )C2 ~= o, The tangential stress Ut is maximum at the inner edge of the
clise, where x = a. From eq. (218) we then obtain
from which
C1 = 3 + (a2
8 ( 1 + )
+ b2)N ; e =
2
3+
8(1 - ) a
2b2N
.
(h) (u t) max = g-yv2 -3 +4- ( + 31 +- a
1
2 )
(220)
The general expression for u is. obtai~ed when_ these va!ues lt can be seen that (<Tt)max is always larger than (u,)max
are put into eq. (d). Substitutmg th1s express1on for u mto 1
In Fig. 145 the values of the parentheses of eqs. (217) and
eqs. (199) (p. 238), we find: 1
(218) are plotted as ordinates for values of x as abscissas,
2 the full lines represent the case a = , i.e., the inner radius
- 3 + EN ( a2 + b2 - r 2 - -
a2b )
<J' r - 8 ( 1 - 2) ' r2
, is one fourth the outer radius. The dotted lines represent
the values of the parenthesis of eq. (218) for other values of a.
- 3 + EN ( + b2 - + 2b'') .
3 r2 + e__:_ (216)
z 1 Equation (220) shows that the stress (u 1)max at the inner edge
<T t - S( I - 2) a 3 + r2
vares with a according to a parabolic law. This is shown by
1
the curve mn in Fig. 145.
l
'j:
,.,',.
,,,,
' ':,
248 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 249
(cr1)max = (crr)max =
+ -
-yv2 3
g -8
J+
"'(V2
(cr1)max = ---
4
- (221) Comparing this with eq. (221), we see that, due to stress
concentration, the stress at the edge of a sniall central hale
For the other extreme case, is twice as great as that at the center of a salid clise. The
when the inner radius ap- variation of the stress CTt along the radius of a salid clise is
proaches the outer radius of represented in Fig. 145 by the dotted line Pipq.
the clise, a approaches unity, The equations derived above far rotating clises are sorne-
and eq. (220) becomes times used also far comparatively long cylinders, 5 far instance
far rotors of electric machines. In large machines the per-
Fw. 145.
ipheral velocities are very large. The above discussion shows
that the stresses produced by inertia forces are proportional
This coincides with eq. (15), Part I, which was obtained far a to the square of the peripheral velocity and are therefare of
thin rotating ring. lt will be seen that, in the case of the clise primary importance in such cases. Hence, far a material of a
with a hale at the center, the maximum stress <loes not change given strength and far a given angular velocity of the rotor,
very much with the radius of the hole; the value far a very there is a definite limit to the diameter of the rotor beyond
thin ring is only about 20 per cent higher than that far a which it is dangerous to go. In discussing working stresses
very small hale. far such rotors it is important to note that very large fargings
In the case of a salid disc u = o far r = o; hence the are likely to have defects in the material at the center, which is
constant C2 in the general solution (d) must be taken equal exactly the place of maximum stress produced by inertia
to zero. The constant C1 is faund from the condition that forces. To elimina te uncertainties it is a usual practice now to
CTr = o at the outer edge of the clise. Then, from the second bore a central hale along the axis of the rotor. Although the
of eqs. (g), maximum stress is doubled, due to the presence of the hale,
e1 = 8(1J ++ ) 1V71.Tb2 (m) this is compensated far by the possibility of investigating the
soundness of the material inside the forging. 1t is also usual
This value of C 1 and zero far C2, are introduced into the to run the rotor at a certain overspeed 6 during the pre-
general expressio~ far the displacement u (eq_- d) which is th~n liminary tests, so that the stresses around the hale may exceed
substituted into eqs. (199) (p. 238). In th1s way we obtam the yield point. After stopping the rotor, the stresses will
not disappear completely, dueto a permanent set of the mate-
J+
"'(V2 '
CTr =g-8- (1 -x),
2
(222) rial at the hale. The inner portian of metal, which has
6
Stress distribution in thick clises is discussed in "Theory of Elas-
CT
1
= "'(V2 J + ( 1 - I + 3 x2) > (223) ticity," p. 319.
g 8 3+ 6 In electric machines usually 20 per cent above service speed.
DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 251
250 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
following form:
yielded, 1s compressed by the outer, and the outer is kept
in tension by the inner. 7 The conditions are similar to those
in a thick cylinder, overstressed by internal pressure (p. 243).
The residual stress, produced at the hale by overstressing, is B
ut = A - - - {Jw2r 2
r2 '
opposite in sign to that produced by inertia forces; hence
in which
overstressing produces a favorable effect on the final distri-
bution of stresses in the rotor. 8 3 +-
fJ1 = -'Y - /L
. fJ = }' l + J.t (226)
g 8 ' g 8 '
lt is important to note also that the equations far stresses
obtained above (see eqs. 217, 218) contain besides v only and A and B are constants of integration which may be calculated
ratios such as a and x; hence far a given material and periph- in each particular case by using eqs. (200), (217), (218). With the
eral velocity, the stresses are equal in similarly situated points notation:
of geometrically similar rotors. This may simplify the calcu- S = IJ"r + fJiw 2r2,
(227)
lations of stresses in geometrically similar clises. I t is also t = IJ"t + {Jw2r2
used in establishing the strength of large clises from tests on and
I
models. w=- (228)
r2'
In the previous discussion it was assumed that the edges of the eqs. (225) become
clises are free from external forces. lf there are tensile or com-
pressi ve forces uniformly distributed around the edges of the clise, s =A+ Bw; t = A - Bw.
the stresses due to them are found by using the theory of thick lf s and t are known for any point of the clise, their magnitudes for
cylinders (article 44). These stresses (see eqs. 200) can be repre- any other point can easily be obtained by using the following
sented in the following form: graphical method. 9 Let s1 and t 1 denote the magnitudes of s and t
n for the point where w = w1 (see Fig. 146). Then the magnitudes s2
IJ"r = k - -r2 ' and t2 of s and t for any other point where w = w2 are obtained
(n) from the intersection of the vertical
n line through w2 with the straight
IJ"t = k+-,
r2 lines s 1s2 and t 1t2 , which have their
point of intersection on the vertical
in which k and n are constants depending upon the dimensions of axis of the coordinates (w = o) and
the clise and the magnitude of the external forces acting at the are equally inclined to this axis.
edges. Stresses (n) are to be superposed upon the stresses (217) These lines represent equations
and (218) and the total stresses may then be represented in the (229) graphically. They have the
common ordinate A on the axis
7 This question is discussed by C. Honegger, Brown Bowery C.
w = o, and have equal and opposite
Mitteilungen, November, 1919. slopes ( B). This graphical construction is very useful in cal-
8 Residual stresses in rotating clises due to yielding of metal were
culating stresses in rotating clises of variable thickness as we shall
investigated by A. N adai and L. H. Donnell; see Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech.
see later.
Engrs., Applied Mechanics Division, 1928. See also H. Hencky,
Zeitschr. f. Angew. Math. u. Mech., Vol. 4, 1924, p. 331, and F. Laszlo, 9
Zeitschr. f. Angew. Math. u. Mech., Vol. 5, 1925, p. 281. This method was developed by R. Grammel, Dinglers Polytech-
nical Journal, Vol. 338, 1923, p. 217.
252 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 253
Problems
are determined by the equations:
1.Determine the stresses due to centrifugal forces in a rotor
with 26" outer radius and 4" radius of inner hole. The outer
p:Jrtion of the rotor is cut by slots ro" deep, which take the ~indings l -
E 2 [ - -
3+N,2+c
8- e l + ) C1, -
(I -
I] =
)C2 ~ o,
(Fig. 147). The rotor is of steel and makes 1,8?0 revolut10ns per
minute. The weight of the windings in the slots 1s the same as that
of the material removed.
1 : 2 [ -
3
t Nb 2 + (1 + )C1 - (1 - )C2i] = - p 0
(p)
P 0 -- -
l
---,
ir=26
21r X 16 ,= 16 g
'Y
- w2rd V = -------: -
21r X 16 g
l -yw2
1 : 2 [ -
3
1 N'a 2 + (1 + )Cr' - (1 - )Cz' ~] = o.
(r)
-yw2 168 5
21r
126
16
r 2d r = - - - ,
g 6 From equations (p) and (r), the four constants C1, C2 , Cr' and C2' can
be found as ~u?ctions of Po The magnitude of p 0 is now found
with 'Y = 0.284 lb. per cubic inch, g = 32.2 from the cond1t1_on that, at the s'-:rface of contact, the radial displace-
X 12 inch sec.-2 ; this gives ments of the clise and of the nng are equal. Using eq. (d), the
equation for determining p 0 is therefore
Frn. 147. p 0 = 7,334 lbs. per sq. in.
b3 C2 b3 C'
The maximum tangential stress at the inner edge produced by the
tensile stress po is, from eq. (206),
- N 8+ C1b + b = - N' + C1'b +
8 -f- (s)
'"
oo
't;
~
~
oo
C')
2"
8
\O
~
8
r---
..;,
o
00
'
,.;
'8
N
cf o
2
<') \O ~oo.... C')
r..::: ~. .
""'C')
e; ~r-;-
,.,.,.,., C') ..
\O" ~ 00 -
\O"' \.O... .; \O... 00....
l.y 1 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+ 1+
= - (a) fil
D.<1,
y + l.y <!ro ofil
iS o o o o
r--- r---
o o o;- 00o o o g ~ o o
o;- -;- ' -;- =oo
The change D.<1 1 in the tangential stress at the same section is found o
z ..o ~j~
- -
""'C')
;-
.;,
~
\O
..; -
.;,
r---
et"
C')
-1+
~ ~\O :.-. r-
1 1+ 1+ 1+
from the condition that the unit circumferential elongation is the o o o oO No o o;-
1+
o o
1+
same on both si des of the secti Jn. Hence g 8 2 8. 8. 8'
c2,""'
p::: C') 00 00
r--- ' ~ . .
<lt - .<1, = (<!t + A<It) - .(<Jr + <Ir), ~
z
' b
-T- -
~
't; o \O
,.;
1
o ""'
1
~
:' -1
o. . \O C')
<5-,1-1...
1
~=
r--- ~
1
~
""' -'1 ;- "
1
N ;-
~
1
o
from which
<J t = .<J r ~..., o
C')
8 \O C') .. 8c-:,
From eqs. (227),
::,
...,o
<
00 ~t ""'
~
+
C')
':>
1
'!"
1
00
N
1
\O
"!
1
M
':>
1 1
u 1
S = <Jr = - +
Y dy y <Tr, }
(230)
fil
fil ;-
""' ""'
/ = <!t = .S.
Ol
..:
J; r--- 1 '"'.5
00
':' '
':> '
~
00
':'
00
':>
.
r---
00
\O
r---
c1
;-
'
,;.,
Equations (226), (227), (228) and (230) together with the graphical
.
el
3 ~ r o
00
o
N
o o
00
o
r--- N
o b' ..
00 00
\O
solution given in Fig. 146 are sufficient for the calculation of a clise ...,Ol
\O 't \O 't; '
N
e;; ':: 00 \O ;- N
IQ
<tl.- -
'" ""'
of a variable thickness. ~ o o o o
Consider, as an example, the clise represented in Fig. 148, :..3 2;- 8 2 \O
""'
..
N \O CI N
ui 1~. ""' \O
rotating ata speed of 3,000 r.p.m. All the dimensions are given in
the table below. Assume that the centrifuga! forces applied at the
""' o5:- -
..e :::
-
' 6,
r---
.;, '
"
oo,
~
't;
~ r--- ;-
outer edge, for instance centrifuga! forces due to the blades in the o
al ~ 00
~
\O
..
-- ""' N C') \O
;-1 J ci ,;., ..;, 00
':> ""'
..
case of a turbine clise, are such that at the outer edge 1 1 1 1
o
1 'o
~
1
~
;-
1
N
1
~
1
\O
""' r--- N ;-
ment of the method was given by R. Grammel, loe. cit., p. 251, and the . . .5 r--- r--- 00 00 00 '
00
' ' '
-'
CI
t-'... t-'... .;., .. ,;.,
numerical example given below is taken from this paper. See also the
paper by M. G. Driessen, Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng., 1928, Applied
1 1 1 1
0 1 ' 1 1 ' 1
1
1 1
"'"' :::o
Mechanics Division; R. Grammel, lng. Arch., Vol. 7, p. 136, 1936;
R. G. Olsson, lng. Arch., Vol. 8, p. 270 and p. 373, 1937; A. Held, lng.
~
u~
o;::
.... u - 1
1
N C') -,t
""' \O r--- 00
'
1 1
Arch., Vol. 10, p. 339, 1939. .,
1
256 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 257
and that = 0.3; 'Y= 0.283 lb. per cubic inch. Then from eqs. (226) to the radial distance 1-2 of the disc (Fig. 149), is determined from
lbs. lbs. the figures in column 4 of the table. From this we obtain for
/31w2 = JO.O -.- 4 ; (3w2 = 17.3 -.-4. section 2 (Fig. 148)
m. m.
The first eight columns of the table above are filled from these data
s2 = t2 = 13,040 lbs. per sq. in.;
and from Fig. 148. then by using eqs. (227),
We begin the stress calculation from the outer edge of the disc,
where (ur) 1 is given. The magnitude of the tangential stress (ut)1 (ur)2 = s2 - /31w 2r22 = 13,040 - 9,410 = 3,630 lbs. per sq. in.,
(uth = f2 - {3w 2r22 = 13,040 - 5,420 = 7,620 lbs. per sq. in.
lhs
w At section 2 an abrupt change in the thickness of the disc takes
place. To take this into account, we use eqs. (230) together with
the figures in column 8 in the table. Then
Zl,000 5 ,t
e
18,000
----5
------------ t
---------- s
-----t'
15,000 b
', b
Fm. 148. a a
IZ,000 ,,
at the outer edge is usually unknown and an arbitrary magnitude ---
s
must be assumed for a beginning. The simplest assumption is to !J,000 ----
take (ut)1 so as to make s and t (see eq. 227) equal, in which case
. ----::...-
----------
-- -----
6.000
(ut)1 = (ur)1 + /31w2ri2 - {3w 2ri2, ---
J,000
or, by using the figures in the fifth and sixth columns of the table,
(uth = 1,420 + II,620 - 6,680 = 6,360 lbs. per sq. in. 0 I [ 3 4 5 6 8 9 w
Now, from eqs. (227),
. -. --. ---- ----- --.--.
s1 = (urh + /31w2ri2 = 1,420 + 11,620 = 13,040 lbs. per sq. in.,
-----------
t1 = (ut)1 + {3w2r12 = 6,360 + 6,680 = 13,040 lbs. per sq. in. Fm. 149.
Since s1 = t1, the s and t straight lines coincide in the construction These quantities are added to the ordinate of the point a in Fig.
explained in Fig. 146. In Fig. 149 in which s and t are taken as 149 which gives points b and e; the lines bb and ce are then con-
ordinates and w = 1/r2 as abscissa these lines are represented by the structed as explained in Fig. 146. In this manner si and ta are
line a-a parallel to the w axis. The length of this line, corresponding found for section 3. By repeating the above process all the data
258 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 259
necessary for the third section are obtained, and so on. By this art. 44. A ring is cut from the cylinder by two cross sections
method we may compute all the values in the upper lines in columns perpendicular to the axis, unit distance apart. During deformation
nine to twelve of the above table. such cross sections can be assumed to remain plane if taken suffi-
Due to the fact that the stress (<T1)1 at the periphery of the clise ciently distant from the ends of the cylinder, 12 hence the unit
was taken arbitrarily, the conditions at the inner edge will usually elongations in the direction of the axis are constant. Let the z
not be satisfied, and the stress (<T,)9 obtained by the above method axis be the axis of the cylinder, w the displacement in the direction
will not be the stress which actually exists there. In order to of the z axis, and the other notation the same as in article 44 and
satisfy the condition at the inner edge, an additional calculation is Fig. 142. Then the unit elongations in the three perpendicular
required. We assume (<T,)i = o, w = o, and take an arbitrary value drections are
for (<T,)i (in the calculations (<Tth was taken 710 lbs. per sq. in.) and dw
obtain the corresponding stress distribution in the same manner E, = dz = const.,
as before. For this case, from eqs. (227), s = <Tr and t = <Tt, The du
results of these calculations are given in columns nine to twelve in Er = dr' (a)
the lower lines, and the corresponding constructions, in Fig. 149,
by the lines t' and s'. The solution which satisfies the actual u
Et= -
condition at the inner edge of the clise is obtained by combining r
the above two stress distributions as follows: Let (<Tr) 9 and (<T,h' be These elongations can be represented as functions of the stresses
the radial stresses at the inner edge of the clise, obtained by the and the thermal expansion. Let a denote the coefficient of
O'z, <Tr, <Tt,
first and the second calculations respectively, and (<T,) 9 denote the linear expansion and t the increase in temperature, which varies with
actual stress at the inner edge. Then the solution for the actual the radial distance r. From eqs. (43) (see p. 62, Part I) the elonga-
condition is obtained by superposing on the first stress distribution tions are
the stresses of the second distribution multiplied by <Tz
Ez = E - E (<Tr + <Tt) + al,
(<T,)9 - (<T,h
n= <Tr
(<T,)9'
Er = E - E (<Tz + <Tt) + at (b)
The average stresses at the sections at which the thickness changes
<T t
abruptly may be calculated as follows: Et = E - E (<Tz + <Tr) + at,
(<Tr) = ( <Tr + t::.s) (
2 + n <T/ + 2 ,
t::.s') Using the notation t::. for unit increase in volume,
( M) (, l - 2
(<T1) = <Tt + + n <Tt + t::.t') !::,. = Ez + Er + Et = -E- (<Tz + O'r + <T) + Jafo (e)
2 2
From this and eqs. (b) we find
The results of such calculations for the case when the radial stress
ai: the inner edge is zero are given in the last two columns of the <Tz = _!i__ ( E, + _ _ !::,. ) _ atE ,
above table and are represented by the two curves in Fig. 148. l + l - 2 l - 2
These values are substituted into the equation of equilibrium of the With these values substituted in expression (h) the general expres-
element mnm1n1 in Fig. 142 (eq. (b), p. 236) sion for <lr becomes
dur
- + - -r = o
<lr - <lt
(e) <lr =-=-
E [ - 1 [' atrdr +
2- 2 ib atrdr ] r(b a (232)
dr I r,a r2 a 2 2 _ 2)
a
and give, after using eqs. (a), The general expression for <lt is obtained from the equation of equi-
librium (e) which gives
d 2u 1 du u I + dt
+ r dr - ;:z = ('.23 l)
dr 2
This equation determines the displacement u for any particular
I - a dr
u1 = u,+ r dur = ______
dr I -
[L Jaf' atrdr
r2
distribution of temperature. lt may be written in the form:
atrdr
I
+ C1r + C2-, (J)
r I - a r
t = ti ( l - r -
--
b-a
)
in which C1 and C2 are constants of integration which must be
determined in such a manner as to satisfy the conditions at the When this is substituted into eqs. (232) and (233) and the integration
surfaces of the cylinder. lf these surfaces are assumed to be free is performed, we obtain
from external forces, C1 and C2 are determined from the conditions
(u,),-a = o; (ur)r=b =
A general expression for <lr is obtained by substituting Er = du/dr
O, (g) <lr =
3
(l _~~~~_a) [ r - ~- ( 1
- ~): =:: ], (235)
and Et = u/r into the second of eqs. (d) and taking u from eq. (j),
which gives
<lt = Eat;
3(1 - )(b - a)
[2r + ~2 - (
r
I +~)
r
b3 - a3].
a 2 b2 - 2
(236)
<lr =-
l +
l +-
E- ( - - 1
-
l - r2
a
afrdr +- C1- - -C2 + --
I - 2 r l - 2 2
Ez
)
(h)
The tangential stresses at the inner and outer surfaces are
Eat i (
3
b - a )
3
C2 = -
I
- b-a
l- ~
+ a2 ib atrdr, ,
a
(u,)r-b = 3 (l -~~~~_a)[ 2b +~ -( l +~): =~]
e1 -_ (1 + )(l
I-
- 2) _ I _
b2 _,,
-u-
ib
a
atrur
.J _
e,.
(k)
J3 Any temperature condition at the surfaces of the cylinder may be
obtained by superposing on this a uniform heating or cooling, which <loes
not produce stresses.
262 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS SYMMETRICAL ABOUT AXIS 263
These equations may be represented in a simpler form by using in the direction of the cylinder. u. may be calculated from the
b first of eqs. (d). Substituting Er = du/dr, Et = u/r, and using eq.
- =
a
l + m' (l) (j) far u and eqs. (k) far t?e arbitrary constants, ~e fin~ the ge~eral
expression far u. to contam the constant elongat10n Ez m the direc-
where m is small far a thin cylinder. With this notation the above tion of the axis of the cylinder. If we assume that the cylinder can
eqs. become
expand freely, we calculate the magnitude of Ez from the_ condition
that the sum of the normal forces over the cross sect1on of the
Eat; (
(ue)r=a = - 2(1 - ) l + 6 +m3m ) , cylinder perpendicular to ~hez axis is equ~l to zero .. As a _result of
this calculation the fallowmg final express10n far u. 1s obtamed:
Eat; (
(ue)r=b = 2(1 - ) l - 6 +m3m ) . (238)
2
Eat; ( b 2a b)
O"z = -------------=b I - 2 log.; - b2 _ a2 log, ~ (244)
In the case of a very thin wall, the second term in the parenthesis of
these equations is negligible and the equations coincide with that 2(1 - ) lag. -
a
derived far a non-uniformly heated plate (see eq. 122).
When the thickness of the wall is not small, the stationary It may be seen that at the inner and outer surfaces of the cylinder
temperature distribution is no longer a linear function of r but may the stress u. is equal to O"t- A more detailed discussion of thermal
be represented by the function
stresses in cylinders has been made by C. H. Lees. 14 Charts far
!; b rapid calculation of stresses from eqs. (240), (241) and (244) are
t = --b lag.-;. (239)
given by L. H. Barker. 15
lag. -
a In the case of a disc without a hale at the center and of a um-
farm thickness, which is assumed small in comparison with the
With this expression far t eqs. (232) and (233) become radius b of the clise, the radial and the tangential stresses are given
2 2 by the following expressions:
O"r = Ea.ti [ b a b b]
~ lag. ~ '
( )
b - lag. ; - b2 - a2 l -
) lag.-
~ .[r trdr),
2(1 -
a O"r = aE (~ .[b trdr - (m)
+ ~2 )
2
u1 = _ _E_at_i__ [ 1 - lag.~ - - -( 1 lag. ~]
b r b2 - a 2 r a
2(1 - ) lag.-
a
The maximum O"t occurs at the inner ar outer surface of the cylinder.
Substituting in the above equation r = a and r = b, In each particular case when the temperature t is known as a certain
function of r, the integrals entering in these expressions can be
(ut)r=a = Ea.ti
b
(
I - b2
2b2 b)
log. - , readily evaluated and the thermal stresses obtained.
- a2 a Thermal stresses are of great practica! importance, especially in
2(1 - ) lag. -
a the case of large cylinders, such as steam turbine rotors, heavy
(ut)r=b =
Ea.ti
b
(
I - -2 -2al a2 g . -
b , a a
2
b)
shafts ar large turbine clises. In ali these cases the heating or
cooling must be made gradual in arder to reduce the temperature
2(1 - ) lag. -
a 14
See C. H. Lees, Proc. Roy. Soc., Ser. A, Vol. 101 (1922).
15
L. H. Barker, Engineering, Vol. 124 (1927), p. 443. The numerical
In the above discussion only ur and u were considered and it was example given below is taken from this paper.
shown that these quantities do not depend upan the elongation Ez
264 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
Problems CHAPTER VI
1. Determine the thermal stresses in a cylinder having 2a = 3/8 TORSION
in., 2b = 1 in., Ea/(1 - ) = 615, if the inner temperature is
t; = - 1 C. and the outer temperature is zero. 49. Shafts of Non-Circular Cross Section.-In the first
Solution. From eqs. (242) and (243) part of our book (see p. 261, part I) the problem of torsion
(<rt)r=a = (<r,)r=a = 420 lbs. per sq. in., of circular shafts was considered. Formulas far maximum
(<ri)r=b = (<r,),=b = - 194 lbs. per sq. in. stress and far the angle of twist far rectangular
<Trmaximum, from eq. (240), occurs at r = 0.3 in. and is equal to
shafts also were given. There are several other
87 lbs. per sq. in. The distribution of the stresses over the thickness shapes of cross section of a twisted shaft far which
of the wall is shown in Fig. l 50. the problems of stress distribution and of the angle
of twist are solved. In the fallowing only sorne
final results, which may be of practica! interest, FIG. 151.
are g1ven.
Elliptical Cross Section.1-The maximum shearing stress takes
place a t the ends of the minor axis, Fig. 151, and is
16M1
l--b --i1 .
1 Tmax = 1rb2h
I 54a,
we observe that the total pressure on that portion is and the required volume is
1rr2p. This pressure is balanced by the tensile forces S uni- I
l
a 7ra4
formly distributed along a circle of the radius r and having V= 27rrdrw = G0- = - G0lp.
o 4 2
that direction tangent to the deflected membrane. Denoting
by w the deflections of the membrane, we obtain Comparing this with the usual formula far torque (see eq. 147,
Part 1), we conclude that in the membrane analogy the double
dw volume gives the magnitude of the torque. Hence all three
1rr
2
p = - 21T-rS -
dr statements made above regarding the analogy can be readily
and pro ved in the case of a circular shaft.
dw pr In other cases the shape of the surface of the deflected
- dr = 2S. (b)
membrane is easily visualized far a given cross section of the
shaft; consequently qualitative conclusions are readily drawn
Substituting in this equation the value of p/S given by the
formula (a), we obtain concerning the stress distribution in torsion. For instance,
dw with a rectangular cross section (Fig. 155a), the corresponding
- dr = G0r. (e) surface of the deflected membrane is as represented by the
contour lines. The stress is inversely proportional to the
On the right side of this equation we have the known expres- distance between these lines; hence it is larger where the lines
sion for the torsional stress in a twisted circular shaft (see are closer to each other. The maximum stress occurs at
equation (b), p. 263, Part 1). Hence the slope of the deflected points m-m, where the slope of the membrane is largest. At
membrane gives us the required the corners a, b, e, d, where the surface of the membrane
magnitude of the torsional stress. coincides with the plane of the contour abcd, the slope of this
The maximum slope of the mem- surface is zero; hence the shearing stress at these points is zero.
brane at each point is in the direc-
tion of the meridian; hence the
torsional stress in the shaft at each
point has that direction perpendic-
ular to the radius. This conclusion
again agrees with the result of the
elementary theory of torsion. To
Fm. I 54 determine the torque which pro-
duces the stresses given by the
equation (e), let us calculate the volume included between the e
deflected membrane, Fig. I 54a, and the plane of the boundary (a) (b)
\'
AB. The integration of equation (e) gives the deflection sur- Frn. 155.
face of the membrane: ' Consider now the case of a narrow rectangular cross
G0 section (Fig. I 55b). The deflection surface of the uniformly
w = 2 (a2 - r2),
loaded membrane at sorne distance from the short sides of
270 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
TORSION 271
the rectangle can be considered cylindrical. With this as-
as in equation (e) above and is equal to
sumption, each strip mm of the surface behaves like a uni-
formly loaded cord and its max1mum deflection is given by I
- G0c 3dx (J)
equation: 3 '
pc2
0 = 8S' (b) where e is the variable width of the cross section g1ven by the
or, using eq. (a), equation:
c2 e= c1 + C2--b-x.
- C1
(g)
o= - Ge. (e)
4
Substituting this in expression (j) and integrating the result, we
The maximum stress is equal to the slope at points m-m. obtain the torque:
This slope is 40/c, for a parabolic curve; hence
bG0
l
b 1
40 Mt =
o
~
3
G0c3dx = - (c1
12
+ c2)(c12 + c22).
Tmax = - = cG0. (d)
e
The angle of twist then is
The corresponding torque is twice the volume enclosed by the
membrane. Neglecting the effect of the short sides of the
rectangle on the deflection of the membrane and calculating
the volume as for a parabolic cylinder of length b, we find
When c 1 = c2 = e, this formula coincides with formula (253) ob--
2 I tained for the narrow rectangle.
Mt = 2--obc = -bc3G0. (e)
3 3 In more complicated cases in which the forro of the deflec-
c. from which tion surface of the membrane cannot easily be obtained
analytically, this surface can be investigated experimentally
Mt
O = bc3G. by using soap film for the uniformly stretched membrane
and measuring the slope of its surface by optical methods.
Substituting in equation (d), we obtain For this purpose the apparatus shown in Fig. I 57 has been
Mt used. 7 The aluminum plate with two holes-one circular
Tmax = 3lbe2 and the other of the required shape-is clamped between the
two halves of the cast-iron box A. The lower part of the box,
These formulas coincide with formulas (155) having the forro of a shallow tray, is supported on leveling
and (156) given in Part I (see p. 270) if the screws. By pumping air into this portian of the box, the
rectangle is assumed to be a very narrow one. deflection of soap films covering the above mentioned hales
If instead of a narrow rectangle we have a narrow trapezoid, is produced. The mapping of contour lines of the soap film
as shown in Fig. I 56, an approximate solution is obtained by surfaces is done by using the screw B passing through a hole
assuming that the surface of the deflected membrane at a sufficient in a sheet of plate glass sufficiently large to cover the box in
distance from the narrow sides is a conical one. The double vol- any possible position. The lower end of the screw carries a
ume corresponding to an element mm of the cross section is obtained 7
See the paper by G. l. Taylor and A. A. Griffith, loe. cit., p. 267.
TORSION 273
272 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
paper are used for drawing a contour line. By adjusting the
~ard steel point, whose distance from the glass plate is ad-
screw B, this can be repeated for as many contour lines as
Justable by _the screw. The point is made to approach the
may be required. When these lines have been mapped, the
film by movmg the glass plate until the distortion of the image
volume and the corresponding torque can be obtained by
in the film shows that contact has occurred. The record is
summation. The slopes and the corresponding stresses are
obtained by measuring the distances between neighboring
contour lines. A better accuracy for measuring slopes can
be obtained by projecting a beam of light onto the surface of
the film and measuring the angle of the reflected ray. To
establish the relation between the measured slope and the
stress, the :films covering the two hales mentioned before are
compared at the same air pressure. Since both films have
the same ratio p/S, the corresponding two shafts have the
same values of Ge (see equation (a)). Hence, by measuring
the slopes of the two soap films we can compare the stresses
in the shaft of the given cross section with those in a circular
shaft of known diameter under the condition that they have
the same angle of twist 0 per uni t length and the same shearing
modulus C. The corresponding ratio n of the torques is
determined by the ratio of the volurnes between the soap
-films and the plane of the plate. This ratio gives, evidently,
the ratio of the torsional rigidities of the two shafts. Regard-
ing stresses for a circular shaft,
the stress can be readily calcu-
lated at any point for any given
torque lVi . The stress T, pro-
duced at any point of the non-
circular shaft by the torque nMt,
is obtained by multiplying the
stress To in a 'chosen point of
FIG. 157. the circular shaft by the experi-
mentally determined ratio of
made on a sheet of paper attached to the board E which can the maximum slopes at the
swing .about . horizontal axis at the same height ~s the steel two points under consideration. F'10. 15s.
recordmg pomt D. To mark any position of the screw it is
Figure I 58 represents an ex-
only necessary to prick a dot on the paper by swinging it clown ample of contour lines obtained for a portian of the 1-beam
on the recording point. After the point has been made to (wooden wing spar of an airplane). From the clase grouping
touch the film at a number of places, the dots recorded on the
274 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 275
of the contour lines at the fillets of the reentrant corners the radius r, the parabolic curve shown in Fig. 15 5 (b) and
and at the middle of the upper face, it follows that the defining the deflection of the film can still be used with a suffi-
shearing stresses are high at these places. The projecting cient accuracy. 8 In such a case the maximum slope of the
parts of the flange are very lightly stressed. The maximum film and the corresponding maximum stress for the cross
stress in the middle portian of the web is practically constant section in Fig. 159 (a) will be approximately the same as for
along the side of the web and equal to that in a narrow a narrow rectangle.
rectangle for the same angle of twist. In the case of a channel section (Fig. 159, e) the angle of
twist is obtained by subdividing the cross section into the
three rectangles shown in the figure and substituting, in equa-
~L
tion (253), b1c13 + 2b2c23 instead of bc3 Then
These conclusions follow from the membrane analogy in comparison with r, the curvature of the film in the tangen tia! direction
discussed in the preceding article. The reader may have is small in comparison with that in the radial direction and can be
neglected.
anticipated from that discussion that if the thickness e of the 9
The maximum stress occurs at the reentrant corners and will be
cross section shown in Fig. 159 (a) is small in comparison with discussed later (see art. 60, p. 329).
276 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
TORSION 277
in it the quantity
For the cases of torsion of rolled I beams and channels in
which the thickness of the flanges is not small and is varying
instead of c23
along the width of the flange, a more elaborate formula for
The maximum stress usually occurs at the fillets and is of
torsional rigidity has been developed, which 1s m a very
a localized character. I ts magni tude will be discussed in
satisfactory agreement with experiments.U
art. 60. Considerable stress may also occur at the points m,
Fig. 160 (b), at the middle of the outer surfaces of the flanges.
