Formulas and Theorems for Reference

I. Tbigonometric Formulas

l. sin2d+c,cis2d:1

sec2d

l*cot20:<:sc:20

I
+. sin(-d) : -sitt0

t,rs(-//) = t r1sl/

: -tallH

7. s i n ( A* B ) : s i t r A c o s B * s i l B c o s A

8. : siri A cos B - siu B <:os,;l

9. cos(A + B) - cos,4cosB - siu A siriB

10. cos(A - B) : cosA cosB + silrA sirrB

11. 2 sirrd t:osd

12. < ' o s 2 0- c o S 2( i - s i u 2 0 : 2 < ' o so2 - I - 1 - 2 s i n 2 0

I
13. tan d :
< . r f0t

(:ost/ I
14. <:ol0 :
sirr d tattH

1
15. (:OS I/

1
1 6 . c s cd -
ri" 6i

-el
/ F

I tl
r(. cos[ ^ : sitt d
\l

18. -01 : COSA

215
216 Formulas and Theorems

II. Differentiation Formulas

!Q,:I'
(r") - trr:"-1

]tra-fg'+gf'

* (i) -- g J ' - , f g '

,l'

,I
- ( t t ( .)r) 9 ' ( . , ' )
,i;.[tyt.rt) l''

d, \
(sttt rrJ .* ('oqI'
.7,

tJ, \ .
./ stll lr
dr. l('os J

:r) - "11'2.,'
{ 1a,,,t,
o.t

1(<,ot .r')- (,.(,2

.r'
Q:T

rl , : sPl'.r tall 11
(sc'c:.r'J
,7,

d,
.r,; -
- (<:s<t (ls(].]'(rot;.r

,t
-.''
fr("')
,1
-
fr(u") o,'ltrc

,l ,, 1
' tlll ri -
(l.t' .f

d,^ --: I
-iAl'CSllLl'l
t!.r' J1 - rz

1(Arcsi' r) :
oT Il12
 Formulas and Theorems 2I7

III. Integration Formulas

1.
,f"or:artC
2. [\0,-trrlrl *('
.t "r

3. [ , ' , t . ,: r ^ x| ( '
,I

4. In' a,,: lL
111Q
, ,'
.l

5. I n . , a . r : . rh r . r ' . r r ( '
,l
f
6. sirr.rd.r' - ( o s . r '- t C
./

7. / . , , . r ' d r : s i t r . i '| ( '

.t

8. t l : r: h r s e c , r+l C o r ln Jccrs+
rl C
,f'r^rr
f
9. cot .r tlt l r r s i r r . ,l * C
.l

10. [,nr'., ,1., l r r1 s c r ' . *i I a r r . r f C

.J

1i. cotr] +C
.[r,rr,rdr:]nlcscr

12. ,"r' r d,r - tan r: * C

|

13. / * " . r t a r r . rd' r - s r ' < ' . |r ( '

.l

14. n " " 'r d r : - c o t r : * C l

l

15. /.'r.''t.ot r r/l' : ,'sr'.r r C

.t

1 6 . [ , u r r 'r c l .-r l a r r. r - . r + ( '

J

tT. [ ---!! -:lArctan({)+c

.l o'1t" a \a/

f )-
18
Jffi:Arcsin(i)-.
2t8 Formulas and Theorems

IV. Formulas and Theorems

1. Lirnits ancl Clontinuitv

A f u r r c t i o ryr : . f ( r ) i s c ' o n t i n u o uas, t . r - c i f :

i) l'(a) is clefirrecl(exists)

ii) e x i s t s .a n d
Jitl,/(.r')

i i i ) h r u . l ( . r) : . / ( r r )

at .r'- rr.
Othelrvise..f is <lisr:ontinrrorrs

Tire liniit lirrr l(r ) exisls if anclorrh'il iroth corresporrciirrg linrits exist a,ncla,r'e
one-si<le<l
etlrtrl tlrtrt is.

lrgr,,l'(.r): L .:..= .l'(.r) - I' - ./(.r)

,lirn, ,lirl

2. Intemrccliatc- \rahre Theroettt

A func'tion lt , .l (r) that is r'orrtinrrt.rrrs

r-rrra t:krserlinten'a,l fo. b] takes on every value
bct'uveerr
./(rr) arrd ./(6).

