Chapter Four: Entropy

Advanced thermodynamics Technical college -Baghdad
A/C Dep. M.Sc Course 6972/90

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Dr. Abdual Hadi Nema K
CHAPTER FOUR
ENTROPY
In the late 1800s, Clausius was investigated the equilibrium condition for an isolated
system. He knew that the total energy of the system was constant, and he wanted to
determine whether or not there would be a change of state in the isolated system.
Experience had shown that the change of state might occur, but could a method be
devised by which the change could be predicted to occur? If the system were in
equilibrium, then no change would occur. It would be especially helpful if there were
a system property that would denoted whether or not the system was in equilibrium.
CLAUSIS INEQUALITY
The system shown in the figure receive heat QS1 and QS2 at temperature T1 and T2,
respectively. The system produce work WS and reject heat QS3 at temperature T3. All
the processes are assumed to be reversible. The work from the system drives two
Carnot engines, A and B, which act as heat pumps.
Heat Heat
reservoir T1 reservoir T2

QA1 QS1 QS2 QB2
Carnot
Carnot WA WS System WB Engine B
Engine A
QA3 QS3 QB3
Sink at T3
The energy into the heat reservoir 1 and 2 is equal to the energy out, hence
Q A1 QS1 and QB2 QS 3
Since the Carnot engines are reversible, all the work leaving the system is utilized as
work by them:
WS W A WB
The system rejects heat QS3 . Since all process are reversible:
QS 3 Q A3 QB3 4 -1
We let the system act in an irreversible manner, causing rejected heat to be greater
than the reversible heat supplied to the Carnot engines.
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QS 3 Q A3 QB3 4-2
Equations 4-1&4-2 may be combined as:
QS 3 Q A3 QB3 4-3
Analyzing Carnot engine A
Q A3 W A Q A1
T W
thermalA! 1 3 A
T1 Q A1
T T
W A Q A1.1 3 QS1.1 3
T1 T1
T T T
Q A3 Q A1 Q A1.1 3 Q A1. 3 QS1. 3 4-4
T1 T1 T1
Analyzing Carnot engine B
Q B3 WB Q B 2
T3 WB
thermalB 1
T2 Q B 2
T T
W A Q B 2 .1 3 QS 2 .1 3
T2 T2
T T T
Q B3 Q B 2 Q B 2 .1 3 Q B 2 . 3 QS 2 . 3 4-4
T1 T1 T1
Consider algebraic summation for the heat flowing into and out of the sink. Let the
heat QS 3 entering the sink be ve, (leaving the system), and let the heats
Q A3 & QB3 be +ve(as the will enter the system). The summation will be:
QB3 Q A3 QS 3 0 4 -6
Substituting equations 5-7&5-5 in equation 5-6:
QB3 Q A3 QS 3
0 4 -7
T1 T2 T3
Equation 5-7 was developed for the three heat reservoir and could expand for n heat
reservoir. This means that there would be (n-1) temperature at which heat could be
added to the system:
Q
0
n T
As the number of heat reservoir become large, the heat transfer at any given reservoir
become small. Taking the limit as n becomes infinitely large, then Q becomes
infinitivally small, and:
Q dQ
lim 0
n n T T
dQ
T 0 4-8
Equation 5-8 is called the Clausius inequality
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Entropy A Property Of A System
By applying equation 5-8 and the figure, let
the system(control mass) undergoes a P 2
reversible process from state 1 to state 2
along the process A, and let the cycle
complete by the process B, which is also A B C
reversible.
Because this is a reversible cycle, we can
write:
Q 2 Q
1 Q

T 0 T T
1 A 2 B
1
Now consider another reversible cycle
which is consist of two processes A & B:
Q 2
Q
1
Q
T 0 1 T C 2 T B
V
Subtracting the second equation from the first, we have:

2
Q 2 Q

T
T
1 A 1 C
Q
Since the is the same for all the reversible paths between 1 and 2, we
T
conclude that this quantity is independent of the bath and its function of the end states
only; its therefore a property. This property is called Entropy, and is designed S. It
follow relation:
Q
dS 4-9
T rev
The change of entropy may be found from the equation:
Q
2
S 2 S1 4 - 10
1 T rev
To perform this integration, we must know the relation between T and Q, and the only
along reversible path.
Equation 5-10 enable us to determine the changes of entropy, but it tells us nothing
about the absolute value of entropy.
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Entropy Change In Reversible Process

Consider A Carnot Cycle, reversible heat transfer processes, and reversible adiabatic
processes. The first process is the isothermal transfer of heat to the working fluid from
the high temperature reservoir. For this process we can write:
Q
2
S 2 S1
1 T rev
Since this is a reversible process in which the temperature of working fluid remain
constant, the equation can be integrated to give:
Q T 1 TH 2 4 TH 3
1 2
1 2
S 2 S1 Q W
TH 1 TH
This process is shown in figure A and the area under 4 TL 3 1 TL 2
line 1-2, area 1-2b-a-1, represent the heat transfer to QH QL
the working fluid during the process.
The second process of the Carnot cycle is a reversible
adiabatic one. a b S a b S
Q
dS
T rev
Fig(A) Fig.(B)
It is evident that the entropy remain constant in a
reversible adiabatic process. A constant entropy
process is called an isentropic process
The third process is a reversible isothermal process in which the heat is transferred
from the working fluid to the low temperature reservoir.
Q
1 2 3 4
S 4 S3 Q
TH 1 TH
Because of the heat is transferred from the working fluid , the entropy of the working
fluid decreases. Because the final process 3-4 which complete the cycle is a reversible
adiabatic process, it is evident that the entropy decrease in process 3-4, must be equal
to the entropy increase in process 1-2. The area under line 3-4, area 3-4a-b-3,
represent the heat transfer from the working fluid to the low temperature reservoir.
Since the net work of the cycle is equal to the net heat transfer, it is evident that area
1-2-3-4-1 represent the net work of the cycle. The efficiency of the cycle may be
expressed in terms of area:
W area(1 2 3 4 1)
thermal net
QH area(1 2 b a 1)
NOTES;
Increasing TH while TL remain constant increases the thermal
efficiency.
Decreasing TL while TH remain constant increases the thermal
efficiency.
The efficiency approach to 100% as the absolute temperature as which
the heat is rejected is approach to zero.
For a reversible heat transfer process, the processes that are internally reversible, that
is, processes have no irrversibilities with in the boundary of the system. For example
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consider the change of state from saturated liquid to saturated vapour at constant
pressure, as it occurs in the condenser or evaporator of the vapour compression cycle.
Since this is constant pressure process, the heat transfer per unit mass is equal to hfg .
Thus:
q
1 2 hf g
12
s 2 s1 Q T T
m.T 1
This relation gives a clue about how Sfg is calculated for tabulation in tables of
thermodynamics properties. Consider a steam at 10 Mpa. From the steam table we
have:
hfg=1317.1kJ/kg T=311.06+273.15=584.21K
Therefore:
h fg 1317.1
s fg 2.2544kJ / kgK This value is listed in the steam table.
T 584.21
If the heat is transferred to the saturated vapour
at constant pressure, the steam is superheated a
long line 2-3. For this process we can write :
T
13 3
q Q Tds 3
2 3 m 2 2
Since T is not constant therefore we cannot 1 2
make the integration unless we know the
relation between T&s. However, we realize
that the area under line 2-3 are 2-3-c-b-2
3
represent Tds and therefore represent the heat
2
transfer during this reversible process.
The important conclusion to draw here for
processes internally reversible, the area under a b c s
the process line on T-S diagram represent the
quantity of heat transfer. This is not true for
irreversible processes.
The Thermodynamic Property Relation