Problems
I. Find the ratio of the angles of
twist of a seamless and of a split circular
thin tube of equal geometrical dimen-
sions (Fig. 161) under the action of equal
torques. Frn. 161.
Solution. By using equations (151), Part I, and (253) we
Ca
d
h
the formula for an infinitely narrow rectangle was used, and The ratio of the angles of twist is
that the action of the narrow sides of the rectangle in Fig. I 55
on the magnitude of the volume bounded by the soap film 8 2 (d - d0 ) 2
was entirely neglected. Owing to the presence of the narrow 81 J d2 + do 2
sides the volume will evidently be somewhat diminished. For very thin tubes (d2 +d 2
0 ) ~ 2d2 and the ratio of angles of
At the same time at the corners of the channel section, Fig. twist is
159 (e), where two rectangles come together, a larger deflection
of the soap film should be expected than for a single rectangle,
and this added deflection will cause sorne increase in the
volume. Thus two factors, which were neglected in the by the writer, Bulletin of the Polytechnical Institute, St. Petersburg,
Vol. 5, 1906. They showed a satisfactory agreement with equation (256).
derivation of equation (256), are acting in opposite directions A very extensive series of torsional tests of rolled beams were made by
and to sorne extent neutralize each other, so that equation A. Foppl, Sitz. Berichte d. Bayer. Akad. d. Wiss., 1921, p. 295, and "Der
(256) is sufficiently accurate-especially for thin-walled Bauingenieur," Vol. 3, 1922, p. 42. Sorne correction factors for equation
(256) were suggested on a basis of these experiments.
sections. 10 11
The experiments on a basis of which that formula was derived
10 The experiments with torsion of thin-walled I beams were made were made by lnge Lyse and B. G. Johnston, Lehigh University Pub-
lication, Vol. 9, 1935.
278 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 279
2. !)etermine the angle of twist per inch of a channel (Fig. using the center line of the ring cross section, indicated by the
159, e) 1f Mt = 20,000 lbs. ins., b1 = IO in., b2 = 3.5 in., c 1 = 0.4 in., dotted curve in the figure. lf A is the area bounded by this
c2 = o.6 in., G = 12 X 10 6 lbs., per sq. in. line, the volume mmnn is Ao and, from the membrane analogy,
Solution.
we obtain
3 X 20,000 . .
0 = (w X o.4 + 7 X o.,63)12 X 106 = o.00233 rad1ans per m. Me= 2Ao. (b)
3. Determine the ratio of the maximum shearing stresses of the From eqs. (a) and (b) we then find
tu bes discussed in problem 1 if the torques are equal for both tu bes.
Mt
4. Determine the torsional rigidity C for the I beam considered T = --.
on p. 27 5 if the sloping of the flanges is considered as explained 2Ah
on p. 276.
This equation may be used in calculating the stresses in
52. Torsion of Thin Tubular Members.-ln discussing tubular members under torsion if the thickness of the wall is
the torsion of thin tubular members the membrane analogy small, variation in thickness is not abrupt, and there are no
again can be used to advantage. 12 In this case the outer and reentrant corners.
inner boundaries of the cross section are to be located in The angle of twist 0 per unit length of a tubular member
different horizontal planes with the membrane connecting the may be calculated by considering the strain energy of torsion.
boundaries, as at mn in Fig. 162. lf the thickness of the tube The strain energy per unit length of the tubular member is
is small, the curvature of the membrane may be neglected,
i.e., the lines mn may be considered
u= rr hds 2
Jo 2G '
straight. The slope of the membrane
surface is then constant over the thick- where s is the length of the cen ter line of the ring cross section
ness of the wall and is equal to o/h, shown in Fig. 162 by the dotted line. Substituting expression
where o is the difference in the levels of (258) for r in this equation and equating the strain energy to
the two boundaries and h is the thickness the work done by the torque, we obtain
of the tube, which may vary along the
circumference of the cross section. The
M?
ds
8A2G h =
1
2 M10, (e)
membrane analogy indicates that in this case the shearing from which
stresses are uniformly distributed over the thickness of the
wall and are given by the slope
Mi
o = 4A2 G
h
O
ds
= 2AG
l .["
O
rds.
pA = rSds. (d)
we denote the areas bounded by the dotted lines in Fig. 163 (a)
by A1 and A2 this torque is
Observing that the tension Sin the membrane is constant and (g)
that p/S = 2G0 (see eq. a, art. 50), we find from equation (d): or, by using equations (e), we obtain
p I r
S = A Jo rds = 2G0.
(h)
Further equations for the solution of the problem are obtained by
Solving this equation for 0, we obtain formula (259), g1ven applying equation (259) to the two closed curves indicated by the
dotted lines in Fig. 163 (a). Assuming that the portion BCD of the
above, for the angle of twist. wall has a constant thickness h 1 and that the portions DEB and
DB have the constant thicknesses h2 and h 3, respectively, equation
Sometimes the torsional stresses in a tubular member with (259) becomes
intermediate walls, as in Fig. 163 (a), must be calculated. The
boundary of the cross section in this (i)
case is formed by the three closed curves.
In applying the membrane analogy these (j)
curves are to be located in three dif- Here si, s2, and s 3 are the lengths measured along the dotted lines
ferent horizontal planes, nn, pp, and BCD, DEB and DB, respectively. In applying the integral (259)
mm, as shown in Fig. 163 (b). The to the closed curves BCDB and DEBD, we are passing the portion
soap film c::mnecting these three curves DB of the length s 3 in the two opposite directions. Hence the
forms a narrow surface, the cross sec- second terms on the left sides of equations (i) and (j) appear with
tions of which are shown by the lines opposite signs. The angle of twist 0 on the right side of the equa-
mn, np, and pm. Assuming again that tions (i) and (j) is evidently the same as the angle of twist of the
F10. 163. the wall thicknesses-h1, h2, and ha-are entire tubular member. The four equations (j), (h), (i) and (j)
small, and neglecting the c~rvature of contain the four unknown r 1, r 2 , r 3 and 0, which can be easily
the membrane in the directions normal to the boundanes, we con- calcu!ated. Eliminating 0, we obtain for shearing stresses the
sider that the lines mn, np, and pm ar'e straight. In such a case following formulas:
13 In the case of thin-walled members the area A bounded by the
dotted line can be considered instead of the area of the plane n-n.
1
TORSION 283
282 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
flanges and may have a considerable effect on the angle of
twist, depending on the rigidity of the flanges. A simple case
of this is an I beam which is twisted by a couple applied at
h1s2A1 - h2s1A2 the middle and supported 16 at the ends (Fig. 164). From
= Mi
:r:s~z
ra ~------------~:------e:-:--:-=: (m)
2[h1has2A12 + h2has1A2 2 + h1h2sa(A1 + A2) 2
]
If the wall DB of the cross section in Fig. 163 (a) is the plane of
symmetry of the cross section we have
and r 7
;C'
F10. 16+
and equation (m) gives r 3 = o. Thus in this case the torque is
taken entirely by the outer wall of the tube, and the intermediate
web remains unstressed. 14 symmetry, the cross section mn must remain plane during
To obtain the angle of twist 0 for the tubular member, we have twist and the consequent rotation of this cross section with
to substitute the calculated values of stresses in equations (i) or (j). respect to the end cross sections is accompanied by bending
Thus the torsional problem for a tubular member, such as is shown of the flanges. The end torque is balanced at any cross
in Fig. 163, can be readily solved with a sufficient accuracy provided
the wall thickness is small in comparison with the general dimen-
sions of the cross section.
(b)
Since the flexural rigidity D and torsional rigidity C are both
measured in the same units (lbs. in. 2), equation (g) shows that
and by differentiation we obtain:
a has the dimension of length and depends upan the propor-
d 3z h d 3 cp h d 20 tions of the beam.
dx 3 = 2 dx 3 = 2 dx 2 (e)
If we know the portions Mt' and Mt'' of the total torque
M1 may be calculated far any cross section from equations
Now, if we denote by D the flexural rigidity of one flange
(a) and (e). Far the built-in section x = o, O = o, and we
in the plane xz and observe that z is positive as shown (Fig.
obtain, from (a), Mt' = o. Hence at this point the whole
165, e), the expression far the shearing force in the flange due
torque is balanced by the moment of the shearing forces due
to bending becomes
to bending in the flanges, and we have V= - M1/h. For the
V = dM = D d
3
=
2
Dh d 0 . other end x = l, and from equation (f)
dx dx
~
3
2 dx 2
(d)
Considering the positive direction of V (as shown m Fig. Mt( 1 ) (h)
165, e), we therefore have
O= C I - cosh ( ~) .
,, _ Dh 2 d 20
Mt - - Vh = - 2 dx2 (e) lf the length of the beam is large in comparison with the cross
sectional dimensions, lis large in comparison with a, and the
Laboratorium f. Baustatik d. techn. Hochschule, Kopenhagen, Mit-
teilung Nr. 6, 1931. The case of rectangular tubular members was dis- second term in the parenthesis of equation (h) becomes neg-
cussed by H. Reissner, Zeitschr. f. Flugtechnik u. Motorluftschiffah1 t, ligible; hence O approaches the value MtfC.
Vol. 17, 1926, p. 385 and Vol. 18, 1927, p. 153. Equation (d) gives the shearing force in the flanges, and
286 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 287
from this the bending moment in the flange is inertia of the standard cross section about the vertical principal
axis and multiplying it by E. Then D= (9.5/2) E = 4.75E, and
M = Dh d0 we obtain from equation (g)
2 dx'
(i)
5 6
or, substituting equation (J) for 0, and using notation (g), a = h
'\J/2DC = h '\J/4.~
o. 92
X:
2
= 2.99h. (o)
i-----i---
y
Frn. 167.
Having this expression far S we can readily calculate the latter conclusion should be anticipated, since the shearing
shearing stresses in the web and the flanges and also the por- forces in the web and in the two flanges must balance the
tian Mt'' of the torque balanced by these stresses. Let us portian Mt'' of the torque and this is possible only if the
begin with the shearing stresses in the web. Taking two shearing force in the web vanishes and the shearing forces in
adjacent cross sections mn and m1n1, Fig. 169 (a), and con- the two flanges form a couple.
the web taken positive if producing tension at the upper edge where Q1 and 1 1 are to be calculated far the flange in the same
and equal to manner as Q and l.' far the web. Substituting for M its
' d2cp expression (w) we obtain
M = El. e dx 2 = Sh.
l dS b - Z E d 3 cp hQ1
The expression far the stresses Txy then becomes r xz - t dx b t dx 3 2
that the resultant shearing force in the web vanishes. This in its plane.
292 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 293
flange which is 21 three corresponding shearing forces in the flanges and in the
V=~ dS + Ehtb 3
d cp
3
web. The point of intersection of the resultant of these
2 dx 24 dx 3 latter forces and the previously determined resultant of the
forces R 1, R 2 and V is the required center of twist O of the un-
or substituting for S its expression (v) and setting 0 = dcp/dx. symmetrical cross section. Having this center and proceed-
we obtain
ing as befare (see eqs. (t)), we express the deflection curves
3
V = Eb ht ( 1 + /1h 3
) d0.
2
(x) of the flanges and of the web by the angle of twist cp. The
24 41, dx 2
tension com pression forces S 1 and S 2 in the flanges are now
Hence the torque balanced by the shearing forces m the determined from the conditions that at the junctions the
flanges is longitudinal strain Ex is the same for the web as for the ad-
jacent flange. When the forces S1 and S2 are calculated, the
Mt'' = - Vh = _ Dh2(1 +t1h3) J20. (y)
2 2
4/, dx distribution of shearing stresses can be found as in the above
discussed case of a symmetrical channel, and it can be shown 22
This expression, instead of the expression (e) obtained for the that the shearing force in the web vanishes and the shearing
I beam, should be used in calculating the angle of twist of the forces R in the two flanges give a couple balancing the portian
channel shown in Fig. 167. Hence all the conclusions ob- Mt'' of the torque.
tained for the I beam can be used also for the channel if the
quantity a 2 given by expression (g) is replaced by the quantity Problems
1. A cantilever of a 7_ section, Fig.
172, built in at one end is twisted by
a couple M 1 applied at the other end.
The method used in discussing torsion of a symmetrical Find the angle of twist and the maxi- h
channel, Fig. 167, can be applied also in the more general mum bending moment in the flanges. t.
case of a non-symmetrical channel section, Fig. 171. We Solution. In this case the center
of twist coincides with the centroid C {aJ
begin with determination of the center of twist O. Assuming
of the cross section. There will be no Fm. 172
that the channel is built in at one end and loaded at the other bending of the web. The forces S are
end in such a way that the bending without twist occurs in identical in this case for both flanges and the distribution of shear-
the plane of the web, we find in the usual ing stresses is such as shown in Fig. 172 (b). The shearing force in
manner (see p. 53) the shearing forces R1, the web vanishes and the equal and opposite shearing forces V in
R,
R2 and V acting in the flanges and in the the flanges equal
T
t h web of the channel. The resultant of Elrht
- - ( 2- 3bt ) d3<P
-
these forces must pass through the center
12 2bt + ht1 dx 3
of twist O (see art. 8). Another line pass- form a couple so that
ing through the same point is obtained, if 3bt
V we assume that the channel is bent in the Mt'' = - Vh = - Dh2 ( 2 - 2bt + ht1 ) t3<{J
dx3
Fm. 171. horizontal plane and calculate again thc 22
The calculations are given in the paper by A. Ostenfeid, loe. cit.,
21
The positive direction for V is as shown in Fig. 165 (e). p. 283.
294 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 295
where D is the flexura! rigidity of one flange. The angle of twist a member is submitted to the action of an axial compression
and the maximum bending moment in the flanges are calculated a torsional buckling may occur 23 at a smaller load than the
from eqs. (k) and (/) in which, for this case,
Euler load discussed in art. 35. The ap-
2 proximate magnitude of the load at which X ,,.-P$!
2 Dh ( 3bt ) p 1
a =C 2
- 2bt + ht1 this torsional buckling occurs may be read-
ily obtained by using in each particular case
are
2. Solve the preceding problem assuming that
the cross section is as shown in Fig. 173.
.dnswer. The shearing forces in the flanges
an equation, equivalent to equation (261)
of the preceding article, defining the tor-
sion of a thin-walled member one of the
cross sections of which is prevented from 1 1
~
T l
d'Jip
V= Dd dx warping. As an example let us consider z 1
where here a column of a channel cross section,
built-in at the bottom and centrally loaded 1 1
at the top (Fig. 175, a). If the column (a)
~~b
\ through the shear center O, Fig. 175 (b), and the torque
a2 = Dih.
3. Solve the problem 1 for the cross C M = cP dy = c2 P dip = c2 P0 (a)
sections shown in Fig. 174. t dx dx
.dnswer. In both these cases the (a) O O {b)
in which e denotes the distance of the shear center O from the
center of twist O is at the junction of Fw. 174.
the flanges. Rotation with respect to centroid of the cross section and cp is the angle of twist. If
this point <loes not produce any bending of flanges in their planes the compressive force Pis several times smaller than the Euler
and the entire torque is transmitted by the torsional stresses alone. load far the buckling of the column in the xy plane the above
mentioned bending action may be neglected and only the
54. Torsional Buckling of Thin-Walled Compression Mem-
23
bers.-From the discussion of art. 51 it may be concluded that The torsional buckling was discussed by H. Wagner, Technische
Hochschule, Danzig, the 25th Anniversary Publication, 1904-1929. See
the torsional rigidity C of thin-walled open sections decreases also H. Wagner and W. Pretschner, Luftfahrtforschung, Vol. II, 1934,
as the cube of the wall thickness while the flexura! rigidities p. 174; and R. Kappus, Luftfahrtforschung, Vol. 14, 1937, p. 444. English
are decreasing in a smaller proportion. Hence a thin-walled Translation of the later paper see in Tech. Mem. No. 851, 1938, Nat.
Adv. Com. Aern. Regarding experiments with torsional buckling see
member is more flexible in torsion than in flexure. If such paper by A. S. Niles, Tech. Notes No. 733, 1939, Nat. Adv. Com. Aern.
296 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 297
torsion considered. 24 In such a case equation (26 I) can be used. of sorne other shape we have only properly to change the
Substituting for Mt expression (a) and for Mt'' expression (y) first member in expression (262) as explained in the preceding
derived for a channel section, we obtain article. In a particular case of a .L section or of an angle, Fig.
174, the center of twist O coincides with the point of junction
c2P0 = C0 - Dh2 ( I + t1h3) 29 of flanges, and there will be no bending of flanges in their
2 41, dx 2
or respective planes during torsion. Hence the first term in the
expression (262) vanishes, and we obtain
(b)
where e
Pcr = 2
e
P - C c2
k2 = Dh2 ( t1h3). (e)
- 2 1+- 41,
It should be noted that in the discussion of the preceding
article the thickness of the flanges was assumed as very small
Since the lower end of the column is built in and there is no and the flexura! rigidity of the flanges in the direction perpen-
bending moment acting on the flanges at the top, the end dicular to the flange was neglected. If that rigidity is taken
conditions for 0 are into consideration, an additional term on the right side of the
expression (263) appears, the magnitude of which for an angle
(0)x-o = o, (-dxd0) x-l
=o (d) with equal legs is 1r2 2bt3E/12(1 - 2)4!2. This is the sum of
the Euler loads calculated for the two flanges. It rapidly
To satisfy the first of these conditions we take the solution of decreases as the length l increases so that expression (263)
the equation (b) in the following form: has a satisfactory accuracy for long columns. 25 Having the
value of the torsional buckling load for a column with one end
0 = A sin kx. (e) built-in and the other free, we readily obtain the buckling load
This solution will satisfy also the second of the conditions (d) for a member with hinged ends by substituting, as usual,
if we put l/2 for l. In this way we obtain for a channel member with
7r 7r hinged ends, from expression (262)
kl = -, k = 21 (j)
2
equal legs was derived by the writer, considering each flange as a longi-
tudinally compressed rectangular plate. See Bu!!. of the Polyt. Inst.
The first term on the right side of this equation is due to local Kiev, 1907, and also Ztschr. f. Math. u. Phys., Vol. 58, 1910. It seems
bending resistance at the built-in end, and the second, inde- that that problem was the first case in which the torsional buckling was
pendent of the length !, is. due to torsional resistance. discussed. The fundamental equation (261) was given by the writer in
1905, loe. cit., p. 283. The extension of this equation on channel sections
If instead of a channel we have -a thin-walled open section was given by C. Weber, loe. cit., p. 283. The application of the equation
If this force is approaching the Euler load a more elaborate analyss
24 in studying torsional buckling is due to H. Wagner, Technische Hoch.
is required as shown by R. Kappus, footnote 23. schule, Danzig, the 25th Anniversary Publication, 1929.
298 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 299
It may be seen from the formula that the first term on the tion is very accurate for such material as steel in which the maxim~m
right side, dealing with bending of flanges, diminishes as the shearing strain during torsion is very sm~ll. ~ut for . material
length / increases so that far comparatively long members the such as rubber the maximum shearing stram dunng tors10n may be
considerable. Then the change in distances bet~een the cro~s
t==
stability is practically controlled by the second term in
sections 0 f the shaft during torsion must be taken mto account 1f
expression (264).
we wish to getthe correctvalues of stresses. d
The formula was developed by assuming that the cross sec- The same conclusion holds also for steel
tions at the ends of the member are free to warp. Any con- torsional members of a narrow rectangular ----
straint preventing free warping of the end cross sections will cross section or of thin-walled cross sec- --r-
result in an increase of the first term in formula (264). lf tio~s such as shown in Fig. I 59 dx
Let us begin the discussion with the .J_
the ends are built-in the length //2 instead of / must be sub-
case of a solid circular shaft and assume
stituted in formula (264) and we obtain far this case first that the distance between the two
consecutive cross sec~ions, ~ig. r76, r:- Fw. 1 76.
mains unchanged durmg tors10n. If 'Y 1s .
the shearing strain at the surface of the sha(t, the elongat10n of the
longitudinal fiber ac is obtained from the tnangle acc1 as follows:
lt is interesting to note that the formula
1
e ac1
ac = - - = ac1 ( r
cos 'Y
+ -2 'Y 2 )
Pcr = -c2
Expressing 'Y by the angle of twist per unit length 0, we obtain
which is obtained far the critica! load if the bending resistance
can be neglected follows at once from the energy considera-
tion. Since during torsion the cross sections rotate with
respect to their shear centers, the center line of the member and the unit elongation of the fiber ac is
becomes a helix, the tangent to which makes an angle Oc with ac - ac1
-
T max
2
z c0 2
O- max = Emax E = 2'Q
P- 02c 2 = - !
2 2 For any other fiber at a distance r from the axis of the_ shaft, t~e
which gives unit shear is less than 'Y in the ratio r: d/2 and the tensile stress 1s
e 2 2
Pcr = c2 2T ) 2 2r T max (b)
<l = <l max ( d = E 2 G2 '
55. Longitudinal Normal Stresses in Twisted Bars.-In discuss- The assumption made that the distance between the cross secti?ns
ing torsion of circular shafts (art. 58, Parf I), it is usually assumed remains unchanged during twist brings :1s there_fore to the conclus10n
that the distance between any two cross sections of a shaft remains that a longitudinal tensile force, producmg tens1le stresses (b), should
unchanged during torsion. It will be shown now that this -issump- be applied at the ends to keep its length unchanged. If no such
300 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 301
forc~ is applied, but only a pure torque, the twist will be accom- tangular one, it can be shown 27 that even for such materials as steel
P?'ed by so;ne shorteni?g of the shaft. Let Eo be the corresponding the stresses u may become of the same order of magnitude as Tmax
umt shortenmg. Then mstead of equation (b) we obtain If the longer side of the cross section, b, is large in comparison with
its shorter side, e, the maximum elongation of the most remote fiber
due to twist alone is, from equation (a), with b substituted for d,
(e)
b2
Emax -- -02
8
Th~ quantity Eo is detei:mined from the condition that the longi-
tudmal force corr7s1;>0_ndmg to the stress distribution (e) should be
equ~l to zero. D1~1dmg the cross section into elemental rings and For any fiber at distance y from the axis, the elongation is less, in
mak~ng a summat10n of forces corresponding to stresses (e) we the ratio (2y/b) 2 Combining this elongation with the longitudinal
obtam 26 ' unit contraction Eo, we obtain
rd/2 b2 2 (2y)2 02y2
Jo 21rrudr = E=-
8
0 -b - EO -
- -
2
- EO
from which
2
(d)
Tmax
Eo = 4G2 '
The constant Eo is determined, as before, from the condition that
the tensile longitudinal force is equal to zero; hence
and the stress distribution, from equation (e), becomes
(02- y ) dy = cE (02- -b3 ) = o,
u = E:;:x2 ( ~2 _1) . (266) L b/2
-b/2
cudy = cE
lb/2
-b/2 2
2
- Eo
2 12
- Eob
from which
The max1mum stress occurs at the outer surface, where r = d/2, 02 b2
and we obtain Eo = 2 12'
Ermax2
<Tmax = --- and we obtain, from (d),
4G2
At the center of the cross section we obtain a compressive stress of u = E02 ( y2 - !!___ ) (e)
2 12
the same amount.
The maximum tensile stress for the most remote fiber (y = b/2) is
h lt ishinteresting
to note that the stress u is proportional to~ 2.
, max,
. ence ! e !mport~nce of th1s stre~s increases with increasing Tmax,
E02b2
1.e., w1th mcreasmg angle of tw1st. For such material as steel (J max =-- U)
12
7'max is a~ways very small in comparison with G and the magnitude
of <Tmax 1s therefore small in comparison with Tmax, and can be The maximum compressive stress at the center (y = o) is
neglected. But for such m~terial as rubber Tmax may become of the
same order as G and <Tmax w11l no longer be small in comparison with E02b 2
The coml?one~t (k) of stress a per element cdy of the from which 0 = 0.0164;
cross sect1on g1ves a moment, with respect to the axis
Frn. 177. of the bar equal to Tmax = 0 . e . G = 9,430 lbs. per sq. in.;
3
E0
2 (
y3 - nb2y) cydy. <Tmax
ETmax
= -12G2 2
e
2
b2
= 10,700 lbs. per sq. m.
J_ b
12
E0
-
3
( b2
y3 - -
y) cydy = -Ecbs- 03 strip the normal stresses a are of the same order as the shearing
stresses T and can not be neglected in calculating the angle of twist.
b/2 2 12 360 .
From the above given discussion it may be concluded that a
Combi1:ing this torque_ with that due to the shearing stresses and uniform longitudinal tension will have sorne influence on the angle
determmed from equat10n (253), we obtain the following expressio,n of twist of a thin rectangular strip. Assume, for example, that a
for the total torque: uniform longitudinal tensile stress <10 is applied to the strip which
w~s just considered. In such a case the equation for calculation
1
M1 = !_ bc3G 0 + - - Ecb503 = !_ bc3G0 ( 1 + - 1- !i_ ~ 02) . Eo IS
3 36o 3 120 G c2 02 b3 )
28 cE ( - - - eob = aobc,
This stress distribution takes place at sorne distance from the ends. 2 12
Near_ the enc:s a more complicated stress distribution, than that in ex-
press10n (e), 1s produ~ed _and such as to m-ake the ends entirely free from and we obtain
normal ~t~esses. Th1s kmd of stress distribution is discussed in "Theory 02 b2 <To
of Elast1c1ty," p. 152. Eo = -- - - "
2 12 E
304 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 305
The expression for longitudinal stress u then becomes produces the bending moment
u= 2E02 ( y2 -
b2) + uo M=PRsina. (b)
12 The maximum combined stress is (see p. 277, Part I):
and the corresponding torque is
16 ( 16PR .
E bs umax = 7d3 M + ...JM + Mi2 )
2
= 7d (1 + sm a),
f_ H12
--b/2
u0y . cydy = _e_ 03
360
+ uo0b 1:
12
3
The total cleflection of the end B due to twist is the summation of The same factor can be used also for a spring with a square cross
elements such as given by eq. (d), or section. 30
1 = l Rn cos a, {e)
Equations (271), (272), and (273) give us the complete solution
to the problem of an open-coiled helical spring submitted to the
action of an axial force. 31
in which the summation is taken along the total length of the spring The extension of the spring is accompanied by rotation of the
from the lower end B to the upper fixed end C. end B with respect to the vertical axis of the helix. To determine
The deflection due to bending may be calculated in the same this rotation, let us again consider the deformation of the element
manner. The angular deflection due to the bending of the element ds in Fig. 178 (a). Due to torsion of this element there will be
ds by the moment M (eq. b) is rotation of the lower portion of the spring by an angle: 32
PR sin a o MtdS.
dcp1 = El ds. (j) n sm a = GlP sm a.
The corresponding rotation of the lower portion of the spring is Due to bending of the same element producing the angular change
shown in the figure by the vector n 1 . In the same manner as above n 1, Fig. 178 (a), the rotation of the lower,portion of the spring with
it may be shown that only its horizontal component n 1 sin a con- respect to the vertical axis is
tributes to the vertical displacement of the end B and that the
magnitude of this displacement is Mds
- n 1 cos a = - El cos a.
2 = .[ Rn1 sin a. (g)
Hence the total rotation about the axis of the helix of the lower
portion of the spring due to deformation of an element ds, is
By adding (e) and (g), the total deflection of the end B becomes
Substituting equation (e) for n and equation (j) for n 1, we obtain The sum of these elemental rotations equals the total angle of
2 2
rotation cp of the end B with respect to the fixed end C of the spring:
_ ( ( cos a sin a)
- P R ,)B
2
Gl P + El ds' _ ( Mt sin a M cos a)
"' - s Glp - El
or, noting that the expression in the parenthesis is constant and
denoting the length of the wire of the spring by s, w.:.' have
= sPR sin acosa ( G~P - ; 1 ), (274)
cos2 a sin2 a )
= PR2s ( --+-- .
Glp El where s is the total length of the spring wire.
In the case of other forms of cross section of the wire, the corre-
If the diameter d of the wire is not small in comparison with
2R, the torsional rigidity Glp in equation (273) must be multiplied 30
O. Gohner, loe. cit., p. 305.
by the correction factor 31
The theory of helical springs was developed by St. Venan t; see
C. R., Vol. 17, 1843, p. 1020. A series of particular cases was discussed
by Thompson and Tait, Nat. Phil., 2d part, p. 139; l. Perry, Applied
Mechanics, New York, 1907, p. 613; and G. W. Shearer, Engineering,
Vol. 93, 1912, p. 206.
32
A circular cross section of the wire is assumed.
308 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 309
sponding value of torsional rigidity C instead of Glp must be sub- element ds undergoes bending by a combined bending moment
stituted in equation (274). equal to
Axial Torsion.-Let the vector AD represent -..JMb2 cos2 0 + Mb 2 sin2 0 sin2 a, (})
the torque M, applied at the end B of the spring,
Fig. 179. The bending and the twisting mo- and twist by a torque equal to Mb sin 0 cos a. The strain energy of
ments acting on the element ds at A are the element then, assuming a circular cross section, is
l ~
Fro. 180.
y ~
Part I) that the torque M, will produce the elongation of the spring.
The magnitude of this elongation is obtained from the equation: other is l/p, where lis the length of the spring, Fig. 180 (a), deter-
mined from the expression
Po= M,'P,
from which . 21rRn .
l = s sin a = - - sm a
cosa '
M, . ( l l )
= p 'P = M,sRsmacosa GIP - El and p is the radius of curvature of the deflection curve. Equating
the wor~ done by the bending couples Mb to the strain energy (/),
Axial Bending.-Sometimes we have to consider pure bending we obtam
of a helical spring in its axial plane, Fig. 1 So. Let Mb, represented Mb l
by vector AB, Fig. 180 (b), be the magnitude of the bending coples ---=
2 p
u'
in yz plane. Considering an element ds of the spring at a point A, from which
defined by the angle 0, we resolve the vector AB into two com- ~ = Mb . ___1 _ [ l + sin2 a cos 2 a]
ponents: AC = Mb cos 0, and AD = Mb sin 0. The first component p sm a 2EI + 2Glp
represents a couple in the plane tangent to the cylindrical surface
of the radius R, which produces bending of the wire in that plane. Hence the quantity
The second component represents a couple acting in the axial plane B = ___s_1_n_a_ __
of the spring, and can be resolved into torque, Mb sin 0 cos a, aad l +
sin2 a cos2 a (m)
bending moment in the plane of the coil, Mb sin 0 sin a. Hence the 2EI + 2Gip
310 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS TORSION 311
must be taken as the flexural rigidity in the case of an axial bending This expression must be used instead of the expression aV/dG in
of helical springs of circular cross section. If the angle a is small, we the formulas for deflections produced by shear action in solid beams
can assume with sufficient accuracy that sin 2 a = o and cos 2 a = r. (see art. 39, Part I), if it is required to adapt these formulas to the
Substituting also sin a = f/s, we represent the calculation of lateral deflections of helical springs. In the case
-.--P-- flexural rigidity of a helical spring by the formula: shown in Fig. 181 the shearing force is constant along the length /
and equal to P; hence the deflection due to shear is
B = 2Elf. __1 _
s E 1rnPR3
l + 2G 2 = -y/ = ---- (p)
z
In considering bending of a helical spring by Adding expressions (n) and (p) and assuming s = 21rRn, we obtain
a lateral load, Fig. 181, we have to take into ac- 2 2
E
count not only deflections produced by bending = 1 + 2 = 1rnPf
3EI
R( 3R
I + 2G + /2 .
)
(279)
moment but also deflections produced by shearing
force. Assuming that the end O of the spring is The last term in the parenthesis represents the effect of shear action.
Fm. 1 81 fixed and that a is small, we obtain the deflection It is negligible if the radius R of the helix is small in comparison
1 of the upper end .I of the spring produced by with the length /. 34
the bending moment action from the usual cantilever formula by 34
Lateral buckling of helical springs under axial compression is dis-
substituting the value (278) for flexural rigidity. Hence
cussed in "Theory of Elastic Stability," p. 165.
au
e=-=--
1rVR
av El Fra. 182.
in which 0 is the angle between the x axis and the radius O.d, r is the
distance of the point from O and k = 1/(a + sin 2a) is a factor
CHAPTER VII depending on the angle 2a of the wedge.
tlllt l
...
The distribution of normal stresses <rx over any cross section mn
1'0
STRESS CONCENTRATION ~ lf perpendicular to the axis of symmetry of the wedge is not uniform.