Notc: If ,f is corrtiriuorlsorr lrr.lr] an<1.l'(a) ancl .l'(1r)difler in sigrr. then the ecluatiou
.l'(.,)- 0 has at leu,stotte soirttiotritr the opetr itrterval (4.b).

3. Lirrritsof Ilatiorial Frui<'tiorrs

as .r + +:r;

/('] -o
lirrr if the <legreeof ./(.r') < thc clcglee of rt(r')
. r '+ i \ l/\.t J

', . 2 ') , ', . -

l ' . x ; r t r r 1 , l ,l' i:t , r ,. {l
.r'+r. .1"' ] .)

'2. '/ ,/ , \
lirrr i l t l r e , l e g l e eo l . / { . r ' )' t l r e r l e g l e eo f 1 7r()
: is irrlirrite
. ,- t r 9\.1/

, ,. .rr + 2ll'
r.xiulll)l(': nlil L )c
.r'++x. J'' - ai

/ ' / ,)
3. litl # it fiuite if the rlegteeof ./(.r:)- the degreeof .q(.r)
.r'+f - r/(.uJ

Notc: The limit u,ill be the rtrtio of the leaclingc'ciefficient

of .f(r;) to.q(r).

' 2 . r 2- i J . r - 2 2
r-xallrl)lc: llllr : -
t ( ) , r-' 5 r 2 5
 Formulas and Theorems 2I9

4. Horizontal ancl \rt'rtir:al As)'rnptotes

1. AIineg-bisnlurrizontalasvniptott'<-rfthegraphof q : . / ( . r ' ) i f e i t h e r l i r r r l ( . r ' ;= l ;

,,r (r) : b
.Itlt_ .f

2. A lirie .t - e is a vcrti<'alas)'rrrptotc of tlie graph of tt - .f(.r) if eitirel

. l ( . , , )= * r c ur. . / ( . r ' )- + x .
.,.hr, ,\)

5. A v c r a g c t r r r r lI r r s t a r r t i l l l ( - o l l sI l a t < ' o f ( ' l r a r r g t '

1 . A v t ' r a g t ' R a t c o f ( ' l r a t r g c : I f ( . r ' 9 . y r ra) t t r i ( . r ' l . q l ) i r l e l r o i t r t so r r t h e g l a i r l t < f t q - . l ' ( t ) .

t l t e r t t l t e a , v e l i r g ( r) i t t e o f c ' h a r r g eo f i l u - i t h r e r s p e c tt o . r ' o v c l t l r c i t r t c l r - a l l r ' 1 1 . .t r; i s

l!_r1'_l!,,) lr !1, ly '

.l'1 .l'9 .r'l ,r'() l.r

2. I t t s t a t r t n r i t ' o r rRsa t c o 1 ( 1 - l ' , l t r g ,I' 1

, ( , r ' 1 y . . r /i 9
s )a l r o i r r t o r r t h e g r a l r l r o I r l , - , . l ' ( . r ) .t i u r r r
t h e i t r s t a u t A r r e o L rl sa t e o f c h i r r i g t , o f i 7 n ' i t h r t , s p t , r ' t o . r ' a t , r ' 1i1s . f ' ' ( . r ' 1 ; ) .

6. Dcfirritiorr of t,lrc l)r.rir-ativt'

.f'(.,)-lll lEP,r' !y)--ll:'J

t'(,,) 11,1,
T l r t ' l a , t t < ' rc l c f i r r i t i o t ro l t l r t ' < k ' t i r ' ; r t i v t .i s t l r t ' i r r s t a r r t i r l r ( ' ( ) u rsi r t t , o f c h a r r g t ' o f ' . l ( . r ) u - i t l r
resltec:t to .t at .r -. (t.

