4 Fourteen Reasons To Mistrust The PHD

14/8/2017 4 Fourteen Reasons to Mistrust the PhD | Artists with PhDs
Artists with PhDs
4 Fourteen Reasons to Mistrust the PhD

1 [Note to WordPress readers: this site doesnt support footnotes, so they have been omitted.]
2 There are many reasons to wonder about the PhD for artists. It is spreading around the world, and in a few decades
its likely it will be the de facto degree for artists who want to become teachers. In some parts of the world it is
generally accepted, and in others the PhD is required for anyone who wants to teach at the university level. As the
PhD becomes more normative, it is especially important to keep an eye on the principal objections that have been
raised.
3 This list grew organically from a short version published in Art in America (May 2007, pp. 108-9), and in Spanish,
translated by Fernando Uhia, in Cuadernos Grises 4 (Bogot: Departamento de Arte, Universidad de los Andes,
2009), 15560. Starting on May 9, 2012, I posted it on Facebook. The discussion there was very broad-ranging, and I
have acknowledged a number of Facebook comments in this revision.
4 As the list grew, some entries swelled, and others remained brief. Three entries in particular have grown to the size of
short chapters: the ones on self-reflexivity, research, and knowledge. I could have separated those out, but I like the
unevenness of the list. In academic publishing, authors arent usually permitted to write books in which one chapter
is three pages long and the next is thirty. Editors make sure that academic books are well-behaved: they are usually
within 400 pages, and they tend to have at least five chapters, which are each roughly the same length. (There are a
few counter-examples: I like Peter De Bollas book on the sublime, which has a one-page chapter.) I thought that this
subject and this publisher are right for something a bit less symmetrical.
5 Theres one fascinating thing that binds all the entries on this list, all these objections, together. They were all raised,
in different forms, against the MFA when it was spreading rapidly in the 1960s. Many of these reasons to mistrust the
degree were true then and are still true now: but that didnt stop the MFA from spreading around the world. Given
the inevitability of the PhD, my interest is not to stop itthis list isnt material for a protestbut rather to rethink it.
Otherwise it could end up the way the MFA is: a disordered, largely untheorized collection of practices, open to each
of the objections that was raised about it in the 1960s.
6 When something becomes as widespread as the practice-based PhD, entire academic communities grow up around it:
teachers, administrators, art educators, and staff are trained in the PhD. Its what they know, what they care about.
There are instructors teaching now who were themselves taught by people who got PhDs in the 1970s and 1980s:
that means that there are nearly three generations of people for whom the PhD is entirely natural. In the last five
years, a massive literature has sprung up, suddenly, exploring the degree as if its fundamental principles and
purposes were largely settled. In light of that I think it is particularly important to continue questioning the degree at
the root level.
8 Reason 1. Students in the new degrees are expected to do scholarly research.
9 The length of dissertations varies from around 25,000 to 80,000 words, with a worldwide average of about 60,000
words. How many artists with MFAs can write at that length? How might applicants be assessed for their capacity
can produce writing at that scale? See the chapter Remarks on the PhD Around the World for more on this.
10
11 Reason 2. It is not clear what kinds of art, exactly, are potentially improved by serious research.
12 PhD-granting programs still lack any extended analysis of what sorts of practices can benefit from the PhD
dissertation. A satisfactory answer to that should also include an account of what kinds of art would not benefit. In
general, PhD programs will decline to admit applicants whose proposals or practice are still unformed; but aside
from those general criteria, what modes, styles, and strategies of art, both in history and in the present, would not, in
theory, be appropriate for the PhD? The normative assumption in PhD-granting institutions is that potentially, any
student with a cogent research proposal and practice is a potential candidate. But can that possibly be true? Arent
http://www.jameselkins.com/yy/4-fourteen-reasons-to-mistrust-the-phd/ 1/91
there art practices that benefit from a lack of clarity about their objectives, or a lack of understanding of historical
precedents?
13 Here are some examples, just to indicate the kind of thing I have in mind. Any number of twentieth-century artists
wrote manifestos that have little to do with the reasons their work is valued; if those manifestos has been written in
contemporary academia, they would have been thoroughly criticized for overreaching rhetoric, lack of system, lack of
argument, and lack of evidence. If Ad Reinhardt had read his own texts closely, as an academic reads, he would have
been bothered by their many self-contradictionsor conversely, if his texts had been produced in PhD programs,
they would have had to have been edited down to fragments. If Kandinsky had combed through his book looking for
logical errors, he might have ended up abandoning it. If I look for artists whose writings could work as contemporary
PhD dissertations, I can think of a few, mainly in the Renaissance: Piero della Francescas three treatises might work
well as examples of thorough research, and Drers book on human proportions might be legible as an example of
visual awareness of diversity. But Albertis book on architecture is an endless unstructured mess, and Leonardos
notebooks could not be assessed or even read as research. And this is just considering artists who wrote texts that
could be considered as treatises. The majority of artists either havent written anything, or they havent written
sustained, analytic, structured inquiries. Personally, I would like to enlist most of the worlds art practices as
examples of kinds of work that would not be suited for PhD-level research.
14 My examples here would need to be expanded, but I hope it is enough to indicate the general nature of the problem:
there have been many times and places in art history in which the art practices depended on not being systematic, on
not involving research, on not being clear. Some kinds of art practice can benefit from the kinds of discipline involved
in producing research proposals and working systematically: many others might not. When I posted this on
Facebook, Jonathan Muehlke noted that there are some skills that can only be gained under close supervision in a
structured academic environment. The question whether those skillsthe ability to form a research program, to
gather information thoroughly and systematically, to analyze it clearlyare appropriate to namable art practices, or if
they are, in theory, applicable to any art practices.
15 On Facebook, this question sparked a debate. One writer, Victoria Allen Hanks, mentioned the painter Sue Coe as an
example of an artist who would not be appropriate for a PhD program. Hanks said Coe has been a hands-on
practitioner and activist, visiting slaughterhouses and getting the word out about animal abuse Her work is political
and needs a succinct message. A dissertation would kill it for sure. But Louise Scoville wrote: I disagree profoundly!
Art needs academic scrutiny and investigation to advance and fully realize its potential I was a university Lecturer
and Professor for 9.5 years: only in my current PhD research am I learning and understanding how to really see, feel
and think. Art needs inquiry, experiment, and discipline These sorts of disagreements depend on the kind of art
thats being discussed. It would be good to have a collaborative effort aimed at revealing which art practices are best
suited for research, and that could in turn make PhD programs more focused. In general it seems to me that PhD-
granting institutions have an obligation to decide what kinds of art are suited for research, and which arent.
16
17 Reason 3. The new degree exacerbates the academization of art.
18 The PhD will keep students in school between two and four years after their MFAs, not including the time they spend
writing their dissertations, which might stretch onas it does with art history PhDsanother five years or more.
Artists will be at least 30 years old before they are out in the world. There are two possible attitudes to this: in the
common response, it is said that the PhD artificially accelerates the academic properties of art practices; but it could
also be said that the PhD is symptomatic of the decades in which we live, so that it reflects an ongoing tendency in the
art world. If the latter is the case, it calls for a special study of the nature of intellectual, conceptual, methodologically
explicit art projects, so that institutions can represent and teach those emergent properties of art. If the former is
closer to the truth, then PhD-granting institutions also need to consider their complicity in the directions of
contemporary art.
19 Buzz Spector recalls that Joel Feldman said there was a category of exhibiting artists whose institutional recognition
was entirely through shows at university or college art galleries. Feldmans view, Spector writes, was that there was
a circuit of academic-centric master artists, mainly unknown to the mainstream foundation / municipal museum /
commercial gallery nexus. I was skeptical of this view at the time, but now Im not so sure. (Facebook, June 2013)
Its probably true that the PhD for artists is positioned to produce art that stays mainly in the university circuit: but
then again, people said that about the MFA.