Using eq. (17) (see p. 36, Part I) and substituting r = ajeos 0 in
57. Stress Concentration in Tension or Compression-cd' . eq. (a) above, we find
Members.-In discussing simple tension and compression it J 2
<r,, = <rr cos 0 =
kP cos 4 0
ah (b)
was assumed that the bar has a prismatical form. Then for
centrally applied forces the stress is uniformly distributed over This shows that the normal stress is a maximum at the center of the
the cross section. A uniform stress distribution was also cross section (0 = o) and a mnimum at 0 = a. The difference
assumed in the case of a bar of variable cross section (see Fig. between the maximum and mnimum stress increases with the
angle a. When a = 10, this difference is about 6 per cent of the
14, Part I), but this is an approximation which gives satisfac-
average stress obtained by dividing the load P by the area of the
tory results only when the variation in the cross section is cross section mn. Analogous conclusions may be drawn for a
gradual. Abrupt changes in cross section give rise to great ir- conical bar. It may be shown that the distribution of normal
regularities in stress distribution. These irregularities are of stresses over a cross section approaches uniformity as the angle of
particular importance in the design of machine parts subjected the cone diminishes.
to variable external forces and to reversal of stresses. Irregu- This discussion shows that the assumption of uniform
larity of stress distribution at such places means that at certain distribution of normal stresses over a cross section of a non-
points the stress is far above the average and under the action prismatical bar gives satisfactory results if the variation in
of reversal of stresses progressive cracks are likely to start cross section along the bar is not rapid.
from such points. The majority of frac- However the conditions are quite different when there are
tures of machine parts in service can be abrupt changes in the cross section. Then the distribution
attributed to such progressive cracks. of stresses at the place of variation is very far from being
uniform and results obtained on the assumption of uniform
To illustrate the s.tress distribution in a
bar of variable cross section under tension, stress distribution are entirely misleading. Several examples
let us consider a symmetrical wedge of a of abrupt change in cross section are discussed in the subse-
constant thickness h loaded as shown in Fig. p quent two articles.
183. An exact solution has been found for this FIG. I s3
case 1 which shows that there is a pure radial , 58. Stresses in a Plate with a Circular Hole.-If a small circular
stress distribution. An element in the radial direction at a point hole 2 is made in a plate submitted to a uniform tensile stress <r, a
.d is in a condition of simple radial tension. The magnitude of this high stress concentration takes place at the points nn (Fig. 184, a) .
radial tensile stress is given by the equation The exact theory 3 shows that the tensile stress at these points is
equal to 3<r. It shows also that this stress concentration is of a very
<J' r = kP COS 0, (a) localized character and is confined to the immediate vicinity of the
hr hole. If a circle be drawn concentric with the hole and of com-
1 See paper by A. Mesnager, Annales des Ponts et Chausses, 1901. 2 The diameter of the hole is less, say, than of the width of the
See also l. H. Michell, London Math. Soc. Proc., Vol. 32 (1900) a11d plate.
3
Vol. 34 (1902). The problem is discussed also in "Theory of Elasticity," This theory was given by Kirsch, V. D. l., 1898. See also "Theory
p. 9.'3, 1934. .of Elasticity," p. 75, 1934.
312
314 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 315
paratively large radius e, as shown in Fig. 184 (a) by the dotted from which, after integration,
line, it can be assumed that the stress condition at the circum-
ference of this circle is not materially affected by the presence of M 0 = 2uc2 [ l - ,171" - !!___ ( I - ~ ',T) + C11" + R (11" - 2)] . (e)
7 8 u 4 ~ u
the hole. Let Fig. 184 (b) represent a circular ring cut out of the
plate by a circular cylindrical surface of radius c. At each point Here, as before, R is the radius of the center line and e the distance
of the outer surface of this ring we apply vertically directed stress of the neutral axis from the centroid of the cross section.
of magnitude u sin 'P, i.e., equal to the stress on the corresponding The stress at the point n of the cross section mn of the ring
elemental area / of the plate (see eq. 16, Part I); then the stresses consists of two parts: ( 1) the ten sil e stress produced by the longi-
in the ring will be approximately the same as in the portion of tudinal force No and equal to
the plate bounded by the circle of radius e (Fig. 184, a). In this
No uc
manner the problem of the stress <T = h = h, (d)
(T
distribution near the hole in a plate
is reduced to that of an annular and (2) the bending stress produced by Mo which is, from eq. (66),
ring of rectangular cross section
~
subjected to known vertical forces
of intensity u sin <P continuously u = Moh1 = Mo ( - e) = Mo ( l - 2e), (e)
distributed along its outer bound- 2
/Jea /Jea 2ea h
ary.4 This latter problem may be
solved by using the method dis- in which a is the radius of the hole.
cussed on p. 8 1. Considering one The distance e is calculated by use of eq. (70) for various
(a) quadrant of the ring, the stresses values of the ratio e/a and then the quantities <T1 and u2 are deter-
acting across the cross section mn mined from eqs. (d) and (e). The maximum stress is
(b) are reduced to a longitudinal ten-
FIG. 184 . sile force No at the centroid of the
cross section and a bending couple The results of these calculations are given in the table 22 below.
Mo, The longitudinal force can be determined from the equation
of statics and is TABLE 22
No = uc. (a)
e/a= 3 4 5 6 8 10
The moment Mo is statically indeterminate and is calculated by
use of the theorem of least work. Equation (88), p. 84, is used for 2e/h ............... 0.1796 0.2238 2574 0.2838 3 239 o.3536
the potential energy, in which the longitudinal force and the bend- u/u ............... 1.50 1.33 1.25 1.20 1.14 l.II
ing moment at any cross section of the ring, determin.;d by the angle u2/u .............. 233 1.93 1.83 1.83 1.95 2.19
<P (Fig. 184, b), are Urnax/u .......... ... 3- 83 3.26 3.08 3.o3 3.o9 3.3o
cracks usually start at points mas shown in Fig. 185 (b). the decrease in cross section of the plate due to
~
Having the stresses for simple tension or compression and using the hale and .A2 = (b - t 1)t the cross sectional
the method of superposition, we readily obtain the stress concen- area of the bead, the ratio <Tmaxf<T far several
tration for the cases of combined tension or compression in two per- values of the ratio .A2/.A1 is given below:
pendicular directions. For example, in the case shown in Fig. 186(a) A2/A1 = 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40
we find that the tangential stress at points n is 3(J'u - (J',, and at <Tmaxf<T = 2. 53 2. 17 1.90 1.69 Fm. 187.
p::>ints m the stress is 3(1',, - (]'11 In the particular case of pure shear 5
Discussion of this problem is given in the author's paper, Journal
we have of the Franklin lnstitute, Vol. 197, p. 505, 1924. It is assumed that
<Tz; = - <Ty = <T the entire cross section of the bead is effective.
318 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRA TION 319
The above figures can be used also in the case of other shapes of dicular to the direction of forces tend to spread. This spread-
bead cross section provided the dimension t of the bead in the radial
ing can be stopped by drilling hales at the ends of the crack
direction can be considered as small in comparison with the radius
a of the hole. Take, for instance, a wide plate in tension, / 6 in. to eliminate the sharp corners at the ends of the crack which
thick, with a circular hole of 40 in. diameter. Let the edge of the produce high stress concentration.
hole be stiffened wi th two angle irons 4 X 4 X 1\ in. In such a Small semi-circular grooves in a plate subjected to ten.;ion
case A2/A1 = 0.40 and the above table gives <Tmax : cr = 1.69. (Fig. 188b) also produce high stress concentration. Experi-
ments 8 show that at points m and n the stresses are about
59. Other Cases of Stress Concentration in Tension
Members.-There are only a few cases in which, as in the three times the stress applied at the ends of the plate, if
case of a circular hale, the problem on stress concentration is the radius r of the groove is very small in comparison with
the width d of the mnimum section. In general the maximum
solved theoretically. In most
cases our information regarding iz~~---------------------,--,----,
maximum stresses at points of lb) -zrt- (a) zd ~ -
b
_i_
sharp change in cross section
3.01---
Z.8~
~ fi TO
Zr CIRCULA~ MOLE
y tt ~
FILLETS
is obtained from experiments. 6 .:;EMlCIRCULAR GROOVE5
mOtwr Z.6
a-l - In our further discussion we ~r,.,,_
2.4k,---l-~,P,....J::---+-+-+--+-+-!-+-+-+-!:--+-+--t-t--t--t--t--1
shall limit ourselves to the final
results of sorne theoretical and
2.2
1
\
I'-.. ----...1;
~--
o- e.o
cr experimental investigations,
{a) {b)
Fm. 188.
which may be of practica!
significance.
In the case of a small elliptical hale in a plate 7 (Fig. 188a) 1.4
'/4
(a) Fm. 189.
and for the case of fillets (curve III). In Fig. 190 more in- the factor of stress concentration, i.e., the ratio of the maximum
formation regarding stress concentration at fillets is given. stress at the points m and n to the average tensile stress over the
cross section mn, can be represented by the following approximate
In Fig. 191 the factors k are given for grooves of various
formula: 11
depth having a circular shape at the bottom. lt is seen that
U, k = ~o.8 ~ + 1.2 - 0.1 (b)
u
z.z
""o:
:;j ~oo~
in which d is the width of the mnimum section and r is the radius
~
L--G.I
~ - L..--- L...-- o.z of curvature at the bottom of the groove. It is interesting to note
-
-- -- --
zo
~ /
J..,---- L.--
the values of k obtained from this formula are in very good agree-
--
./"' hn
ment with experimental results obtained for deep grooves (h/r = 4)
~/ - -e::::
1.8
k e--
lO ..,
Z.8 1--.,, ~;
u
y
!-:"rf;,s
.,v
~
/'
1-- -- i---
1--Q?
zs
-: ~; I: /
/
./'
p
Z.4
~i 1// -- --- c---
O.\S ' -
1~
// V - -- -- -- ~~ Assume now that Fig. 192 represents an axial section of a
'1//; V
,_ circular cylinder of a large diameter with deep grooves of a hyper-
1.6 -- ~-- - - ~- ~-'!... bolic profile under an axial tension. The maximum tensile stress
r O.!i2
1.4
1.Z
1/ - >-- .._ .... 0.1s
again occurs at the bottom of the groove and the value of the factor
of stress concentration is 12
~ + 0.85 + 0.08.
1.0
o 1.0 z.o 3.0 4.0
h/r (e)
) i ~*~t
z,.~ 1-
i ! k = ~-5
The comparison of this formula with formula (b) shows that in the
Fm. 191.
case of a grooved cylinder the stress concentration is smaller than
for deep grooves the factors of stress concentration are larger in the case of a grooved plate. A further discussion of this com-
parison is given later (see art. 62).
than those for semi-circular grooves with the same value of r/d. In the case of a cylinder in tension with an ellipsoidal cavity
The case of a plate of a very large width with hyperbolic grooves, at the axis, far which Fig. 188 (a) can be considered as an axial
Fig. 192, can be treated theoretically. 10 The solution shows that 11 The Poisson ratio is taken equal to 0.3 in formulas (b), (e) and (d).
12 H. Neuber, loe. cit., p. 320.
10 H. Neuber, Zeitsch. f. angew. Math. u. Mech., Vol. 13, 1933, p. 439.
322 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 323
section, the maximum tensile stress occurs at points m. Its value stretching beyond the yield point without great increase in
is given by the following approximate formula stress. Due to this fact, the stress distribution beyond the
yield point becomes more and more uniform as the material
CTmax = cr ( ~o.8 ~ + 0.05 + 0.78) (d) stretches. This explains why, with ductile materials, hales
and notches do not lower the ultimate strength when the
where cr is a uniform tensile stress applied at the ends of the cylinder notched piece is tested statically. Moreover, in testing mild
and r is the radius of curvature of the ellipse at points m. steel specimens with deep grooves, a certain increase in the
ultimate strength is usually obtained, due to the fact that the
The standard tensile test specimen for concrete, Fig 193, grooves prevent necking of the specimen at the cross section
is another example of a tension member with sharp variation of fracture (see p. 421).
in cross section. Experiments show 13 that the
maximum stress occurs at points m and n and /(
ment. In the case of ductile structural steel high stress The velocity of the circulating fluid at any ~oint is taken as
concentratioa is not dangerous provided there is no alternating representing the shearing stress at that pomt of the c~oss
stress. For instance, in the construction shown in Fig. 194, . n of the bar when twisted. The effect of a small hole m a
sec t 10 d
the stresses are very often so high that yielding occurs at m haft of circular cross section is similar to that of mtro u~mg a
and n, but this yielding is not considered dangerous because :tationary solid cylinder of the same size into the stream m the
the structure is subjected to the action of a constant force. hydrodynamical model. Such a cyl~nder g~eatly changes the
In the case of brittle material, points of stress concentration elocity of the fluid in its immediate ne1ghborhood. The
may have a great weakening effect, and such places should be :elocities at the front and rear points are reduced to zero,
eliminated or the stress concentration reduced by using while those at the side points m and n are doubl:d. A hol~ of
generous fillets. this kind therefore doubles the maximum stress m th~ P?ruon
In members subjected to reversa! of stress the effect ot of the shaft in which it is located. A small semz-czrcu~ar
stress concentration must always be considered, as progressive groo ve on the surface parallel to the length of the shaft (F1g.
cracks are liable to start at such points even if the material is 5) has the same effect. T_he shear in :he neighborhood of
19
ductile (see art. So). the point m will be nearly tw1ce the shearmg stress calculated
for points on the surface of the shaft far away ~rom the groove.
60. Stress Concentration in Torsion Members.-In dis- The same hydrodynamical analogy explams the_ eff~ct_ of
cussing the twisting of bars of various cross sections (see arts. a hale aj elliptical cross section or of a groove of semz~ellzp!zc_al
50 and 51) it was mentioned that reentrant corners or other cross section. If one of the principal axes a of the elhpse ts m
sharp irregularities in the boundary line of the cross section the radial direction and the other principal axis is b,_ the stress~s
cause high stress concentration. Longitudinal holes have a at the edge of the hole at the ends of the a a~is are mcreased m
similar effect. the proportion [1 + (a/b)]: I. The max1mum_ stress pro-
As a first example let us consider the case of a small duced in this case thus depends upon the magnitude of t~e
circular hale in a twisted circular shaft 16 ratio a/b. The effect of an elliptic_al h?l~ on the _stre~s 1s
(Fig. 195). In discussing this problem the ,rea ter when the major _axis of the :lhpse B m_ the ra~ial d1rec-
hydrodynamical analogy is very useful. 17 The tion than when it runs c1rcumferent1ally. Th1s explams why a
problem of the twisting of bars of uniform radial crack has such a weakening effect on the strength of .
o
cross section is mathematically identical to~hat shaft The above discussion applies also to the case of a semt-
of the motion of a frictionless fluid moving with elliptical groove on the surface parallel to the axis of the shaft.
Fm. 1 95. uniform angular velocity inside a cylindrical In the case of a keyway with sharp corners
shell having the same cross section as the bar. (Fig. 1 96), the hydrodynamical ana~ogy i?-
16 This case was investigated by J. Larmour, Phi!. Mag., Vol. 33,
dicates a zero velocity of the circulatmg flmd :
1892, p. 76. at the corners projecting outwards (points
17 This analogy was developed by Lord Kelvin and Tait, Natural m-m); hence the shearing stress in the corre-
Philosophy, Vol. 2; J. Boussinesq, Journal de Mathmatique (Liouville), sponding torsion problem is equal to zero at Fm. 1 96.
Vol. 16, 1871, and A. G. Greenhill, article "Hydromechanics," Encycl.
Brit., 9th ed. Regarding the applicatin of the analogy in experiments
such corners. At points n-n, 'the vertices of
see the paper by J. P. Den Hartog and J. G. McGivern, "Journal of the reentrant angles, the velocity of the circulating fluid is
Appl. Mech.," Vol. 2, p. 46, 1935. . theoretically infinite. In the corresponding torsion problem
327
STRESS CONCENTRATION
326 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
. 8 hich shows a meridional section through mn, the principal
the shearing stress is also infinite at the points n-n, which F 1g. 19 , w h. . t
curvatures of the membrane at t is pom are
means that even a small torque will produce permanent set at
these points. Such stress concentration can be reduced by l di{) Jr
rounding the corners n-n. Ri = J; = dr
Experiments made 18 on a hollow shaft of outer diameter 10 for the meridian (taking an element ds of
in., inner diameter 5.8 in., depth of keyway I in., width of the meridian equal to dr), and
keyway 2.5 in., and radius of fillet in corner of keyway r,
l T
showed that the maximum stress at the rounded corners is - =-
equal to the maximum stress in a similar shaft without a R2 r
keyway multiplied by the factor k given in the table below: for the section perpendicular ~? t~e me-
r1 ian.
The equation of equ1hbnum of
) . h
TABLE 23 the membrane, from eq. (157 ' is t en
r inches = o.r 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 o.6 0.7
Jr T p
k = 5.4 3.4 2.7 2.3 2.r 2.0 r.9
dr +r= s
This shows that the stress concentration can be greatly or, by using eq. (a), art. 50,
diminished by increasing the radius at the corners n.
dr G
The weakening effect of stress concentration in shafts due -dr +-r = T
2 0. (a)
Fra. 198.
to hales and grooves depends on whether the material is
ductile or not and the conclusions made in the previous article Let To denote the average shearing d
apply here as well. stress, obtained from eq. (258). From eq. (259) we then fin
If a tubular member has reentrant corners, there is stress con- dr T ToS (b)
centration at these corners and the magnitude of the maximum
dr + ;. = 2G0 = A '
stress depends on the radius of the corners.
The approximate value of this maximum stress . h length of the center l.me o f th_e section of the
in whic h s 1s t e f (b)
can be obtained from the membrane analogy. tubular member. The general solution o eq. is
Let us consider the simple case of a tube of
constant thickness, and assume that the c~ner C ToSr (e)
is bounded by two concentric circles (Fig. 197)
T =-;: + 2A
with center at O and radii r; and ra. The sur- . b d f m the condition: 20
Frn. 197. face of the membrane at the cross section mn The constant of integrat1on C is o tame ro
may be assumed to be a surface of revolution ra
with axis perpendicular to the plane of the figure at 0. 19 We
have seen that the slope of the membrane surface at any point
M is numerically equal to the shearing stress r. Referring to . . f
i , rdr = roh.
s
I - +1 (r,, + T;) sfc
k = 1.74 '\Jr
C = Toh
experimental method of measuring the maximum stress is In Fig. 201 is shown a second system of lines in the dia-
given. This uses an analogy between the stress distribution metral section. These lines are perpendicular to the equimo-
in a twisted shaft and the distribution of electric current mental lines and ~.re called equiangufar fines. The~ corre-
in a plate. 25 spond to'sections of the shaft which are called ~quzangufar
Let us begin with a circular shaft of constant diameter. surfaces and which are so taken that the _angle of tw1st between
Imagine such a shaft divided into elemental tubes such that two consecutive equiangular surfaces 1s constant. along the
each tube takes an equal portian of the total torque M 1 length of the shaft. Let flcp be this angle. In th1s case the
In Fig. 201, far instance, the shaft is divided into five por- equiangular surfaces are equidistant planes, and let a be ~he
tions each carrying M1. These tubes will be called equimo- distance between them. Then at any radius r the sheanng
mental tubes, and the corresponding lines in a diametral stram 1s
Equimomenfol
Tub,$
Let us consider a shaft of variable diameter as shown in The electric analogy, mentioned above, provides a means
Fig. 200. The irregularities in stress distribution produced far measuring the distances a between the equiangular lines.
at the fillets are of local character. At sufficient distance These distances are measured at the surface of the shaft of
from the junction of the two diameters the stress distribution smaller diameter d, first at a point remote from the cross sec-
is practically the same as in a shaft of uniform cross section, tion of discontinuity, and then at the fillet. The ratio of these
and the two systems of lines described above can be con- two distances gives [see eq. (e)] the factor by which the stress,
structed in the diametral section (Fig. 202). Near the cross as calculated by the usual formula, must be multiplied to
section of discontinuity, the stress distribution is a more obtain the maximum stress at the fillet. In discussing the
complicated one and the equimomental and equiangular lines electric analogy, we begin with the case of a rectangular plate
become curved. Analysis of the problem shows 27 that,
although curved, these lines remain mutually orthogonal and
subdivide the diametral section into curvilinear rectangles as
indicated by the shaded areas.
'
1
r
Also eqs. (d) and (e), which were l
derived for a uniform shaft, are o
shown to hold here, if we take for FIG. 204.
FIG. 203.
h and a the dimensions measured
at the middle of each curvilinear of uniform thickness (Fig. 203). If the ends of the plate are
,, rectangle. Then the equimomen- maintained ata constant difference of potential, there will flow
tal and equiangular lines give a through the plate an electric current unifo~mly d~stributed
complete picture of the stress dis- over its ross section. By dividing the electr1c flow mto equal
tribution in the shaft. Consider- parts we obtain a system ~f equidis~ant stream fines. _The
ing, for instance, the equimomental system of equipotentiaf fines 1s perpend1cul~r to these. ':'71th a
lines and using eq. (d), we see that homogeneous plate of uniform cro_ss s~ct1on the drop m po-
the stresses increase with decrease tential will be uniform along the d1rect1on of the current and
in the radius and thickness of the the equipotential lines are therefore equidistant vertical lin~s.
FIG. 202.
equimomental tubes. lt is evi- In order to get two systems of lines analogous to those m
dent from the figure that the stress is a maximum at the fillets, Fig. 201, the thickness of the plate is varied as the ~ube of the
where the thickness h of the outer equimomental tube is distance r as shown in Fig. 204 (b). Then the d1stance be-
28
the smallest. We come to the same conclusion also by ~on- tween the 'stream lines will be inversely proportional to the
sidering the equiangular lines. lt can be seen from the figure cube of r and the distance between the vertical equipotential
that at the fillets the distance a between these lines is very lines rem,ains constant as before. In this manner we can ob-
small; hence, from eq. (e), the stress is large. From eq. (d) tain the same system of mutually orthogonal lines as in Fig.
or (e) we can determine the ratio of the maximum stress at 201. The edge 0-0 of the plate corresponds to the a~is of the
the fillet to the stress at any other point provided the equi- shaft. The equipotential lines correspond to the eqmangular
momental or equiangular lines re known. 2s Jt is assumed that the flow per unit area of cross section is uniform
27 See the paper by F. A. Willers, loe. cit., p. 329. over the cross section.
334 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 335
line~, and the stream lines to the equimomental lines of the The results of such tests in one particular case are represented
tors10nal problem. lnvestigation shows 29 that this anal in Fig. 206, in which the potential drop measured at each
al~o holds in t~e case of a plate of two different widths an~ point is indicated by the length on the normal to the edge of
th1~kness v~rymg _as the cube of the distance r (Fig. 205). the plate at this point. From this figure the factor of stress
Th1s makes 1t poss1ble to investigate the stress concentration concentration is found to be 1.54. The magnitudes of this
at ~he _fillet of a twisted shaft by an electric method. We factor obtained with various proportions of shafts are given in
mamtam a constant difference in potential at the ends of the Fig. 207, in which the abscissas represent the ratios of the
plate _and measure the drop in potential along the edge mnp.
T~e d1stances a1 and a2 between equipotential lines ata remote
po1_nt m and at the fillet n respectively are thus obtained. The
rat1~ aif~2 of these distances gives the factor of stress concen-
3.2
'\
trat10n ror the fillet at n. 2.8
fJt 1
W----jf D
1.6
1.2
' i"'--.,
!'----.. t-,._
--.._
t:::z ~L
D
, ,= L0'l
--=
-e::
-~ -~-
(o} (t>J
0.8
Fm. 205.
Fm. 206.
grad1ent and to measure this maximum. The ratio of this F10. 207.
~ + 0.85 + o.os
z.o \ \
I.H-
1 __44\1\W-----t--l--+-+-+-+-+----1-+-t-t---+--+--t---t--t----1
\ \
where d is the minimum width of the plate and r the radius of 1.1i-_._-+~-l----+--1---+-+---+--+-t-+---+--+-l-+--j--t----jr---i
curvature at the bottom of the notch. k
1.6
\ I'\
1-_._-1--'>J~l---+--+---+-+----+--+--t-+---+--+-l'--t-----t----jr---i
In the case of a circular shaft with a hyperbolic groove, for
which Fig. 192 represents an axial section, the factor of stress 5_____.___.-J--l"-*l"-.~--+--+-+----4--4--t-----,1---t--t-+-t-t-t-1
concentration in the case of pure bending is
f'--._ l'----..1'...
1.4 __.____._._.:i,..._c--J.=::,.,,.-+--+-+---j-t---t----t-t-+--t---t----
"---...__r-----..~~1-.,.., 9<:u-...1---+-----1--1--1------+----,1-+--+--,
~:r + ~~ ~~ +
3
r---...,._ f-l:.!!.{~Roov E's
k = 4~ ( l +l) [ - (1 - 2) l + 4 + ] (/) 2
1---1---!--+---+-t-+--t--t--"-i'(ter-,3 ~
1 --r--- - - t - - - -
1 LL..L_j___j____j_--+-1-__j-l----l--1--+-+-+~::::::=p-f-4=J_
where
N d +
= 3 ( -2r l
) + (1 + 4) ~
-2r + l + ~ d '
1+
(g) Fm. 209.
l + -2r + l
/d
.!..o OS'
z.o
d is the diameter of the minimum cross section and r the smallest
radius of the curvature at the bottom of the groove. For large
,.. /
...
values of the ratio d/2r the expression (/) can be replaced with a
sufficient accuracy by the approximate formula
... - j
1.7
1.6
,___~
;
~
zj - 0.1
4 '12r I.S
/1 / - 0.27
~
1.4
Most of the information regarding the magnitude of the (/ V
factor k in equation (d) is obtained experimentally by' the
1.3
1.2
r - -- ,---- - os ~~~
photoelastic method. 32 The factors of stress concentration 1/
1.1
v~ '
for pure bending of plates with semi-circular grooves and
with fillets in the form of a quarter of a circle and D = d 2r + 1.00
' z.o 3.0 h/r "" 5. o 6.0
are given by the curves in Fig. 209. In Fig. 210 the factors
Fra. 210.
of stress concentration for fillets with various values of the
32
The curves given in the following discussion are taken from the For comparison of factors of stress concentration in tension
article by M. M. Frocht, loe. cit., p. 319. and in bending for plates and for circular shafts the curve~
340 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 341
in Fig. 212 are given. 33 The curves I and 2 giving the factors
..., . of stress concentration for a hyperbolic notch in a plate and in
z ~1 -g f ll f --1 f-zr 11 t
K~::Jli a circular shaft in tension are calculated from formulas (b)
z z.,__-~ r-l:'
i:
ero.os
11! ....
0.1
and (e) in article 59. The curves 3 and 4 showing similar
zo ,___a. . / g V
1--- ~
~
values for notches in pure bending are calculated from
k
1.8
/ - formulas (e) and (J), p. 338. It may be seen from these
... //' 0.2
curves that the factors of stress concentration are higher for
///- - -- -0.3
1.4 plates than for circular shafts, the difference being more pro-
LZ
//,.
/
- --- --- -- L-o.s
0.75 nounced in the case of tension. In the case of pure bending
which is of greater practica! importance, the difference be-
1.0 z.o :).O h/r 4.0
so
" tween the two cases is small, around 6 to 8 per cent for
FIG. 2II. notches of practica! dimensions. The dashed curves (5) and
(6) in Fig. 212 are obtained from the curves in Fig. 191
and 211 by extrapolating these curves to large values of the
-
40
~
--
>--
00
a) HYPERBOUC FORM
OF NOTCH
C()
b) CIRCUL#IR FORM
~
PLIINE NOTCH, C1RCUL#IR FORH ,(b) IN TENSION,
ri
~
"- 3.2
- PHOTOELASTtc TESTS
@PLANE NOTCH,CIRCULAR fORM,lb) IN &NDING,
PHOTOELA5TIC TE5T5
(!)PLIINE FILLl:l IN 61'NDIN<.,(CASI! b),cyd 2,
concentration depends principally on the magnitude of the
ratio r/d and not on the shape of the notch.
PHOTOELA.5TIC TESTS
f--
--CALCVLATEO CURVES, NEU6ER
The dashed curve (7) is obtained from the curves in Fig.
\ ----f)(PffflM[NTAL CURVES, FROCHT
210 and represents the factors of stress concentration at the
\\ \l<D fillets of a plate in pure bending with the ratio D/d = 2. It
\\ !lJ'
is seen that for fillets the factors of stress concentration are
[..@
Qlf\'
~, i\ '\ somewhat lower than for deep notches (curves 4 and 6) with
2.o
'
' l\'1\. ~ the same ratio r/d.
\ l\' ~ i...
1', ~----- ~ To obtain the factors of stress concentration for fillets
~ ~ ',.._ r---... t--..
--
1.6 ' ........ --.....; in circular shafts the direct test on large steel shafts with the
.... _
~ 1::::::- t:---
1.2
- -- -- --- ~
:-,-
~
diameter ratio D/d = 1.5 were made 34 at the Westinghouse
research laboratories. The values of these factors obtained
o a.z o.3 o.4 o.s by the direct measurement of strain at the fillets are given by
0.1
MIH. AAOtUS OF NOlCM OR FILLET "
IIATIO--: WIOTH 0fl DIA.OfMIN, 5ECTIQN the points in Fig. 213. For comparison, the results of photo-
FIG. 212. 33 This figure and the following are taken from the paper by R. E.
Peterson and A. M. Wahl, Journal of Applied Mechanics, Vol. 3, 1936,
p. 15.
34
R. E. Peterson and A. M. Wahl, loe. cit., reference 33.
342 STRENGTH OF M.ATERIAl ,S STRESS CO~CENTRATION 343
clastic expcriments on flat models with Dfd = 2 and Dfd = 1.5 in question. A very srnall gauge length, and hence very high
are given 30 n the same figure by the curves r and 2.. From rnagnification, is necessary to obtain satisfactory rcsultsY
thesc experiments thc very import,mt conclusion c,m be made A rough estimate of the factor of stress concentration
that thc stress concentration factors for the circular shafts may be obtained by loading the specimens or models of
agrec well with thc values obtained photodastically 011 flat structurcs with increasing loacls until yielding starts at the
spec1rncns. points of rnaxirnum stress. This yielding can be seen clcarl y
1 in specimens of rnild stccl with polishe<l surfaces. Figure 21 +
~ i ~
lO
1\
\
i; '
oJ SUArT FILLE 1 11< 61::PIDIN4
< d
T 1
\
,\
1\~
--
'
' .s,~=* ~
b)FLH BAH w1rn rtLLET IN BCND<NG
o ~AIN Mt;A:7:UHEMff'\IT,
1.6
1 1 (al, O/c1-1.S
'\_ 1
- PHOlOtLA"TIC TE.5T~. (b),
DfJZ, FROC!-iT
k --P><CTOElA5f!C TESTS.(b),
'
f!/d 1.5, FROCMT
IA
~I ! ! 1 1 \ \ 1
-~~
i ~ l !
r--,:__ i'
1.2
1
1
'i
.
1 1
7 1 1
..,
1
OJ C2 0.3
CA '/d 0.$
C.6
Fw. :113.
specimens and models apart and using a special etching In Fig. 217 abcd represents a transparent plate of uniform
process on the cut surfaces it is possible to reveal the interior thickness and O the point of intersection with the plate of a
regions which have yielded and thus obtain information re- beam of polarized light perpendicular to the plate. Suppose
garding the flow of metal at the points of stress concentration. 42 that OA represents the plane of vibration of the light and that
the length OA = a represents the amplitude of this vibration.
64. Photoelastic Method of Stress Measurements. - If the vibration is considered to be simple harmonic, the
There are many stress analysis problems in which the de- displacements may be represented by the equation:
formation is essentially parallel to a plane. These are called
two-dimensional problems. Illustrations are the bending of s = a cos pt, (a)
beams of a narrow rectangular cross section, bending of where p is proportional to the frequency of vibration, which
girders, arches, gear teeth, or, more generally, plates of any depends on the color of the light.
shape but of constant thickness acted on by forces or couples Imagine now that the stresses <1"' and <1 Y> differen t in
in the plane of the plate. Their shapes may be such that the magnitude, are applied to the edges of the plate. Due to the
stress distributions are very difficult to determine analytically difference in stresses the optical properties of the plate also
and for such cases the photoelastic method has proved very become different in the two perpendicular directions. Let v,,
useful. In this method models cut and Vy denote the velocities of light in the planes ox and oy
out of a plate of an isotropic trans- respectively. The simple vibration in the plane OA is re-
parent material such as glass, cellu- solved into two components with amplitudes OB = a cosa
loid or bakeli te are used. I t is well and OC = a sin a in the planes ox and oy respectively, and the
known that under the action of corresponding displacements are
stresses these materials become doubly
refracting and if a beam of polarized x = a cos a cos pt; y = a sin a cos pt. (b)
light is passed through a transparent lf h is the thickness of the plate, the intervals of time necessary
model under stress, a colored picture for the two component vibrations to cross the plate are
FIG. 217.
may be obtained from which the
h h
stress distribution can be found. 43 /1 = -V,, and 12 - Vy ' (e)
The application of the method in investigating stresses in machine parts
wa3 made by Dietrich and Lehr, V. D. l., Vol. 76, 1932. See also H. and vibrations (b) after crossing the plate are g1ven by the
Kayser, "Bautechnik," 1936, and A. V. de Forest and Greer Ellis, Journal equations:
of the Aeronautical Sciences, Vol. 7, p. 205, 1940.
