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RELATIVITY
H.1
H.2
H.3
(HL) D.1 (SL) Introduction to Relativity
OPTION
laws of physics to be diferent. Yet we all live on a merry-
H.1.2 Describe what is meant by a Galilean go-round. he earth spins on its axis as it orbits the sun.
transformation. Fortunately the earth spins relatively slowly compared to
the merry-go-round so most of the time we can ignore
H.1.3 Solve problems involving relative the efects. However, because of the Earths rotation, the
velocities using the Galilean acceleration due to gravity has a diferent value at the poles
transformation equations. to that at the equator. Also you certainly cannot ignore
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the rotation of the Earth when making astronomical
observations or measurements.
A frame of reference
Newton was well aware of the complications produced by
453
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
In this option we shall see how the search for a reference moving with speed u = u' + v, hence we have u' = u v. It
system that truly is at rest led to a radical re-think about the is not diicult to show that if Mary were to measure the
nature of space and time culminating in the two relativity acceleration of an object as a' then Paul would measure
theories of Einstein. We shall in fact see that the Laws of the acceleration of the object as a = a'. In this respect they
Physics are always true even if you live on a fair ground would both interpret Newtons Second Law (in its basic
merry-go-round. form, F = ma) identically. his means that there is no
mechanics experiment that Mary or Paul could carry out
A frame of reference which is moving with uniform speed to determine whether they were at rest or whether they
or which is at rest is known as an inertial reference frame. were moving at constant speed in a straight line.
When your maths teacher draws the conventional x and
y axes on the board he or she is in fact expecting you to
regard this as an inertial reference frame and ignore any H.1.3 (D.1.3) sOLVE PRObLEms
efects of the Earths motion. Following in your maths
teachers footsteps we will for the time being assume in this INVOLVING RELATIVE VELOcITIEs
section on Special Relativity that we are dealing with truly
inertial reference frames. (A space ship far away from any usING THE GALILEAN
gravitational efects driting along with constant velocity
is a pretty good approximation of an inertial reference TRANsfORmATION EquATIONs
frame).
Exercise
H.1.2 (D.1.2) DEscRIbE wHAT
Is mEANT bY A GALILEAN 1. he diagram below shows three buoys A, B and C
in a river. he river lows in the direction shown
TRANsfORmATION and the speed of the current is 2.0 m s1.
y v
y
Y v = 3.0 m s 1
Paul Mary
X
A B
P
v = 3.0 m s 1
x x
he distance AB is equal to the distance AC. A
Figure 1901 Reference systems swimmer X swims from A to B and back with a
steady speed of 3.0 m s1 relative to the water. At
Mary measures the point P to be at the point x'. Paul on the same time X leaves A a swimmer Y sets of to
the other hand will measure the point to be at the point x C and back with the same steady speed relative to
as measured in his reference system where x = x' + vt and the water.
t is the time that has elapsed from the moment when the
two reference systems were together. We have therefore (a) Determine, for an observer on the bank the
that, x' = x vt. speed of
i. X as she swims towards B.
(Note that in all that follows we will only consider motion ii. X as she swims back to A.
in the xdirection) iii. Y as he swims towards C.
iv. Y as he swims back to A.
Suppose now that Mary observes an object in her (b) Calculate the ratio of the times for the two
reference system to be moving with speed u' in the x journeys?
direction, then clearly Paul will observe the object to be
454
RELATIVITY
OPTION
small charged sphere suspended by a string. If it oscillates ether later on in the chapter. Meanwhile we shall see how
with a frequency of 1000 Hz then it is a source of long- Einsteins Special heory of Relativity resolves the problem
wave radio waves, at a frequency of 109 Hz it becomes a we seem to have with Maxwells theory and the speed of
source of television signals. If it oscillates with a frequency light.
of 1012 Hz it is a source of infrared radiation, at about
1015 Hz it would look yellow and at 1018 Hz it would be
emitting x-rays. Of course all this is a bit absurd but it H.2.1 (D.2.1) DEscRIbE wHAT Is mEANT
does illustrate the fact that the source of all radiation in
the electromagnetic spectrum is the accelerated motion of bY AN INERTIAL fRAmE Of
electric charge.
REfERENcE
Maxwells theory also showed that the speed with which
electromagnetic waves travel depends only on the electric To Einstein it seemed that not only the Laws of Mechanics
and magnetic constants of the medium through which they should be the same for all observers but all the Laws of
travel. In a vacuum this means that the speed depends only Physics including Maxwells laws. his was an idea irst
on 0, the permittivity of free space and 0, the permeability proposed by Poincar. However, Einstein realised that this
of free space (see Chapters 7 & 9) his is fact means that idea must alter completely the then accepted notions of
the speed of light (or any other electromagnetic wave) time and space. In the Special theory (or restricted theory
is independent of the speed of the observer. his has far as it is sometimes called) he conined himself to inertial
reaching consequences. frames of reference, that is non- accelerating reference
frames. We have mentioned inertial reference frames in
Let us return to our two observers Paul and Mary above. H.1.1. Another way of describing an inertial frame is to
Suppose that Mary were to measure the speed of a light note that it is a frame in which Newtons irst law hold true.