20 What matters in such claims is what academization is taken to mean. If it means inexpressive intellectualization,
then it needs also to be said that a retreat from overt affect and a focus on conceptualization are part of what
interesting art has done since the 1960s: in other words, what is demonized might be just a name for the
preponderant postwar avant-garde.
21 As a postscript, I note that a particular kind of academization may be taking place in the studio-led PhD program.
In 2013 I became aware of several very specialized PhDs and postdocs, which took as their subject the PhD itself. A
Danish artist, Thomas Altheimer, who has a PhD from Goldsmiths, wrote to tell me he is considering a postdoc on
methodology in artistic researchbut not as an art education specialist. His interest is more practical, and so his
subject is a higher-level reflection on artistic research: research through research, as it were, as opposed to research
on research in art education. An Australian PhD candidate, Colleen Boyle, gave a paper in Chicago on the subject of
photography as an allegory for the conceptualization of artistic research. Because photography is the subject of her
PhD, this paper is an allegorization of her subject, and the object of the allegory is the methodology of her subject. [I
am waiting for a copy of her final paper; Ill enlarge this section then.] At about the same time I corresponded with
Peter Anderson, who is doing a creative writing PhD in Australia; but his thesis is an imaginary exhibition catalogue
and its surrounding discourse, so it is a fictional mirror or allegory of what happens in practice-led PhD programs
with actual visual art.
22 These are examples of a trend that may be developing that is exactly what critics of academization fear, because (I
imagine) they think art about academic subjects is empty. Again Im not so sure. Its true that art about the
conditions of academic production may often be uninteresting: but thats what Art & Language, and conceptual art in
general, were often about. This may just be the next stage.
23
24 Reason 4. The PhD exacerbates issues of class and privilege.
25 When I posted versions of these questions on Facebook in spring 2012, several people pointed out that the PhD
exacerbates the elitism of the MFA. Writing from the UK, Leila Galloway asked Is it not now a question of who has
and what class has access? and Jonathan Muehlke wrote that the PhD tends to be about politics: class and social
privilege. But on the other hand, as Muehkle also acknowledged, art has always been an activity dominated by the
elite. It is not yet clear whether these programs are unfairly exclusive, because at the PhD level many programs are
effectively subsidized by stipends, fellowships, and grants. On the other hand, the PhD definitely requires more years
away from full-time employment, and it certainly favors applicants who can write clearly and articulately about their
work, in ways that artists with less education might not be able to do. I wonder what kinds of social awareness, what
recruiting programs, what kinds of outreach, might possibly address this issue.
26
27 Reason 5. The PhD in studio art is unique among nearly all degrees in requiring two bodies of work: the art and the
research.
28 Administratively, its because the art needs to be validated by a kind of labor that the university can reliably assess,
but it makes the studio art PhD an awkward hybrid. The University of Plymouth experimented with a minimal
writing requirement; that policy was instituted to solve the double-requirement issue, but it also shifted the focus to
the PhD exhibitionso that the faculty were responsible for determining what might count as a PhD-level art
exhibition. George Smiths program, the Institute for Doctoral Studies in the Visual Arts, is the opposite; the IDSVA
does not teach studio, but only visual theory. Those two experiments represent extreme positions: the majority of
PhD programs continue to require two bodies of work.
29 It has been said that the requirement of two bodies of work is not objectionable, because scientists have to publish
and also work in the laboratory: perhaps in this sense the studio-based PhD is closer to the sciences than it might
seem. Still, as Risa Horowitz points out, scientists dont have to show their lab work, so the parallel isnt exact. Also,
the rhetoric of most PhD programs stresses the close connection between practice and research, so its as if they were
one activity.
30
31 Reason 6. The new degree is a double threat.
32 Students whose dissertations are in history of art or philosophy will get PhDs in those fields, and in addition they will
be able to teach studio art. Small colleges and art schools could then employ such people to work in two different
departments. The perception has been that people with MFAs could not compete. This is a reasonable qualm, given
the self-descriptions of the programs, but as far as I can see it has not materialized. In practice, hiring committees
realize which of the two, practice and research, is the candidates strong point. Small institutions may well ask new
hires to teach both studio and an academic subject (usually art history), but that has always been the case.
33
34 Reason 7. In the new degree, students will become more self-reflective than ever.
35 I love Mick Wilsons way of putting this in Chapter [ ]. A key theme in the development of doctoral programs in art
practice is that of critical reflection, he writes: the enigmatic figure of the reflexive practitioner may be said to stalk
the doctoral art studio in search of the equally enigmatic trophy of methodological rigor. In 2003 the promotional
text for the program at Goldsmiths, for example, said the course is for artists who would like to explore and develop
their understanding of their established art practice. The same confidence in the importance of self-reflexivity can
be found in the administrative texts that support the new degree in the UK: self-reflection is mentioned, for example,
by Donald Schn, who is discussed in Chapter [ ].
36 Yet many artists have made compelling work even though they had no idea of the critical matrix to which their work
belongs, and despite the fact that they were only minimally reflective about their own practice. It is also true that
some artists work thrives on self-awareness; for artists of that kind the new PhD degree might be idealalthough
there is no account of what kinds of art have been best served by self-awareness. This idea that self-awareness is a
desideratum for PhD-level instruction needs to be treated as a problematic assumption, not as a guiding principle. In
my experience, the value accorded to self-reflexivity is never questioned. It needs to be.
37 To some extent, reflexivity (self-reflection, introspection, self-awareness, articulateness, conceptualizationI am

referring to a related group of qualities that go under many names) is a general goal of advanced education, or at the
least an inevitable by-product. No matter what other goals the studio-art PhD has, it must always assume that a
higher degree of reflexivity is potentially good for the students art. That is because any research aimed at problems in
the students art practice will inevitably work to raise her awareness of what she does. Research, writing, seminars,
and critical conversations, give students new concepts, historical frameworks, and critical perspectives.
38 Self-reflexivity is a centralperhaps the most centralcriterion of assessment at all levels. Most of the existing
literature on BFA, MFA, and MA assessment cycles a series of expressions like encouraging students to be self-
critical, to confidently articulate their ideas to others, helping students to step outside their work in order to be
able to talk about it. (These are quotations from Lee Grandjeans essay in What Am I Thinking? Assessment at the
RCA, 2009). Each of these is a criterion of self-reflexivity.
39 This may seem inaccurate because of the tremendous influx of interest in affect, emotion, embodied practices, non-
verbal communication, and performativity, multi-sensory work, and other subjects that have come rushing into art
theory since the first decade of the twenty-first century. Certainly PhD programs are places where body-centered
work can flourish, where conceptualizations of post-phenomenological experience, of the redistribution of the
sensible, and of affective politics are all common subjects. And yet the very starting point of phenomenology and
poststructuralist thinking, from Sartre and Merleau-Ponty to the present, has been the implication of the observer in
the observed, and the new interests of art theory only make the investment in self-awareness even deeper. When it
comes to teaching, the very articulation of the subjectivities and positions of viewer and viewed call for more words,
more analysis, more self-reflection.
40 Another way to think of this is that it is not possible to imagine a PhD program in which the student slowly becomes
less self-aware, less able to articulate her work, less eloquent, less introspective, less able to analyze what she is
doing. On the contrary: the fact that the PhD is the terminal degree also implies that by the time the dissertation is
complete, a student will have achieved an optimal or ultimate degree of self-awareness: crucial aspects of her work
will be as transparent as possible, and she will be as articulate as the pertinent theoretical discourses permit.
41 Even though reflexivity isnt usually mentioned in the administrative and promotional literature, it is an inescapable
end result, and unavoidably an implicit goal, of every program. I dont think there is a program that claims reflexivity
is its principal goal, although a number of programs include specific requirements about research proposals (their
articulation, their outcomes, their logical structures) that entail a high degree of self-awareness on the part of the
candidates. No program, I think, can avoid working concertedly to increase its students reflexivity.