42
See paper by A. Fry, Kruppsche Monatshefte, 1921; also Stahl u. Xi = acosa cos p(t - /1); y 1 = a sin a cos p(t - /2). (d)
E;sen, 1921.
43
The phenomenon of double refraction due to stressing was dis-
covered by D. Brewster, Phi!. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1816. It was further Co. Magazine, 1920, and Journal of Franklin Institute, 1925. For
studied by F. E. Neumann, Berlin Abh., 1841, and by J. C. Maxwell, further development of the photoelastic method see the paper by Henry
Edinburgh Roy. Soc. Trans., Vol. 20, 1853, and his Scientific Papers, Favre, Schweizerische Bauzeitung, Vol. 20 (1927), p. 291; see also his
Vol. 1, p. 30. The application of this phenomenon to the solution of dissertation: Sur une nouvelle methode optique de determination des
engineering problems was started 9y C. Wilson, Phi!. Mag. (Ser. 5), tensions intrieures, Paris, 1929. The use of monochromatic light, so
Vol. 32 (1891), and further developed by A. Mesnager, Annales des called "Fringe Method," was introduced by Z. Tuzi, "lnst. Phys. and
Ponts et Chausses, 1901 and 1913, and E. G. Coker, General Electric Chem. Research," Vol. 8, p. 247, 1928.
348 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 349
These components have the phase difference p(t2 - 11), due to where n is an integer. The maximum intensity of light is
the difference in velocities. Experiments show that the obtained when the difference in stresses is such that
difference in the velocities of light is proportional to the
fi - 12
difference in the stresses; hence smp-- = 1.
2
h h h(Vx - Vy)
f2 - f1 = - - - = ---- Imagine that instead of the element abcd, Fig. 217, we
V11 Vx VxV~
have a strip of a transparent material under simple tension.
=
h(v,, - Vy) (
approx1mate l y ) = k( Ux - u 11) , (e) By gradually increasing the tensile stress we obtain a dark
V2
picture of the strip on the screen each time equation (g) is
where vis the velocity of light when the stresses are zero, and fulfilled. In this manner we can establish experimentally for
k is a numerical factor which depends :on the physical proper- a given material of a given thickness the stress corresponding
ties of the material of the plate. We see that the difference of to the interval between two consecutive dark pictures of the
the two principal stresses can be found by measuring the specimen. For instance, for one kind of "phenolite" pla~e,
difference in phase of the two vibrations. This can be done by 1 mm. thick, this stress was found 44 to be 1,620 lbs. per sq. m.
bringing them into interference in the same plane. For this Hence for a pla te 1 / 4 in. thick, the corresponding stress will
purpose a Nicol prism (called the analyser) is placed behind be 1,620/6.35 = 255 lbs. per sq. in. With this information
the plate in such a position as to permit the passage of we can determine the stress in a strip under tension by count-
vibrations in the plane mn perpendicular to the plane OA ing the number of intervals between the consecutive dark
only. The components of the vibrations (d), which pass images occurring during the gradual loading of the specimen.
through the prism, have the amplitudes OB 1 = OB sin a If we use a strip in pure bending, we obtain a picture such
= (a/2) sin 2a and OC1 = OC cos a = (a/2) sin 2a. The re- as is shown in Fig. 218. The parallel dark fringes indicate
sultant vibration in the plane mn is therefore
= ( a sm 2a
/1 - /2) sm p ( t - /1 + /2)
sm p - --
2
~ (j)
.~
Fw. 218.
This is a simple harmonic vibration, whose amplitude is
proportional to sin p[(t1 -- 12)/2]; hence the intensity of ,the
that in the portian of the strip at a considerable distance from
light is a function of the difference in phase p(t 1 - t 2 ). If the
the points of application of the loads the stress distribution is
stresses u,, and u 11 are equal, /1 and / 2 are also equal, the
the same in all vertical cross sections. By counting the
amplitude of the resultant vibration (j) is zero and we have
. number of fringes we can determine the magnitudes of the
darkness. There will be darkness also whenever the difference
stresses, as the stress difference between two consecutive
in stresses is such that
fringes is the same as the stress difference between two con-
(g) 44 Z. Tuzi, Sci. Papers, Inst. Phys. Chem. Research, Tokyo, Vol. 12,
1929, p. 247.
350 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 351
45
secutive dark images in simple tension. By watching the h of the plate due to the stresses ux and Uy and using the
strip while the load is applied gradually, we may see how the known relation
number of dark fringes increases with increase of load. The .h ) (h)
new ones always appear at the top and the bottom of the
!:i.h = E (ux + Uy
strip and gradually move toward the neutral plane so that the
Having the difference of the two principal st:esses from the
fringes become more and more closely packed. The stress at photo-elastic test and their sum from e~pr_ess1on (h), we can
any point is then obtained by counting the number of fringes re"adily calcula te the magnitude of the principal stresses. ~he
which pass over the point. fringes obtained in a plate with fillet~ subm1t_ted ~o th~ act1on
The method of counting the number of dark fringes pass- of pure bending are shown as an 1llustrat1on m F1g. 219.
ing a chosen point can be used also far any plane stress distri-
bution. As it is seen from our previous discussion, this
number gives generally the difference between the two prin-
cipal stresses at the point. For a complete determination of
the stress at the point it remains then to find the directions of
the principal stresses and their sum. Equation (j) shows
that the intensity of the light passing through the analyzer is
proportional to sin 2a, where a is the angle between the plane
of polarization and the plane of one of the principal stresses,
Fig. 217. lf these two planes coincide, sin 2a is zero and we
obtain a dark spot on the screen. Hence in examining a
stressed transparent model in polarized light we observe not
merely the dark fringes discussed befare but also dark lines
connecting the points at which one of the principal stress
directions coincides with the plane of polarization. By ro-
tating both Ncol prisms, polarizer and analyzer, and marking
dark lines on the image of the stressed plate far v.arious direc-
tions of the plane of polarization, we obtain the system of so-
called isoclinic fines which join together points with the same
directions of principal stresses. Having these lines, we can FIG. 219.
draw the lines which are tangential at each p0int to the prin-
cipal axes of stress. These latter lines are called the trajec- From the fact that the fringes are crowded at the fillets it may
tories of the principal stresses, see p. I 23, Part l. Thus the be concluded that a considerable str~s concentration takes
directions of the principal stresses at each point of the plate place at those points.
can be obtained experimentally. 46 This method was suggested by A. Mesnager, loe. cit., P 346. The
The sum of the principal stresses can also be obtained necessary lateral extensometer was developed and successfully used by
A. M. Wahl, see paper by R. E. Peterson and A. M. Wahl, Journal of
experimentally by measuring the change t:i.h in the thickness Appl. Mech., Vol. 2, 1935, p. 1.
352 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 353
In the previous discussion of the photo-elastic stress ana- determined from the fact that the stresses CTr distributed along
ysis it was always assumed that we were dealing with two- the length of the semi circle shown in the figure by the dotted
dimensional problems. More recently considerable efforts line keep in equilibrium the load P. Hence
have been made to expand the photo-elastic method on three-
dimensional problems and sorne promising results have already 2h
r . 12
Jo CTr COS 8 rd8 = P.
been obtained. 46
Substituting for CT, its expression (a) we obtain
65. Stresses at the Point of Load Application.-ln dis-
cussing a symmetrical wedge under tension (see p. 312) it was 2
k=-1
indicated that in each point of that wedge there is only a
simple tension in the radial direction. By making the angle and expression (a) becomes
2a of the wedge equal to 1r and changing from tension to
2P cos 8
compression we obtain the case in which a concentrated force (T
T
=1- -hr-
is pressing normally on a straight edge of a large plate, Fig.
220. An element such as shown at point .d undergoes a If we consider a horizontal plane mn at a distance d from the
edge of the plate, Fig. 220, the normal compressive stress
p acting on that plane is
2P cos3 0 2P cos4 0
= cos2 0 = --:; :- = --:; 1ui (284)
w
CTy CTr
1
lt is seen that the pressure rapidly diminishes as the angle 0
increases. lt is seen also that the stresses increase with a
{b)
decrease of the distance d. Knowing the stresses produced
by the action of one concentrated load P and using the method
y of superposition we can readily discuss the cases in which
Fw. 220. severa! loads are acting. 47
If a concentrated force is acting at the middle of a rec-
simple compression in the radial direction and the compressive tangular beam of a narrow cross section of a depth d the highly
stress, from equation (a), p. 312, is concentrated stresses given by expression (283) are superposed
on bending sti;esses in the beam and a complicated stress
CTr = kp COS 8 (a) distribution results near the point of the load application.
hr The photoelastic picture of this stress distribution is shown
in Fig. 221. lt is seen that the perturbation in stress dis-
where r is the radial distance from the point of application
tribution produced by the concentrated load is of a localized
of the load and h the thickness of the plate. The factor k is
character and is of importance only in the clase vicinity of
46 See paper by M. Hetnyi, Jour-nal of Appl. Mech., Vol. 5, p. 149,
1938. See also R. Weller, Journal Applied Phys., Vol. 10, p. 266, 1939. 47 See "Theory of Elasticity," p. 82.
354 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 355
the point of application of the load. If we consider a cross of the beam in the loaded cross section is
section of the beam at a distance from the load larger, say,
than one half the depth of the beam, the stress distribution PI 6 P 3P
in that cross section is approximately that given by the simple
(<1x)y-d/Z = 4 . hd2 + 1rdh - 1rdh
beam formula. The number of fringes diminishes as the dis-
tance of the cross section from the load increases as it should = :/ . h~2 ( I - J~ f) . (d)
be since the magnitude of the bending moment decreases as
we approach the beam supports. The second term in the parenthesis represents the "wedging
By making the resultant of the horizontal components of action" of the load P. I t is seen that in the case of short
the radial pressures h<1,rd0 for each half of the dashed semi- beams this action is of a considerable magnitude. The photo-
elastic experiments are in a very satisfactory agreement with
expression (d). 48
~
The discussion of stress distribution at the point of appli-
= ~. cation of a concentrated load can be expanded on the case in
which instead of a plate, Fig. 220, we have a large bociy with
a plane surface on which a concentrated load is acting. lt
FIG. 22!.
can be shown that in this case the stresses are inversely
proportional to the square of the distance from the point of
circle in Fig. 220 (a), it can be shown that the concentrated
application of the load. 49
force P produces a "wedging" action represented in Fig. 220
(b) by the two equal and opposite forces of the magnitude P/1r. 66. Contact Stresses in Balls and Rol-
In the case of the beam of a depth d and thickness h, Fig. 221, lers.-If two elastic bodies, say two halls, are
these forces acting at a distance d/2 from the axis of the beam pressing on each other, a small surface of
produce in the middle cross section not only tensile stresses contact is formed as a result of local de-
formation. The pressures distributed over
this surface are called contact pressures.
(b) The magnitude of these pressures and the
stresses produced in the bodies can be cal-
but also bending stresses given by the expression culated by using equations of the theory
of elasticity. 50 We will give here only the Fw. 222 .
final results of such investigation. In the
(e) case of two halls compressed by forces P (Fig. 222) the pressure~
are distributed over a small circle of contact mn, the radius of which
in which Pd/21r is the bending moment produced by the hori-- 48
See experiments by Carus Wilson, loe. cit., p. 346.
zontal forces P/1r, y is the distance from the axis of the beam, 49
This problem was discussed by J. Boussinesq, see his book, "Appli-
taken positive downwards, and I. = hd/12 is the moment of cation des Potentiels," Paris, I 88 5. See also "Theory of Elasticity,"
inertia of the cross section. Superposing the stresses (b) p. 328, 1934.
50
This problem was solved by H. Herz, Gesammelte Werke, Vol. r,
and (e) upon the bending stresse.s given by the ordinary beam 1895. The discussion of the problem and the bibliography are given
formula, we find that tli.e tensile stress in the most remote fiber in "Theory of Elasticity," p. 339.
356 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
STRESS CONCENTRATION 357
is given by the equation:
surface of contact depends on the magnitude of the ratio P/d2, i.e.,
I I the maximum stress remains constant if the above ratio is kept
-+- constant. This justifies the usual practice of determining the safe
= o.SS a P Ei E2
diameter of the hall by taking a definite magnitude of load per
2 I I
-+-
di d2 square inch of the diametral section of the hall. Since the material
at the center of the surface of contact is prevented from lateral
In this Ei and E2 are the moduli of the two halls and di and d 2 the expansion, it is in a condition of compression from all sides and may
corresponding diameters. The maximum pressure occurs at the sustain very high pressures (see art. 83). In experiments 51 with
center of the circle of contact and is given by the equation: hardened crucible steel the allowable compressive force ,p in the
case of a hall pressed against a plane surface may be expressed by
p the equation:
Pmax = 1.5-
1ra2 (286)
Pmax = 7ood2,
Due to local deformation the centers of the halls approach one in which d is in inches and Pin pounds. Substituting in the second
another by the distance
of e_qs. (289), we find Pmax equal to approximately 530,000 lbs. per
sq. m.
>.. = o.77 '\J3 / 2P2 ( -E
I
+ -EI )2 ( -I di
+ -d2I ) . In the general case of compression of two bodies having the
i 2 same modulus E, let 1/r1 and 1/r1' denote the principal curvatures at
When the diameters of the halls and the moduli of elasticity are the point of contact of one of the bodies, and 1/r2 and 1/r2' of the
equal, the above equations become other, 52 'P the angle between the normal planes containing curvatures
I/r1 and 1/r2. The surface of contact for the general case is an
a14PE2 ellipse, the semi-axes of which are given by the equations
Pmax = 0.62 '\J7; (288)
a = a~; b = {3 ~ , (291)
When a hall of diamete'. d is forced against an elastic body having a
plane surface, th_e reqmred formulae are obt~ined by substituting in which Pis the compressive force and
di = d, d2 = 00 m eqs. (285)-(287). Assummg Ei = E 2 = E we
find for this case ' 4
m= . n= .
I I I I ' 3(1 - 2)
a/Pd
a = o.SS '\JI[;
a{Plfi -+,+-+,
Pmax = 0.62 '\J--;F; r1r1 r2 r2
The constants a and {3 are taken from the table 24 below for each
In the case ~fa ball in a spherical seat (Fig. the sign of d 2
223), particular case. The angle 0 in the first column of the table is
m eqs. (28 5)-(287) must be changed. Then for calculated. from the equation
the case Ei = E 2 = E, we find
Fro. 223.
-#' =o.SS
/P
'\Jiid2 -
Pmax
d1d2
=
d1;
the minimum
curvature of a
lt is interesting to note that in the ..cases represented by eqs. (288) hody is considered as positive if the corresponding center of curvature is
and (289) the maximum compressive stress at the center of the within the body.
358 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRA TION 359
in which In the particular case in which the moduli for both rollers are equal
A=-
2
B= /pi--;;;- 1 1 d1 + d2
m' b = 2.15 '\J E(d1 + d2); Pmax = 0.59 '\Jp E d1d2 (295)
If one of the diameters be taken as infinitely large as in the case of a
roller in contact with aplane surface, eqs. (293) and (294) reduce to
{P'd /P'E
TABLE 24.-CONSTANTS FOR CALCULATING THE SEMI-AXES OF THE ELLIPSE b= 2.l 5 '\JJf; Pmax = 0.59 '\JJ
OF CoNTACT
In the case of rollers in compression, Fig. 224, the contact area is a Solution. Using the notation of page 357,
narrow r~ctangle whose width b is given by
the equat10n: 53
r1 = ri' = -1.5 = 3.
- 1n. l in.;
2 4 '
- 4m.;
4 2.823
in which P' denotes the compressive force m -------=
per unit length of the roller. The maximum
unit pressure at the middle of the rectangle of
contact is
J 2
-+----- l 2
I
1.5 I.5 I 4
'
n
4 X 30 X
3 X 9 1
5
10
Fro. 225.
54
For testing of steel rollers see W. M. Wilson, Univ. of Illinois,
Engr. Exp. Sta. Bu!!. 162, 1927; 191, 1929; 263, 1934. See also V. P.
53 Jensen, Iowa Engr. Exp. Sta., Bu!!. 138, 1937. Fatigue test of rollers
See A. Foppl, TechniJche Mechanik, Vol. 5, 1907, p. 351. discussed in art. So.
360 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRESS CONCENTRATION 361
l
-= o n= .
r1' ' 3(1 - 2)'
A=- l ( r1-+-
2
l r2l) ;
55 The problem of contact pressures becomes more and more im-
= ih'
compression, we can find without difficulty the stresses pro- (d)
duced in the beam by a bending moment of a given magni-
{ uydA b uydy = M.
JA --:h2
tude.1 Let us begin with a beam of rectangular cross section,
Fig. 226, and assume that the radius of curvature of the neu- The first of these equations states that the sum of normal
forces acting on a cross section of the beam vanishes, since
these forces represent a couple. The second equation states
that the moment of the same forces with respect to the neutral
axis is equal to the bending moment M.
Equation (e) is now used for determining the position of
the neutral axis. From equation (a) we have
the neutral surface is Hence the position of the neutral axis is such that the integral
(a) udt vanishes. To determine this position we use the
[
1This theory has been developed by Saint Venant in his notes to the
curve AOB in Fig. 227, which represents the tension-compres-
N avier's book: "Rsum des le<;ons . . . . " 3d ed., p. 173, 1864.
See also
paper by Eugen Mayer, Physik. Zeitsehr., 1907 and Dissertation by H.
sion test diagram for the material of the.beam, and we denote
Herbert, Gottingen, 1909. by a the sum of the absolute values of the maximum elonga-
362
364 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS BEYOND ELASTIC LIMIT 365
tion and the maximum contraction, which is moment M can be calculated from the equation:
= Et - E2 = -
ht
r
+ -h2r h
= -
r (g) EJ =M
r '
To salve equation (J), we have only to mark the length A in which E, is the reduced modulus defined by the expression:
on the horizontal axis in Fig. 227 in such a way as to make
equal the two areas shaded in E, =
12
3
f.., <TEdE.
fT
ij_ the figure. In this manner we
2
(j)
Fra. 228.
-- 8
I
e _ _ __
1 l7
rb-i
and the flange is obtained from the equation
Et -
A
f' C
= h'
1
1
O ..__A~o.oo:!-=s-----,-o~o - - - - 1 ......
. 10 .I:!.. 0.0IJ
A r
frt:SI
l-b,--I
in which e is the thickness of the flange, Fig. 230. Having
determined the position of the neu-
tral axis and ohserving that the
FIG. 229. FIG. 230. expression in the parentheses of
equation (o) represents the mo-
lf instead of a rectangle we have any other symmetrical ment of the shaded areas in Fig. +
shape of the cross section, the width b of the cross section is 231 wi th respect to the vertical
variable, and equations (e) and (d) must he written in the axis through the origin O, we can
following form: readily calculare from equation (o)
1
l
the moment M, corresponding to
f_
-h2
h1
budy = r
Ez
bude = o, (/) the assumed value of A = h/r.
In this manner a curve similar
f h,
-h2
buydy = r2
E2
buede = M. (m)
to that shown in Fig. 229 can he
constructed for a heam of J_ sec-
tion. An I heam can also he
Take as an example the case of a J_ section, Fig. 230. lf we
tr.eated in a similar manner. FIG. 231.
denote by e' the longitudinal strain at the junction of the web
and of the flange, the equations (/) and (m) can he written In the previous examples the tension-compression test diagram
in the following form: AOB was used for determining the position of the neutral axis and
the magnitude of the radius of curvature, r. If there exists an
f. '
ude + b 1
___! ude = o,
., b (n)
analytical expression for the curve AOB, the above quantities can
be obtained by calculation alone without using the graphical method
shown in Fig. 227 and Fig. 231. A very general equation for stress-
br2 ( 1 uede + [,' ~ uede ) = M. (o)
strain curves was used by Saint Venant. 2 He assumed that for
2
Loe. cit., p. 362.
368 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS BEYOND ELASTIC LIMIT 369
bending beyond the proportional limit the distribution of tensile law but has a modulus in tension different from its modulus in
and compressive stresses along the depth of the beam can be repre- compr;ssion. Substituting expressions (s) into equation (e) and
sented by the following equations: assummg that the beam has a rectangular cross section, we obtain
E1hi2 = E2h22,
u = uo[ I - ( I - ~ r], } (p) which, together with the equation h 1 +h = 2 h, gives
that the relation between the bending moment and the triangle ACB. Let M 0 be the magnitude of that bending
curvature is represented by equation (297) derived far pure moment up to which the material fallows Hooke's law. In
bending. Then the area-moment method (see p. 144, Part 1) such a case the portian mn of the beam is stressed beyond i ts
can be applied in calculating deflections beyond the propor- proportional limit and the reduced flexura! rigidity, which
tional limit. lt is only necessary varies along this portian of the beam, instead of the initial
to observe that the flexural rigid- flexural rigidity, must be used in calculating deflections.
ity in this case is not constant Proceeding as in the case of beams of variable cross section
o.a but varies with the magnitude of (see p. 211, Part 1), we divide the ordinates of the bending
0.6 the bending moment. To estab- moment diagram by the corresponding values of (3, taken from
/3 0.4 lish the relation between these Fig. 236. In this manner the modified bending moment
0,2
two quantities far rectangular diagram ADEFB is obtained. Considering the modified
oL---------- beams, we use the curve in Fig. bending mGment area as a fictitious load and proceeding in
M= E.~a 229. Far any value of Ll = h/r the usual way, we obtain the deflection at any cross section of
Fm. 236.
the ordinate AB gives the corre- the beam by dividing by El the bending moment produced
sponding value of the bending at that cross section by the fictitious load.
moment, and the ordinate AC represents the moment which We have discussed here only the case of a rectangular
we would have if the material fallowed Hooke's law. Hence beam, but the same method is applicable in other cases pro-
vided the curve far the factor (3, similar to that shown in
AB : AC = Er : E. Fig. 236, is obtained. Such a curve can be constructed by
In this way w~ obtain far each assumed value of th~ ?e?ding using the method illustrated in Fig. 231, or its ordinates can
moment the ratio EJ/EI of the reduced flexural r1g1d1ty to be calculated if the stress-strain relation beyond the propor-
the initial flexural rigidity of the beam. Denoting this ratio tional limit of the material is given analytically as by equations
(p) in the preceding article.
E. In the case of a material such as steel, which has a pro-
nounced yield point, Fig. 234, the bending of a rectangular
beam beyond the yield point does not mean immediate failure
of the beam. The yielding starts in the outermost fibers of
the cross section with the maximum bending moment while
the rest of the beam continues to work elastically. By
plotting a load-deflection diagram far such a beam, we find
FIG. 237,
that the shape of this diagram is quite different from the
stress-strain diagram far the simple tension test of steel.
by {3 we represent it as a function of the bending mo~ent M When yielding of the material begins, we obtain in the load-
by the curve shown in Fig. 236. To illus_trate how th1s c~rve deflection diagram only a slight deviation from a straight line,
can be used in the calculation of deflect10ns, let us cons1der and a considerable flattening of the curve occurs only at a
the case of a simply supporte.d beam loaded at the m_iddle, rnuch higher load when yielding spreads over a large portian
Fig. 237. The bending moment diagram in this case 1s the of the material of the beam. The amount of this flattening
374 STRENGTH OF MATERIACS DEFORMATIONS BEYOND ELASTIC LIMIT 375
of the load-deflection diagram and the magnitude of the corre- larger than the load that first produces yield-point stress in
sponding permanent deflection of the beam depend upon the the flanges. From this discussion it may be seen that when
percentage of plastic flow at the yield point in the tension- we take the loading which first produces a yield-point stress
compression test curve for the material. Assume, for ex- as the basis for determining the allowable stress in a beam,
ample, that plastic flow at the yield point is 1 per cent, i.e., the factor of safety for the loading which produces unper-
about fifteen times larger than the elastic elongation at the missible damage depends on the shape of the cross section.
proportional limit of structural steel. lf the outermost fibers In the case of a rectangular beam, this extra safety factor is
of the beam undergo this much plastic flow, the stress dis- considerably higher than in the case of an I-beam. In struc-
tribution will approach that represented by two rectangles, tural design this difference is usually disregarded, and beams
and the corresponding bending moment is then seen (equation of any cross section are designed on the basis of yield-point
301) to approach the value one and one-half times greater than stress.7 It is also usually assumed that up to this point our
the moment MY.P. at which yielding first begins. The curva- elementary formulas for calculating stresses, based on Hooke's
ture in this case, from equation (g) of the preceding article, is law, are sufficiently accurate.
In our discussion of bending of beams by transverse loads
l 0.03 it was assumed that the problem was statically determinate
,. = 7i = T
so that the construction of the bending moment diagram did
This large curvature will occur only in those portions of the not require any discussion of the deflection curve. In the
beam where the bending moment approaches the above high statically indeterminate cases the problem becomes more in-
value of 1MY.P. This indicates that there will be a tendency volved, since beyond the proportional limit redundant forces
for the bending to concentrate at the section of the maximum and moments are no longer proportional to the acting loads,
bending moment, and the deflection curve beyond the yield and the principie of superposition <loes not hold. Sometimes,
point will have a different shape from that below the elastic however, the problem can be simplified by using a symmetry
limit. In the case of bending of a beam by a force at the consideration. Assuming, for instance, that the ends of the
middle, Fig. 237, the yielding will occur principally at the beam in Fig. 237 are builtin, we conclude, from symmetry,
middle, where a considerable curvature will result, while the that the bending moment vanishes at the quarter points, and
remaining portions of the beam will be only slightly bent. the deflection curve consists of four identical portions which
lf, instead of a salid rectangular cross section, we take an can be obtained in the same way as for a cantilever loaded at
the end. In the case of a uniformly loaded beam with built-in
I-section, the effect of plastic flow at the yield-point stress on
ends we conclude from symmetry that the moments at the
the load-deflection diagram will be much more pronounced.
ends are equal. The magnitude of these moments can be
This is obvious since most of the material is concentrated at
obtained by trial and error method. I t is necessary to assume
the flanges of the beam, and consequently most of the fibers
sorne value for these moments and construct the modified
at the cross section of maxinum bending moment begin to
bending moment diagram, as explained for the case shown in
yield at about the same time. This yielding of material
Fig. 237. The correct value of the moments is evidently that
results finally in lateral buckling of the flanges. 6 Hence the value at which the total fictitious load, represented by the
maximum load that an I-bea;n may carry is only slighdy modified bending moment area, vanishes.
6 "Theory of Elastic Stability," p. 273. 7
Another way of beam design is discussed on p. 376.
376 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS BEYOND ELASTIC LIMIT 377
lt may be seen from the above discussion that in the case diagram for the critical condition, and determine the critica/
of bending beyond the proportional limit the calculation of v~lue of the load. For instance, in the case of a uniform load
redundant forces and redundant moments requires usually a F1g. 238, b, we find the critica! value of load intensity fron:
complicated investigation. In the case of such materials, the equation:
however, as structural steel, which has a pronounced yield qcr2
point, the analysis of statically indeterminate structures can -
8
- = 2Mu1t-
l_ :"-----.....::C~--==-.:L-
equal to Mu1t The corresponding bending moment diagram
is shown in Fig. 238, b. At this load the local bending at the
ends and at the center proceeds without any further increase
A z l=iJB
3
Fro. 238.
in load, and a considerable plastic deformati\:m will be pro- FIG. 239.
duced befare the hardening of material begins to counteract A s~milar discussion can be repeated for any other kind
the yielding. 0
loadmg of a beam with built-in ends and also for beams
~
lt was already shown (see p. 371) how the magnitude of Wtth other end conditions or for continuous beams in each
Muit can be calculated for a beam of a given cross section. ~ase the magnitude of the critica! load can be readily estab-
Knowing Muit, we can readily construct the bending moment ~tshed. For exam~l:, in Fig. 239 the bending moment diagram
8 Any hardening of material is entirely neglected in this discussion.
15 shown for the cnt1cal condition of the beam built-in at the
DEFORMATIONS BEYOND ELASTIC LIMIT 379
378 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
calculation is usually simpler than that required in determin-
left end, simply supported at th~ right ~nd, and loaded ~t the
ing the values of the loads at which yielding begins, since we
third point C. This diagram 1s readily co1:structed 1f we
do not need to go into analysis of the statically indeterminate
observe that at the critical condition the bendmg moments at
systems. 9
A and C are equal to Mu1t The critical value of the_ load at
lt was already indicated that under the action of the
which yielding at A and C proceeds without a further mcrease
critical loads the steel structures undergo considerable defor-
in the load is given by the equation: mation which is not permissible under normal service condi-
tions; hence it is important to consider those critical loads in
~ Pcrf = iMult
the design and to determine the safe load on the structure
9
dividing the magnitude of the critical load by a proper factor
In Fig. 2 40 the bending moment _diagram for ~he critical con- of safety. Such a procedure appears logical in the cases of
dition of a uniformly loaded contmuous beam 1s shown. The steel structures submitted to the action of stationary loads,
since in such cases a failure owing to the fatigue of metal is
~
excluded, and only failure due to yielding of metal has to be
1 - \ - considered. 10
M..1t 1
neutral plane and by measuring after each cut the elastic and a bending stress of the magnitude
deformation which ensues in the beam.
u,'bm(a - z)
(d)
Assume that the residual stress at the lower side of the beam is I.
tension of a magnitude u. Then the removal of a thin layer of a
Formulas (e) and (d) give us the changes in the stress of the fiber
thickness .:l, indicated in Fig. 242, b, evidently produces the same
mn owing to the removal of one !ayer. Taking now into consider-
deformation in the rest of the beam as would be produced by the
ation all thin layers by varying 2z from h to a, we obtain the total
application of the two equal and opposite forces ub.:l, shown in the
change in the stress of the fiber mn as follows:
figure by the dotted arrows. We shall find that after cutting off
the thin !ayer the axis of the beam acquires an elongation and a u,'.:l u,'bm(a - z)
curvature given by the formulas: 1:-+1: Iz ' (e)
2Z
uM _I_) = uM(h - .:1)12 ~ uMh. where u.' for each step is calculated from formula (b) by using in it
d(e) - Ebh' ( r (a)
d 2Eb(h - .:1) 3 2EI the measured values of d(1/r). The required residual stress <Fa in
the fiber mn is now obtained by subtracting the quantity (e) from
It is seen that if the curvature d(1/r) is measured, u, the magnitude the stress ua', which is found by substituting a for 2z in formula (b).
of the residual tensile stress in the most remote fiber, is readily Hence
calculated from the equation (a). The determination of the residual , u/.:l uz'bz.:l(a - z)
stress <Fa in a fiber mn at a distance a from the upper side of the u =u
a a
-1:---1:-----
n h U)
beam, Fig. 242, b, is more involved. By taking off one !ayer after
the other we finally reach the !ayer mn, and we can determine the This method of experimental determination of longitudinal residual
stress in it by using an equation similar to equation (a). This stresses can be applied not only in the case of bending but also in
stress, however, will have a magnitude ua' different from the residual other cases of prismatical bars submitted to longitudinal plastic
stress <Fa, since the cutting off !ayer after !ayer produces changes of deformation (see art. 71). It was, for example, successfully applied
stresses in the remaining portion of the beam. It is evident that in measuring residual stresses in cold drawn brass tubes. 11 To take
only after investigation of these changes will the determination of off thin layers of metal a special chemical solution was used in that
the required residual stress <Fa be possible. Let u~ as?ume that by work. The changes in curvature were measured optically. In this
taking off !ayer after !ayer we reached the fibers md1cated ~y the way complete information regarding residual stresses in cold drawn
dotted line in Fig. 242, b, at a distance 2z from the upper s1de of tubes can be obtained. Such information is of great practica!
the beam. If a new thin !ayer of thickness .:l is now taken off, the importance in developing the proper technique in manufacturing
stress uz' in this !ayer is obtained from the equation: tu bes.
b(2z) 3 70. Torsion Beyond the Elastic Limit.-Let us begin with
where I =--
12 the torsion of circular shafts and assume that beyond the
from which elastic limit the cross sections of the twisted shaft continue to
d(1/r)Elz
uz' = bz.:l
(b) 11
This method was developed by N. N. Dawidenkow, Journal of
Techn. Phys., Vol. 1, 1931, Leningrad, and Zeitschrift fr Metallkunde,
The removing of this !ayer will produce in the fiber mn a direct Vol. 24, 1932, p. 25. See also the doctor's thesis by C. G. Anderson, Uai-
versity of Michigan, 1935. Another method suitable for measuring
stress of the magnitude residual stresses in rolled sectiuns such as 1-beams and channels was
(e) developed by J. Mathar, Archiv fr das Eisenhttenwesen, Vol. 6,
1932-33, p. 277.