The two thermodynamic property for simple compressible substance are:
T .dS dU PdV
T .dS dH VdP
The first of these relations can be derived be considering a simple compressible
substance in the absence of motion and gravitational effect. the first law for a change
of state under these condition can be written
Q dU W
For a reversible process of simple compressible substance are:
Q T .dS and W PdV
Substituting these relation into the first law equation, we have
T .dS dU PdV 4 - 11
Which is the first equation we set out of deriving. Note that this equation was derived
by assuming a reversible process, and this equation can therefore be integrated for any
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reversible process. Suppose we have an irreversible process-taking place between the
given initial and final states. The properties of substance depend only on the state, and
therefore the change in the properties during a given change of state is the same for an
irreversible process as for a reversible process. Therefore equation 4-11 is often
applied to an irreversible process between to given states, but integration of equation
4-11 is performed along a reversible path between the same two states.
Since enthalpy is define as:
H U PV
it follows that
dH dU PdV VdP
Substituting this relation into equation 4-11 we have
T .dS dH VdP 4 - 12
Which is the second relation that we set out to derive. These two expressions equation
4-11 and 4-12 are two forms of thermodynamic properties, relation and frequently
called Gibbs equations.
These equations can also written for a unit mass:
T .dS du Pdv
T .ds dh vdp 4 - 13
or on a mole basis:
T .ds du pdv
T .ds dh v dp 4 - 14
Entropy Change of A Control Mass During An Irreversible Process
Consider a control mass that undergoes the

cycles shown in the figure. The cycle made up
of the reversible process A and B is a
reversible cycle. Therefore we can write: 2
Q 2
Q 1 Q

T T T 0 reversible A
1 A 2 B reversible
the cycle made up of irreversible process C and B
the reversible process B is an irreversible
cycle. Therefore, for this cycle the inequality C
of Clausius may be applied, giving the result: Irreversible
Q 2
Q 1 Q

T T T 0 1
1 C 2 B
subtracting the second equation from the first
and rearrange, we have
2
Q 2 Q

T
T
1 A 1 C
since path A is reversible, sand since entropy is a property
2
Q 2 2
T dS A dS C
1 A 1 1
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therefore:
2 2 Q

dS C T
1 1 C
a path C was arbitrary, the general result is:
2 2 Q
dS
1 1 T
2Q
S 2 S1 4-15
1 T
in these equation the equality holds for a reversible process and the inequality for an
irreversible process.
This is one of the most important equation of thermodynamics. It is used to developed
a number of concepts and definitions. Thus, if an amount of heat Q is transferred to
a control mass at temperature T in a reversible process, the chgange of entropy is
given by the relation:
Q
dS
T rev
if any irreversible effects occur while the amount of heat Q is transferred to the
control mass at temperature t, however, the change of entropy will be greater than for
the reversible process. We would then write
Q
dS
T rev
equation 4-15 holds when Q 0 , when Q 0 , and when Q 0 . If Q is
negative, the entropy will tend to decrease as a result of the heat transfer. However,
the influence of irreversible is still to increase the entropy of the mass and from the
absolute numerical perspective we can still write Q
Q
dS
T
Entropy Generation
The conclusion that the entropy change for an irreversible process is larger than the
change in reversible process for the same Q and T. this can be written out in a
common forms as an equality
Q
dS S gen 4 - 16
T
Provided the last term is positive
S gen 0
The amount of entropy S gen is the entropy generation in the process due to
irreversiblities occurring inside the system, a control mass for now, but later extended
to the more general control volume. Since the entropy generation is always positive
and the smallest in a reversible process, namely zero, we may deduce some limits for
the heat transfer and work terms.
Consider a reversible process, for which the entropy generation is zero, and the heat
transfer and work terms therefore are:
Q T dS and W PdV
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For an irreversible process with a nonzero entropy generation, the heat transfer from
equation 4-16 becomes:
Qirr T .dS T S gen
and thus smaller than reversible case for the same change of state, dS. We also note
that for the irreversible process, the work is no longer equal to PdV, but is smaller.
Further, since the first law is:
Qirr dU Wirr
and the property relation valid,
T .dS dU PdV
it is found that
Wirr PdV T S gen 4 - 17
showing that the work is reduced by an amount proportional to the entropy
generation. For this reason the term T S gen is often called lost work although it is
not a real work or energy quantity lost, but a lost opportunity to extract work.
Equation 4-16 can be integrated
2Q Q
S 2 S1 S 4-18
1 T T 1 2 gen
Some important conclusions can now be draw from equations 4-16, 4-17 and 4-18:
First there are two ways in which the entropy of a system can be
increased by transferring heat to it and by having an irreversible
process. Since the entropy generation cannot be less than zero,
therefore is only one way in which the entropy of a system can be
decreased, and that is to transfer heat from the system.
Second: as we already noted for an adiabatic process Q 0 and
therefore the increase in entropy is always associated with the
irreversibilities.
Finally: The presence of irreversible will cause the work to be smaller
than the reversible work. This means less work out in an expansion
process and more work into the control mass ( W 0 ) in a
compression process.
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Principles of entropy increase:
If we assumed that the heat Q is transferred from the surroundings at To to the
system at T, and there is a work ( w) don by the system on its surroundings.
ds system Q w
T
Since Q is lost then it must be (-ve)
ds surroundings Q System T
To
ds system dssurroundings Q Q Q
T To
ds system dssurroundings Q 1 1 Surroundings To
T To
1 1
Since To T is ve
T To
1 1
and if To T is - ve & Q is - ve also
T To
1 1
then .Q is ve also
T To
ds sys ds surr . 0
dsIsolated system 0
Example 10:
Suppose 1 kg of saturated water vapour at 100oC is condensed to saturated liquid by
heat transfer to the surroundings air, which is at 25 oC. What is the net increase in
entropy of the system plus the surroundings.
Point 1 dry saturated vapour s1=7.354 kJ/kg.K h1=2676.05