455
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
here are two postulates of the Special theory: Consider observer, Y, who is at the mid-point of the train.
Just as the train reaches a point where she is opposite X,
1. the laws of physics are the same for all inertial lightning strikes both ends of the train. X sees these two
observers events to take place simultaneously. Refer to Figure1903.
We have seen that the laws of mechanics are the same for all
inertial observers. However, the laws of electromagnetism Figure 1903 Situation B
do not appear to be so. As we have already seen, if they
were, then we would have a means of inding an absolute But this will not be the case for Y. Since the speed of light
reference system. he laws of electromagnetism had been is independent of the speed of the source, by the time the
veriied by careful experiment and were certainly not in light from each of the strokes reaches Y the train will have
error. Einstein realised that in fact what was in error was moved forward Figure 1904.
OPTION
a b
H.2.3 (D.2.3) DIscuss THE cONcEPT Of
Figure 1904 Situation C
sImuLTANEITY
So in efect the light from the strike at the front of the train
To see why we can no longer regard time as being absolute will reach Y before the light from the strike at the rear of
let us see how two events that occur at diferent points the train. hat is, Y has moved forward and in doing so,
in space and which are simultaneous for one observer has moved closer to where the lightning irst hit, so that
cannot be simultaneous for another observer who the light travels a shorter distance in getting to Y. Whereas
observes the events from a diferent frame of reference. In the light from the back of the cart needs to travel further
Figure 1902 observer Y is in a train which is moving with (a > b) and so takes more time to get to Y.
constant speed v as measured by the observer X who is
standing by the side of the railway tracks. Y will not see the two events as occurring simultaneously.
456
RELATIVITY
We might ask which observer is correct? Are the two Where c is the free space velocity of light, and
events simultaneous? In fact both observers are correct.
What is simultaneous for one observer is not simultaneous 1
= -----------------------
for the other; there is no preferred reference frame. he v2
interpretation of any sequence of events will depend on an 1 -----
individuals frame of reference. c 2
Einstein proposed that the three dimensions of space and and t and t' refer to a time interval in the respective
the one dimension of time describe a four dimensional reference systems.
space-time continuum and that diferent observers will
describe the same event with diferent space time co- he Lorentz transformation equations are embedded
ordinates. We shall see later on in the chapter how this in the Maxwell equations the equations that express
idea is developed further. the behaviour of electric and magnetic ields. here is a
certain amount of irony here. Newton was well aware of
the concept of relativity and as we have seen took steps to
H.3 (HL) D.3 (sL) address the issue in terms of the Galilean transformations.
Maxwell on the other hand put his equations together
RELATIVIsTIc without addressing the relativity issue. When the issue
was addressed by Lorentz, this led to a complete re
KINEmATIcs assessment of how we think of time and space. he major
contribution that Einstein made was to realise that the
Lorentz transformation equations can also be derived
H.3.1 Describe the concept of a light clock. from the second postulate of Special Relativity. his is not
diicult to do but we shall not do so here.
H.3.2 Define proper time interval.
According to the Special heory all the laws of physics
H.3.3 Derive the time dilation formula. must transform according to the Lorentz transformation
equations. he constancy of the speed of light is contained
H.3.4 Draw and annotate a graph showing within the laws of electromagnetism but not within
the variation with relative velocity of the Newtons laws under a Galilean transformation. Hence
Lorentz factor Newtons laws must transform according to the Lorentz
OPTION
equations.
H.3.5 Solve problems involving time dilation.
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457
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
v
A
Y
d light
B C
Figure 1908
Figure 1906 A simple light clock
If we let t2 t1 = t and t'2 t'1 = t', then, the distance that
As measured by Y the pulse leaves the top mirror at time the train travels is BC = vt.
t'1 and reaches the bottom mirror at time t'2. he time
interval t'2 t'1 is given by he distance that X measures for the path of the pulse is
AC = ct'.
d
t2 t1 = ---, where c is the speed of light.
c
he distance that Y measures for the path of the pulse is
his time measured by Y is known as the proper time. In AB = c(t'2 t'1).
general, the term proper time refers to the time interval
between two events as measured in the reference system Applying Pythagorass theorem to the triangle, we have
in which the two events occur at the same place.