384 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS BEYOND ELASTIC LIMIT 385
tained from the diagram. The torque which is the known equation for torsion within the elastic
Mt which must be applied to produce limit.
the assumed magnitude 0 of the twist is now obtained from
the equation of statics:
If the material of the shaft has a very pronounced yield
point, the curvilinear portian of the diagram in Fig. 243 can
be replaced by the horizontal line with the abscissa 'TY.P.
i 21rr2dtr = Mt. (b) Hence, for a considerable angle of twist the distribution of
shearing stresses along a radius of the shaft approaches uni-
form distribution. The corresponding magnitude of torque
Substituting in this equation from equation (a) we call by (Mt)u1t lts value is obtained by substituting 'TY.P.
d-y for r in equation (b), which gives
'Y dr = -- ,
r = 0' 0 21ra 3
This theory was developed by Saint Venant, Journal de Mathe-
12
(Mi)uit = J 'TY.P. (e)
matiques, Vol. 16, 1871, p. 373. See also l. Todhunter and K. Pearson,
History of the Theory of Elasticity, V_ol;, 2, Pa_~t _I, ~: 170. For a further When the torque reaches this value, a further twist of the
discussion of this subject see A. Nadat, Plast1c1ty, 1931, J:: 126. . shaft proceeds without a further increase in torque up to the
1a Such a diagram can be obtained experimentally by ma~mg a torsion
point at which the hardening of the material becomes notice-
test on thin tubes. To eliminate the possibility of bucklmg, the_ wall
thickness can be only locally redced to a ~mall :'alue by makmg able. For comparison we calculate also the value of the
circumferential groov~ of a rectangular shape m a th1cker tube. torque (Mth.P. at which yielding begins. For this purpose we
386 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS DEFORMATIONS BEYOND ELASTIC LIMIT 387
use equation (d) and substitute in it the value of 0 at which given by the formula (e). The formula for the same torque
yielding begins. This latter value is obtained from equation and for the triangular stress distribution is obtained by sub-
(a) by taking r = a and 'Y = 'YY.P., which gives stituting Tmax for TY.P. in the formula (J):
shall call Puit, the entire wall of the cylinder is brought into This gives for the inner surface of the cylinder
the state of yielding. The distribution of stresses in the wall
a
at this yielding condition can be investigated without much (u,)r=a = 2TY.P. log b,
difficulty if we assume that the material has a very pronounced
yield point, which means that the yielding proceeds under the and the pressure which is required to bring the entire wall of
action of a constant shearing stress equal to TY.P. This gives the cylinder into the state of plastic flow is
us for every point in the region of plastic deformation the
a
equation: Pult = - (u,)r=a = - 2TY.P. log /;
<lt - <lr
2
= TY.P. (d) Taking again b = 2a, we find Puit = 2TY.P. log 2 = o.693(2ry_p.).
Having expression (303) for radial stresses, we obtain tan-
Another equation for determining the principal stresses u, gential stresses from equation (d), which gives
and <Tt is obtained by considering the equilibrium of an ele-
ment of the wall, shown in Fig. 142. From our previous dis- <lt = 2TY.P. ( l + logi)
cussion (see p. 236) the equation of equilibrium is
lf b = 2a, this expression becomes
du,
ut u' - r dr = o. (e)
+ log i)
-
(ui)r=a = 2TY.P. ( I = o.307(2rY.P.),
Substituting for the difference of the principal stresses its (<lt)r=b = 2TY.l'.
value from equation (d), we obtain
Ju, 2TY.P.
dr = -r- (J)
the interna! pressure, sorne residual stresses remam m the cylindrical surface separating the plastic region of the wall
wall of the cylinder. These stresses can be readily calculated from the elastic. There will be a radial pressure acting
if we assume that during unloading the material of the cylinder between these two regions which we shall call X. The mag-
follows Hooke's law. In such a case the stresses which are nitude of this pressure can be found fr:::im a consideration of
to be subtracted while unloading the cylinder are given by the outer, elastic, portian of the wall. The maximum shearing
the expressions (a) if we substitute in these expressions Puit stress Tmax in this portian is found from equation (b) by sub-
instead of p. These stresses for the particular case b = 2a stituting e instead of a and X instead of p in that equation
are shown in Fig. 247 by the curves s1f1 and mkn. The which gives
shaded areas then give us the residual stresses in the wall of Xb 2
the cylinder. It is seen that owing to the plastic deformation, T max = b2 - c2
= 11.3ll and (2) a short specimen for which l = 5d = 5.65 ...J A. . elongation befare fracture decreases,
In the case of rectangular specimens it is preferable to take the i.e., the material loses ductility.
same relation between the length and the cross sectional area The strength and the ductility are
as for circular specimens. 2 The length of the cylindrical the two important characteristics usu-
.23C
portian of the specimen is always somewhat greater than the ally obtained from the tensile test. 3 .//:Y.
gage length and is usually at least / +
d. The ends of the For defining the strength of a mate-
specimen are generally made of heavier section to prevent the rial the proportional limit, the yield
specimen from breaking in the grips of the testing machine, point and the ultimate strength are usu- ....__________,g
where the stress conditions are more severe, due to local ally determined (see p. 6, Part I). Fm. 2 49
irregularities in stress distribution. The long type of cylin- In determining the proportional limit sens1t1ve exten-
1A description of the procedure of testing and of testing machines someters are necessary to detect the slightest deviation from
can be found in the book by Batson and Hyde, Mechanical Testing, 3
1922. See also O. Wawrziniok, Handbuch d. Materialprfungswesens, A complete bibliography on tensile tests is given in the books by
Berlin, 1923, K. Memmler, Das Materialprfungswesen, Stuttgart, 1924, G. Sachs, "Der Zugversuch," Leipzig, 1926, and "Mechanische Tech-
and "Handbuch d. Werkstoffprfung," E. Siebel, 1940. nologie der Metalle," Leipzig, 1925. These books present modern de-
2 The British Engineering Standards Assn. recommends 8-in. gage velopments in investigating mechanical properties of materials. See also
C. W. MacGregor's paper presented at the Annual Meeting of Am. Soc.
length for rectangular specimens of plate material for boilers. _Test. Mat. 1940.
396
398 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 399
proportionality in the tensile test diagram. Obviously the Due to the relatively large stretching of the material at the
position faund far this limit depends a good <leal on the yield point it is not necessary to use sensitive extensometers to
sensitivity of the instruments. In arder to get a greater determine this point. It can be determined with the simplest
unifarmity in results, a certain amount of permanent set or a instruments or can be taken directly from the tensile test
certain deviation from proportionality is often taken as the diagram. For structural carbon steel the stress at yield point
basis far determining the proportional limit. The Inter- is about 55-60 per cent of the ultima te strength. Structural
national Congress far Testing Materials at Brussels (1906) steel with about I per cent Si has a stress at yield point about
defined the proportional limit, which experiments show to be 70-80 per cent of the ultimate which may be the same as far
the same as the elastic limit far steel, as that tensile stress at carbon steel. Such a high value far the yield point justifies
which the permanent set is 0.001 per cent. Recently there has the usual practice of taking higher working stresses far this
been a tendency to increase this limiting magnitude of perma- kind of steel.
nent set to 0.01 per cent. 4 There are materials which do not have a pronounced
The yield point is a very important characteristic far such yield point; in such cases the stress at which the permanent set
a material as structural steel. At this stress the specimen elon- (plastic elongation) reaches the value 0.2 per cent is sometimes
gates a considerable amount considered as the yield point. It must be kept in mind that
p
(in the case of mild steel sorne- the yield point defined in this manner <loes not represent a
e times more than I per cent) definite physical characteristic of the material and its position
without increase in load. depends upan the arbitrarily chosen permanent set. In the
Sometimes the yielding is ac- case of structural steel with a pronounced yield point the
com panied by an abrupt de- amount of stretching at yield point is usually greater than 0.2
crease in load and the tensile per cent and the actual yield point coincides with that defined
oL------------=e..uG test diagram has a shape such by the above 0.2 per cent permanent set limit.
as is represented in Fig. 250. The ultimate strength is usually defined as the stress
Fw. 250.
In such a case the upper and obtained by dividing the maximum load reached befare
lower limits of the load ata and b, divided by the initial cross breaking the specimen, point e in Fig. 250, by the initial cross
sectional area, are called the upper and lower yield points sectional area. This quantity is very often taken as a basis
respectively. The position of the upper yield point is affected far determining working stresses.
very much by the speed of testing, the farm of the specimen The area under the tensile test diagram Oacde (Fig. 250)
and by the shape of the cross section. 5 The lower yield point represents the work required to produce fracture. This
is usually considered as a true characteristic of the material, quantity is also sometimes used as a characteristic property
which can be used as a basis for determining working stre~ses. 6 of the material. It depends on not only the strength but also
4 See paper by P. Ludwik, "Bruchgefahr und Materialprfung,"
the ductility of the material.
Schweiz. Verband fr die Materialprfungen der Technik, Bericht, nr. The ductility oj metals is usually considered to be charac-
13, 1928, Zrich. terized by the elongation of the gage length of the specimen
5 See paper by Khnel, V. D. l., Vol. 72, 1928, p. 1226, and paper by
during a tensile test and by the reduction in area of the cross
M. Moser, Forschungsarbeiten, nr. 295, Berlin, 1927. See also C. W. section at the fracture.
MacGregor, Trans. A. S. M. E., Vol: 53, 1931, p. 187.
6 C. Bach first inrlicated the importance of determining the lower
yield point. See V. D. l., Vol. 58, 1904, p. 1040, and V. D. l., Vol. 59,
1905, p. 615.
400 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 401
In the first stage of plastic elongation, from a to e in the this shape affects the elongation of the specimen. This shows
diagram, Fig. 250, the specimen elongates uniformly along that comparable results with respect to elongation can be
its length and this uniform elongation is accompanied by a obtained only by using geometrically similar specimens.
uniform lateral contraction so that the volume of the specimen The reduction in area at the cross section of fracture is
remains practically constan t. 7 At the point e the tensile force usually expressed in per cent of the original cross sectional
reaches a maximum; further extension of the specimen is area as follows:
accompanied by diminishing of the load. At this stage of q = 100, (b)
plastic elongation the deformation becomes localized, necking
begins, and the specimen takes the shape shown in Fig. 251. in which Ao is the initial cross sectional area and A 1 the final
lt is difficult to determine with accuracy the mo- cross sectional area at the fracture.
ment when necking begins and to establish separ- lf we assume that longitudinal strain is uniformly distrib-
ately the magnitude of the uniform stretching and uted over the cross section of fracture and that the volume
the magnitude of the elongations due to necking. of the material is constant, the unit elongation E1 at this cross
m n lt is customary, therefore, to measure the total in- section is determined by the equation
crease in the gage length when the specimen is frac-
tured. The elongation is then defined as the ratio of
A1(I + E1) = Ao,
from which
this total elongation of the gage length to its initial Ao
E= - - l
Fm. 251 . length. In practice the elongation at fracture is A1
usually given in per cent. lf l is the original gage or, using eq. (b),
length and o the total elongation, the elongation at failure E=-~-
q
(e)
in per cent is 100 - q
o This quantity is sometimes called 8 the ejfective elongation.
E = / IOO. (a)
lt is usually much larger than
This elongation is usually taken as the measure of the ductility the elongation E = o/l deter- d'I
of a material. Elongation obtained in this manner depends on mined from the total elongation
the proportions of the specimen. The increase in the gage o of the gage length. Sorne re-
length, due to necking, is a large part of the total increase and sul ts in static tests of certain e
is practically the same far a short gage length as it is far a long steels are given in the table on
one. Hence the elongation as defined by eq. (a) becomes pp. 497-498.
larger the shorter the gage length. Far steel the elongation
In defining the yield point and
obtained far specimens with l = 5d is usually 1.22 as large , the ultimate strength the area used o ~ - - - - - - - - ~ f :
as obtained far a specimen of the same material with l = 10d. in calculating the stress was taken
2 2
Experiments show also that local deformation at the neck as the original cross sectional area. Fm. 5
depends very much on the shape of the cross section; hence The curve O'!bcd in Fig. 250 and Fig. 252 was obtained in this
manner. Th,s curve represents the true stress only so long as
7 The small elastic deformation in which the volume <loes change
8
can be neglected in comparison with the comparatively large plastic See P. Ludwik, Elemente der Technologischen Mechanik Berlin
deformation. 1909. ' '
402 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIAL$ 403
the elongation is small. For larger elongations the reduction in point A of this curve corresponds to the beginning of necking 11 and
cross sectional area must be considered in order to get the true the portion AB of the curve rep- '
stress. The curve be'd' in Fig. 252 was obtained by multiplying the resents the process of necking. It
ordinates of the Oabcd curve by the ratio Ao/A of the original cross- can be seen that the trne stress
sectional area to the varying cross sectional area A as it was at each increases up to the moment of
instant during the tensile test. From this curve it is evident that, fracture. Sorne applications of
although the load decreases from the point e on, the true stress this type of curve are given later. 12
continues to increase and has its maximum value at the moment of
73. Compression Test.-
fracture.
The relation between <1 and E represented by a true lensile lest The compression test is prin-
curve such as curve be'd', has a definite physical meaning so long as cipally used for testing brittle
the bar continues to stretch uniformly. After the beginning of materials such as stone, concrete
necking the elongation is not uniformly distributed al?ng the len~th and cast iron. In testing stone
of the bar and the quantity E = /l no longer has a simple phys1cal
and concrete) cu bic specimens are
meaning. In investigating this porti~n of . a tensile test it h~s
proved very useful to construct curves in wh1ch the true stn~ss ~ 1s often used. I n compressing them between the plane sur-
plotted against the reduction in area q (eq. b).9 A curve of th1s kmd faces of the testing machine it is usually assumed that the
compressive force is uniformly distributed over the cross
q-lbs section. The actual stress distribution is much more compli-
71
cated, even if the surfaces are in perfect contact. Due to
'"' -
IZOpoo
/00',000
V'
/
I
f
/
/
/
,
/ ,~
n ~
friction on the surfaces of contact between the specimen and
thecompressingheadof themachine, thelateralexpansion which
accompanies compression is prevented at these surfaces and the
material in this region is in a more favorable stress condition.
80,o~ /
V As a result of this the type of fracture obtained in a compres-
60.'- ~
1
- -- ,__ -- -- - ~
sion test of cubic specimens of concrete is of the sort shown in
V 1 the photograph, Fig. 254. The material in contact with the
40..-- h/ J
1
1
et; machine remains unaffected while the material at the sides is
,:, crushed out. In order to obtain the true resistance to
20.,OM
1
1
compression of a material such as concrete, the influence of
1
friction at the surfaces of contact must be elimnated or
o 10 w 30 10 ~o 60 10 " so 100
9
7'
minimized. For this purpose A. Foppl covered the surfaces
Fw. 253. of contact with paraffin.13 The ultimate strength obtained
in such a manner was greatly reduced and the type of failure
obtained with mild steel (0.05% carbon) is shown in Fig. 253.10 Th 11
It ~an be shown that in such diagrams as OA B the tangent AC,
See paper by F. Korber and W. Rohland, Mitteilungen K. W. at the pornt A, represen ting the beginning of necking, cuts the ordinate
9
at q = 100 per cent ata height of 2<1Jl.
Institut, Vol. 5, 1924, p. 37. . ,, 12
10 See paper by P. Ludwik, "Bruchgefa_hr und Matenalpr~u~g
!he Bibliography related to the analysis of tensile test diagrams is
Diskussions, Bericnt nr. 35 der Eidg. Matenalprfungsanstalt, Zunch, gtven rn the paper by C. W. MacGregor, The Annua] Meeting, A. S. T. M .,
1940.
1928. 13
A. Foppl, Mitteilungen aus dem Mech. Techn. Laboratorium in
Mnchen, nr. 27, 1900.
404 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 405
was completely different; a cubic specimen fails by subdividin:s the exponential law given by the equation:
into plates parallel to one of the lateral si des. Another method
of eliminating the effect of friction forces is to use specimens in
the form of prisms having the height in the direction of (a)
compression several times larger than the lateral dimensions. m which n is a number depending on the properties of the
The middle portian of the prism then approaches a condition material. Bach found the values n = 1.09 for pure cement
of uniform compression. 14 A very interesting method of 1:,, and n = 1.13 for granite.
producing a uniform compression on cylin2.1iccl specimens Compression tests of ductile materials show that the shape
used in Kaiser Wilhelm Institute 15 is shown ~r. Fig. 255. The of the diagram depends very much on the proportions of the
portions of the testing machine in contact w1th the cylindrical specimen. As the dimension in the direction of the compres-
sion decreases, the effect of friction at the ends becomes more
and more pronounced and the compression test diagram be-
comes steeper. For instance Fig. 257 shows the results of
60,000 .I
,.;......-6 15,00o gins immediately after unloading, accurate measurements
e show that there are deviations from the straight line law at
50,000 I
/ very low stress, and the proportional limit is greatly lowered.
40,000
/
/ 10,000 But if a considerable interval of time elapses between unload-
tJ
30,000 ing and reloading, the material recovers its elastic properties
?L.=5,JO,~ completely. Figure 260 shows the curves obtained by Ewing
20,000 5,00o
"
with mild steel which show that, if reloading follows in ten
10,000 minutes after overstrain, the material <loes not follow Hooke's
o/o
law, but after 5 days it has partially recovered its elasticity and
O 5 10015 10\ O .z 4 6 .tJ 1.0 U {4 16 16 l.O zt after 21 days it has almost completely recovered it.
Fm. :258. Fm. 259. The experiments show that if the material is submitted to
mild heat treatment after unloading, say in a bath of 100
straight line law as shown by the line CD on the diagram. Centigrade, the recovery of elastic properties occurs in a much
Repeating the loading of the bar, the line DF was obtained shorter interval of time. Figure 261 shows the results of such
along which the material approximately followed Hooke's law. a test made on a steel bar by l. Muir. 21 The initial tensile
At the point F, which corresponds to the previous loading at test is represented by the curve .d. Curve B represents the
C the curve abruptly changed character and traced the por- reloading of the same bar ten minutes after unloading. A
ti~n FG, which can be considered as a prolongation of the considerable deviation from Hooke's law is noticeable. Curv~
curve BC. T'1is is the raising of the yield point produced by C is the diagram obtained with the same bar after a second
stretching the material. If an interval of time, say several 20
Westinghouse Elec. Mfg. Co. Research Laboratory.
19 See Ewing, "Strength of Materials," 1914, p. 35. 21
I. Muir, Phi!. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1899.
408 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
r MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 409
unloading and after keeping it at a temperature of 100 presses are sometimes submitted toan initial interna! pressure
Centigrade for 4 minutes. It may be seen that after this sufficient to produce a permanent deformation in the walls.
treatment the material completely recovered its elastic The strain hardening and the residual stresses produced by
properties. this prevent any permanent set in service. The overstraining
The phenomenon of hardening due to plastic deformation of metal is sometimes used in the manufacture of guns (see p.
is encountered in many technological processes such as rolling 243). By stretching the metal in the wall of a gun beyond the
initial yield point and afterwards submitting it to a mild heat
treatment, the elastic properties of the material are improved;
at the same time initial stresses are produced which combine
with the stresses produced by the explosion to give a more
favorable stress distribution. Turbine clises and rotors are
sometimes given an analogous treatment. By running these
parts at overspeed, a permanent set is obtained around the
central hale, which raises the yield point of the material there
and produces initial stresses, which are in a favorable direc-
tion.24 Die cast aluminum fans are sometimes submitted to
overstrain at the bore to prevent any possibility of their
loosening on_ ':': shaft in service. A considerable plastic flow
of metal is sometimes produced in pressing the hub of loco-
Fw. 261.
motive wheels onto their axles and this has proved to have a
of bars or drawing tu bes and wires at low temperature, cutting favorable effect. Copper bars in the commutators of electric
sheet metals by shears, and drawing and punching hales. In machinery are submitted to considerable cold work by
all these cases the part of the material which undergoes drawing to give them the required strength.
plastic deformation becomes harder and its ductility is greatly In using overstrain in this manner to raise the yield point
reduced. 22 To eliminate this undesirable effect of strain and improve the elastic properties of a structure, it is necessary
hardening it is customary to anneal the material, which to keep in mind (1) that the hardening disappears if the
reestablishes the initial ductility. 23 structure is submitted to annealing temperatures and (2) that
Sometimes the strain hardening of ductile materials finds a the stretching of metal in a certain direction, while making it
practical application in manufacturing. lt is common prac- stronge~ with respect to tension in this direction, does not
tice to submit the chains and cables of h::iisting machines to a proporttonately improve the mechanical properties with re-
certain amount of overstrain to eliminate undesirable stretch~ spect to _compression in the same direction. 25 This phe-
ing of these parts in service. The cylinders of hydraulic nomenon ts clearly shown in Fig. 262, which represents tests
22 24
For a general discussion of the properties of cold worked me~als See A. Nadai and L. H. Donnell, Trans. A. S.M. E. Vol. 51 192
see the paper by Z. Jeffries and R. S. Archer, Chemical and Metallurg1cal p. 1 73- ' ' 9'
26
Eng., Vol. 27, 1922, p. 747. Se also G. Masing and M. Polanyi, Kaltc Th'1s P h enomenon was d1scovered
by J. Bauschinger, Mitteilungen
reckung und Verfestigung, Springer, Berlin, 1923. a~s dem Mech. Techn. Laboratorium in Mnchen, 1886. See also
23 See paper by Rees, lron and Steel Inst. Journal, 1923. D1nglers, Polytech. Journal, Vol. 266, 1886.
410 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS r MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
8,000
r1,61 ~L / 1-P.L' ~36< ,lli
same proportion as it <loes in tension must not be over-
4,0 00
I 1.,.- _,-
I /-1 L6 J!i0
Tb
,, 7 I /h 4,0 80 I~ looked in cases in which the material is submitted to reversal
o
VPL /,3 50 ~~ / z J
I
1 2 3 1 .2 3 / z .J 4
of stresses (see article 78).
.3 .l 1 / .Z .3 5t,a,,,,, ope ~"'
4,000 '
rP 1:ri j;jh.. (a)
J fL /90 in' f'L 4?., ::~, f 1 870 T,;r
t L,6, ~30 ~
8,0o
IZ,000
I
!lrb) //re !fd /( . _It must _also b~ kept in min_d that strain hardening, while
ji I // 11
ra1smg the y1eld pomt of a material, does not affect the ultimate
16,00o
zo,o'"
,,1/ 1/ 17 J
r;,.z ,d -= IV lb,
/ // 1/J o-
14,0
- / 7r Jo.z, ZfO M -r ~.cb l.1E
,n yp,,
1
/ / e
28,000 I
/ / / /v I ---- --- ~-;,:::
JZ,0 vv
1/ YP. 32,I
p - -- ---- - .,/
/
36,000
63 L--- ~~ ~23 %
~ i::::- - __.,....,... ~
L.---- ~
----
1 /e-- ,11cV ~
are submitted to the action of appreciable stresses. Curve ~ ~J.:: ~ _,/
the magnitude of the shearing stress acting on these planes. of the same nature as in the case of a single crystal specimen.
This increase in stress necessary to continue the stretching of In each individual crystal sliding of the sort shown in Fig. 264
the specimen represents the strain hardening of a single crystal. begins when the tensile stress in the specimen reaches a
Dueto the type of sliding indicated in Fig. 264 (b) an originally certain value, depending upon the orientation of that crystal
circular, single crystal specimen of ductile material becomes with respect to the direction of the tension. On the polished
elliptical in cross section and, if stretched to destruction, be- surface this sliding is indicated by microscopic lines, called
comes wedge-shaped instead of cone-shaped at the cross slip bands. This sliding stops at the boundary of the crystal;
section of fracture. In the case of single crystals of brittle in the neighboring crystals the planes of sliding may have
materials, such as rock salt, stretching dueto the sliding action another direction and sliding may start when the stress in the
described above is very small and fracture occurs as the result specimen reaches a different value. lt is generally believed
of the overcoming of cohesion over a plane having a certain that such slidings in individual small crystals unfavorably
crystallographic direction, when the normal tensile stresses on situated with respect to the tensile stress in the specimen are
this plane reach a certain critical limit. the cause of small deviations from Hooke's law and a small
Crystalline materials, such as the metals used in industry, permanent sets at a comparatively low tensile stress in
are conglomerates of very small crystals, which can be seen materials which, in general, follow Hooke's law.
only with a special microscope on a plane surface, finely When the material has a pronounced yield point and the
polished and etched in a special manner. In an ordinary tensile stress in the specimen reaches this point, a large plastic
tensile test specimen these crystals are located at random, and deformation takes place, which consists in the sliding of
the mechanical characteristics given by a tensile test represent considerable portions of the specimen along planes inclined
an average of the mechanical properties in various directions about 45 to the axis of the specimen, i.e., along the planes in
of an individual crystal. 33 Due to the small size and large which the shearing stress is a maximum. These planes of
number of crystals these average values are usually inde- sliding usually begin at points of stress concentration, for
pendent of the direction in which a specimen is cut from a instance, near the fillets at the ends of the specimen, and
block of material,34 and such a material can be considered as gradually spread over the length of the specimen. 35 lf the
isotropic in calculating stresses and deflections in large surface of a specimen has been polished, these planes of sliding
structures. are revealed on the surface by easily discernible lines (see Fig.
Observations with a microscope of the deformation of the 214). These lines were first noticed by Lueders and are called
small individual crystals in a specimen during a tensile test Lueders' lines. 36 Due to the described deformation the in-
show that the deformation of these crystals in conglomerate is dividual crystals become strain hardened and if the specimen
33 Intercrystalline material is neglected in this discussion. Experi- is unloaded and loaded again it will be found that the yield
ments show that planes of slidings and fractures always go through the, poin t is raised.
crystals and not between them. There is another point of importance. Since sorne indi-
34 Cold work may produce sorne differentiation in the orientation of
crystals along certain directions. The mechanical properties of a tensile vidual crystals may receive a permanent set during a tensile
test specimen will then depend on the orientation of the specimen with test, while neighboring crystals, more favorably orientated,
respect to the direction of the cold working. Bibliography on this sub- 35
ject can be found in the paper by G. Sachs, O. Bauer and F. Goler, See paper by C. W. MacGregor, loe. cit., p. 398.
36
Zeitschr. f. Metallkunde, Vol. 20, 1928, p. 202. See also paper by W. An investigation of these lines in various cases was made by
Koster, Bericht nr. 23, d. Eidg. Materialprfungsanstalt, _1927, Zrich. Hartman; see his book, , Phnomenes qui accompagnent la dformation
permanente," 1900.
416 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 417
may only deform elastically, it follows that after unloading three bars, follows the linear law represented by the straight
there may remain in the stretched specimen sorne residual line BC, parallel to OA. When the load is entirely removed
stress es in the individual crystals. The crystals which received the deflection OC still remains and there will therefore be
a permanent set do not return completely to their initial shape, tensile stresses in the inclined bars and a compressive stress in
and as a result of this there will be sorne "wedging effect" on the vertical bar, even after unloading. These are residual
the neighboring crystals. The possibility of such stresses stresses due to the plastic deformation of the middle bar. lf
can be demonstrated by the system of three bars shown in the system is reloaded, the load deflection diagram will be the
Fig. 265. Assume that all three bars are of the same material same straight line CB as during unloading and the yield point
and the same cross-sectional area. We know that under the of the system will have been raised to the point B, corre-
action of the load P the stress in the middle bar is larger than sponding to the initial loading. If, after unloading, the
in the inclined bars (see p. 19, Part 1); i.e., like the crystals men- system is reloaded with a vertical force in the upward direc-
tioned above, this element of the system is less favorably situ- tion, compressive stresses will be produced in the bars, which
ated than the others. If the load is gradually increased, this superpose on the residual stresses. Since the vertical bar
bar will reach the yield point first. Let the straight line OA already has an initial compression, a force at D (Fig. 265, b)
(Fig. 265, b) represent the load deflection diagram for this sys- smaller than that corresponding to the point A will be suffi-
cient to bring the middle bar to the yield point, if we assume
/.
that the yield point of the material in compression is the same
as in tension. Hence the original loading raised the yield
point of the system in the direction of this loading but lowered
the yield point in the opposite direction. This discussion
p shows that the presence of residual stresses may explain why
o a bar strain hardened by stretching has a higher yield point
in tension than in compression (see p. 4rn).
The residual stresses produced by uniform stretching of a
, bar of a crystaline material are of an extremely localized type.
/ They are confined to microscopical regions around the crystals
Fm. 265.
which suffered plastic deformation at a comparat= ,ely low
tem under elastic conditions. At A the vertical bar begins to average stress in the specimen. In the process of drawing or
yield and any further increase in the load will be taken by the rolling, residual stresses of a less localized type are sometimes
inclined bars only. 37 Hence beyond the point A an increase in produced. In drawing a bar through a die, for instance, the
the load produces a greater increase in the deflection than, metal at the outside is stretched more than the metal at the
when all three bars were in the elastic state, and the load middle. Hence drawn bars have considerable residual stresses
deflection diagram follows sorne such line as AB. If, on in tension at the surface and in compression at the middle.
reaching B, the system is gradually unloaded, the deformation In drawn copper bars of narrow rectangular cross section the
in the reverse direction, due to the elastic behavior of ali distribution of these stresses at a distance from the ends is
37 J t is assumed that the material has a pronounced yield point and approximately as shown in Fig. 266 (a). lf the bar is cut
that after yielding a considerable stretching can occur without increase lengthwise, there will be bending such as shown in Fig. 266 (b).
in stress.
418
,
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 419
Measurement of this bending shows that the maximum re- are encountered also in crystalline materials which consist of
sidual stresses produced in drawing the copper bars are of the an aggregate of small crystals. In the case of brittle materials
same arder as the yield point of the material. 38 These stresses such as cast iron, fracture occurs without appreciable plastic
deformation and on a cross section perpendicular to the
< ~
direction of tension. This is a separationfailure. A specimen
of a ductile material such as mild steel undergoes considerable
(a) (b} plastic deformation and reduction in cross sectional area due
Fw. 266. to sliding along planes inclined 45 to the axis of the specimen
are of great practica! importance. They cause undesirable befare fracture occurs. This is sliding jailure. In studying
warping in the process of machining 39 and to them must be these two distinct kinds of fracture the theory has been
attributed also season cracking in various copper alloys which forwarded 42 that the strength of a material can be described
have been cold worked and not properly annealed afterwards. 40 by two characteristics, the resistance of the material to
separation and the resistance to sliding. lf the resistance to
76. Types of Failures.41 -ln the previous article two sliding is greater than the resistance to separation, we have a
kinds of fracture of a single crystal specimen were mentioned. brittle material and fracture will occur as a result of over-
In a crystal of a ductile material there is a plastic deformation coming cohesive forces without appreciable deformation. lf
preceding fracture which consists of sliding along certain the resistance to separation is larger than resistance to sliding,
planes and there is a considerable reduction in cross-sectional we have a ductile material. The sliding over inclined planes
area befare fracture occurs. In this case the strength depends begins first and fracture occurs only after a considerable
principally upan the resistance to sliding. In the case of a reduction in the cross sectional arca, after which, dueto strain
crystal of brittle material fracture occurs without appreciable hardening, the resistance to sliding may become larger than
reduction in the cross section and is due to overcoming the the resistance to separation.
cohesive forces on a certain crystallographic plane. Here the The relation between the resistance to separation and the
strength depends principally upan the resistance to separation. resistance to sliding <loes not remain constant for the same
These two types of failure, slidingfailure and separationfailure, material. It depends very much upan the velocity of de-
38
Direct measurements made on commutator bar copper in the re- formation and upan the temperature at which a test is made.
search laboratory of the Westinghouse Elec. and Mfg. Co. showed stresses There are evidences that the resistance to sliding increases as
of 22,000 lbs. per sq. in. in bars which were reduced I 5 per cent in area
by drawing. the velocity of deformation increases and as the temperature
39
The first systematic investigation of these stresses was made by is lowered. At the same time the resistance to separation is
E. Heun. See Zeitschr. f. Metallographie, Vol. 1, 1910, p. 16; Stahl not affected to the same degree by these two factors. This
u. Eisen, Vol. JI, 1911, p. 760; Mitteilungen Materialprf. Amt, Vol. 35,
1917, p. 1; Naturwiss., Vol. 9, 1921, p. 321. For further discussion see'
would explain why a bar of a metal such as zinc can be bent
art. 69, p. 379. like a ductile material under slow loading while the same bar
40
See "The Failure of Metals under Interna! and Prolonged Stress," fractures without plastic deformation if the loading is applied
published by Faraday Soc., London, 1921. See also G. Masing,Zeitschr.
f. Metallkunde, 1924, p. 257.
suddenly. 43 Another example of this is asphalt. lt may flow
41
A complete bibliography on tls subject is given in the paper by under the action of its own weight if the forces act a long
P. Ludwik, "Bruchgefahr und Materialprfung," Diskussionsberichr 42
See P. Ludwik, loe. cit., p. 418.
nr. 35, der Eidg. Materialprfungsanstalt, Zrich, 1928. See also P. 43
P. Ludwik, Stahl u. Eisen, Vol. 43 (1923), p. 1427.
Ludwik, Forschungsarbeiten, nr. 295, 1927, Berlin.