Point 2 dry saturated water s2=1.3065 kJ/kg.K h2=419.02
s s 2 s1 1.3065 7.354 6.047kJ / kg.K
Q h2 h1 2676.05 419.02) 2257kJ / kg.K
ssurr. Q 2257 7.57

To 298
ssys ssurr. 6.047 7.57 1.522kJ / kg.K
Example 11:
A cylinder piston contains 100l air at 110 kPa & 25 oC. The air is then compressed in
a reversible polytropic process to a final state of 800 kPa & 200oC, assume that the
heat transfer is with ambient at 25oC. Determine the polytropic index, the final
volume of the air, the W.D. by the air, heat transfer and the total entropy generation.
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1 2
100l
110kPa 800kPa
25oC 200 oC
PV 110 100 10 3
m 1 1 0.1286kg
RT1 0.287 (25 273)
m.RT2 0.1286 0.287 (200 273)
V2 0.0218m 3
P2 800
P1V1n P2V2n
P2 800
ln ln
n P1 110 1.303
V2 0. 1
ln ln
V1 0.0218
mR(T 1 T 2) 0.1286 0.287(25 200)
WD 21.3kJ
n 1 1.303 1
U m.cv .(T 2 T 1) 0.1286 0.717 (200 25) 16.1kJ
Q W U 21.3 16.1 5.18kJ
V2 T2 0.0218 200 273
s 2 s1 R ln cv ln 0.287 ln 0.717 ln 0.106kJ / kg.K
V1 T1 0.1 25 273
s surr 5.18 0.0174kJ / k
25 273
s sys m.s 0.1286 (0.106) 0.01363kJ / K
s sys s surr 0.01363 0.0174 0.00375kJ / K
Example 12
A cylinder contain 1 kg of ammonia at 100 kPa and 20oC, the temperature of the
surroundings. The ammonia is then compressed isothermally to saturated vapour with
work input of 340 kJ, during the process any heat transfer takes with the surroundings.
Is the process reversible, irreversible or impossible.
100kPa -340 kJ sat. vap