G e o r r l e t r i t ' a l i r ' .t h t r < l e r i r ' : r t i v e o 1a f i t t l t ' t i 9 l t a t a l r , i l t t i s t l r t ' s l ' 1 r e , f t1e'tatrg<'tttlitrt' t,

tho graph of the firnc'tion at tltat lioirrt.

'fhc
7. N r r r r r l r c r( ' : l s a l i r r r i t

1. li'r (r + 1)" -(
n++a \ fl /

2 . l i n i ( 1 + r r) ; (
n -\)

8. Roller'sTheorerrr

on ln.0] arrrl ciiff'elentiablt'on(a.b) srrt'hthat.l'(rr).., l'(1,).tht'n thcle'

If .l'is c't-rntituu.rtts
is at leirst otte ttutttberc itr the opetr intelval (o.b) srrc'hthat.l/(r') - 0.

9. Nlcan Valuc Thcorcrrr

I f / i s c o t r t i t n r o r t so t t l n . l i l a u c l c l i f f e l e n t i a b l e o n ( o . f ) . t h e n t h e r e i s a t 1 t : a s to u t ' n u r r i l r e r
l / 1 . \ - J )I lt !^lr-
'/
l iti (n.b; .tttlr tlt;tt "'t - -
f'1, I
tt tI
220 Formulas and Theorems

1i) Extreme - Vaiue Tlieorem

If / is contirmouson a closeclinterval lo.l.,].then./(.r) has both a tnaxinrum aurl a

m i n i r n u mo n l a . b ] .

11. To firid the rnaximrrrnand nrirrinuru valuesof a furrc'ti<)\tt =,/(.r'). loc'ate

1. the point(s) r,r'hclc .f'(.r) c'harrges sign. To firrri the c'atrcliclatesfirst fincl lvhcre
'(.r:) -
,f 0 or is infinite rlr cltterstrot t:xist.

2. thc t:trrlpoittts. if :rtn'. ort tltt' rlotttaitr <lf ,/(.r').

Corrrpalc' thc frurctiorr va,lues at trll of thcsc points lir firrrl the tnaxiruuuls an(l ntirtitttttttts. l

12 L e t . / l i c ' c l i f f c l c n t i a l r i t ' f i r r r r < . 1 ' < 1 . t, t t t < lt o r t t i n t r o t r s f o r r r { . r < . l t .

l. I f , f ' ' ( . r )> 0 f o r ( ' v ( ' l ' \ ' . r ' i r r( r r . L ) . t h e r r . f i s i t r c t ' t ' a s i n go r r f r r . 1 l ] .

2. I f . / ' ( . r ' ){ 0 f o r e v e l v . r ' i r r ( o . L ) . t h t ' t t . f i s c l t ' t ' r t ' a s r t rogr r [ 4 . 1 l ] .

l')
_t,). th:rt .f'"(;r) t'xists ort tlte itrtelva,l(rr.lr).
Srippr-,se

1 . I f , f " ( t ' ) ) 0 i r r ( a . b ) . t l r c n . f i s < ' o r r c r , vuep u , r r r ' i<r lr ( a . / r ) .

'). If (lo$:lrwfrlcl
irr (rr./r).
.f"(.r) { 0 irr (rr.L).tlrerr.f is corrc'tr,ve

tfi tt -.1'(.r').firxl the proitrtsr'vhere.l'"(r') - () or u'ltt'r't:.f"(.r')

To lot'trtethe points of irrfkrc'tir.rrt
'Ilten
lyllere .f (.r')rnar.hal't'a poirrt of irillectitxt.
fails to cxist. l'irest,'arethe orrh'r'uclirl'r1,'t;
test tlresepoints to urirkcsure tha,t ,l'"(.,).- 0 on ont'sitlt'arrtl ,f"(.r) > 0 <.rtt tlu'other'.

1.1 Diffcrerrtialrrlitv irnplies r'ontiuuitt': If a frrnr:tiorris cliflereltialrlt' a,t a poirrt .r'- rr. it is
'I'he
t'<.irrtinuous
at that 1.loirrt. convcrst'is falst'. i.e. c'ontintritvrkrcs not iurpll'cliffert'ntiabilitr..