2 2 2 2 2 2
AC = AB + B C [ c t] = [ c t ] + [ v t ]
2 2
DILATION fORmuLA From which we have ( c 2 v 2 ) t2 = c ( t )
2 c
2
How will the observer X who is by the side of the tracks So that, ( t ) = ---------------- ( t ) 2
see the light clock? c v
2 2
Suppose that at the time that the light pulse leaves the Rearranging this equation, we have
OPTION
458
RELATIVITY
H.3.4 (D.3.4) DRAw AND ANNOTATE An observer sets up an experiment to measure the time of
oscillation of a mass suspended from a vertical spring. He
A GRAPH sHOwING THE measures the time period as 2.0 s. To another observer this
OPTION
time period is measured as 2.66 s. Calculate the relative
VARIATION wITH RELATIVE velocity between the two observers
In terms of predicted time dilations we are actually Since the measured event occurs at the same place in which
looking at some very small diferences when considering the time period is measured as 2.00 s, then
everyday situations. For our two observers X and Y above
if for example the train is moving at 30 m s1 relative to 2.66 = 2.00
observer X then a time interval of 1 second as recorded by
1
= 1.33 = ------------------
Y will be recorded as 1.00001 seconds by X. For this time such that 2
v or
dilation to be noticeable then clearly we must have relative 1 ----2-
velocities between observers which are close to the speed c
of light. Figure 1909 shows the variation with relative 2 1 v
2
1
1.33 = ------------- 1 ---2- = ------------ ( = 0.57 )
speed between inertial observers of the function
v
2 c 1.33
2
1 ----2-
c .
2
herefore v----- = 0.43 so that v = 0.66c.
2
c
459
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
his is a very high speed to say the least and in one time We deine the proper length of the rod as the length of
period the observers will have moved about 4 109 m the rod measured by the observer at rest with respect to
apart. Which makes the whole thing strange. However we the rod.
will look at a more realistic example later in the chapter.
Suppose that end A of the rod is at x'1 and B is at x'2 as
measured by Mary. he rod is at rest in Marys system
H.3.6 Define proper length. therefore the proper length of the rod is ( x2 x1 ) = L
(say).
H.3.7 Describe the phenomenon of length
contraction. If we apply the Lorentz transformation then x'1 and x'2
are given by x1 = ( x1 vt1 ) and x2 = ( x2 vt2 )
The derivation of the length contraction formula is where x2 and x2 are the respective ends of the rod as
not required measured by Paul.
H.3.8 Solve problems involving length contraction he length of the rod as measured by Paul can therefore
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have many diferent lengths depending on the choice of t1
and t2, the times when the rod is measured. To make any
sense, the length of the moving rod (from Pauls point of
Length contraction view) is deined as the length when the ends are measured
simultaneously i.e. t1 = t2.
H.3.6,7 (D.3.6,7) DEfINE PROPER Hence the proper length of the rod
LENGTH/DEscRIbE THE L = ( x 2 x 1 ) = ( x 2 x1 ) .
PHENOmENON Of LENGTH Hence the length L of the rods measured by Paul will be
given by L' = L
cONTRAcTION
L
his equation is written as L = -----0- in the data booklet
We now consider how the Special heory afects our where L0 is the proper length. (You will not be expected to
concept of space. derive this equation in an examination).
OPTION
In Figure 1910 Mary is moving at a constant velocity v Since is always greater than unity L will always be
in the x direction relative to Paul who regards himself as less than the proper length. To Paul the rod will appear
being at rest. AB is a rod, which is at rest with respect to contracted in the direction of motion.
Mary.
y
Exercises
y
v
Paul Mary
460
RELATIVITY
INVOLVING LENGTH
1 A spaceship is travelling away from the Earth with
cONTRAcTION a speed of 0.6c as measured by an observer on the
Earth. he rocket sends a light pulse back to Earth
every 10 minutes as measured by a clock on the
Example 1 spaceship.
OPTION
so that v = 0.2c.
Example 2
he factor is the same for both Paul and Mary but at this
time 150 m is the proper length so Mary will see the ship
contracted by a factor 1-- i.e. 147 m.
461
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
that the observer on the tracks was the one carrying out clocks rather than light clocks, in October, 1971, Hafele
the experiment with the bouncing light pulse. Proper time and Keating took four caesium atomic beam clocks aboard
would then be the time measure in his reference system. commercial airliners. he airliners lew around the world
he Special theory tells us that both observers are correct. twice, once eastward and once westward. he times read
his introduces the famous so called twin paradox. by the clocks were then compared with clocks at U.S. Naval
Observatory. According to Einsteins theory the clock
Paul and Mary are twins born sometime in the future should have lost 40 ns during the eastward trip and should
when inter-stellar star travel is common place. When they have gained 275 ns during the westward trip as compared
are 30 years old, Mary sets of in a space ship to travel with the atomic time scale of the U.S. Naval Observatory.
to Alpha Centauri and back, a total distance of 8.6 light he lying clocks actually lost 59 ns during the eastward
years. Her space ship travels at an average speed of 0.98c. trip and gained 273 ns during the westward trip. Where
he round trip for her will take about 9 years. However, to the errors and the corresponding standard deviations were
Paul all Marys clocks will appear to run slower, her heart taken into account, the agreement between the theory
will beat slower, in fact everything will be slowed down and experiment was excellent providing an unambiguous
from Pauls point of view. If you refer to the previous time evidence for the resolution of the twin paradox.
dilation graph you will see that 1 second for Mary will
462
RELATIVITY
Velocity addition ux + v
ux = ------------------
u v
1 + ----x--- - for ux in the negative x direction
H.4.3 sOLVE ONE-DImENsIONAL c
2
Figure 1911 (a) and (b) H.4.8 Determine the total energy of an
accelerated particle.