42 This raises a fascinating and extremely difficult problem. Historically speaking, artists have not always been very
eloquent, or even very accurate, about what they do. Entire movements and centuries of art have flourished without
the kind of self-reflection that we now value, and if were honest we should probably say those movements and
periods may not have been possible if the artists had been able to write at length, lucidly, with historical and analytic
precision, about what they were doing. Some art is hobbled by awareness.
43 It seems to me that history is full of examples. The first-generation German expressionists, for instance, were driven
by a strong dislike of what they thought of as academic art. But practices like Heckels or Schmidt-Rottluffs were not
informed by a scholarly understanding of what they were reacting against. They were more insouciant than
programmatic about the practices they despised. Later, when artists like Kirchner began to study particular models
(such as late medieval German art, or Picasso, or the painting of the Ajanta caves) their art became more
programmatic, more constrained and academic. Whatever happened in the years around 1910 was lost, and
expressionism moved into a scholastic phase. For a number of years Kirchner painter Picassoid clichs. It seems to
me that a PhD would have been disastrous for the first generation of expressionists, because their practices involved
a certain thoughtlessness, a certain impatience and anger, and it matters that they did not focus their anger more
precisely. The same, I think, can be said about expressionist practices in general, including the most recent
incarnations of neo-expressionism in cartoon art and post-pop.
44 Here is another example, perhaps more contentious. Czannes letters are full of wonderful observations about
nature and reality, but he has nothing to say about the inch-by-inch construction of his canvases. He never mentions
that he had started painting foreshortened plates and cups using what are called cats eye ellipses instead of proper
perspectival ellipses. He never describes how he would break the front edge of a table by painting one side lower than
the other, and mending the break by covering it with a hanging tablecloth. He doesnt think as precisely, as
analytically, as his many art historical commentators have. I call this contentious because it could also be said that he
did, in fact, think of such things, but didnt write them out. I am not so sure of that. There are dozens of examples of
things he does that could have been easily specified, if he had been clearly aware of them as technical innovations
rather than as overlapping, inarticulated, uncognized moments of picture-making. Czanne needed to be unreflective
about the details of what he did, and a PhD program would have disrupted his practice severely and perhaps
irreparably, in the name of articulateness and reflexivity.
45 As in the case of art that does not mesh well with systematic research (that was point number 2 on this list), these
examples could be multiplied. I think any number of art practices have been enabled by the artists incomplete
awareness of what she was doing. This isnt to say that PhD programs aim to clear up everything, put everything into
language, figure forth everything as research: but they necessarily have to claim that crucial aspects of the students
practice are improved by research.
46 It would be wonderful to have some conferences, and then some books, on which practices are best served by self-
awareness. (And another set of conferences and books on the practices most amenable to research, as in point
number 2.) From a philosophic standpoint, two more even more diffcult problems would then follow: Who can
measure self-awareness? Who is trained in teaching it?
47 On Facebook, Iain Nicholls pointed out that an artist doesnt know why they are doing something until after they
have done it, and it could be said that from the point of view of contemporary art historians, looking back into
history, the overwhelming majority of artists havent a clear sense of what they have done. Thats the nature of the
activity, and it means that the parts of practice that are theorized and articulated in the PhD may, in effect, be masks
protecting a larger, submerged inarticulateness and confusion that remains unremarked. This is different from the
common condition of art students who dont yet understand their work, or havent yet found words for it. Abi Spring
read a draft of this point and wrote, I have a hard time with that idea because where I went to school, both in the US
and in Australia, the students who adopted it were the intellectually lazy ones, not just lazy about what they said
about the work but lazy about the work itself. I wouldnt dispute that; but as Spring also notes, the issue here is
different: its a question of historical times and places when self-reflexivity would have been inimical to the art
practice.
48 This concern is also different from saying that arts true nature is irrational, or that the self-reflexivity and hyper-
articulateness of PhD dissertations is inherently wrong. As John Tran remarked, behind the mistrust of art PhDs it
seems like there is a nostalgia for some sort of untainted creative process. I agree that nostalgia for some
untrammeled, inarticulate creativity, unhampered by academic reflection, doesnt seem historically tenable. For
better or worse, the challenge in studio art education in general, and in PhD programs in particular, is understanding
what kinds of art are served by self-reflexivity, what parts of art practice are bypassed in self-reflexivity, and what
elements of art making self-reflexivity protects us from thinking about.
49
50 Reason 8. No one knows what the MFA is, so the PhD cannot build on it.
51 That may seem unlikely, because MFAs are ubiquitous. But I can say with some confidence that it has never been
defined, and that matters to the PhD because if no one knows what the MFA is, then there isnt much chance that the
PhD can build on it, or even depart from it.
52 When the MFA degree was instituted after World War II, it was hastily defined, and even now there is no extended
account of the difference between the MFA and the BFA. For an event in 2009 called What Do Artists Know?the
book will be coming out November 2012a group of us did exhaustive research into how the MFA is defined. We had
a hard time finding the original 1977 College Art Association definition, and finally a librarian found us a copyin
Australia! The definition turns out to be a half page long, and it is essentially the same as the definition on the CAA
website.
53 Here is part of the version on the website:
54 The MFA degree demands the highest level of professional competency in the visual arts and contemporary
practices The work needs to demonstrate the ability to conceptualize and communicate effectively by employing
visual language to interpret ideas. In addition, the MFA recipient must give evidence of applying critical skills that
pertain to meaning and content, ultimately encouraging a comprehensive examination and critique of the function
and role of art from a variety of views and contexts.
55 Almost nothing in these sentences is well defined. What is the highest level of professional competency? What does
it mean to be able to conceptualize and communicate effectively? What is visual language? (That expression has
been widely debated.) What, exactly, are those critical skills that pertain to meaning and content? And for that
matter, what is the difference between meaning and content?
56 For the event and the book What Do Artists Know? we reviewed this and many other documents, including the
informal definitions teachers use. Our group looked internationally, at administrative and institutional definitions.
We also looked historically, at the earliest programs. What we found is that there are three ways of understanding the
MFA:
57
58 A. These official definitions, which tend to be both terse and abstract. They are political documents, intended for
institutional definitions.
59
60 B. The administrative literature (for example, the NASAD in the US, or the Bologna Tuning Documents for the MA in
the EU, or the ELIA documents for the EU), which have to do with measurable outcomes and are sometimes more
specific. Here are some excerpts from the NASAD definition of the MFA. They say the degree should:
61 Demonstrate professional competence in one or more aspects of the creation and presentation of works of art and
design, dance, or theatre. Produce creative and academic work that shows the ability to integrate knowledge and
skills in their field and other areas of inquiry and research. Complete graduate-level studies associated with their
discipline in areas such as history, critical analysis, aesthetics, methodologies, and related humanities, sciences, and
social sciences.
62 It seems to me this isnt any closer to a coherent definition. What counts as integration? What are the graduate-
level studies? The ELIA documents also have longer descriptions; here is part of their list of second level criteria:
63 [The MA should instill the] ability to: further develop and evaluate working processes appropriate to individual
creative practices; acquire independent research skills and utilise them effectively; display evidence of professional
competencies required for individual creative practice; evolve further strategies and utilise expertise, imagination
and creativity in appropriate media
64 I am not doing justice to these documents, but I hope these brief excerpts show how much remains to be said: what is
appropriate? What are independent research skills? What, again, are professional competencies? And so on.
65 C. Then there are the informal senses of the MFA that are used by studio instructors and students. Mainly these have
to do with the idea that the MFA is the time when a student consolidates her work into a coherent voice, style,
approach, or manner. The BFA, in this same informal sense, is often understood as the time for experimentation; the
MFA is meant to focus that. This everyday definition makes good sense historically, because the historical roots of the
MA and MFA are in German romanticism: that is origin of the idea of the artists unique voice, and of the custom of
studying with a single master (now an advisor, or instructor) rather than in a group.