1 5 L o r r t r lL i r r < ' a r i t r -a r r < 1L i t r c a l A p p r o x i t t r a t i o r r

'l'iie
l i r i e a r t r p p r o x i t n z r t i o tot f . / ( . r ' )r r e a r . t ' - . t 0 i s g i v e r rl x ' 4 : . / ( . , ' e ) *.1'(.l'1)(.r' .re).

Tir estiuratc the slope of a gralrh at a poirrt rha,n a trrngerrt lirx-'to tltc graph at tliat point.
Arrother rva\. is (lx' using u grtrphit s cak'nla,tor') to "zoonr in" aroLtn<l the point itt cluestiorr
urrtil the glaph "kroks'' straight.'fhis rrretliocl alnrost ahva'"s \il)r'ks. If u'c' "zot.rtttin" att<l ther
glaph Lr,rks stlaiglrt at a point. sa)'.r': o. then the funr:tiorris loca,ll)'lincar at that point.

flre graph of u : ].r:l has a sharp (:olner' .rt :f :0. This col'llrr c'arlllot lre stlrot-rtheclout lte
"zc.ronringin" r'epeatecllv.Consecluetrtll'. the clerivative of l.r' cioes not exist at .r' : 0. henc'e. is
not locallr' Iinear at .r' : 0.
 Formulas and Theorems 221

1Li. CourlraringRatcs of C'hatrgc

T l r t ' t ' x p o t r e t r t i : r l f u n c ' t i r ) u! : c ' g t ' < l u ' sv e r v l a p i r l h . A S . r ' - + t c u , h . i l et h e f t t g a r i t h m i c , f u l r . t i o n

l/ .. lrr.r' glo\\'s vt'r'r' skx.r,i-u' a.s .r' -) )c.

E r p o t r e r t t i a l f r r u c ' t i o r r sl i k e u - . 2 ' r t r ! / : r , , ' l l r . ( ) \ \ - n t o l . er : r p i c l l y a s . r + : r tharr an), positive

'1.'ht'fitttt'tiott
l)()\\'('1<if .r. i/ - hr.r' gr'o\\'s sl<lu'eras .t -+ x tltiil a1\r lotx,orrstarrt lt1;lvrr<1niai.

\ \ i ' s a r ' . t h a t a s . r '- + ) c :

l(r\ - \ lt|')
l. I t . tt g l ' ) \ \ ' : l ; r - 1 , 1l .l r i r r r, / i , rI i l l i r r r ,r'il lirrr {t.
r .r z/{,r') .r .\.l(.r')
f i . l ( r ' ) g l t x l s f h s t e r t h a t r a ( . r ' ) a s . r ' - + ) c . t h e r r q ( , r ' ) g r ' o w ss l o l r , t r t l u . r n . l ' ( . r . )A S . r . + r c .

2. '19
. / ( . r ) a r r < lr 7 ( . r ' )g r o u , a t t h e s a r n t ' r a t t , a s . r ' + r if lir,r L l0 (tr is firrite ancl
,. ,\ q(.r,)
rrouzt'r'o).

Fol t'xanrlllt'.

1 . r ' g t r x l s l ; r s t c r t l r a r r . r . : i l s . r , + r c s i r r r . r ,l i r r r -. :r,
{. t '

'2.
. r ' l g r ' , , 1 ' sl i r s t c l t l r a r r h r . r ' : r s . r . : r c s i r r < . e1 i , , , - x
,'1

3. . r ' : + 2 . r 'g l ( ) \ \ ' si r t t l l , s i r l r r t 'r ' r r t r ,' r s . , , 1a s . r . ) 'r2 l2

>c sirr<.r' I
,]11 ,i{
T i r f i r l < ls o t t t t ' o f t h e ' s t ' l i t r r i t si r s , r ' , \ . \ ' ( ) l l n r i r v l r s ( ' t h e g r a p h i n g t a l r . r r l a t . , r '\ .I a k e s u . c , t l a t
a l r a l ) l ) l ( ) l ) l i a t c r . i t ' u - i r r gr . l - i t r r l o riis- r r s c r l .