OPTION
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he object P is moving horizontally with a speed u relative
to Paul. According to a Galilean transformation, Mary
would measure the speed of the object as u' = u v. If the
object is moving in the other direction, Figure 1911 (b), H.4.4/ H.4.5 sTATE THE fORmuLA
then the speed would be, as measured by Mary, given by
u' = u + v. REPREsENTING THE EquIVALENcE
If P were a light beam, then Mary would measure the Of mAss AND ENERGY/ DEfINE
speed of the beam to be c + v.
REsT mAss
But if we are to believe the Special heory then this can
not be so since all inertial observers must measure the If a body of mass m is subjected to a force F then according
same value for the speed of light. he Galilean to Newtons Second Law its acceleration a can be
transformations for velocity cannot therefore be correct. computed from the equation F = m a.
It is not diicult to show that if we apply the Lorentz
transformations for displacement and time then the A prediction of the Special heory, (in order to ensure
velocity transformation equations become that the conservation of momentum holds for all inertial
observers,) is that as the speed of body increases then to
ux v an observer at rest relative to the body the mass of the
ux = ----------------- body will increase.
ux v
1 ------ - for ux in the positive x direction
2
c
463
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
If m0 is the mass of the body when it is at rest with respect It is this change in energy which is the gain in the kinetic
to the observer, the so-called rest mass, then its mass m energy of the object and is equal to the work done on the
when moving at a speed v relative to the observer is given object. It is important to understand the signiicance of
by m = m0 these equations, namely that energy and mass are entirely
1 equivalent.
remember that = ------------------
2
v
1 ----
2
c . A word on units
H.4.6 DIsTINGuIsH bETwEEN THE In the equation E = mc2 , if m is measured in kilograms
and c ms-1, then the unit of E is clearly joules. However,
ENERGY Of A bODY AT REsT AND the theory of relativity only becomes signiicant for speeds
close to that of c and this usually means we are dealing with
ITs TOTAL ENERGY wHEN mOVING the acceleration or movement of atomic or sub-atomic
particles. For a example, an electron accelerated from rest
We have seen that as a consequence of the Special heory through a potential diference of 106 volt will attain an
the mass of a moving object increases. A net force is energy of 1M eV as measured in electron-volt. It is much
needed to accelerate any object and this force does work more convenient to express the energy of particles in eV (or
on the object. In Newtonian mechanics the conservation multiples thereof) such as MeV. Similarly it is much more
of energy leads to the idea that the work done by the net convenient to express their mass in units of MeV c-2. So for
force is equal to the increase in kinetic energy of the object example the rest mass of a proton is 938 MeV c-2
such that
938 10 6 1.6 10 19
which equals kg = 1.67 10-27 kg.
Work done = force displacement = gain in kinetic energy 9 1016
Lets us now look at an example using the idea of mass-
i.e., F s = ( KE ) = 1
2
--- m( v ) energy equivalence.
2
his equation will not apply in Special Relativity. In fact,
if we are still to believe in the conservation of energy we Example
must look for a diferent relationship between the work
done and the energy transferred. It might be tempting to
OPTION
substitute m as m0 but this does not in fact lead to the A coal ired power station has a power output of 100 MW.
correct physical interpretation. Calculate the mass of coal that is converted into energy in
one year (3.15 107 s).
In thinking along these lines Einstein was led to the idea of
mass and energy being interchangeable such that the gain
in mass of an accelerated body could be equated to a gain Solution
in energy. his led him to the celebrated equation
In this equation E is the total energy of the object and m is 100 10 6 3.15 10 7 = 3.15 10 15 J,
its relativistic mass. If the object is at rest then it has a rest
mass energy given by this represents a mass change of
E 0 = m0 c
2 ene rg y 3.15 10 15
m = ------------------ = ---------------------------- = 3.5 10 2 kg.
2 16
c 9 10
If we combine these two equations in terms of the work
done when a force accelerates an object from rest then at
a certain speed v, the object will have a total massenergy his actually means that if the coal is weighed before it is
mc2. Its massenergy will have changed from rest by an burnt and all the ashes and fumes could be weighed ater
amount, Ek, where burning there would be a mass deiciency of about 10 g.
Although, we must not forget that some oxygen would have
2 2 2
E k = E m0 c = mc m0 c been added.
464
RELATIVITY
cAN EVER ATTAIN THE sPEED (b) Using relativistic mechanics we have that the energy
supplied i.e. the work done = V e and this equals
Of LIGHT IN A VAcuum the gain in KE of the electron such that
2 2 2 2
Ve = mc m0 c = m0 c m0 c
Newtons Second Law does not put any upper limit on
the velocity that a body can attain. For example we could 2
2 2 m0 c + Ve
envisage a force of 1000 N acting on an object of mass 1 g So that m0 c = m0 c + Ve = -------------------------
2
for a period of 1000s. Ater this period of time the speed of m0 c
Ve
the object would be 109 m s1 which is much greater than To give = 1 + -----------2- Equation (1)
the speed of light. However, the Lorentz transformation m0 c
equations show us that if the relative velocity between (We can actually express m0c2 in units of eV =
two observers is c then the time dilation is ininite and 31 16
9.1 10 9 10
the length contraction is zero. Putting it another way, time --------------------------------------
---------------- = 0.51 MeV.