20 oC
Point 1 , 100 kPa &20 oC

v1=1.41 m3/kg h1=1516.1kJ/kg s1=6.282 kJ/kg.K
Point 2 20 oC dry saturated
v2=0.1492 m3/kg h2=1460.2 1kJ/kg s2=5.086 kJ/kg.K
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s s 2 s1 5.086 6.282 1.196kJ / kg.K
Q W U T .s
Q (20 273).(1.196) 350.4kJ / kg
u1 h1 P1v1 151.6 100 1.41 1378.1kj / kg
u 2 h2 P2 v 2 1460.2 857.5 0.1492 1332.26kJ / kg
u 1332.2 1378.1 42.89kJ / kg
w 350.4 (42.89) 370.51kJ / kg
q w u 340 42.89 382.89kJ / kg
Q Q Q
ds reversible ds irreversible ds imposible
T T T
Q 382.89
1.306 s 1.196 1.306 imposible.
T T 293
Example 13:
One kg of water at 300oC expands a piston in a cylinder until it reaches ambient
pressure of 100kPa, at which point the water has a quality of 90%. It may be assumed
that the expansion is reversible and adiabatic, what was the initial pressure in the
cylinder and how much work is done by the water.
1 S=C 2
300 oC 100kPa
x=0.9
s2=1.3025+0.9x6.0568=6.7536kJ/kgK
u2=417.3+0.9x2088.7=2297.168kJ/kg
s1=s2 T1=300oC sg=5.7079<6.7536 superheated
2000 P1 2500
300 6.766 6.7356 6.6437
6.7663 6.6437 2000 2500 2772.5 2761.5

6.7663 6.7536 2000 P1 2772.5 u
P 2 2052kPa kPa u1 2771.36kJ / kg
Q W U Q 0
w u (u1 u 2 ) 2771.36 2297.118 474.2kJ / kg
Example 14:
Water in a piston cylinder shows bellow is at 1 MPa &500oC. There are stops, a lower
one is at which Vmin=1m3 and upper one Vmax=3m3 . The piston is loaded with a
mass and outside atmospheric pressure such that it floats when the pressure is
6500kPa. This setup now is cooled to 100 oC by rejection of heat to the surroundings
at 20 oC, find the enthalpy generation in the cylinder.