1 7. I r r r - t ' r ' sF
c r r r u ' ti o r r s

i. I f . / l r r r l 1 7i r l t ' t u , o f r r r r < . t i o u ss r r < . ht h a t . l ' ( q ( . r . ) )- . r f o r e - , \ ( ) 1..1\ .,i n t i u , r l o r r r a i r ro l q .

a r r t L .q ( . 1 ' ( . r ' ) ) . r ' . l i r r i r r t h c ' r l o l r a i r r o f . f . t h e r r . . f ' a r r d 1 7a r e i r r v e l s t ' f i u r r . t i o n s
til eirchotlrcr.

'2.
A f t l r r r ' 1 i o r r. f h t l s r t t t i t r v t ' r s r ' l i r t t t t i o u i f a r r r l o n h . i f r i o l r o r i z o r r t a l l i u e i r r t c r s e r r , t ist s
g r a l r l r u r o l t ' t l r i r r ro r r < ' ( r .

3. If .l is t'itlrt't ittt t'eilsilg or' <it'treasirrg in arr intt:r'val. tfien

f' |as a1 i1.,r'r.sefilrc:ti,'
or.t't thrrt irrtt'r't'al.

l. h I i s t l i l f i ' r t ' r r t i a ] r l t ' a t t ' v t ' t ' r - l r o i r r t o r i a r r i r r t e r v a l I . a r r c l , f ' ( . , t )I 0 orr I. t1e1

' - r(., is tlifTt'r<'utitrlrlt'
!l l I at everr'lroint of the interior of the interval l'(I) arrrl
l
,t'll l.rI) ' '
| .ttr
222 Formulas and Theorems

Ix P
' _ r
- l r r rr -l ' t- _t i l s r,1 r ''

.1''
1' I'htr t'xllorlt'utial futtctit.rti !/ - t'' is the irlverse function of t7:111

2. I ' l r t ' c l o r n a i t t i s t h c s e t r l f a l l r t ' a l r l t l r l l l ) e l ' s .- ) c <.lr < DC.

'l'lu'ritngt'is
3. tlrt'set of all llositive nttntllels.! > 0.

,l
-1. -l(, ') , ' .
(Lt'

5. ll .,r' i s < ' o n t i r t l r o r r si .n c ' r ' e r r s i r r ga.t t d ( o n ( ' i r v e r t l t f b l a l l . r : .

tt. iit]'_,' ., i x a t r t l l 1 t l t _r ' - ' 0 .

, ,.

r . r . .f i r r '. r .- > 0 l l r r ( r ' ) - . r ' f i r r a l l . r ' .

T. ,ltt

1 9 . P r o l r t ' r 'itt ' s o [ ] t t . r '

'l'lrc
1. r k r r r r i r i uo 1 r 7 l r r , r ' i s t h t : s e t to f a l l l t o s i t i v c t r u t t t l i e r s , . r ' > 0 .

'2. '['lrt'rirrrgt'of i7 . hr.r' is tlie sct of all rt'al lrtrttt]rers. x < l/ < :r'

urrrl corrcavtr clou,tt cverYrvltertl r-rttits tlclrltrin.

:1. r7 . lrr.r' is <.orrlirrrrorts.itr<'r'e'asirrg.

1 . l r r ( r r | )- l t r r r I l t r 1 i .

1. l t r l , ft l , I ltr,r l r r/ ,

(;. 1 1 1 1 l , . . 1 ' 1 11v 1

7. i7 hr.r '- 0 iI 0 .: .r'.- I arrrllrr.r'> 0 if .r > 1.