19
stays still for objects travelling at the speed of light and 1.6 10
also the object has no length in the direction of travel. (We can therefore express the mass of the electron as 0.5 MeV c-2.)
Furthermore, the equation for the relativistic increase of
OPTION
mass shows that the mass of the object would be ininite. So substituting 0.5 MeV into equation (1) we have
So not only does the Special heory put an upper limit on 2 MeV
the velocity that objects can attain (the speed of light) it = 1 + ------------------------ = 4.9
0.51 MeV
predicts that this velocity is unattainable. he only thing
that can travel at the speed of light would seem to be light he total energy of the particle ater acceleration is moc2
itself.
= 4.9 0.51 = 2.5 MeV
H.4.8 DETERmINE THE TOTAL ENERGY Using the equation for the gamma factor, a value of 5 gives
the velocity of the electron as 0.98c.
Of AN AccELERATED PARTIcLE
Let us look at another examples of mass-energy Exercise 14.4
equivalence which brings in the idea of work done and
changes in kinetic energy.
1. Calculate the speed of a particle relative to a
laboratory observer when its kinetic energy is
Example equal to its rest-mass energy
465
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
H.5.4 Discuss the result of the Michelson- H.5.3,4 OuTLINE THE mIcHELsON-
Morley experiment and its implication.
mORLEY ExPERImENT/
H.5.5 Outline an experiment that indicates
that the speed of light in vacuum is DIscuss THE REsuLT Of
independent of its source.
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THE mIcHELsON-mORLEY
Direct experimental conirmation for time dilation and In 1887 two American physicists, Michelson and Morley,
length contraction as predicted by the Special heory devised and carried out an experiment to measure the
is found in the decay of muons. Muons are sub-atomic absolute velocity of the Earth with respect to the ether.
particles, which can be created in high-energy particle he essential principle of the experiment was to ind the
accelerators. he muons are unstable and decay with a diference in time that it took light to travel along two
half-life of 3.1 10-6 s as measured in a reference frame in paths, one in the direction of travel of the earth through
which they are at rest. (Or at least moving with relatively the ether and one at right angles to the direction of travel
low speeds). However, muons are also created in the upper of the Earth through the ether. Figure 1912 shows the
atmosphere of the earth from cosmic ray bombardment basic set up of the experiment.
and these muons can, and do, have very high velocities.
If we consider muons that are formed at a height of say movable mirror fixed
D mirror
10 km and with a velocity of 0.98c then they will take
3.4 10-5 s to reach the ground. his is about 10 half lives A B
and in this time the majority of the muons would have
diffuse monochromatic
decayed. However, large numbers of muons are in fact
detected at the Earths surface. Because they are moving light source
compensator
at such high speeds, time dilation becomes important and beam plate
at 0.98c the factor is 5. To the Earth observer, the half splitter
life is not 3.1 10-6 s but times this i.e. 15.5 10-6 s. he observer O C
time to reach the ground is now only about 2.2 half-lives
and so plenty of muons will be detected. To the muons the Figure 1912 The Michelson Morley experiment
466
RELATIVITY
OPTION
swimmers in a river both setting of from the same point.
One swims parallel to the direction of the current and one
swims at right angles to the direction of the current. hey
each swim the same distance from the starting point and H.6.1 Apply the relation for the relativistic
then return. A little thought will show that the trip for momentum p = m0u of particles.
the swimmer who sets of at right angles is going to take
longer than the trip for the swimmer who swims parallel H.6.2 Apply the formula EK= ( -1)m0c2 for the
to the current. kinetic energy of a particle.
he result of the Michelson-Morley experiment was H.6.3 Solve problems involving relativistic
spectacular in as much as no shit in the interference momentum and energy.
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pattern was observed. Many attempts were made to explain
this non- result before Einstein recognised that there was
no ether and therefore no absolute reference frame and Note: Derivation of the relativistic momentum and energy
that all inertial observers will measure the same value for formulae will not be examined.
the speed of light.
In Classical Physics we saw in Topic 2.3 that there is a
useful relationship between the momentum p and the
kinetic energy Ek of a particle, namely
p2
E k = ----
---
2m
where m is the mass of the particle.
467
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
2 4 6 2 12 2 2
In Special Relativity we can ind an equally useful And m0 c = ( 0.51 10 eV) = 0.2601 10 e V ,
relationship between momentum and energy, but in this
instance the energy E is the total energy of the particle. hence,
12 2 2
m 2 0.216 10 e V
We have that p = ------------------------------------ = 0.46 MeV c-1 .
m = ------------0------ 2
c
v2 Or, p = 2.5 1022 N s
1 ----
c2
such that if we square both sides and rearrange we have Since particle physicists are oten dealing with energies
measured in electron volts, they oten express momentum
2 2 2 2 2 2
m c = m0 c + m v in the units MeV c-1 (energy/speed).