420 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF l'vfATERIALS 421
time, but it proves to be brittle under the action of suddenly be any sliding. Such a fracture is not accompanied by
applied forces. In both of these cases the resistance to appreciable plastic deformation and has the type of a brittle
sliding was less than the resistance to separa tion under slow failure, although the material may be very ductile under a
deformation and the materials behaved in a ductile manner. simple tensile test. Figure 2.67
At high speed the ratio between the two kinds of resistance represents the beginning of frac-
was reversed and they behaved like brittle materials. ture at the neck of a tensile
The type of fracture depends also on the manner of testing. test specimen of a ductile ma-
If the loading is of such a nature that fracture due to separa- terial.45 In the middle portion
tion is prevented, a considerable plastic deformation may be of the cross section at the neck
obtained in a material usually considered brittle. This there is a three-dimensional
phenomenon is illustrated by the plastic deformation of rocks stress condition. Due to the
submitted to large pressures on ali sides.44 Likewise a ductile necking, elements here undergo
material may have a fracture of the brittle type if the form of tension in not only the axial
the specimen or the type of stress distribution is such that direction, but also in the radial
plastic deformations, due to sliding, are prevented. This direction. This causes a crack
latter case is of great practical importance and it is worth while of a brittle type at the center Fro. z67.
to examine in more detail the conditions under which such a of the cross section, as shown in
brittle fracture may occur. Experience shows that these the figure. At the same time material near the surface con-
fractures sometimes occur under the action of residual stresses tinues to yield by sliding, and a sliding fracture finally takes
due to cold work or under the action of thermai stresses, and place near the boundary.
that they can be attributed to one of the following two causes: The effect of the form on the type of fracture may be
(1) a three-dimensional stress condition; (2.) a form preventing shown by making tensile tests on grooved specimens of the
sliding. shape shown in Fig. 268. Due to the presence of
The ductility of materials such as structural steel is the portions of larger diameter D, sliding along
usually determined from a simple tensile test. In such a : l 45 planes at the groove is inhibited, and reduc-
test there is a constant ratio between the maximum tensile :" 1 tion of the cross-sectional area at the groove dur-
stress and the maximum shearing stress equal to two. Under 1 i inga tensile test is partially prevented. It is nat-
such conditions the resistance to sliding is overcome first and ;::;'1 =.t'.1::;-.::;- ural that this action should increase as the width
the sliding type of failure results. Imagine now a three- 1
1
1
1 of the groove decreases. In the following table
dimensional stress condition such as that represented in Fig. 51, ,JJ are given sorne results of such tests obtained with
' 1
Part I, by Mohr's circles. The maximum sh~aring stress in thi~ '
' '
1
two different materials: 46 (1) carbon steel with a
case is equal to (u,, - u,)/2. and if u.,is nearly the same as u,., the . proportional limit 56,000 lbs.'per sq. in., yield point
maximum tensile stress may be many times larger than the FJG. 268. 64,500 lbs. per sq. in., ultimate strength 102,000,
maximum shearing stress. In this case fracture due to 4~ In this case the material was aluminum; see P. Ludwk, V. D. J.,
overcoming the cor.esive forces on the plane on which the Vol. 71, r9z7.
maximum tensile stress is acting may occur befare there can 4 r. These tests were made at thc \Vcstinghouse Elec. and Mfg. Co.
lbs. per sq. in., ~longation 26 per cent, reduction in area 55 The combination of a grooved or notched form of specimen
per cent; (2) mckel chrome steel with a proportional limit with great velocity of application of the load may produce a
80,? lbs. per sq. in., yield point 85,000 lbs. per sq. in., still more pronounced "groove effect." These conditions are
ult1mate str~ngt~ 108,000 lbs. per sq. in., elongation 27 per realized in impact tests of notched bars. Another type of
cent, reduct10n m area 69 per cent. These figures were fracture of ductile materials without appreciable plastic de-
formation is that caused by reversal of stresses. This is of
obta_ined f~o1? ~rdin_ary tensile te~ts on_ normal cylindrical
sp:~1mens 2 m. 1? d1ameter and w1th 2-m. gage length; the great practical importance and will be discussed in the article
or1gmal c:oss-sect1onal area was used in calculating the stresses. on fatigue of metals (see p. 428).
77. Time Effect and Hysteresis.-Observation shows
Th~ spt:1mens of th~ ~ype s~own i~ Fig. 268 had d = in.,
D - I 2 m. and 8 = -8 m ., i16 1n ., i32 1n that when a tensile load is applied to a bar it <loes not produce
the complete elongation immediately. There is a certain
TABLE 25.-ULTIMATE STRENGTH OF CYLINDRICAL AND GROOVED SPECIMENS creep, that is, the bar continues to elongate slowly for a
considerable length of time. This time ejfect depends on the
Ultimate Strength Ultimate Strength material of the bar and on the magnitude of the stresses
v o involved. In the case of a single crystal specimen, loaded
~
Orig. Area Red. Area
v
U) ~ Orig. Area Red. Area
e:
U)
... within the proportional limit, the time effect is very small and
-e 1 u 1
can be explained by considering thermodynamical and
u"'
32
-h "
In. 163,000
164,000
176,000
177,000
z 32
.l
16
1n.
"
193,000
184,000
237,000
232,000 electrical effects. Assume that the bar is loaded quickly as
1
8 " 143,000 I 58,000 1 " 154,000 199,000
8
Norm. spec.
represented by the portian OA of the tensile test diagram
Norm. spec. 102,000 227,000 108,000 348,000
(Fig. 269). This process of elongation may be
8
considered to be adiabatic; it is accompanied by
The table sh_ows that in all cases the breaking load for the a lowering of the temperature of the bar due to
gr~oved spec1mens was larger than for cylindrical specimens. increase in its volume. The bar gradually
With the grooved specimens only a small reduction in area warms up to the initial temperature and thereby
to?k placean~ the appearance of the fract{ire was like that of elongates an additional amount AB without
br~ttle ma~enals. The true ultimate strength of the cylin- change of load. Then a quick unloading gives oL---'=--o~
dncal spec1mens was larger than that of the grooved speci- the straight line BC on the diagram. At C,
mens, because the fracture of the cylindrical specimens due to the decrease in the volume, in the
occurr~d after. considerable plastic flow; this caused strain process of unloading the bar has a temperature higher than the
hardenmg ~nd mcreased not only the resistance to sliding but initial; after a time, cooling causes it to shorten the amount
also the res1stance to separation. CO. Although the deformations AB and CO are very small,
An effect analogous to that of the narrow groove in Fig: this discussion shows how there may be a certain time effect
. 268. may be produced by interna! cavities in forgings and due to thermal causes in the case of an ideal elastic substance
c~stmgs. Thermal stresses and residual stresses may combine within the proportional limit.47 An analogous effect due to
with the effect of stress concen!ration at the cavity to produce electrical causes may also be observed under certain con-
a crack_ and t~e resulting fracture will have the characteristics ditions.48 In the case of non-homogeneous materials, such as
of a bnttl: fa1lure without appreciable plastic flow, although 47 W. Thomson, Quarterly Journal of Math., 1855.
the material may prove ductile in simple tensile tests. 48 See A. F. Joffe, "The Physics of Crystals," New York, 1928.
424 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
be explained by thermal causes alone and is usually attributed cent per second, the load remains practically constant after
to the continuation of sliding defarmation within unfavorably reaching a unit compression of 10 per cent. This large effect
orientated crystals after the load has been applied. The time of speed with such metals is explained by the fact that they
effect after unloading is explained by residual stresses, which recrystallize at room temperature. Hence the hardening
continue to produce sliding within unfavorably orientated effect of plastic defarmation may be removed by recrystalliza-
crystals and thus cause creep in the material far sorne time tion if the loading process goes slowly enough.
after the remo val of the load. In the case of metals with a high melting point the speed
In discussing the time effect on tensile and compressive has much less effect. Figure 271 represents compression test
test diagrams, we must distinguish between metals having a lb5
comparatively low melting point such as lead or zinc and 10,ooo,.!-r:,c!:!:.n:....__~----.--,-------.---'-h--::--,h:----:j;;;--,
metals having much higher melting temperatures such as steel
or copper. 49 Experiments show that tensile and compressive
test diagrams of metals of the first group depend very much
upan the speed with which the experiments are made. Figure
270, far instance, represents compression test diagrams far lead
~~
J,000 ,n
I0,0001----1--.....--J--+---t---t----+---1
~ooot----+---::J..-S.""":::;;.a1-=--+--+_oo=zs=,-1 0 '----'5~--',o--~,~--z~o-~z~s-~~~-73:J
.J---t----t"""
Fro. 271.
/----
m n R = O"max - <Imin
'4 / if the range and the maximum stress are given. The average
J
stress 1s
<Tm = (<Tmax + <Troin)
o'--r.-,---&)-.------
(a) (b)
p yp
6 ,.-----32'
1m,
,,,
8
t11z
~
35,000
J3,000
\
4; 31,000
FIG. 274.
29,000
\
eliminated by using a large fillet radius and by increasing the
Z7,000
1~ r---_
diameter of the bar near the fillet. The load P is always
downward, while the specimen rotates. The stress therefore Z5,000 n(mil!ions)
e J 6 7 6 9 Io
changes sign every half revolution and the number of cycles of
stress is equal to the number of revolutions of the machine. FIG. 2 75
The stress is a completely reversed stress, the average stress
being zero and the range of stress twice u max By taking stresses. In the first case a considerable plas~ic flow prec_edes
severa! specimens and testing them at various loads P, a fracture and the surfaces at the ruptured section show a silky,
curve such as shown in Fig. 27 5 can be obtained. Here u max fibrous ;tructure dueto the great stretching of the crystals. A
is represented as a function of the number of cycles n neces- fatigue crack however, looks entirely different. A crack starts
sary to produce fracture. The curve shown was obtained ata certain ;lace, due to a local defect in the material, ?r due
with mild steel. At the beginning <l'max decreases rapidly as n to stress concentration produced by an abrupt change m the
increases but after 4-5 millions of cycles there is no longer any cross section. Once formed, it spreads due to stress concen-
appreciable change in Umax and the curve approaches asymptot- tration at its ends under the action of alternating stresses, and
ically the horizontal line <l'max = 27,000 lbs. per sq. in. The this spreading progresses until the cross section becomes so re-
stress corresponding to such an asymptote is called the duced that the remaining portian fractures suddenly unde~ the
endurance limit of the material tested for reversed stresses. It load. Two zones can usually be distinguished in a fatigue
60 fracture, one due to the gradual development of a crack and
There are evidences that the endurance limit obtained from bend-
ing tests coincides with that obtained by testing under direct stress. the other due to sudden fracture. The latter resembles the
See paper by P. L. Irwin, Proc. Amer. Soc. Test. Mat., Vol. 25, 1925, fracture of a tensile test specimen with a narrow deep groove
and Vol. 26, 1926. A further discussion of this subject is given by R. D. (see p. 4 21) in which the form prevents sliding and f~acture
France, Proc. Amer. Soc. Test. Mat., V.al. 31, 1931.
61
See McAdam, Chemical and Met. Engr., 1921. The same type
occurs as a result of overcoming the cohesive forces; th1s frac-
of specimen is used also by the Research Laboratory of the Westinghouse ture is of the brittle type, such as occurs in cast iron, even_ if the
Elec. and Mfg. Co. material is ductile. In the case of cantilever test spec1mens
432 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 433
(Fig. 274) the maximum stresses are at the outer fibers; the mental data accumulated has not made it possible to establish
fatigue crack is usually started at the circumference and wch a correlation. 65 As a rough estima te in the case of
spreads towards the center. Where there is stress concentra- ferrous metals the endurance limit for reversa! of stresses can
tion due to fillets, grooves or holes, the crack usually starts at be taken equal to from 0.40 to 0.55 ultimate strength obtained
the most highly stressed portion and spreads from this point in the usual way from tensile tests. When we are working
as a center; in such cases fracture reveals concentric rings with with materials belonging to a group, such as carbon steels,
respect to this starting point. This is a very familiar type of whose mechanical characteristics are very well known, such
fracture in machine parts which have been submitted to alter- estimates can be considered reliable. Otherwise estimates of
nating stresses. It is thus evident that the "brittle" type of a this type are likely to be misleading and recourse must be made
fatigue fracture is due to the peculiar mechanism of fracture to direct endurance test. Sorne results in endurance tests of
and not to "crystallization." certain steels are given in the table on pp. 497, 498.
W. Fairbairn was the first to state, on the basis of experi- In the majority of cases the arrangement of endurance
ments on a full size, wrought iron girder, 62 that there is a tests is such that only the endurance limit for reversed
limiting stress, which can be applied safely an infinite number stresses (umax = - IJ'min) is determined, while in many cases in
of times. Although it cannot be proved by direct test, all machine design we have varying stresses which are not
experimental evidence 63 supports the statement, now gener~ completely reversed. lt is necessary to know the endurance
ally accepted, that for most metals there is a definite limiting limits under these varying stresses. A. Wohler was the first
range of stress which can be withstood for an infinite number of experimenter who studied the phenomenon of fatigue system-
cycles without fracture. atically. 66 He showed that the range of stresses R, neces-
It is of great practica! importance to know how quickly the sary to produce fracture, decreases as the mean stress um
u-n curve approaches the asymptote as the number of increases. On the basis of these tests and of Bauschinger's
cycles necessary to establish the endurance limit depends work 67 W. Gerber proposed 68 a parabolic law relating the
upon this. Experiments show that for ferrous metals the range of stress R with the mean stress um. This is illustrated
endurance limit can be established with sufficient accuracy on by severa! parabolic curves in Fig. 276, in which the mean
the basis of from 6 to 10 millions of cycles. In the case of non- stress and the range of stress are expressed as fractions of the
ferrous metals a much larger number of cycles is needed. 64 ultima te strength. The range is a maximum when the stress is
lt is evident from the above discussion that the determi- completely reversed (um = o) and it approaches zero when the
nation of the endurance limit for a definite material requires a mean stress approaches the ultimate strength. lf the endur-
considerable number of tests and considerable time; hence it 65 See book by H: J. Gough, loe. cit., p. 428. See also his lectures,
would be of practica! interest to establish relations between loe. cit., p. 429.
66
the endurance limit and other mechanical properties which cari. A. Wohler, Zeitschrift fr Bauwesen, Vols. 8, 10, 13, 16 and 20,
1860/70. An account of this work in English is given in Engineering,
be determined by static tests. The large amount of experi- Vol. II, 1871; see also Unwin's book, "The Testing of Materials of
62 See W. Fairbairn, Phi!. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1864. Construction," 3d ed., 1910.
63
A large number of endurance t1;.st curves were analyzed by O. H.
67
J. Bauschinger, Mitteilungen d. Mechanischtechnischen Labora-
Basquin, Proc. Amer. SoL for Test. Mat., Vol. 10, 1910. toriums in Mnchen, nr. 13 und 25.
68
64
See H. F. Moore and J. B .. Kommers, Bulletin No. 124, Eng. W. Gerber, Zeitschr. d. Bayerischen Arch.- und lng.-Vereins, 1874.
Expt. Stat., Univ:ersity of Illinois, U. S. A. See also Unwin's book, "Elements of Machine Design," Vol. 1, Chap. 2.
434 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 435
anee limit for reversed stress and the ultimate strength are
case of this kind is pure shear, which we encounter in shafts
known, the endurance limit for any varying stress can be ob-
under torsion. A good many torsion fatigue tests have been
tained from such curves. More recent investigations show that
made from which the endurance limit can be determined.
there is no fixed general law connecting the mean stress and
These tests show that the ratio between the endurance limit
the range of stress. 69 For instance, there are materials 70 for
in shear and that in tension-compression is not far from 0.50,
which the straight lines indicated in dots in Fig. 276 represent
being usually somewhat above this value. 72
the actual relation between R and um better than parabolas.
By combining reversed torsion with constant axial tension
The straight lines 0.d and OB shown in Fig. 276 and having
it was found 73 that the endurance limit in shear T is obtained
R A
from the equation:
l.00
./30
I (a)
.60
in which Te is the endurance limit for the reversed torsion
(10 without axial tension, u is the applied axial tensile stress, and
.20 uuit is the ultimate strength of the material in tension .
the magnitude of the maximum principal stress, and that the . not affected by overstress, but above which number of cycles
failure occurs when this maximum approaches the value of the endurance limit was observed to decrease. By plotting
the endurance limit found from the usual rotating cantilever the maximum stresses of the cycles of overstress against the
tests. limiting numbers of these cycles, a damage curve 77 for the
79. Various Factors Affecting Endurance Lirnit.-After tested material is obtained. The area below this curve defines
a general discussion of the preceding article let us consider all those degree of overstressing which do not cause damage.
various factors which may affect the results obtained by The damage c1rve is of practica! importance when we are
endurance tests. dealing with a machine part normally working at cycles of
E.ffect of cold work on the endurance limit. In discussing stress below the endurance limit, but subjected from time to
stretching, drawing, and rolling of ductile metals at room time to the cycles of overstress. If the magnitude of over-
temperature it was pointed out (see art. 74) that due to such stress is known, the safe number of cycles of overstress is
cold work the material becomes stronger, the yield point is readily obtained from the damage curve. 78
raised and the ultimate strength is somewhat increased. By running an endurance test at a load just below the
Hence we must expect that cold work will also affect the endurance limit and then increasing the load by small incre-
endurance limit of the material. The experiments made with ments the endurance limit can be raised. This phenomenon
steel specimens submitted to cold stretching 75 showed that is called the understressing effect. The amount by which the
a moderate degree of stretching produces sorne increase in the endurance limit can be raised in this way depends on the
endurance limit. With a further increase in cold working a material. 79 For mild steel this amount is sometimes as high
point may be reached at which sorne drop in the endurance as 30 per cent of the original endurance limit, while Armco iron
limit may occur due to overworking. 76 A further improve- and copper remain practically unaffected by understressing.
ment of a cold worked material can be obtained by submitting Frequency e.ffect. The effect of the frequency of the cycles
it, after cold work, to a mild heat treatment-say by leaving in endurance tests has also been studied, but no appreciable
the material in boiling water for sorne time. effect was observed up to a frequency of 5,000 per minute.
Overstressing and understressing. Experiments have been For higher frequencies sorne increase in the observed endur-
made in which cycles of stress above the endurance limit were ance limit with the frequency, was found. Very interesting
applied a number of times befare starting a normal endurance experiments of this kind have been made by C. F. Jenkin. 80
test. Such overstressing of specimens showed that there is a Increasing the frequency up to over 1,000,000 cycles per
limiting number of cycles of overstress, depending on the minute he found at that high frequency an increase in the
magnitude of overstress, below which the endurance limit is 77 H. J. French, Trans. A. S. S. T., Vol. 21, p. 899, 1933, and H. W.
p. 128, 1935. In Moore's experiments carbon steel, 0.18 per cent C, and cycles of overstress of various intensities which a machine part can
the stretching 8 per cent and I 8 per cent were used. In Horger's ex- withstand before failure. See "J ournal of Applied Mechanics," Vol. 4,
periments with carbon steel, 0.48 per cent C, the same 8 per cent and 18 p. A-160, 1937.
79 H. F. Moore and T. M. Jasper, Bull. No. 142, Univ. of Illinois,
per cent stretching were used. ,
76 See H. F. Moore anJ T. M. Jasper, Bull. No. 136, Eng. Expt. Sta., Eng. Expt. Sta., 1924; J. B. Kommers, Eng. News Record, 1932.
Univ. of Illinois, and R. M. Brown, Trans. Inst. Engrs., Shipbuilders 8
C. F. Jenkin, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 109A, 1925, p. 119 and C. F.
Scot., 1928. Jenkin and G. D. Lehmann, Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. 125A, 1929.
438 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 439
endurance limit of more than 30 per cent for such materials The phenomenon called corrosion fatigue is also of practica!
as Armco iron and aluminum. To obtain such high frequen- importance. This term is used to designate the simultaneous
cies Jenkin used forced vibrations of small specimens. A rotat- action of corrosion and fatigue. In 1917 Haigh 86 published
ing beam machine was used by G. N. Krouse 81 for high speed the results of sorne very interesting endurance tests on
tests 30,000 cycles per minute. For aluminum and brass he brasses, in which he found sorne lowering of the endurance
found 8 per cent increase in endurance limit at- this speed. limit when the specimen under alternating stress was subjected
Temperature e.ffect. In the previous diset ,sion we were to the action of salt water, ammonia, or hydrochloric acid.
dealing with endurance tests made at room temperature; He pointed out also that the damaging effect of ammonia on
there are, however, cases when engineering structures and brass was not produced unless the corrosive substance and the
machine parts are submitted to the action of cycles of stresses aitunatng stresses were applied simultaneously. Further
at low temperature, as, for instance, in the case of aeroplanes, progress in the investigation of corrosion fatigue was made by
or at high temperature, as in steam turbines and internal McAdam, 87 who investigated the combined effect of corrosion
combustion engines. Hence, endurance tests at low and at and fatigue on various metals and alloys. These tests proved
high temperatures are of practica! importance. The com- that in most cases a severe corrosion prior to an endurance
parative endurance tests made 82 at +
20 C. and - 40 C. test is much less damaging than a slight corrosion which takes
with Monel metal, stainless steel, nickel steel and chromium- place simultaneously. Tests with carbon steels with various
molybdenum steel showed in all cases sorne increase in endur- carbon contents and having endurance limits 88 in reversed
ance limit with the decrease of temperature. Similar con- stress varying from 20,000 lbs. per sq. in. to 40,000 lbs. per sq.
clusions were also obtained for other materials. 83 in. showed that, if the specimens are subjected to the action of
The endurance tests at high temperatures made with various fresh water during the endurance tests, the endurance limits
kinds of steels on rotating beam machines 84 and also on are greatly diminished and vary from 16,000 lbs. per sq. in. to
reversed direct stress machines 85 all indicate that up to 20,000 lbs. per sq. in. These lowered endurance limits are
300 C.-400 C. there is no great effect of temperature on the called corrosion fatigue limits. The tests showed that while
endurance limit. The maximum endurance limit is usually for testing in air the endurance limit increases approximately
obtained at 300 C.-400 C., while at rno C.-200 C. the in the same proportion as the ultima te strength of the steel the
endurance limit is usually somewhat less than at room tem- results obtained when testing in fresh water are quite different.
perature. The experiments show also that the u-n curves do The corrosion fatigue limit of steel having more than about 0.25
not approach their asymptotes so rapidly as at room tem- per cent carbon cannot be increased and may be decreased by
perature, and that more than I0 7 cycles are required for heat treatment. 89 It was shown also that by adding enough
determining the magnitude of the endurance limit. chromium to increase the ordinary corrosion resistance of
81 86
G. N. Krouse, Proc. A. S. T. M., Vol. 34, 1934. B. P. Haigh, Journal Institute of Metals, Vol. 18, 1917.
82
H. W. Russell and W. A. Welcker, Proc. A. S. T. M., Vol. 31, 87
D. J. McAdam, Proc. Amer. Soc. Test. Matls., Vol. 26, 1926;
p. 122, 1931. Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treating, Vol. 2, 1927; Proc. Amer. Soc. Test.
83
W. D. Boone and H. B. Wishart, Proc. A. S. T. M., Vol. 35, 1935. Matls., Vol. 27, 1927; Proc. International Congress for Testing Materials,
84
H. F. Moore and T. M. Jasper, Bull. No. 152, Univ. of Illinois, Vol. 1, 1928, p. 305, Amsterdam.
88
Engr. Expt. Sta., 1925 and H. F. Moore, S. W. Lyon and N. P. Inglis, Determined by tests in air.
89
Bull. No. 164, Univ. of Illinois, Engr. Expt. Sta., 1927. McAdam, Proc. International Congress at Amsterdam, Vol. 1,
85
H. J. Tapsell and J. Bradley, Journal Inst. Met., Vol. 35, 1926. p. 308, l 928.
440 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 441
steel, the corrosion fatigue limit can be raised considerably Ejfect of residual stresses. During heat treatment of
above that for car bon or nickel steels. 90 machine parts and during welding of structures, considerable
The endurance tests in an atmosphere of steam 91 showed residual stresses are usually produced, and the question arises
that dry steam does not affect the endurance limit, but in what effect these stresses may have on the endurance limit.
the case of steam containing air or water a lowering of the The experiments with quenched steel specimens tested in the
endurance limit was observed. The experiments in vacuum 92 rotating beam fatigue testing machine showed 96 that, due to
showed that the endurance limit of steel is about the same as application of cycles of reversed stresses, the initial residual
that obtained from the tests in air, while experiments with stresses are reduced to less than one quarter of their initial
copper and brass demonstrated an increase of endurance limit value and that the effect of these stresses on the endurance
of no less than 14 per cent and 16 per cent respectively. limit is negligible. Similar conclusions were obtained also
There are many known cases of failures in service which from fatigue tests of welded 1-beams. 97
The effect of surface finish on the endurance limit has also
must be attributed to corrosion fatigue; they include failures
been studied. Tests were made on 0.49 per cent carbon steel
of such parts as marine propeller shafts, water-cooled pistan
with an ultimate strength of 95,000 lbs. per sq. in. and an
rods of marine oil engines, turbine blades, locomotive springs,
ordinary endurance limit of 48,000 lbs. per sq. in. By taking
pump rods in oil wells, boilers and super-heater tubes, and so
rno as the endurance limit for highly polished specimens, the
on. In many cases corrosion-fatigue failures were eliminated
following results were obtained for various finishes: 98 ground
by introducing corrosion-resisting materials. The McAdam
finish 89, smooth-turned finish 84, rough-turned finish 81.
experiments with corrosion-resisting steels showed that such
Tests with 0.02 per cent C steel (Armco iron) gave for the last
steels give very satisfactory results in corrosion-fatigue tests.
two types of finish 92 and 88 respectively. Similar experi-
Recent experiments with special bronzes 93 showed that
ments were made with 0.33 per cent Csteel byW.N. Thomas, 99
phosphor bronze and aluminum bronze, tested under ex- who measured the magnitude of the scratches in various
tremely corrosive conditions, have a remarkable corrosion- finishes with a microscope; other experiments have been made
fatigue resistance, which compares favorably with that of the by W. Zander. 100
best stainless steels. The tables on pages 497 and 498 give the results obtained
Protective coatings 94 of parts subjected to corrosion- in static and endurance tests of certain steels often used in
fatigue and surface cold work 95 were also successfully used in engmeermg.
eliminating corrosion-fatigue failures.
96 See H. Bhler und H. Buchholtz, "Stahl u. Eisen," Vol. 53, p. 1330,
90
See McAdam, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., Applied Mech. 1933, and Mitteil. Forsch. lnst., Verein. Stahlwerke, Dortmund, Vol. 3,
Divis., 1928. p. 235, 1933.
97
91
See T. S. Fuller, Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treat., Vol. 19, 1931, p. 97. E. H. Schulz und H. Buchholtz, "Stahl u. Eisen," Vol. 53, p. 545,
92
H. J. Gough and D. G. Sopwith, "J ournal lnst. Metals," Vol. 49, 1933.
98 See H. F. Moore and J. B. Kommers, Bulletin No. 124, loe. cit.,
p. 93, 1932.
93
H. J. Gough and D. G. Sopwith, "Journal lnst. Met.," Vol. 60, p. 683.
99
p. 143, 1937. W. N. Thomas, Engineering, Vol. rr6, 1923, p. 483. Recent
94
,:>, G. Sopwith and H. J. Gough, "Journal of the lron and Steel development in investigating surface roughness is discussed in the paper
by S. Way, see reference 111, p. 455.
Inst., 1937. 100
95 O. Foppl, O. Behrens und Th. Dusold, "Zeitschr. f. Metallkunde," W. Zander, Dissertation, Technische Hochschule Braunschweig.
Vol. 25, 1933. 1928.
442 STRENGTH OF MATERIAL$ MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 443
80. Fatigue and Stress Concentration.-In discussing crack started at the keyway, where a high stress concentration
stress concentration produced by sharp variation in the cross takes place, and gradually developed along the helical path.
sections of bars or shafts (see Chapter VII), it was indicated
that such stress concentration is especially damaging in the
case of varying stresses. In machines stress concentration is
always present owing to fillets, grooves, holes, ~eyways, etc.,
in their parts, and experience shows that most of fatigue cracks
start at points of stress concentration. Severa} examples of
such failures will now be briefly discussed. Figure 277 repre-
Frn. 281.
changes of cross section showed that there was a reduction 1, p. 79, 1933, Vol. 1, p. 157, and R. E. Peterson and A.M. Wahl, Trans.
A. S. M. E., Journal Appl. Mech., Vol. 3, p. 15, 1936.
446 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 447
flet or with a transverse circular hole and of different ma- tical irnportance, since a general idea seerns to exist, based
terials, as given in the table below, were tested in special on sorne early experiinents, that fatigue data for stress-
fatigue testing machines. 105 concentration cases are always well below theoretical values,
i.e., on the safe side for design purposes.
TABLE OF MATERIALS UsED IN TESTS
obtained for each proportion of the fillet by a direct rneasure- Fw. 282.
rnent of strain at the points of rnaxirnurn stress concentration
(see p. 341). These values are designated by k 1 and are called (b) Fatigue results far alloy steels and quenched carbon stee!s
theo~etical values of ~tress concentration in the following dis- are usual/y closer to theoretical values than are the corresponding
cuss10n. If the fatigue strength of the specirnens depends fatigue results far carbon steels not quenched. lt was expected
only on the peak stress, kt rnust evidently be equal to k 1 in these tests that theoretical values k 1 would be reached for
On a basis of his tests, R. E. Peterson carne to the following ali steels provided specirnens were rnade large enough, but
conclusions: Fig. 282 shows that the fatigue-data curves for norrnalized
(a) In some cases fatigue results are quite clase to theoretical 0.45 per cent carbon steel are apparently asyrnptotic to values
stress concentration values. This conclusion is of great prac- considerably below the theoretical.
(c) With a decrease in the size aj specimen the reduction in
105
The description of these machines is given in the paper by R. E. fatigue strength dueto afillet ar hale becomes somewhat less; and
Peterson, Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat.; Vol. 29, p. 371, 1929.
far very small fillets ar hales the reduction in f aligue strength is
448 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 449
comparatively small. This can be clearly seen from the curves of unity, while for a coarser material, 0.45 per cent carbon
in Fig. 282.
steel, it approximates a somewhat lower value. 106 Similar
Another way of presenting fatigue test results showing curves were also obtained for the specimens with transverse
the extent to which theoretical values ki of stress concentration
are reached, is obtained by introducing the quantity holes.
On the basis of the above discussion the use of the theoretical
k - I value k 1 of stress concentration can be recommended in the
q = kt - I' (a) design of larger size machine parts and in the case of the finer-
grained steels, such as alloy steels and heat-treated carbon
which is sometimes called the sensitivity index. As k 1 ap- steels. In the cases of smaller dimensions and coarser ma-
proaches the value ki, the value of q approaches unity, and terials the reduced values of the stress concentration factor
when the stress concentration has only a small effect on fatigue
which, from equation (a), are
strength, k 1 is close to unity, and q approaches zero. By
using the experimental data given in Fig. 282 and by plotting k = q(kt - I) +I
the values of q against the diameter magnitudes d, the curves
shown in Fig. 283 are obtained. lt is seen that the sensitivity can be used. The values of q, obtained experimentally for
:fillets and holes and represented for the case of fillets by the
1.0
full lines in Fig. 283, can be used as a guide in selecting the
,.,..,.- - ---- ---- '--
proper values of k1 in other cases of stress concentration.
----- .- ~ (0.15)
h'/ ---- -
0.8
~
To explain the "size effect" in fatigue tests it is necessary
/
(o.is)/ .:.-H 'fc.B) to consider grain size of crystalline materials. When we
- -- t-x(0.06)
(0.17)
--
(0.07)
._,,
speak of geometrically similar specimens of the same material,
their metallographical structure obviously is not geometrically
'
x
~
ri '
(o.i:s")
/ -------
1
t"'
similar, and that fact may affect the fatigue tests. lf we
~ //co. ~.,,,....- - r/d SH0WN IW NUM-~ $ +d
consider a region of peak stress, a different result would be
> 0.4 (o.2slx 15ERS IN PARENTHESl5 expected when only few grains are contained in that region
E fo / than if many thousands are contained in the same region.
.....,,z"'
(0.0&3)
X 0.45% C Sfl (NORMALIZEO)
Ni-Mo 5fL (NORMALIZED) The relationship between the sensitivity index q obtained
o-0.2 Ni-Cr STL (OUENCHEO
ANO DRAWN) from fatigue tests and the grain size of the materials used is
1 discussed in a recent paper by R. E. Peterson. 107
It can be appreciated that the problem of reducing the
0.5 1.0 I.S Z.O z.s damaging effect of stress concentration is of primary impor-
d = 5MAll... OIAMETER. IN INCHE5
tance to designers. Sorne lowering of stress concentration
Frn. 283.
can be obtained by a proper change in design. For instance,
106 Tests of cast iron have shown very small effect of stress concen-
ndex is not a constant. lt depends not only on the kind of
tration on fatigue tests results. A. Thum and H. Ude, Zeitschr. V. D. l.,
material but also on the size of specimens. In the case cf Vol. 74, p. 257, 1930.
alloy steels and for larger spe~imens q approaches the value 10 7 See Stephen Timoshenko Anniversary Volume, p. 179, 1938.