66 I think the day-to-day notion of the MFA makes very good sense, and there is a lot that could be said about the
histories that lead up to the present. But in this context, what matters is that this third way of thinking of the MFA is
not often spelled out, and none of it is part of the official literature. Several of the participants in the event What Do
Artists Know? also wanted to propose an anti-romantic, poststructural sense of the MFA and MA, in which they are
about social work, collaboration, and other political ideas that are very different from the earlier senses of the MFA.
67 No matter which of these definitions you use, the MFA is not well understood. Its more practiced than analyzed,
which is fine, up until it becomes necessary to define something elsethe PhDas a continuation or alternate to it.
68 Because no one knows what the MFA is, it seems unlikely that we can build on it to define the PhD. (And it is
pertinent that no one knows what the BFA is, either: but thats another story.)
69 A footnote about the PhD, as it is seen by the College Art Association. On the same page that defines the MFA, there
is a footnote. Its the only footnote on the page, and possibly the only one on the website, so it is quite prominent. It
read (as of October 2, 2012):
70
71 1. Recently, there has been some discussion in the CAA committees about drafting a standard for a PhD degree in
studio art. The CAA Professional Practices Committee (PPC), after discussing it throughout 2008, submitted this
statement in September 2008: At this time, few institutions in the United States offer a PhD degree in studio art,
and it does not appear to be a trend that will continue or grow, or that the PhD will replace the MFA. To develop a
standard for a degree that has not been adequately vetted or assessed, and is considered atypical for the studio-arts
profession, is premature and may lead to confusion, rather than offer guidance, to CAA members, their institutions,
and other professional arts organizations.
72 Undoubtedly this will change, but it is amazing in light of what is happening throughout the world.
73
74 Reason 9. The PhD seems to be driven by money.
75 The uneven reputation the PhD has in England, Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and Australia has partly to do with the
fact that in the UK systemwhere the proliferation of PhDs in the West starteddepartments get more money if they
have PhD programs. In some countries every new PhD program (in any subject) receives funding from the university.
The new program might get money for facilities, for hiring lines, or to support students. Funding is often tied to the
number of students, so the more PhD candidates a department can attract, the more financial support it receives
from the university.
76 Because of this, it been difficult to escape the suspicion that the practice-based PhD is a transparent, even cynical,
engine for academic solvency. This complaint is still common, and I have heard it proposed as the principal reason to
doubt the PhD degree. But it is only partly right: it probably does account for the rapid expansion of PhD programs in
the UK, but so much time has passed nowalmost 40 years since the first programsthat entire generations of
artists and teachers have been educated in the PhD system, or have worked in it as instructors. People have dedicated
their entire careers to it, and believe in it deeply despite its flaws. In my experience, there is isnt much cynicism left
about the fiscal incentives for such programs, especially in the current economic climate in the EU, where institutions
that grant the PhD are not big money-makers!
77 On the other hand (theres always another hand in this subject), the downsizing of institutions, especially in the UK
and EU following the financial crisis in 2011, has produced a sometimes ruthless instrumentalization of the PhD.
Outcomes are now regarded as viable mainly if they can result in jobs; uptake is monitored more carefully;
enrollments overall may be going down; interdisciplinary collaborations are a priority; modularization is expanding
(thats the US-style ordering of taught courses according to themes and sequences). Entire programs are changing:
in the UK the MA may be metamorphosing from practice-based into more pure practice, like the MFA in the States.
These and other developments are hard to trace at the moment, and they may be evanescent: but they certainly show
the effects of the bottom line on the curriculum.
78
79 Reason 10. There should be no specialized education for artists.
80 This is a recurring objection to the new degree; the idea is that the MFA is a generalist degree both in the sense that
artists are educated to make any kind of art, and that art itself is increasingly aimed at social and political issues. The
PhD, by contrast, looks like an academic specialization.
81 Here are two responses to that qualm. The first is from Carol Becker, who was Dean at the School of the Art Institute,
where I work, and is now at Columbia. This is excerpted from something she wrote around 2008:
82 The work that artists produce may cover all kinds of issues globalization, identity politics, feminism, cultural
criticism of all types all issues of art history There is no one discipline that the work actually addresses as [in]
chemistry which is a secure body of knowledge, constantly evolving. So to say that artists need their own type of
doctorate is as if they need something which doesnt put the work into the contexts in fact it might relate to, but
rather, secures a different type of degree just for them where their type of production and its focus is the topic of the
study. I think that artists get excluded from existing doctorate programs because the field doesnt take their kind of
production seriously as intellectual production. It makes much more sense and is far more subversive and respectful
to bring artists into existing programs and force those programs to accept their work as work, [as] serious intellectual
investigation and research that addresses a myriad of issues. Artists could just as easily enter into degrees in
sociology if the field were flexible enough, which it is not. But to think one has to isolate them into their own program
because they will not fit, wont make it, cant get recognized in other programs, is to separate the work and to fall into
the same problem from a different angle.
83 Becker is arguing against the specialization of PhDs, but not because artists arent themselves specialized. She sees
artistic production as a form of cultural production: some might fit into sociology, some into chemistry, some into
political theoryexcept that those disciplines are too conventional to accept artists. In this way of thinking, PhD
programs for artists are like a ghetto. Theres a Foucauldian model available for this: in Discipline and
Punish, Foucault made the distinction between discipline mechanism and discipline blockade: the former divided
people, one from another, and watched each with an elaborate mechanism of bureaucracy and surveillance; the latter
divided people in a simple and crude way, separating healthy from ill, or citizens from criminals. In Beckers model,
artists are subjected to a discipline blockade, even while the rest of society enjoys the benefitsfor Foucault, a
treacherous and mixed blessingof the discipline mechanism. She is saying, in effect, that artists should have the
same specialized degrees as other intellectual workers: the same disciplines and divisions, not a different kind of
apartheid.
84 Another interesting response to the claim that artists should not have specialized degrees is an initiative called the
structured PhD, which I heard about from Timothy Emlyn Jones, Dean at the Burren College of Art in Ireland. Tim
tells me the structured PhD:
85 transforms the beast and changes the game. At NUI Galway [in Ireland] Ive been teaching a module Introduction to
Creative Difference; [it is] based on the Studio Research Methods module [class] of our own MFA and [studio-
based] PhD. It is a knowledge transfer of the principles and procedures of creative methods in Studio Art, stripped of
the mediums and materials, and taught to doctoral students in Biochemistry, Law, Computer Science, Irish Studies,
Medicine, Physics, English and many more. The point is that what artists know and do can transform a PhD from a
training in scholarship or [in] scientific method into a doing-education in creative process.
86 Note that this structured PhD is not an argument against the specialization of the PhD, but an example of how that
specialization might be inverted, swarmed out into the community, to use Foucaults metaphor. Swarming is also
to be found in Foucaults Discipline and Punish, and the metaphor is from bee-keeping: it refers to the way a hive will
suddenly decide to swarm, leaving its hive and moving out into the world to find a new home.
87 My own take on this is that the PhD is not a specialization at all. It is an extension, an elaboration of the kinds of
work that are done in the MFA. The student spends longer, makes more extensive inquiries, and does more
exhaustive research, but the subject matter is not necessarily narrower. This is not the same as the sciences or
humanities, where PhD topics are typically narrower than MA, MS, BA, or BS research topics. I only know a few PhD
dissertations in visual art that actually are specialized in the manner thats typical of the sciences, social sciences, and
humanities. So unless specialization means longer study, I dont think the objection has much force.
88 And it is useful to recall that the objection of over-specialization was also raised against the MFA when it was
spreading in the 1960s.