E. ltr.r'- *:r trrtrl ltt.r'- -)c'

,lllt. ,.lt]li

1).l.g,,.r'il;

20. 1 - tl p c z o i t l i r l I l r r l t '

If ir f\urt.tiorr.fis c'outiuuorrs orr tlrt't'krseclinte't'val[4.b] where fo.b] has ]reenpartitioned

i r r t r r l s t t l r i r t t t , r ' r ' tIr. lrs' 1 . . r ' rl j, .r . i 2 ] . . . . . [ . r : , , r . . t : , , ] .e n t : l t o f l e n g t h ( b - a ) l n . t h e n
rlt r
.
I f t , ) r / . r=' - ; ; [ . / ( , 0 ) + ' 2 . (f . r r )+ 2 / ( . r z )+ . . . + 2 J ( . r ' ,r,) + . / ( . r " ) ]
.t ,,

Tlrt. T'ralrezoiclal Rrrlt' is tlre avelage of the left-hancl and riglrt-hancl R,iemann sulns.
 Formulas and Theorems 223

21. Propcrties of tlic Dcfinitc Ilttcgral

Let ,/(.r) and r7(,r) be c,cintirruuousorr

la. ll].

fb rt,
1. ( r ) r l , t ' : c , l , , . r r r ,r 1 . rr.' i s a u o r . z c rco, o n s t a n t .
J,,,,'.f

ft
2' f ('') rl'rr- 0
.1,,

:l
I'tt
- |t'
lt,t,t,
.1,,,,')'ltr .f,,
[t' r' lt'
+. r , r . h e r,.ft ' i s c o n t i n r r o uosn a r r i r r t e r . v a l
.1,,,r,),lr- f,,.1t.,)n.,*,1,.f'(.r)rl.r..
r'orttailrittgtlte trutnltet'srr. 1r.arrrlr'. r'egarrllt'ss
ol tlrt'or'<lt'r.a.|. arrclr,.

5 . I f l ( . r ' ) i s t r n o t l r l f i u r r . t i o nt.h , ' , r / . l ( r ' ) r l . t . - ( l

.l ,,

",,.1'(.t.)
tj. If ./(.r) is arr even fiul.tion. tlruu tlr I .l{.,) ,t,,.
.f ,f,,'

7 I I . l ( . r )] 0 o n l r r 1
. r ]r. h e r rl ' " , , ( , , ,r / . r>, 0
.t,,

8 . I f . q ( . rZ' ). f ( r ) , n l o . b l .r l * , u 7 ,t.,
[ , , " , , { . r ) , 1 , r, [ , , " . 1 { . , . 1

22. Dcfiriti.' . f D < ' f i r r i t t 'h r t < ' g r : r lt r s t l i . L i ' r i t , f u S r r r r r

S t t l l l r t l s t ' t h a t a f i r t t t r t i o t t . l ' ( . r ' ) i s < o n t i r u r o r r s o r r t h e r . k r s t ' < li r r t e l v a l

l r r . l i ]. D i v i r l e t 1 e
iritt'rval irrto rr cclrral sulrirrtcrvals.ol length A.r. l :
" (,h,,,,st,(,ll(, nl1lnl)er.irr caclr
s t t b i t r t t ' l v a l i . t ' . . r ' 1i n t l u ' f i l s t . . r ' 2i r r t l r t , s t , r ' o r r r l. . . . . r ' A . ' i 1t l , , ' A . t h . . . . . ^ r r r l . r . , ,
i, tlr. rrt5.
'
rl,
'Ilicu,,lirrr
r , r ' 1) J r ' - { . , ), t . ,
I f, , . f

'flrlollrrr
2:1. Funrlarncntal ,1 ('ak.uhrs

7b

I tt.,) ,l.t l:iltt 1 - ' t rt i. n " l u , r .Ft ,, ( . r ) : , f( . . r ' )

.t ,,

o,+..f',,' j,
,,,,,,, ri, ,',',r rtt:,f(q(t.))g,(.r).
f ,"''',,rr,
 Formulas and Theorems

24. Y"t".lty, Sp..a,

"t
1. The vclocity of an object tells how fast it is going and in which direction. Velocity is
an instantaneous rate of change.

2. The spceclof an obiect is the absolute value of the velocity, lr(t)I. It tells how fast
it is going disregarding its direction.