1Mpa, 500oC 100oC
1 V=C 2 P=C 3 V=C 4

1Mpa 500kPa P3=P2
500oC v2=v1 V3=Vmin v4=v3
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Point 1
P1=1MPa T1=500oC
v1=0.3541m3/kg u1=3174.3 kJ/kg h1=3478.4 kJ/kg s1=7.762kJ/kg.K
V 3
m 8.47kg
v 0.35411
Point 2
v2=0.3541m3/kg P2=500kPa vg=0.374m3/kg>v2 wet steam
0.35411=0.001+x.0.3738
x=0.945
v2=0.3541m3/kg u2=2454.8 kJ/kg h2=2632 kJ/kg s2=6.49 kJ/kg.K
Point 3:
P3=P2
V 1
v3 0.118m 3 / kg vg 0.3748m 3 / kg wet
m 8.47
0.118 0.001 x.0.3738 x 0.313
3
v3=0.118m /kg u3=1228.36 kJ/kg h3=1300 kJ/kg s3=3.428 kJ/kg.K
Point 4
v4 v3 T 4 100 o C vg 1.672m 3 / kg wet
0.118 0.001 x.1.671 x 0.069
3
v4=0.118m /kg u4=565 kJ/kg h4=577 kJ/kg s4=1.73 kJ/kg.K
s net s 4 s1 1.73 7.762 6.031kJ / kg.K
heat lost Q1 2 Q2 3 Q3 4
Q1 2 u 2 u1 2454.8 3174.3 719.5kJ / kg
Q2 3 h3 h 2 1300 2632 1332kJ / kg
Q3 4 u 4 u 3 565 1228.36 663.3kJ / kg
Qnet 2714.86kJ / kg
2714.8
s surr 9.26kJ / kg.K
20 273
s surr s sys 9.26 6.032 3.233kJ / kg.K
S surr S sys m(s surr s sys ) 8.47(3.233) 27.4kJ / kg
Example 15:
One kg of an ideal gas is compressed isothermally at 400K from 100 kPa to 1000kPa
in a piston cylinder arrange, calculate the entropy change of the gas, the entropy
change of the surroundings and the total change in entropy if, a- the process is
mechanically reversible b- the process is reversible and the surroundings consist of
heat sink at 300K ,c- the process is mechanically irreversible requiring 20% more
work than the mechanically reversible compression and the surroundings consist of
heat sink reservoir at 300K. Take R=0.287.
@
c
Q W U Since T C Then U
02 W mRT ln
P1
1 287 400 ln
100 .3kJ
264
P2 1000
actual work 264.3 1.2 317.16kJ Q
V2 T2 10
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P1 100
W mRT ln 1 287 400 ln 264.3kJ Q
P2 1000
V2 T2 10
s R ln cv ln 0.287 ln 0.6608kJ / kg.K
V1 T1 1000
S sys m.s 1 (0.6608) 0.6608kJ / K
Q 264.3
S surr 0.6608kJ / K
T 400
S sys S surr 0.6608 0.6608 0
b-
P1 100
W mRT ln 1 287 400 ln 264.3kJ Q
P2 1000
V2 T2 10
s R ln cv ln 0.287 ln 0.6608kJ / kg.K
V1 T1 1000
S sys m.s 1 (0.6608) 0.6608kJ / K
Q 264.3
S surr 0.881kJ / K
T 300
S sys S surr 0.6608 0.881 0.2202kJ / K
Example 15
In an air turbine, the air expands from 6.8 bar & 430 oC to 1.013 bar & 150 oC. The
heat loss from the turbine can be assumed to be negligible, show that the process is
irreversible and calculate the change of entropy.
Assume that the process is reversible adiabatic, follows
T
the law PV C P1
1
T1 P1
1 P2
T 2 P2
0.4
430
6.8 1.4 o
T2 .(430 273) 135 C
1.03 150
Since the assumed temperature T 2 does not equal to 135 2
the actual temperature T2, there for the process is 2
irreversible S
s s2 s1 s2 s 2
Since s2& s 2 on constant pressure line then P2= P 2
P1V1 P2V2 P2V2 V2 T2 V T
s R ln 2 cv ln 2
T1 T2 T2 V2 T2 V2 T2
T T
s R ln 2 cv ln 2 0.0362kJ / kg.K 0 irreversible
T2 T2
The entropy of Vapour( Two Phase Systems)
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As with enthalpy, so entropy is treated in the three stages of the formation of vapour
from liquid.
Liquid Entropy:
Consider unit mass of a liquid which will
ultimately be raised of vapour at constant d
temperature. For a unit mass of liquid,
dQ c PL .dT dividing the equation by (T), then
dQ dT b c h
c PL ds
T T a
then for this case hf hfg
dT g f e
ds c PL . o sf sg s
T
Integration this equation from initial state 1 to final state 2
s2 T2
dT
ds c PL
s1 T1 T
T
s 2 s1 c PL ln 2
T1
o
At T1=0 C or T1=273.16 K s1 = 0
T2
s 2 0 c PL ln
273.16
Tf
s f c PL . ln entropy of liquid
273.16
c PL ;Specific heat capacity of liquid at constant pressure in kJ/kg. K.
Tf: Saturation temperature of liquid in K
Entropy of evaporation:
It has been shown that the area under a T-s diagram gives heat transfer, at
constant pressure:
Heat transfer = hfg = area bcfgb = Tb.(sg-sf) = Q
h fg
sg s f
Tf
h fg
s g sf
Tf
Tf h fg
s g cPL ln Dry vapour
273.16 Tf
Tf h fg
s fg cPL ln x. Wet vapour
273.16 Tf
Entropy of Superheated Vapour:
Let c pv specific heat capacity of superheated vapour at constant pressure.
Heat received in the super heated region = cpv.dT area(cdefc )