89
90 Reason 11. The idea of research is still widely contested.
91 There is a standard criterion for new academic programs in many countries: they have to demonstrate that they
possess a methodology for research and that they generate new knowledge. Here, for example, is a passage from the
official Universities Austria position paper:
92 The core component of doctoral training [in any subject] is the advancement of knowledge through original
research all doctorates are doctorates based on research. [Recommendations by Universities Austria on New-Style
Doctoral Studies, 3 December 2007.]
93 The two concepts, knowledge and research, continue to support the introduction of new programs in visual art,
despite two important problems: no one knows how best to define the kind of research that leads to art, and no one
knows how to think about the knowledge produced by art. Knowledge is the subject of the entry after this one.
94 Questions regarding research might be provisionally divided into several groups or topics. I will begin with the most
fundamental one, the possibility that research itself is the wrong word, and that the literature might reorient itself
by abandoning the word or reducing its role.
95 A. Questioning the very idea of research
96 For the current generation of academics, research is generally taken as a given. People question what it means, how it
might be applied, and how research in the arts is related to research in the sciencesthose will come up in the next
sub-headingsbut the pertinence of the concept itself is generally no longer questioned. The University of
Hertforshire School of Creative Arts Research Degrees in Art and Design page begins:
97 A research degree is characterized by the sustained, rigorous, critical, and systematic investigation of a defined
subject and by the contribution to knowledge and interpretation of its outcome.
98 One of the immediately following sentences is an exceptionally clear formulation of the disinterest in aesthetics,
expression, and other traditional goals of the MFA:
99 The degree is not awarded as an expression of the aesthetic value, social worth or cultural significance of particular
achievements, i.e., for high professional competence and peer reception alone.
100 The Hertfordshire text continues by quoting the AHRC (the UK Arts and Humanities Research Council) definitions of
research in art and design, which emphasizes research questions, research context, and research methods. In
this way the concept of research is taken as a given, even ifor better, especially becauseit is open to adjustment in
every case.
101 (There are exceptions to this custom of beginning with research as a given if malleable term, including a very careful
review by Michael Wilson, Summary of the State of Play in Practice-Led Research in Art, Design and Architecture
for AHRC/CHEAD Joint Initiative, accessed March 11, 2013.)
102 The largest publication on this subject, The Routledge Companion to Research in the Arts, begins with a foreword by
Hans-Peter Schwartz advocating discussion of competing senses of research; but research itself is taken for granted
in the books title. He writes, for example, that It does seem to be high time to stop doubting whether art-based
research exists at all and accept that it has long ago become an everyday occurrence in most art
universities. Thinking Through Art (2004), edited by Katy Macleod and Lin Holdridge, the second book on the PhD,
begins with the observation that it continues to prove difficult both for artists to produce art which can be identified
as research, and research which can be identified as art: thus the authors begin from the experience that artists have
been trying to gain recognition for their work as research. The Journal for Artistic Research (2011) opens with an
editorial by Michael Schwab, saying it is a good thing not to know what exactly artistic research is: but at the
same time research is presupposed throughout, as the next sentence makes clear when Schwab notes that not
knowing reminds us of artistic researchs transdisciplinary character. I would have rather read something like Not
knowing what artistic research is reminds us of arts transdisciplinary character. How much can something be
questioned when it is always already present?
103 It seems to me its a good idea to continue questioning the very use of the word research. After all, this use of
research is barely twenty-five years old: not enough time to be sure it is the right word to use as a cornerstone of all
studio-art PhD programs.
104 Because the word research is woven into the professional literature, it might be useful to question how widespread
it is among students who are not already in such programs. A survey could be made, asking how many art students at
the MA and MFA level think of their work as research: many do, but I think many more dont. It would be especially
telling if such a survey was restricted to students who hadnt considered PhD programs, or didnt know about them. I
suspect that very few would describe their practices as research. The concept could also be questioned by surveying
students already enrolled in PhD programs to see what other terms they might use to describe what they do
concepts like inquiry, project, practice, process, or intuition. The purpose would be to get a sense of whether
research is the best fit for what happens in teaching and learning contexts.
105 But given the ubiquity of the concept of research in the literature produced in the UK, EU, Australia, and New
Zealand, and given the fact that research is an unquestioned starting point both for university program statements
and for books, conferences, and essays on the studio-art PhD, I dont see much hope that research will be questioned
at a root level. There are some exceptions: As Victor Burgin says in Chapter [ ], the word art does not appear in
dictionary definitions of the word research. But exceptions aside, one of the main things that interests me about the
PhD is the possibility of rethinking research and knowledge in the new programs that are appearing in the US,
South America, Asia, and other places. But more on that in the next chapter.
106 What matters in the professional literature is not the nature of research itself or its appropriateness, but rather the
sorts of questions I have listed: the meaning of research, the pedagogical implementation of research, and the
proximity of art research to scientific research. I will consider the last one first.
107 B. Questioning the proximity of art research to scientific research
108 There are three main alternatives in the literature:
109 1. Artistic research can utilize scientific research protocols, methodologies, and forms (in the science literature,
those are the conventional categories Methods, Materials, and Results) even though artistic research is
fundamentally distinct from scientific research
2. Artistic research needs to rethink scientific research protocols, methodologies, forms because it is
fundamentally distinct from scientific research
3. Artistic research cannot use scientific research protocols, methodologies, forms because it is fundamentally
distinct from scientific research.
110
111 An example of the first is Timothy Emlyn Jones (see chapter [ ]), who advocates looking to the sciences as a model
for the humanities. I will return to this option later.
112 An example of the second is Helga Nowotny, president of the European Research Council, who writes in the Preface
to the Routledge Companion that there is an interest in the subject and the aims of arts research from, as it were,
first principles, so that the arts do not repeat existing research models, and do not have to do with exploiting new
materials or technologies or addressing sociological aspects of arts production or consumption.
113 Nowotny was also a contributor to the book The New Production of Knowledge: The Dynamics of Science and
Research in Contemporary Societies (1994), which proposed a novel form of scientific knowledge production known
as Mode 2. Michael Gibbons, Nowotny, and their co-authors argue that Mode 2 research is driven by its context
and interdisciplinary, in contrast to Mode 1 research, which is restricted to disciplines. A similar distinction was
made by John Zilman in Real Science (2000) between academic and post-academic science. Mode 2 science has
been widely debated. Among its critics are Arie Rip (Science for the Twenty-First Century, in The Future of Science
and the Humanities, 2002) and Steve Fuller (The Governance of Science, 2000). Fuller argues that Mode 1 and
Mode 2 have shallower histories than their advocates propose; he dates both to the second half of the nineteenth
century, while they say Mode 1 began in the seventeenth century. The most thorough review of the literature is
Laurens Hessels and Harro van Lentes Re-Thinking New Knowledge Production, Innovation Studies Utrecht
Working Paper #08.03. Hessels and van Lente review a large literature and conclude Mode 2 suffers from severe
conceptual problems. Nevertheless it is one of the most visible attempts to reformulate science research, which
makes it in turn one of the most pertinent potential models for reformulations of art research.
114 An example of the third is Sren Kjrups assertion that There is no scientific research to which artistic research
might have to comply artistic research should be left alone to develop its own methods. (Kjrup, Pleading for
Plurality: Artistic and Other Kinds of Research, in the Routledge Companion, 24, 29; thanks to Erna Fiorentini for
pointing this out.) Examples like this could be multiplied outside the confines of discussions about the PhD; for
example Simon Critchleys position in essays like The Infinite Demand of Art (Art and Research 3 no. 2, summer
2010) is partly compatible with Kjrups position.