If we now multiply through by c2 we have To ind the speed we need to ind the mass of the electron
ater acceleration.
2 2 2 4 2 2
( mc ) = m0 c + (mv ) c
We have that ETotal = mc2 = Ve + moc2
2
But, mv is the momentum p of the particle and mc is equal
to E the total energy. Hence herefore
2 2 4 2 2
E = m0 c + p c m = (Ve + moc2) c-2 = (0.18 + 0.51) MeV c-2 = 0.68 MeV c-2
his is the relativistic equivalent to the classical equation And v = p/m = 0.46 MeV c-1/0.68 MeV c-2 = 0.68 c.
2
p
E k = ------- and is useful in many diferent situations. his demonstrates how much easier are relativistic
2m dynamic calculations when we deal in the units MeV for
energy, MeV c2 for mass and MeV c1 for momentum.
Example 1
Example 2
Find the momentum and speed of an electron ater it
has been accelerated through a potential diference of
OPTION
Solution e.g. e- + e+
2
m0 c is equal to 0.51 MeV, and Ve = 0.18 MeV, then in
this instance we have that For one particle Etot = 1.60 = EK + m0c2 = EK + 0.511
6 2 12 2
E = ( 0.18 + 0.51) 10 eV E = 0.4761 10 eV EK = 1.09 MeV = (1 - ) m0c2
Also from the relativistic relation between total energy To give = 3.13
and momentum, we have
2 2 4 Which gives v = 0.948c
2 E m0 c
p = -------------2------------ (1)
c m = m0c2 = 1.6 MeV c-2
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RELATIVITY
H.7.4 Deduce that the principle of equivalence But the concept of mass also arises in connection with
predicts that time slows down near a Newtons gravitational law in which the force between two
massive body. point masses m1 and m2 separated by a distance r is given
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by
Gm1 m2
F = ------------------
r2
Gravitational mass and inertial
In this respect mass can be thought of as the property
mass of an object, which gives rise to the gravitational force
of attraction between all objects and is therefore called
he Special heory of Relativity is special in the sense gravitational mass.
that it apples only to inertial reference systems. A logical
question to ask would be is non-uniform motion also Since gravitational and inertial mass measure entirely
relative? For example, when a Jumbo jet takes of does diferent properties there is no reason why we should
it make any diference whether we consider the Earth to consider them to be identical quantities. However,
be at rest with respect to the jet or whether we consider consider an object close to the surface of the Earth which
the jet to be at rest and the Earth accelerating away from has a gravitational mass mg and an inertial mass mI. If the
OPTION
the jet. If accelerated motion is relative then it should be gravitational mass of the Earth is Mg then the magnitude
possible to choose the jet as the ixed reference system. But of the gravitational force exerted on the object is given by
how then do we account for the inertial forces that act on GM g mg
the passengers during take-of? (As the jet accelerates the F = -------------------
passengers are pushed back into their seats). Ater the R2
publication of the Special heory, physicists were happy to Where R is the radius of the earth.
believe that uniform motion was indeed a special case and
that non-uniform motion was not relative. Einstein could he object will accelerate according to Newtons Second
not accept this viewpoint and in 1916 he published the law such that
General heory of Relativity in which he postulated that GM g mg
all motion is relative.
F = ------------------- = mI a
R2
G Mg m
Central to the General heory is the so-called Machs Letting ------------ = k (= constant) so that a = k ------g-
Principle. Towards the end of the last century Ernst Mach R2 mI
suggested that inertial force and gravitational force are All the experimental evidence points to the fact that the
equivalent. here was evidence for this assumption, which value of a (the acceleration of free fall at the surface of the
has been around since the time that Galileo reportedly earth) is the same for all objects.
dropped objects of diferent masses from the Leaning
Tower of Pisa and concluded that the acceleration of free Hence we conclude that mg = mI . i.e. gravitational and
fall is the same for all objects. his is something that is taught inertial mass are equivalent.
very early in all High school Physics courses. However,
the reason why this should be so is rarely mentioned
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CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
Einsteins principle of equivalence he two results (Figures 1913 and 1914) are identical and
according to Einstein there is no physical experiment
he General heory of Relativity gives the interpretation of that an observer can carry out to determine whether the
the equivalence between gravitational and inertial mass. force acting on the object arises from inertial efects due
to the acceleration of the observers frame of reference or
In Figure 1913, a person is in a lit (elevator), far from any whether it arises because of the gravitational efects of a
mass, which is accelerating upwards with acceleration g. nearby mass.
Another interesting situation arises here in which we can THE bENDING Of LIGHT IN A
consider a lit in free fall close to the surface of the Earth.