450 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 451
the design ca11 be considerably improved by eliminating sharp To improve the condition and eliminate fatigue failures,
reentr~nt_corners and introducing filiets of a generous radius, the surface cold-rolling of the axle in the region of stress
by des1gning filiets of a proper shape, by introducing relieving concentration has been successfully applied. The early ex-
grooves, etc. But ali these measures are sometimes not periments 108 with surface cold work were made on small
sufficient to eliminate fatigue failures. As an important ex-
ample of this kind let us consider the typical falures which
occur at the wheel seat of locomotive and railroad-car axles,
at the wheel or bearing seats of automobile axles, at the
pressed or fitted bits of long drili rods in oil-well operations,
etc. Ali these cases of fitted members subjected to the action
of variable stresses have been a constant source of fatigue
failures. Considering, for example, the case of a wheel-hub
pressed on the axle, Fig. 284, a, we can see that a high stress
1
Normalized 1620 F and Drawn r 11 5 F.
2
Quenched 1475 F and Tempered u50 F.
sufficiently smooth surface after rolling, the feeds giving more rollers and gears under the repeated action of contact pressures
than 40 threads per inch were used. dllring rotation. Considering two rotating rollers pressed
The results of fatigue tests of Type C, Fig. 286, made with together by the forces P, Fig. 290, we can calculate the maxi-
cold-rolled specimens, are shown in Fig. 288. It is seen from mum compressive stress at the surface of contact
~hese tests that the fatigue strength of S.A.E. steel specimens by using the formulas of art. 66. In the case
tncreased, due to cold rolling, to a value more than twice their of an ideal9' smooth surface this calculated stress
initial strength. Similar results were also obtained with Ni is the true stress, and the surface fatigue strength
steel specimens. of rollers of a given material will depend only
on the magnitude of this stress. In actual cases
the roller surface has various kinds of uneven-
ness, the magnitudes of which depend on the FIG. 290_
kind of surface finish. Several examples of sur-
face finish are shown m in magnified form in Fig. 291.
N aturally the surface roughness will affect the pressure dis-
tribution at the surface of contact of the rollers in Fig. 290,
Ba1rstow found that the res~lts of his experiments gave E. Lehr, Die Abkrzungsverfahren, Dissertation, Stuttgart, 1925.
117
119
B. Hopkinson and G. T. Williams, Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), Vol. 87,
The gage length in these tests was only 0.5 in. and the small "elastic 1912.
hysteresis" could not be detected by Martens extensometers. 120
J. A. Ewing and J. C. W. Humfrey, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (A),
_Vol. 200, 1903, p. 241.
462 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES o'F MATERIALS 463
seemed to broaden out. This broadening process continued steam 12a in power plants, the question of the strength_ of
till finally cracking occurred, the crack following the marking materials at high temperature has become of pract1cal
of the broadened slip bands. They found that a reversed importance, and a considerable amount of research work has
stress of I 1,800 lbs. per sq. in. could be applied millions of
times without producing any slip bands. A stress of 15,400 '
lbs. per sq. in. produced only one isolated slip band in the rl\ I \ f \
region examined after three million cycles and this line was / '\_ I X
confined to the middle portian of the crystal. From these
/ 1/'l\
tests it was concluded that 15,400 lbs. per sq. in. was the
endurance limit for Swedish iron. On the basis of such I / f I'\
investigations the theory was advanced that cycles of stress, I /
\
which are above the safe range, produce slip bands in indi-
vidual crystals; if we continue to apply such cycles of stress I,+1 '
there is a continua! sliding along the surfaces accompanied by \
friction, similar to that between sliding surfaces of rigid bodies.
As a result of this friction, according to the theory the ma- \
terial gradually wears along the surfaces of sliding and a
crack resul ts.
\
1
\J 1\ 1, \J '~
Further investigation in this direction 121 showed that slip C)
~
~
1~
i:i C) C>
bands may occur at stresses which are much lower than the ~ ~ r ~
~
") ...
C) 1,
Stroin
endurance limit of the material. They may develop and
Fro. 295.
broaden, as was observed by Ewing and Humfrey, without
leading to the formation of a crack. This shows that the
appearance of slip bands cannot be taken as a basis for been done in this field. 124 Experiments show that the yield
determining the endurance limit and cannot explain the point and ultimate strength of metals in ~ension d~pend very
mechanism of fatigue cracks. It seems probable that more much on the temperature. Several tens1le test d1agrams f?r
light will be brought on the causes of fatigue by testing single medium carbon steel at different temperatures are sho~n m
crystal specimens and by going into the study of the molecular Fig. 29 5.125 Up to about 250 Centigrade the ultimate
structure of crystals. 122 123 Mellanby and Kerr, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engr.'. London, 1927; Guy,
82. Mechanical Properties of Metals at High Temper- H. L., Proc. Inst. Mech. Engr., 1929, and The Engmeer, Vol. 147, 19 29,
atures.-There are many cases in which parts of engineering p. 136. b r d. th "S m
124 A bibliography on this research work can ~ IOun in e,, Y -
structures are submitted simultaneously to the action of posium on effect of temperature on the propert1es ofb m~taJls, F Pro~.
stresses and of high temperatures. Such conditions are found Amer. Soc. Test. Matls., Vol. 24, 1924. See _also paper Y rene ,
for instance in power plants and chemical industries. Due H. C. Cross and A. A. Peterson, Technolog1c Papers of the Bureau of
Standards, No. 362, 1928. hL b t
to the modern tenJency to increase the initial temperature of 12s See report of work done at the Westinghouse Researc a ora ory
121
H. J. Gough and D. Hanson; Proc. Roy. Soc. (A), Vol. 104, 1923. by R. B. Wilhelm, Proc. Amer. Soc. Test. Matls., Vol. 24, part 2, 19 24,
122 p. 151.
See H. J. Gough, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Vol. 226, 1926.
464 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 465
strength of the steel increases, but with further increase in
temperature it drops off rapidly. Also the yield point be- say 15 ar 20 minutes), as given in Fig. 29~, ar~ ~seful only far
comes less pronounced as the temperature increases and at cases in which th~ loads act but a short time. 2 .
300 C. it cannot be distinguished on the diagram. In Fig. Far loads acting over a long period of time and at h1gh
296 the first portions of the same diagrams are shown to a
larger scale. These show that the proportional limit of the ,,,,.-----..., I
40
/.,,-- zoc
1/ V Iooc
., 1/ . / -z ooc.
~ 30 ..,.v ./ ~
....
V) V V /V
./ / 1/
.f V V
.'/ ,_ 300C.
'* zo
"o
.....ll
g
..... 10
V
/
/
V
/
V
I'/
/
/
1/ /
./
_,,v
/
/
V
/
./
/
V
/
/
,,
V
V
V
___..-
V--- --
----
~
~
400"C.
500C.
~
/ / / / /., 1./
,, / ..... V V
V .,,/
V V V V 1 / 1./
Stro,n
Q'l)M
40 ~"~ 13 opo, t,on, 1. ~ r-- k -_
steel diminishes as the temperature increases. At the same ~1 f\
,, ,,__..
V
time there is a decrease in the slope of the straight portions of
the diagrams, and hence in the modulus of elasticity. Ali the 30 ~~ -- I"'-.._ /1><--r---...
results obtained in the above tests are summarized in Fig. 297, Z5 ~ /
which shows that, while the strength of the material decreases l E/01 got1<~"'
zo ~::, -
as the temperature increases, its ductility, as characterized by ~
elongation and reduction in area, increases. 15 <5
~
Experiments at high temperatures show that the results o zo /00 zoo 300
of tensile tests depend very much on the duration of the test. Temperature in Degree C. " .500
As the duration of the tensile test increases, the load necessary Fra. 297.
to produce fracture becomes smaller and smaller. In Fig. 298
temperature, as far instance the weight of ~ ~truct~re ar ste~m
are shown the tensile test diagrams far the same steel as above pressure in power plants, we need add1t1onal mformation
at 500 C. and far test durations of 6 minutes, 70 minutes and regarding the time ejfect. Experience shows that under such
240 minutes respectively. lt is evident from this that tensile
126 To eliminate time effect, vibration tests have been used in /ef
test data obtained from the usual short duration tests (lasting termining modulus of elasticity. See paper by G. Vers, Journa 0
Appl. Mech., Vol. 2, 1935.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 467
466 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
constant load and temperature, and the progressive creep under
conditions a continuous deformation, "creep," may take
place, which is the most important factor to be considered in this load is investigated.
The results of such experiments made for a given tem-
design. Although a considerable amount of research work in
erature and for various values of the load can be represented
this direction has been done 127 and much more is now in prog- p h ' F 2 128
ress, the question of the behavior of metals under high by time-extension curves, suc h as 1s s own m 1g. 99
temperature and prolonged loading cannot be considered Curve A represents a typical
I
completely cleared. creep curve far a relatively I
high stress. After app!ication
of the load creep proceeds at
/ "' \
[\ ~
a gradually diminishing rate.
At point a an inflection occurs t 1--/-.-1-1',.-~h,!-t---f--r---t
~ / '\ v70rnin ,tes
6mi ,utes
f ~f40m oufe, and the creep rate begins to in-
crease until the test specimen
\ I \ / \ breaks. The ~urve B, cor-
1
' I
\ responding to a somewhat
\ \ \
smaller load, has a similar
shape. Owing to lower creep
\ \ \ rates it takes a longer time Curve G
to produce fracture. As the 1
M
load is further reduced, si'TI-
Stra,n
1
ilar tests on different speci- FIG. 299.
mens give curves C, D, E,
F and G. As the stress diminishes, a longer and longer
In most experiments of this kind the gradual elongation of time is required to obtain the inflection point on the creep
materials under prolonged tension is studied. Tensile test curve. To determine the inflection points for such curv<;s as
specimens at high temperature are submitted to a certain F and G, tests of extremely long duration would be requ1re~.
127 See papers: J. H. S. Dickenson, J ournal of Iron and Steel Inst.,
It is seen that, as the stress decreases, the creep cu:ve 1s
Vol. 106, 1922, p. 103; H. J. French and W. A. Tucker, Technologic essentially a straight line for a progressively longer penad_ of
Papers, Bureau of Standards, No. 296, 1925; T. D. Lynch, N. L. Moche! time as it approaches its inflection point. The workmg
and P. G. McVetty, Proc. Amer. Soc. Test. Matls., Vol. 25, part 2, stresses encountered in practice are usually below that corre-
1925; H. J. Tapsel and J. Bradley, Engineering, Vol. 120, 1925, pp. 614
and 746, and Journal Inst. of Metals, Vol. 35, 1926, p. 75; P. G. McVetty sponding to the curve G; hence the assumption that the creep
and N. L. Moche!, Trans. Amer. Soc. Steel Treating, Vol. 11, 1926, curve approaches a straight line is _su~cie~tly accurate _fo_r
p. 73; A. E. White and C. L. Clark, Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Eng., practical purposes. The slope of th1s lme g1ves us the mznt-
Vol. 48, 1926, p. 1075; H. J. Tapsell and W. J. Clenshaw, Dept. of S-
entific and Industrial Research, Eng. Research, Report No. 1, 1927.
mum creep rate for a given stress and a given temperature'.
Information regarding more recent ublications see in the book by H. J. 12s This figure and the three following are taken from McVetty's
Tapsell, "Creep of Metals," 1931; see also Symposium, A. S. T. M., papers; see Mechanical Engineering, 1934, p. 149 and Proc. Am. Soc.
Chicago, 1931; E. L. Robinson, Journal Appl. Mech., Vol. 1, p. 145, 1933
and P. G. McVetty, Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Math., Vol. 37, 1937. . Test. Mat., Vol. 34, 1938.
468 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 469
~he magnitude of this creep rate diminishes as the stress Since we always have to consider progressive creep in
aecreases_, but the~e is no conclusive evidence that it will members subjected to the simultaneous action of high tem-
ever vamsh-that 1s, that there is a limiting stress at which perature and stress, the design must be based on the assump-
the specimen can indefinitely resist the stress and high tion of a certain duration of service of the structure and of a
tempera ture. certain amount of permanent deformation which can be con-
In studying the progressive creep of tensile test specimens sidered as permissible. The working stresses must be chosen
under constan_t loa_d and high temperature, two phenomena in each particular case so that the permanent deformation of
must_ be k~pt m mmd: (1) hardening of the material due to the structure during its lifetime will not exceed a definite
plast1c stram? and (2) removal of this hardening or "softening" limit depending on the type of structure. The purpose of
of the material due to :he prolonged action of the high tem- long-duration high-temperature tests is to furnish the designer
perature. The mechamsm of plastic flow at high temperature with sufficient information for a satisfactory calculation of the
~s the same ~s. at room temperature. The plastic deformation above mentioned permanent deformations due to creep.
Is due _to shdm~ of the n:ietal. This sliding is accompanied The duration of the laboratory tests usually does not
by an 1?crease 1~ the res1stance to sliding, which represents exceed a few thousand hours, and for the prediction of the
the stram hardemng (p. 412). creep deformation during the lifetime of a structure sorne
The rate at which the effect of strain hardening is removed extrapolation of the laboratory test results becomes necessary.
depends on the temperature. It was mentioned before (p. The experiments with various steels show that in the first
409) t~at the effect of strain hardening can be eliminated in a portion of the creep curves, Fig. 299, the excess of creep rate
sh~rt time by annealing metal at a certain high temperature above the mnimum creep rate decreases geometrically as time
wh1ch ~epends on the kind of metal. But the same effect can increases arithmetically. Hence, denoting by e the total
be ~btame~ at much lower temperatures acting over a longer inelastic elongation at a certain time t, by v the corresponding
per~od of time. It has been shown,12 9 for instance, in investi- creep rate, and by Vo the mnimum creep rate, we can take for
gatmg the softening of cold worked copper that the softening the creep rate the expression 130
pro~uced in l 2 minutes at 300 C. would take rn. 4 days at
de
200 C. and that apparently it would take about 300 years to V = dt = Vo + ce-at, (a)
produce the same softening at IOO C .
. . !he time-_extension curves, Fig. 299, show that during the in which e, vo and a are certain constants which must be de-
m1:1a~ extens10n the rate of extension gradually diminishes. termined from the creep curves. Take, for example, a metal,
Th1s _is due to strain hardening. At the inflection point a the creep curves of which for several values of stress and for
certam constant rate of extension is established at which the a constant temperature 8 50 F. are given in Fig. 300. Meas-
hardening and softening counteract each other that is the uring the slope in five points of each of these curves, we obtain
strain hardeni?g produced by creep is continuou~ly destr~yed the five values of the creep rate for each stress at five differ-
by t_he softenmg effect of the high temperature, and creep ent values of t, and the curves shown in Fig. 301 are con-
contmues at a constant rate depending on the magnitudes of structed. The horizontal asymptotes to these curves evi-
stress and tempera+-ure. , dently give us the values of v0 for the applied values of stress.
m See Pilling and Halliwell, Proc. Amer. Soc. Test. Matls., Vol. 25: 130
See reference I 28. For comparison methods of extrapolation of
1925. See also R. W. Bailey, Journal lnst. of Metals, Vol. 35, 1 9 26. test data see J. Marin, Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat., Vol. 37, p. 258, 1937.
470 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 471
Plotting now the values oflog (v - v0) against time, we obtain
the system of inclined parallel lines which indicate that the In our previous discussion it has been assumed that plastic
assumed expression (a) is satisfactorily chosen. From these flow is accompanied by strain hardening. Experiments show
lines the values of constants e and a in expression (a) are that with increase in temperature the strain hardening be-
comes less and less pronounced.
3
~ carbon steel (0.17 C) ata stress I
IIJ
1
1
a:~' of 2,200 lbs. per sq. in. no I
n.
w strain hardening was observed 131
w
5.o, at a temperature of 647 C.
g Ve: jt ., V
0
+Ce-"t. 10,0oo PSI Under such conditions the time
..J
o;; 10,000 P 51 ""fo~t.-*e-O(t
a
extension curve has a shape
'
TIME-t- HOUAS
2000 O 500 1000
TIME -t- HOURS
zooo such as shown in Fig. 303; i.e.,
0 0:--'-~0~2~~0.74__.__o~.6:-'-.~0~.s:-'-~1.o~
PLASTIC OEFORMA.TION
Fw. 300. Fw. 301. the rate of creep increases con- Fw. 302.
tinuously with the time. lt is
obtained by measuring the ordinates of the lines at t = o and
interesting to note that the two kinds of time-extension
~heir sl~pe. The p~astic elongation is now obtained by the curves shown in Figs. 299 and 303 are associated with different
mtegrat10n of equat10n (a) which gives
types of fracture. When strain
e hardening is present, yielding at a
E = Eo + vot - ~ e-at, (b)
certain point in the specimen in-
where Eo is a constant. creases the resistance at this point
Applying this equation to sorne specific value of t far and the next sliding occurs at
which the plastic elongation is known from Fig. 300, the ;alue sorne other cross section. As a
of Eo can be calculated. Hence all the constants entering in Fw. 303. result of this a uniform elongation
the equation (b) are determined by using the curves of Figs. takes place and the specimen re-
300 and 301, and we can now apply this equation for calculat- mains cylindrical up to the beginning of "necking." When
ing E for any given interval of time. In this way the curves strain hardening is absent, the local yielding which begins at
shown in Fig. 302 are obtained. Having such a system of the weakest cross section spreads at a decreasing rate towards
cur:7es for. a definite material and a definite temperature, a the ends of the specimen. As a result of this the two parts
des1gner can readily select the proper value of working stress of a broken specimen are tapered from the ends to the cross
if the lifetime of the structure and the permissible plastic section of fracture.
deformation are given.
131 Book by H. J. Tapsell, loe. cit., p. 466.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 473
472 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
design. Several examples of this kind have been discussed by
Under the prolonged action of high temperature a metal- Mr. Bailey. 135
lographic transformation in metal takes place of such a nature
that the resistance of the steel to creep is reduced. This effect 83. Various Strength Theories. 136~ The mech~nical. prop-
erties of structural materials have ch1efly been 1nvest1gated
is more pronounced in the case of high carbon steels. To
with testing machines which subject spe~imens t? the simpl_est
reduce this structural transformation it is necessary to apply
sort of stress conditions. Most of our tnformatton regardtng
a suitable heat treatment assuring the metallographical
the strength of metals is obtained from simple tensile tests,
stability. 132
while the strength of brittle materials such as stone or concrete
Most of the data regarding the strength of metals at high
has mostly been studied by compression tests; we also have a
temperatures has been obtained from simple tension tests and
certain amount of information regarding the strength of
the strength of metals under combined stress remains an
materials in shear. The strength of materials under m?re
unexplored field. In arder to get sorne information about the
complicated stress conditions than these has only been 1~-
creep of steel under such conditions Mr. Bailey made sorne vestigated in exceptional cases. In arder to h~':e sorne bas1s
interesting tests with lead. 133 This metal has a low melting for determining working stresses for the cond1t10ns of com-
point and creep phenomena occur at room temperature. bined stress which are often encountered in design, various
Experiments with combined stresses are much simpler at this strength theories have been advanced. The purpose of these
temperature and may throw sorne light on the behavior of theories is to establish laws by which we can, from the
steel under combined stresses at high temperature. behavior of a material in simple
The long-duration high-temperature torsion tests with thin tension or compression tests, pre-
tubular steel specimens were made at the University of dict the condition of failure under
Michigan by F. L. Everett. 134 This kind of test has sorne any kind of combined stress; here
advantages as compared with usual tensile tests, since the failure signifies either yielding or a;
plastic torsional deformation does not affect the cross- actual rupture whichever may oc- q
sectional dimensions of specimens and since small volume cur first. ~---+-
changes owing to temperature fluctuation and to metallo- In the most general case the .rz
graphical transformation do not affect the measured angle stress condition of an element of a Frn. 304 .
of twist. stressed body is defined by the .
Befare concluding this discussion it should be noted that magnitude of the three principal stresses, <Fx, <Fy and <Fz, F1g.
progressive creep may produce a redistribution of stresses in 135 R. W. Bailey, Inst. Mech. Eng., 1927. Engineering, Vol. 124,
parts submitted to the simultaneous action of stresses and 1 9 27, p. 44 .Vol. 129, 1930; Inst. Mech. Engrs., 1935. See also C. R.
high temperatures. At points of high stress concentration Soderberg, Journal Appl. Mech., Vol. 1, p. 131, 1933; G. H. MacCulloug~,
Journal Appl. Mech., Vol. 1, p. 87, 1933. J. Marin, Journal Franklin
the rate of creep is larger and hence creep will result in a more
Inst., Vol. 226, p. 645, 1938. .
favorable stress distribution. This fact must be considered in 13 6 A description of these theories can be found m papers by H. M.
or
-_ <TY.P.
E 1 (310)
<Ty. P. '
The oldest theory, the so-called maximum stress theory, 137 takes =-y
the maximum stress as the criterion for strength and assumes
that, in the case of ductile materials, yielding starts in an There are evidences against this theory also. For ins~ance,
element such as shown in Fig. 304 when the maximum stress when a plate is subjected t~ tension. in. two perpendic~lar
becomes equal to the yield point stress of the material in simple directions, the maximum stram theory mdicate~ that the Y;eld
tension or the minimum stress becomes equal to the yield point must be higher than in the case o~ sm_iple :ens10n,
point stress of the material in simple compress10n. This because the elongation in each of the two dir:ct10ns _is so~e-
makes the conditions for yielding what decreased by the tension in the perpendicular directio~.
138
This conclusion is not supported by experiments. Experi-
<l'x = <l'Y.P. } ments with specimens under uniform hydrostatic pressure also
or
<Tz = 1
<l'Y.P., contradict this theory. .
Much better agreement with experiment, at least with
. . ' . . b th
in which <TY.P. is the yield point in tension and uy_p_' the yield ductile materials havmg <TY.P. = <TY.P. , is g:ve~ Y e
point in compression. There are many evidences contra- maximum shear theory, which assumes that y1eldmg starts
dicting this theory. We have seen, for instance (Fig. 214), when the maximum shearing stress becomes equal to t~e
that in the_ case of simple tension sliding occurs along planes maximum shearing stress at yield point in a simple tensile
inclined to the axis of the specimen, i.e., on planes where the test. Since the maximum shearing stress is _e~ual to h~lf _the
tensile stress is not a maximum. It is known also that a difference between the maximum and the mm1mum prmc1pal
139
homogeneous and isotropic material, although weak in simple stresses, the condition for yielding is
compression, may sustain very large hydrostatic pressures (3 I I)
without yielding. This indicates that the magnitude of the
maximum tensile or compressive stress alone does not define In machine design the maximum shear theory is now generally
the condition for yielding. used for ductile materials. This theory is in good agreement
Another strength theory, attributed usually to Saint with experiment and is very simple to apply.14
Venant, is the so-called maximum strain theory. In this
13s See Wehage, Mitteilungen d. Techn. Versuchsanstalten, p. 89,
theory it is assumed that yielding of a ductile material starts
either when the maximum strain (elongation) becomes equal 1888, Berlin. .
139 This theory is supported by the expenments o
f J G
r ..
uest,
Phl
1
Mag., Vol. 5o, 1900 , p. 6 9. See also L. B. Turner, Engmeermg, Vol. 86'.
Part I) and equat~ng the_ en~rg~ for the case shown in Fig. r = o.77uY.P. from the maximum strain theory,
304 r = o.5ouy_p_ from the maximum shear theory,
t? th~ en_ergy at y1eld pomt m simple tension, the condition of
y1eld1ng 1s found to be T = o.62uY.P. from the maximum strain energy theory.
l It may be seen that the difference between the various theories
w = 2E (u,,2 + u/+ uz2) in this particular case 142 is a considerable one. If we have a
- E
( + + UxUz) = <J'y_p_2
E (312)
circular shaft in torsion, for instance, and assume a certain
UxUy UyUz
2 value for Tmax = Ty_ P./n, we will find from eq. (149), Part I, for
the various strength theories, the following ratios of diameters:
To compare the various strength theories let us consider the
case of pure shear: In this case the maximum tensile stress is - l 3
~ I- ~
3 I-
equal_ to the max1mum compressive stress and to maximum I : ~ 0.77 : 0.50 : O.fo' or I : 1.09 : I.26 : I.I7.
sheanng stress (article 16, Part I). Then
Ux = - Uz = r; Uy = O. ''
',
',-;.Z-----,::;a,1-:F--"""'-<c-:<
Assuming tha_t the material has the same yield point in tension
an~ compres~10n, the conditions for yielding according to the
vanous theones are
T = <J'y_p_
from eqs. (309), +
l
T =-
l +
- u y .P. from eqs. (310),
T = uY.P. from eq. (311).
Equation (312) for this case gives
(J'y_p_2
=--, FIG. 305.
2E
from which
Figure 305 compares graphically the four theories presented
<J'y_p_
T = ,===;==== above for the case when there are only two principal stresses
"2(1 + ) (u, = o) 143 and uy_p_ = uy_p_'. The lines in the figure repre-
Th.
141 I
Is proposa was first made by Beltrami, Rendiconti, p. 70 4 , 142 Comparisons of various strength theories in application to various
8
~ 8JJ. Math. Annalen, p. 94, 1903; ~ee also Girtler, Sitzungsberichte design problems are given in the paper by Roth; see Zeitschr. f. Math. u.
. 1ener Akad., Vol. 116, Ila, 1907, p. 509, and B. P. Haigh Engi- Phys., Vol. 48, 1902.
neermg, Vol: 109, 1920, p. 158, and Brit. Assoc. for the Adv. of Science, 143
See papers by A. J. Becker, loe. cit., p. 473, and B. P. Haigh,
Reports, Edmburgh, 1921. loe. cit., p. 476.
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 479
478 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
sent the values ofcrx and <Ty at which yielding starts, according fact that materials can sstain very large hydrostatic press~res
to the various theories. The maximum stress theory is without ielding, Huber proposed, when _the aver~ge stress "3"(u,.
represented by the square 1234. The lengths OA and OB
+ u + ;,) is compression, to split the stram energy mto t~o pa_rts,
one due to the change in volume and th~ other due to_ the d1stort10n,
represent the yield points in simple tension in the x and y and consider only the second part. Usmg the notat1on
directions respectively. In the same manner A' and B'
correspond to simple compression. Point I represents equal
(ux + O"y + Uz) =P
tensions in two perpendicular directions, each eq ual to the Part I) for the unit change in volume ~, the strain
an deq. (4 5) ( . .
yield point in simple tension. The maximum stress theory energy due to the change m volume is
'-
states that there is no yielding at any point inside of the
- pt1 _ 3( 1 - 2 ) p2 = ~ (ux + O"y + Uz) 2
square 1234. The maximum strain theory is represented by W - 2 - 2E 6E
the rhombus 5678. Since a tension in one direction reduces . 1 ( q 31 2) we find for thc
the strain in the perpendicular direction, two equal tensions, Subtracting th1s from the tota energy w e . '
according to the maximum strain theory, can have much energy of distortion
higher values at yielding (as represented by point 5) than Wz = w - w
1
= 1
~ [(ux - Uy) 2 + (ux - Uz) 2 + (uy - 2
Uz) ]. (3i3)
with the maximum stress theory (point 1). If the two
principal stresses are equal and opposite in sign, the maximum In case p < o it was pro1:osed to use W2 instead of the total energy w
strain theory (points 6 and 8) indicates that yielding starts at as the condition of y1eldmg. . l tension we fi.nd,
lower values than the maximum stress theory would indicate. Applying this also to pure shea'.:__ a~d t~s:p e
from eq. 313, for shear (ux = - Uz - r, Uy )
The maximum shear theory is represen ted by the irregular
hexagon A1 BA'3B' A. It coincides with the maximum stress (I + )r
w2= E
theory when both principal stresses are of the same sign, but
there is considerable difference between the two theories and for tension (ux = u; Uy = O"z = o)
when the principal stresses have opposite signs. Equation (1 )o-2 +
(312) for the maximum strain energy theory reduces, for two- W2 = 3E
dimensional problems, to
The condition of yielding in shear is
(1 + )r2 (I + )<Ty.P,2
E 3E
By plotting this we obtain the ellipse shown in Fig. 305, en-
from which 145
closing all the points at which no yielding takes place, ac- 1
cording to the maximum strain energy theory. T = ~ O"Y.P, = 0.5570-y,p,.
The maximum strain energy theory was further developed by F. Schleicher, loe. cit., p. 473, and. M. Ros a~d. A. Eichinger, Proc.
Huber. 144 In order to bring the theory into agreement with the lntern. Congress for_ Apptliedb M~h~~~ 1
t;i~~i~~}~\ Physik, Vol. 36,
m Recent exper1men s Y ' 8 d f M Ros and
144 M; T. Huber, Czasopismo technime, 1904, Lwov (Lemberg). See 1926 p. 913, Forschungsarbeiten, nr. 303, 192 'Tan H o Z . h 1926
A E'ichinger Materialprfungsanstalt an d. E. . ., br1c , 'th'
also R. v. Mises, Gottinger Nachrichten, Math. Phys. Kl., 1913, p. 582;
H. Hencky, Zeitschr. f. Angew. Math; u. Mech., Vol. 5 1925, p. II5;
.n.. ' d
Diskussion, Berichte, nr. 28, 1928, anh nr.
this maximum strain energy theory t an w1t max1m
1 2 9 agree
!t
etter w1
9 .' um shear theory
,
480 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 481
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
length OA represents the yield point in simp)e_ tension_ an~ t~e
The maximum _shear theory was given a further development by circle with the diameter OA represents the cond1t1on for y1eldmg m
146
O. Mohr. In th1s development he made use of the representation simple tension. In the same manner the circle with the ~iameter
of stress conditions on an element
of a stressed body by circles, as
OC represents the condition for yielding in simple ~o~press1~n, ~nd
the circle with the diameter DB represents the cond1t10n for y1eldmg
explained in article 18, Part l. In in pure shear. lf severa! circles of this kind are obtain_ed for. a
this representation the normal and given material by experiments, the envelopes of these c1rcles, m
shearing components of the stress this case MN and M 1Ni, can be constructed. Then ~ohr assumed
1-~---+=--+"--+'---, acting on any plane are given by that any stress condition at which yielding would start _is represented
tr the coordinates of a certain point by a circle tangent to these envelopes. Assume, for mstance, that
i'n the shaded areas (Fig. 306). the envelopes MN and M 1N1 can be replaced by straight lines
Points lying on the same vertical
line such as MN represent the M
stresses on planes with the same
normal stress u and with various
Frn. Jo6. shearing stresses. I t is natural
to assume that the weakest of ali
these plane~ _is t~e plane with the maximum shearing stress, whose
s~ress cond1t1on 1s represented by the point N lying on the outer
c1rcle. R~peati!1g the same reaso_ning with points lying on any
other vertical !me, we finally arnve at the conclusion that the
Frn. 308.
Frn. 307. Then the stress producing yielding in pure shear, represented b_y
weakest plane must be one of the planes whose stress conditions are the radius OD of the circle with center at O and tangent to MN, 1s
represented by points on the outer circle ANC. Hence the outer - = OF
- cos
~ircle alone is sufficient to determine the limiting stress condition,
TY.P. = OD <P = 41(uY.P. - uy_p_ ') cos2 'P (a )
1.e., the stress condition at which yielding begins. In Fig. 307 the The angle 'P may be calculated from the triangle KLP, from which
but in most cases the difference between these two theories is not se
large as to make it of practica! importance to introduce the maximum -YPK2 - PL2 -..J - O'y_p_O'y_p_'
as are shown in Fig. 276, the working stress can be selected on discussion given on page 434 it is evident that such an as-
a basis of such curves. In most cases, however, we do not have sumption is on the safe side as compared with Gerber's
such complete information, and a decision regarding working parabolas and the straight lines of Fig. 276. lf we divide OA
stresses must be taken on a basis of the known endurance and OB by the factor of safety n, we obtain points determining
limit <re for reversed stresses (<rmax = - <1'min) and the yield the straight line CD, parallel to AB, which represents saje
point stress in tension <1'ypo stress conditions. From this line we can determine the safe
A method sometimes successfully applied in the design of value of um and ur for any value of the ratio ur/um. For
machine parts will now be discussed. 154 We shall begin with example, for the stress condition represented by the point G,
a direct variable stress and salve it in two parts, constant <rm = OF, <rr = FG, and from the similar triangles GFC and
mean stress and reversed stress, given by the formulas: DOC we find
<1'm =
Umax + <lmin
<1'r =
Umax - <1'min
(J' Y.P.