115 Michael Biggs and Daniela Bchler, in the Routledge Companion, are even more explicit on this third point:
116 We suggest that there cannot be a single research model that satisfies both communities [academic and
practitioner, university and art school]. Any collaboration between the two communities would involve negotiation
and compromise and this would lead to dissatisfaction. As an alternative, we propose that there is a third and distinct
community that is the offspring of the two parent communities There should be a distinct research model
117 One reason this problem of the relation between scientific and artistic research keeps recurring is the hope that the
practice-based PhD might be part of a university-wide community of PhDs; in that case, scientists would need to see
some common ground with what they do. But a fair amount of the literature is framed in poststructuralist language
that would make such dialogue difficult. Here is an example: artistic research, according to Per Nilsson, is not
explicitly scientific, but a form of knowledge in its own right, an amphibian discipline in a littoral landscape
occupying or traversing the liminal space between plural disciplinary formations, discursively constituted. Notice
the conflation of research and knowledge: in the visual arts community, but not in science, research itself can be a
form of expression and a knowledge outcome. (See Per Nilsson, The Amphibian Stand: A Philosophical Essay
Concerning Research Processes in Fine Art [Ume: Texte & Kultur, 2009], quoted in Michael Baers, Inside the Box:
Notes From Within the European Artistic Research Debate, e-flux journal 26, 2011)
118 Descriptions like Nilssons give voice to a hope that artistic research can be something outside of science and
disciplines in generalsomething mobile, transdisciplinary, improvisational, personal, tactical. Sometimes this kind
of rhetoric reaches the point where the individual claims cant really be read. Here is part of the web page of
Documenta 13, as it was posted in October 2012, after the Documenta ended:
119 when the exhibition opened in Kassel, we said that dOCUMENTA (13) was dedicated to artistic research and forms of
imagination that explore commitment, matter, things, embodiment, and active living in connection with, yet not
subordinated to, theory. We said these were terrains where politics are inseparable from a sensual, energetic, and
worldly alliance between current research in various scientific and artistic fields and other knowledges, both ancient
and contemporary, and that dOCUMENTA (13) was driven by a holistic and non-logocentric vision that is skeptical of
the persisting belief in economic growth, a vision that is shared with, and recognizes, the shapes and practices of
knowing of all the animate and inanimate makers of the world, including people. And now we add that an exhibition
could be thought of as a pre-reflexive consciousness, a qualitative duration of consciousness without itself. A bliss
able to go beyond the aporias of the subject and the objectan experience of life no longer dependent on the first, nor
submitted to the latter. Art is ceaselessly posed in life. And this indefinite life posed in art allows us to grasp the lived
and living, to understand life as carried by the events, and by the singularities actualized in subject/objects. Art does
not just come after life, but rather it offers the immensity of a temporality constituting spaces where one sees the
event yet to come in the absolute of an immediate consciousness.
120 In philosophic terms, these are not cogent positions or arguments. What matters instead is the rhetoric: the affect of
the writing, what it seems to enable. I think the kind of question to be asked of writing like this is: What are the
characteristics of the institutions and concepts that are being proposed as opposites of this text? What about those
institutions ad concepts makes it necessary to write in this non-linear, non-logical fashion?
121 For Henk Slager, one of the principal theorists of poststructural art research (and one of the participants in the
Documenta, and a contributor to this booksee chapter [ ]), the stakes are political. Artistic research, he writes,
will be a form of research not swayed by issues dictated by the late-capitalist free market system [or its] knowledge
commodification this will be an authentic research that comes about through an artistic necessity. He praises
the Malm Art Academy for being an intellectual sanctuary in this regard.
122 Slager is very much in favor of the third of the options I listed. Many artistic research projects seem to thwart the
well-defined disciplines, he writes. They know the hermeneutic questions of the humanities (the alpha-sciences);
they are engaged in empirically scientific methods (the beta-sciences); and they are aware of commitment (the
gamma-sciences). They point to a delta-science, characterized by a capacity to continuously engage in novel,
unexpected epistemological relations in a methodological process of interconnectivity. Artistic research, Slager
thinks, is an undefined discipline, a nameless science, directed toward generating flexible constructions,
multiplicities, and new reflexive zones.
123 Most literature on research is not as radical as this. A useful discussion paper called Types of Research in the
Creative Arts and Design (2004) identifies four kinds of research:
124 SCHOLARLY RESEARCH creates and sustains the intellectual infrastructure within which Pure, Developmental and
Applied research can be conducted. It aims to map the fields in which issues, problems, or questions are located
PURE RESEARCH asks fundamental questions in the field and explores hypotheses experimentally. It searches for
pure knowledge that may uncover issues, theories, laws or metaphors that may help explain why things operate as
they do, why they are as they are, or, why they appear to look the ways they do. It generates significant new facts,
general theories or reflective models where immediate practical application or long-term economic, social or cultural
benefits are not a direct objective
DEVELOPMENTAL RESEARCH serves two purposes: (a) it identifies the limitations of existing knowledge as
evolved through Pure research by creating alternative models [and] (b) it harnesses, tests and reworks existing
knowledge so to evolve special methods, tools and resources in preparation for the solving of specific problems, in
specific contexts, through Applied research.
APPLIED RESEARCH involves a process of systematic investigation within a specific context in order to solve an
identified problem in that context. It aims to create new or improved systems (of thought or production), artifacts,
products, processes, materials, devices, or services for long-term economic, social and/or cultural benefit.
It applies or transfers enhanced knowledge, methods, tools and resources from Pure and
Developmental researchThe outcomes cannot usually be directly applied to other contexts because of the specificity
of the situation in which the research has been applied although the
methods/tools evolved are often transferable.
125 The last of these is potentially a good model for some ideas of the contextual nature of art research.
126 Of the three positions I listedthat art research be like scientific research, that it rethink scientific research, and that
it shouldnt be anything like scientific researchthe second and third are by far the most common in the literature on
the PhD, but the first is common in research seminars and in curricula. I will take this up in subheading D, but first it
may be helpful to review a set of formulations for art research that has become a kind of lingua franca in the scholarly
community.
127 C. Questioning the meaning of research through, with, by, or into art
128 These prepositions have played an important role in the articulation of studio-art PhD programs. Some of them were
first proposed by Herbert Read; they were then elaborated by Christopher Frayling; and they have been amended and
enlarged by several other writers. The book What Do Artists Know? rehearses the full genealogy of these terms. This
table summarizes the distinctions, with some additions from an essay, Research Through Creative Practice (2000)
by Daro Montag. (In 2012, the essay was posted on the University of Hertfordshire website; it was presented as a
model PhD for their program.)
129
Form of
Herbert Read Christopher Frayling
research
1. Education for the professional artist,

to art
including techniques and materials.
2. Using art to learn about fields outside of 1. Research in the field of art and design, for example
through art, such as social relationships, problem- MPhils and PhDs. This is uppercase Research:
art solving, independence of mind, flexible systematic, disciplinary inquiry. It is the interesting,
thinking, learning to see contested category.
into art 2. Art history, perhaps aesthetics
3. Research leading to the production of art, so that

the art embodies the thinking. This is lowercase
for art
research: non-professional searching(In a later
text this was changed to as art.)
in art ? ?
130
131 Reads initial category, research to art, is a novel use of the word research, because it names what art students
were taught in European academies, technical schools, and other settings: methods, media, materials, techniques.
Reads research through art is not that easy to understand, but it is part of the general notion of Bildung, a form of
education that uses art and also, in a way, produces the student as an artwork (a picture, German Bild). Happily this
practice, which is both widely studied and conceptually entangled, is not pertinent here. What matters instead is how
Christopher Frayling expanded Reads categories. Research into art is self-explanatory, and even felicitous, because
art historians do say things like I research into art.
132 Its the first and last categories, research through art and research for art, that have been taken up in the
literature on studio-art PhD programs. Research for art can be thought of as a common notion of the MFA, in that
it is about artistic originality, and it is not sufficient for PhD research. Whatever knowledge might be construed to be
part of the practice is entirely in the artworks, rather than produced as knowledge.