OPTION
When the person in the lit releases the object in this GRAVITATIONAL fIELD
situation then the object will stay where it is. he object
is in fact weightless. his is the reason that astronauts in
orbit around the Earth are weightless they are in free
fall and although they are in a gravitational ield because light
of their acceleration they will feel no gravitational force.
A
acceleration
470
RELATIVITY
t
A
Earth B
C
Figure 1916 The space ship is stationary
OPTION
he General heory of Relativity essentially does away
with the concepts of gravitational mass and gravitational
H.7.5 Describe the concept of spacetime. force. How then do we account for the gravitational
force of attraction between objects? We have seen that in
H.7.6 State that moving objects follow the Special Relativity, space and time are intimately linked
shortest path between two points in and an event is speciied by four coordinates of space-
spacetime. time. Einstein proposed that space-time is curved by the
presence of mass. An analogy is to think of a stretched
H.7.7 Explain gravitational attraction in terms of elastic membrane onto which is placed a heavy object. In
the warping of spacetime by matter. the vicinity of the object the membrane will no longer be
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lat but will curved, see Figure 1918. he curvature will be
greatest close to the object and the general curvature will
also increase as the mass of the object increases.
The concept of spacetime
In the Special heory space and time are intimately linked.
A very useful way of envisaging this is to represent the
motion of particles in a spacetime diagram. Space can be
represented by the Cartesian co-ordinates, x, y and z and
time is represented by an axis at right angles to the other Figure 1918 Spacetime and gravity
three axes. his is obviously impossible to draw or even to
picture mentally so here we will only concern ourselves
with motion in the xdirection. However, mathematically
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CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
a distance is known as a geodesic. he geodesic for a plane (Coincidentally, Newtonian mechanics gives the same
surface is a straight line and for a sphere, a great circle. In value.)
this sense the planets are actually following geodesics in
the particular geometry of the space-time produced by the he surface of a black hole as deined by the Scwarzchild
mass of the sun. radius is called the event horizon since inside the surface
all information is lost.
H.7.8 Describe black holes. It is let as an exercise for you to show that if our Sun were
to shrink until its radius was 3000 m then it would become
H.7.9 Define the term Schwarzschild radius. a black hole.
H.7.10 Calculate the Schwarzschild radius. Of course if no radiation can leave a black hole and all
radiation falling on it will also be trapped, we have to ask
H.7.11 Solve problems involving time dilation how can such things be detected, should they exist. One
close to a black hole. possibility is to observe a black hole as a companion to a
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binary star system. Another way is to observe the efect that
a black hole has on high frequency gamma radiation as it
passes close to a black hole. Suicient to say at this point
that astronomers do not doubt the existence of black holes.
472
RELATIVITY
bLAcK HOLE Figure 1921 (a) shows a space ship which is accelerating
with acceleration a. On the loor of the spaceship is a light
his also relates to gravitational red-shit see in H.7.12. source, 1, which emits light of a well deined frequency f.
he observer O is at the top of the spaceship and another
If a person is outside the gravitational ield of a black hole light source 2, identical to light source 1, is placed next to
observes an event that takes place a distance r from a black this observer. At time t = 0 the spaceship starts to accelerate
hole, then the time for the event will be dilated according and at the same instant the two light sources emit light.
to the equation t Bearing in mind that the speed of light is invariant the
0
t = light from source 1 will appear to O to be emitted from a
R
1 rs source that is moving away from him at speed v, where v =
where RS is the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. at, t being the time it takes the light from source 1 to reach
him. Compared to the light from source 2 the light from
his efectively means that if the person where to observe source 1 will appear to be Doppler shited i.e. will be of a
a clock approaching a black hole, the motion of the hands lower frequency than the light emitted from source 2.
of the clock would appear to get slower and slower the
nearer the clock gets to the event horizon of the black hole.
At the event horizon, they would stop moving and time
would stand still.
O O
2 2
Example v = at
OPTION
the ield of the black hole. earth
( a) ( b)
H.7.13 Solve problems involving frequency shifts Since frequency is essentially a measure of time this means
between different points in a uniform a consequence of General Relativity is that to an observer
gravitational field. on the top loor of a building, clocks on the ground loor
will appear to run more slowly. he conclusion is that time
H.7.14 Solve problems using the gravitational time slows in the presence of a gravitational ield. As mentioned
dilation formula. above, a remarkable consequence of this is that at the
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event horizon, of a black hole, to an outside observer, time
stops.