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Q c pv .T
dQ c pv .dT T
dQ dT
c pv . ds
T T
s2 T
dT
ds c pv .
sg Tf T
T
s s g c pv . ln
Tf
T
s s g c pv . ln
Tf
Tf h fg T
s c PL ln c pv . ln
273.16 Tf Tf
The change of entropy for a gas (Single Phase systems)
For a gas, the heat transferred during a non flow process can be determined by using
the non-flow energy equation,
dQ = dU+dW
Consider a unit mass of gas and let its state change from p 1, v1, and T1 to new state p2,
v1, and T2,
dQ c v dT Pdv T
dQ dT dv
cv P
T T T
P R
Pv RT
T v
dQ dT dv
cv R ds
T T v
s2 T2 v2 dv
dT
ds c v R
s1 T1 T v1 v
T v
s2 s1 cv ln 2 R ln 2
T1 v1
This equation determines the change of specific entropy of gas from a knowledge of
temperature and volume.
Now c p cv R
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T2 v
s 2 s1 cv ln (c p cv ) ln 2
T1 v1
T2 v v
s 2 s1 cv ln c p ln 2 cv ln 2
T1 v1 v1
v2 T v v T v
s 2 s1 c p ln cv (ln 2 ln 2 ) c p ln 2 cv ln( 2 . 1 )
v1 T1 v1 v1 T1 v 2
P1v1 P2 v 2 Tv P
2 1 2
T1 T2 T1v 2 P1
v2 P
s 2 s1 c p ln cv ln 2
v1 P1
pressure and volume.
Again, from cv c p R
T2 v
s 2 s1 cv ln R ln 2
T1 v1
s 2 s1 c p R ln
T2 v T T v T T v
R ln 2 c p ln 2 R ln 2 R ln 2 c p ln 2 R ln 2 1
T1 v1 T1 T1 v1 T1 T1 v 2
P1v1 P2 v 2 Tv P
2 1 2
T1 T2 T1v 2 P1
T2 P
s 2 s1 c p ln R ln 2
T1 P1
pressure and Temperature.
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Entropy As A Rate Equation
The second law of thermodynamics was used to rite balance of entropy in equation
4-16 for a variation and in equation 4-18for finite change. In some cases the equation
is needed in a rate form so a given process can be tracked in time. The rate form is
also the basis for the development of the entropy balance equation in general control
volume analysis for an understand situation.
Take the increment change in S from equation 4-16 and divided by t we get:
dS 1 Q Sgen
4 19
t T t t
For a given control volume we may more than one source of heat transfer, each at a
certain surface temperature ( semi distributed situation). Since we did not have to
consider the temperature at which the heat transfer crossed the control surface for the
entropy equation, all terms were added into a net heat transfer in a rate form in
equation 1-32. using this and a dot to indicate a rate, the final form for the entropy
equation in the limit is:
dS c.m 1
Q S gen 4 20
dt T
expressing the rate of entropy change as due to the flux of entropy into the control
mass from heat transfer and an increase due to irreversible process inside the control
mass. If only reversible process take place inside the control volume, the rate change
of entropy is determined by the rate of heat transfer divided by the temperature terms
alone.
Example 16:
Consider an electric space heater that converts 1 kW of electric power into a heat flux
of 1 kW delivered at 600 K from the hot wire surface. Find the rate of total entropy
generation.
Solution:
The second law of thermodynamics in the rate form is:

dS c.m 1
Q S gen
dt T
dS c.m
Let the process is steady state i.e. 0
dt
dS c.m 1 Q out
0 Q S gen S gen
dt T Tsurface
Q 1
S gen out 0.00167kW / K
Tsurface 600
33

Chapter Four: Entropy

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Chapter Four: Entropy

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Advanced thermodynamics Technical college -Baghdad

A/C Dep. M.Sc Course 6972/90

QA1 QS1 QS2 QB2

QA3 QS3 QB3

Equation 5-8 is called the Clausius inequality

Subtracting the second equation from the first, we have:

Entropy Change In Reversible Process

The Thermodynamic Property Relation

Entropy Change of A Control Mass During An Irreversible Process

Consider a control mass that undergoes the

Point 1 dry saturated vapour s1=7.354 kJ/kg.K h1=2676.05

ssurr. Q 2257 7.57

100kPa -340 kJ sat. vap

Point 1 , 100 kPa &20 oC

6.7663 6.6437 2000 2500 2772.5 2761.5

1Mpa, 500oC 100oC

1 V=C 2 P=C 3 V=C 4

The entropy of Vapour( Two Phase Systems)

The second law of thermodynamics in the rate form is:

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