133 Research for art is new, as Judith Mottram notes in Chapter [ ], and it is still not consistently used. Notice that
even the condensed summary I give here contains three potentially different ideas: first, that research for art could
lead to the production of art (a common enough idea); second, that research for art could lead to art that
embodies the research (this involves problems defining artistic knowledge, which I will consider in the next entry);
and that this is lowercase research or searching (implying it is free of strict Research methodology, but leaving it
open how such lowercase research might be characterized). The first of these is unproblematic, but it makes
research for art more or less equivalent to research through art. The second and third are more difficult.
134 Frayling himself is troubled by research for art. As he puts it, thinking is, so to speak, embodied in the artifact.
The goal is no longer knowledge in the way that the university recognizes it but visual or iconic or imagistic
communicationmore on that in the next entry on this list, on knowledge.
135 And finally, research through art is the category that pertains to the PhD: in it, knowledge, evidence, and
experience in the world are brought into the art practice, into the artworkand from there, so it is said, they can
reappear as knowledge through the art. (Fraylings examples of research through art are different from many that
have been proposed since his paper. He mentions Bridget Riley, saying her work reflected on theories of perception.
But Rileys practice involves apparently scientific hypotheses about perception, which are answered by paintings
instead of experimental results: its a problematic example.)
136 I have added a row at the bottom for the expression research in art, which hasnt been used in these discussions. On
Facebook the artist Risa Horowitz suggested that her own work might be all three forms of research at once. Perhaps
this conjunction should be called research in art. At least the preposition in is more invitingit sounds more like
embodimentthan for. But its not at all clear how such a combination could be theorized.
137 Two more notes. Recently there has been a separate development that is compatible with Fraylings distinctions, and,
I think, dependent on them: the HERA (Humanities in the European Research Area) Joint Research Program, a
collaboration between NUI Galway, KUVA (the Finnish Academy of Fine Arts), and KHiB (the National Academy of
Fine Arts, Bergen). Their interest is in the transferability of creative strategies and creative culture from art schools
to personal, organizational, and business contexts. In Fraylings terms, this would only be possible if research
through art itself makes sense. Research for art or as art would be, in effect, an argument against such transfer.
138 And finally, to be thorough, I should add another table of the amalgams that have been proposed by Graeme Sullivan.
139
Form of
Graeme Sullivan
research
in and when a structural interest is central and forming contexts influence how artefacts are created
about and critiqued
in and when the interpretive contexts that inform the relationship between the artist, artwork and the
with viewer is [sic] vital to the ideas and responses sparked by an artistic encounter
in and when the critical contexts surrounding purposeful artistic inquiry helps [sic] give meaning to the
through role artefacts can play as a form of social action
140
141 I list these from Artefacts as Evidence Within Changing Contexts, Working Papers in Art and Design, 2006, but I
cannot expand on them because I dont find them entirely comprehensible. In the end, they defer the question of
what in itself means.
142 D. Questioning how to teach or learn research
143 Of the three positions I listed in subheading Bthat art research be like scientific research, that it rethink scientific
research, and that it shouldnt be anything like scientific researchthe first is the one that operates, de facto, in
seminars and syllabi on artistic research.
144 Increasingly, institutions have been running required courses and taught classes on how to conduct research. In
Iceland, which instituted its first MA in fall 2012 (it has no PhDs), there had already been a required seminar on
research at the BA level. In most cases, research seminars are held at the PhD level. Several institutions, including
The Royal College of Art, have well developed required research seminars (courses in North American usage).
145 The rigor and complexity of research protocols vary widely. In some institutions the requirements are very general.
The document Doctoral Degree Characteristics says only that
146 Whether a candidate is being examined on the basis of a traditional thesis, portfolio, artifact(s), clinical practice or
other output, the body of work presented must demonstrate the research question and a critical evaluation of the
extent to which it has been addressed. [Doctoral Degree Characteristics, 2012, The Quality Assurance Agency for
Higher Education 2011]
147 For a number of institutions, this general language is sufficient. An extreme example of the opposite tendency is
the application guidelines web page for the Aalto University School of Art, Design and Architecture, written by Ilpo
Koskinen in 2008. It is too extensive to quote here, but I can give a flavor of it with an excerpt. Koskinen advises
applicants to decide if their research is hypothetico-inductive, interpretive, or constructive. If it is the first,
then, he says, addressing the candidate:
148 you must describe your research design. How many experiments you plan; what are your independent, dependent,
control and intervening variables; how many people you study; how you randomize them; what is your null
hypothesis and also alternative hypotheses; what kinds of laboratory procedures you follow; which methods of
analysis you use (typically ANOVA, ANCOVA, but usually even t-tests will do), and so forth. In statistical studies, you
need to tell where you get your datasecondary sources, or questionnaires; what are their main sources of errors;
which kind of model you aim to test (again, you need to specify independent, dependent, and so forth variables);
which method you use (typically some form or regression analysis or logistical regression); sample size; sample
selection; analysis of bias; etc.
149 Most PhD programs fall between the two extremes of abbreviated references to research questions and critical
evaluations, on the one hand, and Koskinens very scientific demands. Looser language better accommodates
political and poststructuralist revaluations of research like Slagers; sharper language is more promising for dialogues
across different parts of the university.
150 The general term for the discussion of how research is learned or taught is method, or methodology. In 2012 there
was a helpful discussion PhD-Design mailing list (a long-running site that often touches on subjects of interest to the
studio-art PhD) regarding differences between method, methodology, and methodoxy. Methodology is the
comparative study of method, and so technically, the literature should ask student to demonstrate a method for
research: but that isnt the word thats usually chosen. The last term is a neologism, as Ken Friedman pointed out on
the PhD-Design mailing list on November 9, 2012.
151 According to that use, the study of how research is learned and taught is itself methodology. Regardless of the terms,
there is a need for more detailed studies of exactly what counts as research method in each institution.
152 E. Questioning whether art research should be defined at all
153 Much of what I have been saying has to do with attempts to understand artistic research, but there is is also a
widespread notion that it is fundamentally unhelpful to try to define research at all. I will return to this in the next
entry, on knowledge, because a parallel reticence occurs there.
154 I think there are two principal positions about whether research should be defined:
155 1. It should be defined because that is the only way to institute a reliable, repeatable pedagogy, or to give a
department or institution a usefully specific profile
2. It should not be defined because art research has an intrinsic openness, which is either the result of its visual
nature or of its institutional position
156
157 An example of the first is Hans-Peter Schwartzs idea that a uniform research infrastructure has to be developed so
that practice-based research can be carried out in accordance with fixed methodological guidelines. (Routledge
Companion, p. xxix.) Some definitions, however, have been so minimal that it is not clear what pedagogic value they
might have. Mika Hannula, Juha Suoranta, and Tere Vadn say that The basic requirement for any research is that it
has a clear objective and approacha definition that wouldnt be enough to engage colleagues in the sciences, or to
flesh out a curriculum. (Hannula, Suoranta, and Vadn, Artistic Research: Theories, Methods and
Practices, Gteborg: Gteborgs Universitet / Art Monitor, 2005.)
158 An example of the second position is on the PhDArts webpage of the School of Visual Arts:
159 Research in art is characterized by interaction with artistic practice: it is an inseparable part of the work of the artist.
With research in art (as opposed to research about art, such as art history, for instance) there is no set goal or
expected result, any more than there are predetermined general procedures. The outcome of the research is
completely open. This openness is a condition for conducting research in art and design.
160 (Note here the expressions research in art and research about art; apparently this paragraph was written by
someone who had not read Fraylings paper. The writer means research for art.)