473
CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
fg h
H.7.13 sOLVE PRObLEms INVOLVING f' f = f = ---------
c
2
---
Example 1
Solution
1
to reach the observer is therefore and then substitute in the equation ----
f
- = ------2----
c
h
t = ------ with h = 10 km. You can do this to show that
c
f
In this time the speed gained by the O is ----- = 0.74.
f
gh
v = g t = ---------- Which is indeed an enormous redshit.
c
Because of the efective Doppler shit of the light from Note that we have assumed that g is constant.
source 2 (remember to the observer O this source will
efectively be moving away from him at speed v = gt when
the light from the source reaches him), the frequency f' Example 2
measured by O will be given by the Doppler shit equation,
i.e.,
A satellite communication signal has a frequency of 100
f' = f 1 -
v
c MHz at the surface of the earth. What frequency will be
measured by an astronaut in a satellite which is in orbit
If we now substitute for v then 200 km above the surface of the Earth?
g h
----------
f' = f 1 ---------- = f 1 ----------
c g h
c 2
c
or
474
RELATIVITY
OPTION
Earth position
GENERAL Earth position in
December
Sun in June
RELATIVITY
Figure 1923 Gravitational lensing
H.8.1 Outline an experiment for the bending of he path of the light from the star reaching the Earth
EM waves by a massive object. according to Einstein should now be bent as it passes close
to the Sun. his will cause an apparent shit in the position
H.8.2 Describe gravitational lensing. of the star. See Figure 1923.
H.8.3 Outline an experiment that provides Einstein predicted that the path of starlight should be
evidence for gravitational red-shift. delected by 1.75 seconds of arc as it passes by the Sun.
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To observe starlight that passes close to the Sun, then
the stars must be observed during the day and the only
INTRODucTION way that this can be done is during a total eclipse of the
Sun. he General theory was published in 1917 and by
For any physical theory to be accepted it must not only good fortune a total eclipse of the Sun was predicted for
explain known phenomena but also make predictions that 29th March 1919 near the Gulf of Guinea and Northern
can be veriied experimentally. Brazil. Expeditions were mounted to both destinations
and scientists were able to collect enough photographs
of suitable stars to test Einsteins prediction. he location
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CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
of the stars indicated that the path of the light had been summARY
deviated by 1.64 seconds of arc, a result that compared
very favourably with the Einstein prediction. However,
recently doubt has been cast on Eddingtons interpretation special Theory
of the data.
m = m0
conclusion
REsT mAss ENERGY
he General heory of Relativity is now accepted as
being the correct interpretation of gravity and as such the E0 = m0c2
correct model for our view of space and time. General
Relativity and Quantum heory form the two great TOTAL ENERGY
theories upon which the whole of Physics rests. To date
all attempts to unify then into one complete theory have E = mc2
been unsuccessful.
VELOcITY TRANsfORmATION
ux v
u x = -----------------
ux v
1 --------
c2
476
RELATIVITY
he graph shows how the function varies with velocity Pair production gives evidence of the conservation of
and should be referred to in problems in order to verify mass-energy.
if a particular value of the function has been calculated
correctly. Nuclear binding energy and nuclear processes all verify
the conservation of mass-energy.
General Relativity
OPTION
GENERAL THEORY
POsTuLATEs Except for some minor perturbations the orbits of the
planets are ellipses and the major axis of the elliptical orbit
I. Machs principle - Inertial and gravitational forces is ixed. However it was observed that the major axis of the
are indistinguishable. orbit of Mercury shits its plane by some 5.75 seconds of
arc per century.
II. Four dimensional space-time is curved as a result
of the presence of mass. By considering the gravitational efects of all the other
planets on the orbit of Mercury, Newtons theory accounted
III. Objects take the shortest path between two points for all but 43 seconds of arc of the precession of the major
in space-time. axis. However, the General heory accounts for the entire
precession.
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CHAPTER 19 (OPTION H)
In the following exercises should a particular value of be 7 If another beam of protons is accelerated at the
required then refer to the graph in Section 14.2.5. Relativity same time through the same potential diference
calculations are not really that diicult. In a sense once as in question 5, but in the opposite direction,
you have done one particular type of calculation you can calculate, ater acceleration, the relative velocity of
then do any of that type. a proton in one beam with respect to a proton in
the other beam?
1 State the two postulates of the Special heory of
Relativity and explain with the use of appropriate 8. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of electrons
diagrams how two events that are simultaneous to that have been accelerated through a potential
one observer need not necessarily be simultaneous diference of 1.8 105 V.
to another observer in a diferent reference frame.
9. Explain what is meant by Einsteins principle of
2 Show that 1 atomic mass unit is equivalent to equivalence.
about 930 MeV.
10. Describe how Einsteins description of the
3. An electron is moving at a constant velocity of gravitational attraction between two particles
0.90c with respect to a laboratory observer X. difers from that ofered by Newton.
(a) Determine the mass of the electron as 11. Summarise the evidence that supports the General
measured by X? heory of Relativity,
(b) Another observer Y is moving at a constant
velocity 0.50c with respect to X in a 12. -rays are emitted from a source placed in a
direction opposite to that of the electron in ground loor laboratory. hey are measured to
Xs reference frame. Determine the mass of have a wavelength of 0.05 nm. If the source is
the electron has measured by Y moved to a laboratory on the top loor of the
building they are measured to have a frequency
4 Use the time dilation graph to ind the function shit of 3.3 104 Hz. Estimate the height of the
OPTION
i. proton mass.
ii. velocity of the proton.
iii. momentum of the proton (HL only).
iv. total energy of the proton (HL only).
478