<1'r <1'e
lt is seen that for any given value of the ratio <rr/<rm the
allowable values of <rr and <rm are obtained from equations
(316) if the values of u. and <ry_p_ are known from tests, and
the magnitude of the factor of safety n is selected. As an
illustration of the application of these equations let us assume
Fw. 309. that a prismatical bar of steel having <ry.p. = 42,000 lbs. per
sq. in. and u, = 30,000 lbs. per sq. in. is submitted to repeated
tension test (ur = o), and B the endurance limit for reversed stresses, varying between the limits o and u max Then
stress (um = o). Having these two limiting stresses, let us
Umax <1'm
assume that the limiting stress conditions 155 for other cases are Ur = <1'm = -2-'
<1'r
= 1,
represented by points on the straight line AB. From the
154
This method is used in machine design of the Westinghouse
and for n = 2 we find, from eqs. 316,
Electric and Manufacturing Co.; see papers by C. R. Soderberg, Trans. 0 00 1
A. S.M. E., Vol. 52, p. 52, 1930; Journal of Appl. Mech. Vol. 1, p. 131, <rr = 3- -'-~-- - -- 1- = 8,750 lbs. per sq. in.;
1933. See also A.M. Wahl, "Machine Design," 1938.
155 The limiting stress condition ?s defined as that which produces
I +-
I.4
a failure; that is, fatigue fracture or_ stretching beyond the permissible
= 42,000
- --- I
8,750 lbs. per sq. in.
limit. <1'm
2 I + 1.4
490 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 491
Hence
Considering again the bar of the previous examp~e ?d as-
CTmax = CTm + CTr = 17,500 lbs. per sq. in.
suming, for example, that the local_ stress concentratton ts such
In the above discussion it is assumed that we are dealing that k = 2, we obtain from equattons (318)
with a prismatical bar and that the direct stress is obtained
by dividing the axial force by the cross-sectional area of the 000 1
CTr = 3,
2 X 2 l l
= 5,530 lbs. per sq. in.;
bar. If the form of the bar is such that there is stress con-
centration at certain points, as, for example, in a bar with 1+42
fillets or in a bar with a hole, this stress concentration must be
= -42,000
-2-- l + l
1.4 X 2
= 5,530 lbs. per sq. in.;
considered in selecting allowable stresses. Experience shows CTm
the stress and disregarded when calculating the constant mean Equations (318) can also be used in bending. Suppose, for
stress. Sorne justification of this procedure is obtained if we instance, that a shaft of steel with CTY.P. = 42,~oo lbs. pe~ sq.
consider the case in which the acting forces increase above the in. and cr. = 30,000 lbs. per sq. in. is bent ~y 1ts own wetght
allowable limit and sorne yielding of a ductile material, such while rotating. Then crm = o and, assummg, for example,
as steel, occurs at the points of high stress concentration. As n = 2 and k = 1.7, we would have
a result of such yielding, cycles of stress finally will be estab-
lished for which cr max = crY.P. Since for cycles in which
cr
CT
= -
kn
= 1.7 ' X 2 = 8,800 lb s. per sq. m.,
30 000
cr max < cr Y.P. the range of stress is practically in dependen t of r
the magnitude of the mean stress, 156 the omitting of the factor
of stress concentration in the calculation of mean stress <loes which represents the maximum nominal bending stress allow-
not effect the conclusion regarding the fatigue strength. able in this case.
Using the symbols CTm and cr, for the nominal values of stresses Since the endurance limit in shear is usually not far from
(neglecting stress concentration) and the symbol k for the half the endurance limit in reversed direct stress (seey. 435)
factor of stress concentration, which is applied only to variable we can assume that the maximum shear the~ry, wh~ch was
stress, we obtain the allowable values of CTm and cr, by sub- originally proposed for constant stresses, appltes also m cases
stituting kcr, instead of cr, in equations (315) and (316), which where fracture occurs dueto fatigue. 157 Hence for pure shear,
gtves using the notations r, and Tm for the reversed and cons~ant
parts of the stress, and k for the factor of stress concentratton,
-l = -kcr, + --, CTm
we find, from eqs. (318),
n <Te CTy_p_
(3 1 7)
CT Y.P. l CT e l --=-
I
CTy_p _ _ _ _
CTm = - - (3 I 8) = 2kn =W kr, (3 1 9)
11 l + CTy_p_ kcr,
Tr
l + -krr
- CTe Tm Tm
1+--
CTyp
156
See R. E. Peterson's discussion i~ Proceedings Am. Soc. Test. Mat., 11>1 Application of various strength theories to fluctuating stresses is
Vol. 37, 1937.
discussed by J. Marin, Journal Appl. Mech., Vol. 4, p. 55, 1937.
492 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 493
As s um~, for ex~mple, that a shaft of the same material as
16 - - - -
above 1s subm1tted to a pulsating torque such that r . Tmax = 1rd -,J M 2 + Mt2, (g)
= rmax and tha~ the dimensions are such that the factor m~f
stress concentrat10n at the fillets (see p. 335 is k = 1 . Then where M and M1 are the maximum values of the bending and
7 of the twisting moments respectively. In calculating the
Tmax +
=------'C.:.::= -
min 3r T
Tm
2
4
max,
,
Tr = max -
2
Tmin
= -1 T max diameter d from this equation we substitute Uy_p./2n for Tmax,
4 as for static conditions, and take care of fl.uctuation of stresses
Assuming a factor of safety n = 2 , we find, from eq. ( ), by multiplying M and Mt by certain numerical factors m and
319
_ _30,000 1 mi, so that the equation for determining d becomes
Tr -
2 X 1.7 X 2 = 1 ,950 lb s. per sq. in.,
1
1
-X_j_ +- uv.P. =
16
d '1(mM) 2 + (m1M1) 2. (320)
1 4 1.7 2n 1r 3
42,000 1
Tm = - - -
4 = 5, 86o lb s. per sq. in.; The values of m and m1 depend on the relative values of the
1 1.4 X 1.7 + moments M and Mt and on their fl.uctuation. A satisfactory
3
working formula will be obtained if the values m and m1 are
Tmax = Tm + Tr = 7,810 lbs. per sq. in. chosen so as to satisfy the two extreme conditions: (1) when
Equ~t~on (319) can also be used for the general case of stress Mt = o, and we have a fl.uctuating bending and (2) when
con~1t1on represente~ i~ Fig. 304, provided the plane of M = o, and we have a fl.uctuating torque. For these two
m~x1?1um shear rema1ns 1mmovable in the material, while the extreme conditions equation (320) gives
principal stresses vary. 158 In this case
uv.P. = ~3 mM (h)
= ( u,, - u)
T max = ( Ux - Uz ) ,
2n 1rd '
Tmin
2 max 2 mln
and the quantities (i)
Tm
rnax + min
=----'--__::::;_.:..:: and 'Tmax - 'Tmin The first of these equations corresponds to the fl.uctuating
2 Tr =-----=
2 bending and the second to the fl.uctuating torsion. Both
are determined from eqs. (319). these cases were already discussed, and we have only to adjust
the factors m and m1 so as to bring equations (h) and (i)
T~ere are sometim_es more complicated cases, when not onl the into coincidence with the previous equations (318) and (319).
magmtude of the max1mum shearing stress but also the p .t"Y Let us begin with the case of fl.uctuating bending and use the
the body of the plane in which it occurs changes Th os! wnl m
f h' k' d e srmp est
case o t 1s r_n rs that of combined bending and torsion. For this
symbols Mm and M, for the mean value and the variable
case the nomrnal value of the maximum shearing stress is (see eq value of the fluctuating bending moment M, so that
I 6 I, p. 278, Part I)
M= Mm+M,. (j)
158 suc h d" . .
d b ad" con 1t10n we have ' for example in the case o f com b"1ne d The corresponding nominal values of stresses are
reverse en . mg and reversed torsion if the bendin and h
moments are m phase. , g t. e tors10n
32M,
and Ur = 1rJ3 ' (k)
494 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 495
and
be calculated from equations (o) and (p). The necessary
1rd
M = Mm + M, = - (um
32
+ '1,). diameter is then obtained from equation (320).
As an example take a shaft of the same material as considered
Substituting this value of M in the equation (h), we obtain before and assume that the bending moment Mis completely re-
versed 169 and the torque fluctuates in such a way that M 1
n
<Ty_p_
= m(um + u,). (/) = (M1)m(I 0.1). If the proportions of fillets are such that the
factor of stress concentration in bending 160 k = 1.7 and the factor
of stress concentration in twist ki = 1.7,161 then by substituting
If there is no stress concentration, this equation must coincide <Tm = o and Tr = o.Irm, we obtain from eqs. (o) and (p)
with equation (315). Hence
<TY.P.
= k- - = 1.7 = S 1 + 1.7 X 1.4 X 0.I
m(um + u,) = ~ + <Tm ,
m
<Te
X 1.4 2.3 ; m1 = I + 0.I = 1.13.
(T Y.P. (Te (T Y.P.
(m)
and The diameter of the shaft can be obtained by substituting these in
eq. (320).
I + <Tr <Ty_p_
In the previous discussion it was assumed that the di-
m = __<T_m_ _<T.::....e mensions are determined by strength considerations only.
<Tr
(n)
I +- <Tm
There are sometimes additional requirements which must be
considered in design. There are cases in which a limiting
Sine~ <Ty_p_, <Te and the ratio u,(um are known, the factor m is deflection is prescribed and must be taken as a basis for
read1ly calculated from the equation (n). If there is stress calculating the dimensions. The deflection is of great im-
concentration, the equation (/) must coincide with equation portance in cases in which vibration of the system is to be
(317) and we obtain considered. Sometimes there are requirements regarding the
I +k <Ty_p_ <Tr maximum deflection of beams or girders. Shafts must sorne-
times satisfy requirements regarding the angle of twist per
m = - - - -<Te- <Tm
- (o)
<Tr uni t length.
I + <Tm
-
In the case of structures submitted to the action of high
temperature the design must be based on the assumption of a
Considering in the same manner the fluctuating torque given
by equation (i), we obtain certain duration of service of the structure and of a certain
amount of distortion which can be considered as permissible.
1 + k1 <Ty_p_ Tr The working stresses are chosen so that the distortion of the
m1 = - - - -<Te- -
Tm
(p) structure during i ts life time will not exceed- a defini te limi t
Tr
I
+- Tm
depending on the type of structure (see art. 82).
159 This is always the case when the rotating shaft is under the action
and tors10n moments the values of the factors m and m 1 can are at the same point. This is approximately true at the fillets of shafts
of variable diameter.
496
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 497
From ali this discussion it may be seen that the choice of
.5
working stresses is a very important and at the same time a (i
: : :
>I
very complicated problem. In establishing the factor of "'... ,.:2
~ (i
safety n the designer must always be guided by past experi-
"
E
~": :
>I
: : :
,.:2
ence. The above discussion giving a comparison of the (l.l
o:: .5
~,. ~,~
<')
working stresses for various stress conditions is not intended (i
... : 1l : ~ :
to replace the use of past experience but may be helpful in "
a
:
:;"
interpreting this experience and in arriving at a design which
_ _ 8 V, _
is equally strong in ali parts. It may be useful also in making ..;-
..;- r.::
..;- ..;-
(i
V,
comparisons of different designs and in comparing the -11 -11 -11 -11
strengths of existing structures. The study of actual failures
and the investigation of the causes of these failures in the light (i
..;- "'00
..;- ..;- "'
v;
.s AUTHOR INDEX
:: ::
.s .s Brown, S. J., 392
Almen, J. O., 183
Bruno, Eck, 145
"' Anderson, C., 383
Bryan, G. H., 225
K ,
] Archer, R. S., 408
Axelson, K., 167
Buchholtz, H., 441
Buckley, 301
N 0" d' ~~ Bhler, H., 441
8 00 ('"') ('"')('"')
Bach, C., 398, 404, 482
-H -H -H -H -H Bailey, R. W., 468, 472, 473 Burges, R. W., 193
Burke, W. F., 90
Bairstow, L., 459
Burzyski, W., 480
Bantlin, A., 107
Barker, L. H., 263 Byerley, 44
Basquin, O. H., 432
Carpenter, H. C., 413
Batson, R. G., 396
Carrington, H., 142
Bauer, O., 414
Castigliano, A., 91
Baugher, J. W., 243
Baumann, R. W., 85 Chitty, L., 343
Chwalla, E., 56, 219, 228, 230, 234
Bauschinger, J., 409, 433, 459
Ciare, C. L., 466
Bauschlicher, A., 357
Becker, A. J., 477 Clapeyron, 239
Clenshaw, W. J., 466
Becker, E., 427, 473
Coates, W. M., 167
Behrens, O., 440
Codron, C., 154
Beke, J., 85
Coker, E. G., 85, 322, 346
Bell, H. C., 180
Cook, G., 170, 220
Beltrami, 476
Bennewitz, 426 Cox, H. L., 75, 94
Cross, H. C., 463
Bierett, G., 85
Biezeno, C. B., u2, u3 Crumbiegel, J., 342
Czochralski, J., 413
u-u
Biot, M. A., 1
o
o V, Bleich, Fr., 85
v, N Davidenkow, N. N., 383, 395
N O\ Blumenfeld, 85
...' ..."'
"' el
Boker, R., 482
Den Hartog, J. P., 324
De Forest, A. V., 346
el ~ Boobnov, J., 20, 41, 121
ca "cs
Q) - Dickenson, J. H. S., 466
Boone, W. D., 438
Q)
e: ... Dietrich, O., 346
e: o Bottcher, K., 75
-et: z Boussinesq, J., 104,324,355
Dinnik, A., 208, 219
Bradley, J., 438, 466 Domke, O., 193
Brauer, H., 100 Donath, M., 253
Donnell, L. H., 250,345,409
Brecht, W. A., 183
Bredt, R., 100, 278 Driessen, M. G., 254
Bresse, J. A. C. H., 90, 218 Dusold, Th., 440
Dsterbehn, F., II2
Brewster, D., 346
E ... N
. Bridgman, P. W., 413
Ebner, H., 59
z
::1 Q)
_e
Q
~ "'
~
Brown, R. M., 436
499
500 AUTHOR INDEX
AUTHOR INDEX 501
Edwards, C. A., 413 Halliwell, 468
Eichelberg, G., 264 Kayser, H., 346 Mayer, E., 362
Halphen, 193
Eichinger, A., 371, 479 Kelvin, Lord, 324 Mayer, Mita, 90
Hanson, D., 462
Elam, C. F., 413 Kent, C. H., 176 Mayor, R., 104
Hartman, 415
Engesser, F., 211 Kerr, 463 Mayrose, H. E., 113
Hayashi, 1
Ensslin, M., 1 54 Kirsch, G., 313 McAdam, 430, 435, 439, 440
Hearle, H., 254
Euler, L., 185 Kist, N. C., 379 MacCullough, G. H., 473
Held, A., 254
Everett, F. L., 472 Koch, J. J., 113 McGivern, J. G., 324
Hencky, H., 144, 148, 250, 478 Kollbrunn~r, C. F., 219
Ewing, J. A., 406, 461 MacGregor, C. W., 397,398,403,415
Hensel, F. R., 472
Kolosoff, G., 318 McVetty, P. G., 466,467
Herbert, H., 362
Fairbairn, W., 225, 432 Kommers, J. B., 429, 432, 436, 437, 44 1 Meissner, E., 167
Herz, H., 355
Favre, H., 347 Kiirber, F., 345, 402, 412 Mellanby, 463
Hetnyi, M., 15, 50,322,352
Fisher, A., 253 Kiister, W., 414 Memmler, K., 194,396
Heun, E., 418
Fiippl, A., 277, 329, 358, 403 Krouse, G. N., 438 Mesnager, A., 312,346,351
Hill, H. N., 85
Fiippl, O., 427, 440, 451 Kuhn, V,59 Michell, A. G. M., 230
Hodkinson, B., 253
France, 430 Khnel, 398, 451 Michell, J. H., 312, 329, 336
Hohenemser, K., 435
French, H. J., 437, 463, 466 Mindlin, R. D., 329
Hiihn, E., 167
Friedmann, H., 93 Lamb, H., 104, 120 Mises, R., 193, 224, 478
Holmberg, E. O., 167
Fritsche, J., 379 Lam, 239 Moche!, N. L., 466
Honegger, C., 250
Frocht, M. M., 85, 319, 338 Langer, B. F., 1, 437 Mohr, O., 480
Hopkinson, B., 427, 461
Fromm, H., 360, 427 Larmour, J., 324 Moore, H. F., 429, 432, 435, 436, 437,
Horger, O. J., 243, 436, 451
Fry, A., 346 Larsen, E. l., 472 438,44 1
Hovgaard, W., 107
Fuller, T. S., 440 Laszlo, A;, 183 Miirsch, E., 97
Huber, K., 283
Laszlo, F., 250 Moser, M., 398
Huber, M. T., 478
Garabedian, G. A., 149 Lees, C. H., 263 Muir, l., 407
Huggenberger, A., 167, 243
Gehler, W., 404 Lehmann, G. D., 437 Mller-Breslau, H., II2
Humfrey, J. C. W., 461
Gerber, W., 433 Lehr, E., 318,346,435, 461 Mller, W., 412
Hummel, 343
Girkmann, K., 56, 379 Lobo, G., l 54
Hurlbrink, E., 219
Girtler, 476 Lode, W., 479 Ndi, A., 148, 250, 384, 387, 388, 409,
Giihner, O., 305, 307 Longbottom, J. G., 100
Inglis, C. E., 318 473
Giiler, F., 414 Lorenz, R., 170 Nagel, A., 264
lnglis, N. P., 438
Golovin, H., 65 Ludwik, P., 398,401,418,419,421 Nelson, C. W., 243
Irwin, P. L., 430
Goodier, J. N., 264 Lynch, T. D., 466 Neuber, H., 320,321,337
Gough, H. J., 75, 94, 428, 429, 433, 434, Lyon, S. W., 438 Neumann, F. E., 346
Jacob, L., 392
440, 461, 462 Lyse, l., 277 Newell, J. S., 37
J acobsen, L. S., 330, 334
Goupil, M., 90 J anicki, W., 243 Nicolai, E. L., 219
Grammel, R., 177, 251, 254 Maier-Leibnitz, 379 Niles, A. S., 37, 295
Jasper, 435,436,437,438
Grashof, F., 65 Maillart, R., 55 Nusselt, W., 264
.Je/fries, Z., 408
Greenhill, A. G., 324 Malkin, l., 253
Jenkin, C. F., 427, 437
Greer, E., 346 Marbec, M., 90
Jensen, V. P., 359 Olsson, R. G., 254
Griffith, A. A., 55, 267, 271, 323 Mark, H., 413
Joffe, A. F., 423, 426 Osgood, W. F., 44
Gross, S., 183 Marin, J., 469, 473, 475, 485, 49
Johnston, B. G., 277 Ostenfeld, A., 283, 293
Grneisen, 404 Martin, H. M., 253
Johnston, R. S., 345
Grning, M., 379 Masing, G., 408, 418
Guest, J. J., 475 Masan, W., 435 Parr, S. W., 412
Kalakoutzky, N., 395
Guy, H. L., 463 Mathar, J., 85, 383 Pasternak, 1
Kannenberg, B. G., 112
Mattimore, J. D., 180 Pearson, K., 55, 65
Kappus, R., 295, 296
Haigh, B. P., 434, 439, 445, 476, 477 Maulbetsch, J. L., 451 Perry, l., 307
Krmn, Th., 56, 107, uo, 194, 420, 482
Maxwell, J. C., 346 Peterson, A. A., 463
502 AUTHOR INDEX AUTHOR INDEX 503
Peterson, R. E., 341, 351, 442, 445, 446, _ Schleicher, F., 1, 473, 479, 480 Wadlow, E. C., 91 Williams, G. T., 427, 461
449, 451, 490 Schmid; E., 413 Wagner, H., 295, 297 Wilson, C., 346, 355
Pfeil, 413 Schulz, E. H., 441 Wahl,A. M., 107,154,179,183,341,351, Wilson, J. S., 445
Pfleiderer, C., 154 Schwinning, 357 445,451,488 Wilson, W. M., 359
Pichler, O., 146 Scoble, W. A., 475 W aters, E. O., 1 54, l So Winkler, E., 65
Pilling, 468 Searle, G. F. C., 120 Wawrziniok, O., 396 Wishart, H. B., 438
Pippard, A. J. S., 343 Seegar, M., 55 Way, S., 125,441,455, 456 Wohler, A., 433
Poisson, 135 Shearer, G. W., 307 Weber, C., 55, 266, 283, 297, 301, 328 Wunderlich, F., 451
Polanyi, M., 408, 413 Siebel, E., 345, 424 Wehage, 475 Wyss, T., 342
Pollard, H. V., 435 Slater, A.; 159 Welcker, W. A., 437, 438
Pomp, A., 412,424 Smith, C. A., 475 Weller, R., 352
Westergaard, H. M., 144, 159, 329 Yosokawa, Y., 85
Poschl, T., 167 Smith-Petersen, N.O., 18o
Westphal, M., 170 Young, D. H., 215
Prager, W., 1, 435 Soderberg, C. R., 473, 488
~!1-d_~l~L., .21 l, 230, 266,404,427 - -sonntag; R., 329 Weyrauch, J. J., 97
Prescott, T., 278 Sopwith, D. G., 75, 94, 440 White, A. E., 466 Zander, W., 441
Pretschner, W., 295 Southwell, R. V., 220 Wieghardt, l Zavriev, K. S., 33
Preuss, E., 85, 342 Steinhardt, O., II2 Wilhelm, R. B., 463 Zimmermann, A., 1, 35
Stodola, A., 253, 264, 343 Willers, F. A., 329, 332 Zulzer, R., 264
Quednau, H., 264 Straub, F. G., 412
Strauch, F., 85
Rees, 408 Stribeck, 357
Reinhardt, E., 93 Stutz, l., 112
Reinhardt, K., 100 Schwerin, E., 100
Reissner, E., 56
Reissner, H., 56, 85, 167, 225, 284
Tait, 307, 324
Rsal, H., 65, 90, 93
Takemura, K., 85
Ribiere, C., 65
Tapsel, H. J., 438,466, 471
Rinne, 404
Taylor, G. l., 55, 267, 271, 413
Ritchie, E. G., II3
Taylor, J. H., 154
Robinson, E. L., 466
Terzaghi, K., 167
Rohland, W., 402
Thomas, W. N., 441
Roos, J. O., 429
Thompson, W., 307,423
Ros, M., 479
Thum, A., 442, 449, 451
Roth, 477 Timpe, A., 65
Rotscher, F., 342
Trefftz, E., 329
Rowett, 427
Tucker, W. A., 466
Rhl, D., 85
Turner, L. B., 389, 392, 475
Runge, C., 167
Tuzi, Z., 347, 349
Russell, G. M., 142
Russell, H. W., 437,438
Ude, H., 449
Saalschtz, 193 Unold, G., 112
Sachs, G., 395,397,405,412, 414 Unwin, 433
Saint-Venant, II3, 149, 265, 307,
367, 384, 389 . yan der Fleet, A. P., 32, 41
Sanden, K., 1, 170 Van den Broek, J. A., 91, 379
Scheu, R., 421 Vers, G., 465
Schilhansl, M., 1 54 Voropaeff, M., 85, 343
SUB JECT INDEX
Numbers refer to pages
Concentration of stress, Chapter VII, 312 thermal stresses in, 174 Elastic, hysteresis, 426, 461 Girders, buckling of the web of, 228
in shafts of variable diameter, 335 thin, with spherical heads, 164 stability, 185
in tension compression members, 312 Cylindrical shell, 162 Elastic properties, effect of speed on the, Helical springs, 304
in torsion of tubular sections, 326 thermal stresses in, 173 42 5 High temperature tests, 462
in twist of shafts, 317, 324 Cylindrical surface, bending of plates to effect of temperature on the, 462 Hale, circular, in tension member, 313
Canica! ring, l 82 a, II9 Elliptical hale, in tension member, 318 in twisted shaft, 317, 324
Canica! tank, 161 Cylindrical tube, buckling under pressure, in twisted shaft, 325 reinfarced, 317
Contact stresses, 355 219 Elliptical ring, 90 Hale, elliptical, 318
Continuous struts, 35 defarmation symmetrical about the Elongation, in tensile test, 400 Hook, stresses in a, 75
Corrosion fatigue, 439 axis, 165 effective, 401 Hydrodynamical analogy in torsion, 324
Creep at high temperature, 466 shrink fit stresses in, l 69 Endurance limit, in bending, 430 Hysteresis, 423
Creep rate, 467 with reinfarcing ring, 169, 171 in combined stress, 435 elastic, 426, 461
Creep in torsion, 472 in shear, 435 loops of, 427
Critica! load, 184 Endurance test, 429 model far demonstrating, 427
Damage curve, 437
determination of, by energy method, Energy method, in column theory, 199
Damping properties of materials, 427
1 99 Euler's column farmulae, 185 I-beams, buckling of, 229
Deflection of beams, under direct and lat-
far a bar with built-in ends, 188 Exponential law, 405 torsion of, 27 5, 283
eral loading, 25
far a bar with one end built-in, another Eye-shaped ends, 85
on elastic faundation, l
hinged, 190 with small initial curvature, 104 Keyway, stresses at, 325
far a hinged bar, l 87 Factor, of safety, 48 2
Deflection, of circular rings, 101
of stress concentration, 319 Lam's theory of thick-walled cylinders,
far a pillar, 187 of canica! rings, 182
Failure, types of, 418
far continuous struts, 191 of curved bars, 79 236
Fatigue failures, 443 Lateral loads on struts, 25
Critica! pressure far a circular ring, 216 of flanges, l So
Fatigue of metals, 428
far an arch, 219 Deflection of plates, circular, having cen- on tie-rods, 39
causes of, 459 Latticed struts, 211
far a tube, 219 tral hole, 151
corrosion and, 439 Link of a chain, stress in, 87
Critica! stress, 189 circular, with clamped edge, 139 effect of cold work on, 436
Crystal, mechanical properties of, 413 circular, with supported edge, 140 with a stud, 93
effect of farm of test bars on, 442 Local bending in thin shells, 165
Curved bars, bending perpendicular to the rectangular, 15 5 effect of residual stresses on, 441
plane of ini tia! curvature, II 2 rectangular, long, unifarmly loaded, 119 Local stress, at fillets, 320, 335, 339
effect of speed on, 437 at holes in a tension member, 313
bending stresses in, 65 Deflection of rails, 8 effect of surface finish on, 441
Deflection of struts, 25 at hales in a twisted shaft, 317, 324
deflection of, 79 effect of understressing or overstressing
neutral axis in, 66 of tie-rods, 39 at keyway, 325
on, 436 Loop of hysteresis, 427
of circular cross section, 73 Discontinuity stresses in thin-walled ves- temperature effect on, 438
of rectangular cross section, 69 sels, 165 Lueders' lines, 343
Fillets, stress concentration produced at,
of T and I cross section, 72 Discs, rotating, of constant thickness, 245 320, 335, 339
of trapezoidal cross section, 71 stresses in, 247 Membrane analogy in torsion, 267, 387
Flanges of tubes, bending of, 180
theory of bending of, Chapter II, 65 of varying thickness, 2 53 Membrane, circular, 144
Flexura! rigidi ty of a pla te, 1 20
with circular axis, IOl Dovetail joint, 322 Membrane stresses, in shells, 164
Flywheel rim, stress in, 98
with small initial curvature, ro4 Drum, rotating, 169 Middle plane of a plate, 130
Foundation, elastic, l
Curved tubes, of circular cross section, 107 Ductility, 399 Fracture, various types of, 418 Models, in stress analysis, 342
of rectangular cross section, l l 1 and stress concentration, 322 Modulus, of faundation, 1
Frames, buckling of, 195
Cylinder, built-up, 241 reduced, 365, 369
defarmation of thick-walled, 236 Effect of time, in tensile tests, 423 Mohr's strength theory, 480
Gears, fatigue failures in, 444, 458 .
defarmation of thin-walled, 162 Grooves, effect on stress concentrat10n, application in twist of cast iron, 482
in high temperature tests, 464
plastic defarmation of, 389 Effective elongation, 401 in tension member, 319, 338
shrink fit stresses in, 241 Effective width, 55, rr2 in twist, 325 Neutral, axis in curved bars, 66
stresses in, 239 !astic faundation, beams on, 1 effect on the type of fracture, 421 surface in a plate, 130
508 SUBJECT INDEX SUBJECT INDEX 509
Notch, hyperbolic, stress concentration Reduced width, 57
Slip bands, 415, 461 Temperature effects, on the elastic prop-
produced by, 321, 338 Reduced modulus, 365, 369
Speed effect, in compression tests, 424 erties, 462
Reduction of area, 401 on the modulus of elasticity, 464
Overstrain, strain hardening, 406 in tensile tests, 425
Residual stresses due to plastic flow, 379, Tensile test, 396
effect on fatigue, 436 Spherical shell, thin, 16o
386, 392, 416 Thermal stresses, in cylinders, 258
Overstraining, of materials in machine experimental determination of, 382 Spherical seat, 356
Spiral spring, 90 in cylindrical shells, 174
parts, 409 Reversed stress, 429
recovery after, 407 Spring, Belleville, 182 in plates, 133
Rings, circular, bending by two opposite
residual stresses due to, 416 spiral, 90 Theory of strength, 473
forces, So
helical, 304 maximum shear, 475
circular, bending by forces perpendicu-
Photo-elastic method, 346 maximum strain, 474
lar to the plane of the ring, 112 fatigue failure of, 445
Pillars, 1 84 Square plate, rectangular plate, II 5 maximum strain energy, 476
circular, buckling of, 216
Pipes, bending of curved, 107 Stability, elastic, Chapter IV, 184 maximum stress, 474
elliptical, 90
buckling of, 219 Thick-walled cylinder, 236
stresses in rotating, 248 Standard specimens, 396
flanges, of, 1 80 plastic deformation of, 389
symmetrical, submitted to uniform Strain energy, 476
reinforced, 171 pressure, 89 Thin-walled cylinder, 162
Strain hardening, at room temperature,
Pistan ring, 92 with parallel sides and semicircular local bending in, 164
406
Pitting cracks, 456 ends, 87 Three moment equation, 36
at high temperature, 471
Pitting limit, 457 Rollers, stresses in, 355 Thrust, on columns, 1 84
of aluminum, 407
Plasticity, Chapter VIII, 362 fatigue fai!ure of, 454 of an arch, 94
of copper, 409
Plastic, bending, 362 Rotating clises, of variable thickness, 2 53 Tie-rods laterally loaded, 39
of single crystals, 412
torsion, 3 83 salid of uniform thickness, 245 Time effect, in tension, 423, 465
of wire, 411 at high temperature, 465
deformation of thick cylinders, 389 with the hale at the center, 246
Strength theories, 473 Torsion, beyond elastic limit, 383
Plate, bending to a cylindrical surface, 119 Rotor, stresses produced by inertia forces,
buckling of, 224 Strength at high temperature, 46 5 hydrodynamic analogy in, 324
in 249, 252
circular, loaded at the center, 146 Stress concentration, Chapter VII, 312 membrane analogy in, 267
Roughness of surface, 455
circular, symmetrically loaded, 135 and fatigue, 442 of a circular ring, 177
cricular, wi th a central hale, 151 at the point of load application, 352 of channels, 275, 288
Season cracking, 418
circular, with concentric loading, 149 Sensitivity index, 448 in bending, 335 of I-beams, 275, 283
pure bending of, 129 Separation failure, 418 in tension, 313 of non-circular shafts, 265
rectangular, 121, 155 Shaft, fatigue failure of, 443 in torsion, 324, 329 of rolled profile sections, 274
thermal stresses in, 133 non-circular, 26 5 Stresses, residual, 379, 386, 39 2, 4 16 of shafts of variable diameter, 329
Polarized light, application in stress meas- of variable cross section, 329 thermal, 133, 258 of thin strips, 301
urements, 346 stress concentration in, 329 Struts, 184 of tubular sections, 278
Proportional limit, 397 Shear center, 53, 292 approximate formulas for deflections of, Torsion and tension, 299
initial, 460 Shear theory, 475 49 Torsion at high temperature, 472
natural, 46o application to thick-walled cylinders, laterally loaded, 2 5 Torsional buckling, 295
Pure bending of plates, 129 240 latticed, 211 Trigonometric series, application to bend-
Shearing force, effect on critica! load, 209 trigonometric series applied to bending ing, 44
Railroad track stresses, 8 Shell, thin, 1 59 of, 44 Tubes, local bending in, 164
Range of stress, in fatigue tests, 429 local bending in, 164 Superposition method, 29 thermal stresses in, 173
effect of average stress on, 434 Shrink fit s~resses, 241 limitation of, 59 Twist center, 53, 292
safe, 459 Single crystal, mechanical properties of, Surface failure, 4 54
Rate of extension at high temperature, 4 13 Surface rolling, 453 Ultimate strength, 397
467 strain hardening of, 413 Surface roughness, 4 55 effect of high temperature on, 465
Rectangular plate, 155 'Size effect in fatigue tests, 449 in shear, for cast iron, 482
buckling of, 224 . Slenderness of a strut, 189 Tank, canica!, 161 Ultimate value of bending moment, 370,
Reduced length, 189 Sliding failure, 418 cy lindrical, 173 37 1
510 SUBJECT INDEX
Ultimate load, on a beam, 377 for ductile materials, 485
for simultaneous bending and torsion,
Variable cross section, buckling of bars
49 2
of, 198, 207
for variable stresses, 487
shafts of, 329
Vessels, subjected to interna! pressure, r 59
local bending in thin, r 64 Yield point, 397, 398
at high temperature, 464
Working stresses, 482 bending beyond, 362
for brittle materials, 486 raising of the, 406
for combined bending and compression, speed effect on, 42 5
32 under combined stress, 43