The speeclof a particle irrcrcascs(speedsup) when the velocity and acceleration have
thersarrresigns. The speed clecreascs(slows down) when the velocity and acceleration
have opposite signs.

3. The acr:cier:rtionis thc irrstantarreousrate of change of velocity it is the derivative

c-rfthe veloc:ity that is. o(l) : r"(t). Negative acceleration(deceleration)means that
Tlie acceleration gives the rate at which the velocity is
t[e vgloc:ity is dec:r'easirrg.
crharrging.

Therefore, if .r is the displacernentof a rnoving objec:tand I is time, then:

i) veloc:itY: u(r) : tr (t\ :

#

n : ."' ( t) : r ' /( /)- #. : #

i i ) a c'cre l e ra:ti o (t)

iii)i'(/) [n(t1,tt

i v) .r(t)- [ ,,3 1a ,

Notc: T[e av('ragc velclcity of a partir:le over the tirne interval frorn ts to another time f. is

vel;c'itv: T#*frH#:
Average "(r] -;'itol. wheres(t) is the p.sitionof
the partic:leat tinre t.

25. The avetage value of /(r) on [a. ir] is

+,,,,
1,,'
f (r) d:r.

26 Arca BctwtxrriCtrrvt,s

If ./ ancl g are continuousfuncrtionssuch that /(:r) 2 s@) on [a,b], then the area between
,.b
I

I l r e c r r r v e si s / l / ( " ,I - q ( r l ) d r .
Ja
 Formulas and Theorems 225

2 7 . Volume of Soiids of R.evolution

Let / be nonnegative and continuous on [a,.b]. and let R be the region bounded above
b y g : / ( r " ) . b e l o w b y t h e r - a x i s , a n d o n t h e s i d e sb y t h e l i n e s r : : n a n d r : b .

When this region .R is revolved about tire .r'-axis.it gerreratesa solid (having circular
fo
crrosssec'tions)u'hosevolume V - | {j'(.,'l)2 ,1.,.
/tt

28 Volunrcsof Soli<lswith Knowrr Cross Scctions

l. Fol cross sectionsof area A(:r:). taken pt'r'lierrcli<'ulartcl the r-zrxis.

',llttttt' : ^rr, dr.

.[rr"

z. Fbr <'rossse<rtions
of area A(37)taken perpt'rrriicrrlar
to the 37-axis,

v.ltrttc' - ^r,, rh.

.[,"

29. SolvirrgDifferential Equations: Graphically ancl Nurnerrir.all.l'

Skrpc Fieicls

Af ever'1'poirrt (.r.r7) a differetrtial ecluatiorrof the folrrr # - f t, .i/) gives the slope of tht'
nernber of the farnily of solutit.rnsthat c:onta,insthat poirrt. A slope fielcl is a, gra,lrhictrl
represent:rtiotrof this family of curves. At eac:hpt-rirrtirr the plarre. a short s()gnlentis rlrau'n
slope is eclualto the value of the clerivativerat that poirrt. I'hese scgnrerrtsare taugcnt
"vhose
to the sohrtion's graph at the poirrt.

The slope fielcl allows you to sketc:hthe graph of ther solution cul've even though you rlo rrot
have its ec|ration. This is clc-rne
by starting at arry point (usuallv the point given bv the initial
c'ondititin).and moving fron one poirrt to the next in the direc'tionirrdicntedby the segrncnts
of the slope fielcl.

Somc t'trlc'ulatorshavtt built in operations fbr drawing slope fields; fcir calculatorsrvithorrt tiris
feature tlrere are l)rograms available fbr drawing thern.

30. Soiving Diffelential Equations b)' Separatirrgthe Variables

There are lnAny technicluesfor solving differential equations. Any differential equatir_rnvou
may be asked to solve ott the AB Calculus Exam can be solved by separating the variables.
R,ewrite the equatioll as an erluivalent equation with all the r and dr terrns on otle side arxl
all the q and d37terrns ou the c-rther.Antidifferentiate both sides to obtain an e(luation
without dr or du, but with orte c'onstantof inteqration. Use the initial condition to evahrate
this constant.