161 A second example of the second position is Haseeb Ahmeds introduction to N52: Art and Research at MIT
(www.n-52.com), which says that research based practices demonstrate a commitment to the development of their
own internal logics and attempt to deliver forms that are faithful to this internal coherence. That may produce a
situation in which there is no continuity between one persons practice and another, but within that discontinuity it
is still possible to discern the overwhelming forward march of technological progress exemplified by MIT. Aside
from the curious fact that technological progress is in scare quotes, Ahmed is arguing that there is a strong
coherence provided by the institution, in this case MIT. Yet there is, in this formulation, no hope of discovering what
research is, because it is different in each new context. The working spaces Ahmed describes at MIT are
bureaucraticstudents were given office space, not studiosand it seems that the concept of research may be more
a placeholder for institutional identity, rather than a set of habits, guidelines, methods, or procedures.
162 This eleventh entry has been especially long because the subject of research is especially endless. Personally, I find a
great deal of the literature I have been calling poststructuralist to be unconvincing and epistemologically incoherent.
I dont think it stands up to close reading, and that is sometimes because its principal purpose is not so much
coherence and logic as rhetorical clearing of space. The new programs dont always know exactly what they are, and
there is a tremendous hope invested in the possibility that they might remain in that condition of provisional
freedom. Against such a position there is the pressure for uniformity, imposed by the educational reforms in the EU,
and the increasing pressure for measurable outcomes and parity. I am not involved in those discussions because I
would rather question the entire enterprise at the ground level, by asking whether research, in any form, is the right
word. I know that kind of questioning is more or less hopeless in parts of the world where the PhD is well established.
But there is no reason that the Americas and other parts of the world cannot continue to question everything about
these programs, and rethink them in entirely new ways.
163
164 Reason 12. There is no consensus about the knowledge that is produced by artwork.
165 The common formulation for academic disciplines, that they involve research that produces knowledge, is not
normally problematic because disciplines produce their own understandings of what counts as knowledge. But when
it comes to visual art, the question of knowledge is open, and has been since the inception of modernism. Again there
are several separable issues. Ill start the way I did in the last entry, by questioning the term itself.
166 A. Why use the concept of knowledge at all?
167 As in the question of research, I think it is prudent to start by asking whether the word should be the principal
engine of administrative and curricular literature, or even whether it should be used at all. There are well-attested
alternates; here are some.
(i) Understanding. Jones mentions understanding briefly in Chapter [ ], as a synonym for knowledge, and he
advocates a mixture of the two. But the concept was distinguished from knowledge and rejected by Frayling in
1993, as Judith Mottram notes in Chapter 1. As far as I know, there has been no discussion on the differences
between knowledge and understanding in studio art. The concept of understanding is promising because it has
a much deeper and broader intellectual history than the current administrative uses of research, going back to
nineteenth-century German discussions of Verstehen (roughly, understanding) in Wilhelm Dilthey and others.
Diltheys distinction distinction between Verstehung and Erklrung (roughly, knowledge) is very pertinent
here; Dilthey saw them as hallmarks of the humanities and sciences, respectively. It might also be helpful to
explore Diltheys use of Erlebnis (significant lived experience) alongside Verstehen. Erlebnis has resonance
with current interests in phenomenology and performativity. It might even be possible to arrive at a revised
sense of Verstehen that could underwrite contemporary studio-art programs: but without serious inquiry, it
might not be a good idea to adopt understanding because it would be likely to become an ill-defined stand-in
for knowledge.
(ii) Expression. Like understanding, expression is a common word in art studios and in criticism. It is used
widely, outside academia, to describe what art does. There are several places where art theory might find
theoretical sources for expression; my choice would be R. G. Collingwood. In his account expression has to do
with consciousness and individuation, so it is open enough to address a range of social practices as well as the
self-reflexivity of academic art practices.
(iii) Meaning. This is a concept that is well-developed in hermeneutics. A PhD program could center on texts by
Hans-Georg Gadamer or Paul Ricoeur, and consider an artworks function as the production of meaning.
Alternately, there is rich material in Gottfried Boehms explorations of the iconic logos and iconic
differenceconcepts that he assigns to images in order to characterize their mode of meaning, which is neither
logical (as for example language) nor non-logical.
(iv) Feeling, emotion, or affect. These three words are sometimes very different from one another. In Brian
Massumis work, for example, affect is strongly opposed to feeling, but the same is not true in some scholars
who elaborate affect theory such as [ ]. Those differences aside, affect theory in general has become so well
elaborated that it might be able to provide a working platform for a PhD. Given the recent interest in affect,
institutional accounts of the knowledge produced by art can seem out of touchor to put it differently, they
involve a strong distortion of contemporary ideas about art.
172 These four are, I think, the principal alternatives to knowledge. There is another, which may seem different in kind:
(v) Interpretation. Saying that art produces interpretation is a different sort of claim than saying art produces
understanding, expression, meaning, or feeling. After all, an artwork can be interpreted as expressing
knowledge, but it does not sound right to say an artwork can be interpreted as expressing interpretation. But in
another sense this is precisely what happens when thinking is said to be lodged in artworks, and when art is
presented as research. I do not know any institutions that claim that interpretation is what art does, but it is not
at all incommensurate with the kinds of claims about research I have sampled in the previous entry.
174
175 B. What kinds of knowledge are there?
176 Understanding, expression, meaning, and affect each has a substantial literature and could serve as the goal and
outcome of studio-art PhDs in place of knowledge, or in addition to knowledge. Nevertheless, because almost all the
literature on studio-art PhDs uses the concept of knowledge, is it useful to ask how knowledge is understood.
Sometimes the word knowledge is qualified, and people refer to artistic knowledge or visual knowledge or
practice-led knowledge. Formulations like those can be obscurantist because they beg the question of what
knowledge is, when it pertains to visual art. There are, I think, at least six senses of knowledge in play.
(i) Tacit knowledge: things you dont quite know yet, but know you may be able to do, or to describe. Tacit
knowledge is held in suspension in a medium: it promises that it can be at least partly articulated, extracted
from its material and brought into language. Of the possibilities on this list, this is the one that has attracted the
most attention, although it isnt always clear whether tacit knowledge is, finally, a different kind of knowledge
from the others on this list.
(ii) Visual knowledge: if visual art has a kind of knowledge that pertains to it, that is its possession and mode of
articulation, then that knowledge might be called visual. This would include what modernists are said to have
called optical knowledge, as well as knowledge that is said to inhere in the material or substance of the art,
and knowledge said to inhere in the practice, disposition, or performance of the art. Such knowledge would be
non-linguistic; it could only be found in the artwork, and not in the supporting materials for the PhD. Visual
knowledge could be pointed to, indicated, paraphrased, analogized, but not articulated in language.
(iii) Affective knowledge: if visual art is primarily concerned with feelings, emotions, moods, and other affective
states, then its form of knowledge could be called affective. Recently the various forms of affect theory have
attracted growing interest in the art world. Brian Massumis theories, the Affect Theory Reader,and the
forthcoming book Beyond the Aesthetic and the Anti-Aesthetic are all concerned with kinds of affect
theory. Affective knowledge is partly linguistic: it can be described, even if the description is structurally
inadequate.
180 From a philosophic perspective, there are several additional kinds of knowledge that can be contrasted with these.
(This list is elaborated in the book What Do Artists Know?.)
(iv) Propositional knowledge: ordinary logical statements, in language, or their equivalents. This is the sense of
knowledge that appears in university documents outside of the arts. Proposition here means the necessary
structural component of logical thinking: that is, full sentences as opposed to verbal images, tropes, evocations,
and associations. The philosopher Michael Oakeshott has divided all knowledge into technical and
practical: for him, the former is statistics, facts, dates, recipes, formulas, ruleswhatever can be put in words,
taught, and learned. Propositional knowledge is also close to Aristotles idea of techn, transmissible
knowledge.
(v) Practical knowledge: something you know how to do, but cant put in words. Playing the piano, or riding a
bicycle, are examples. This was theorized as habit by nineteenth-century French psychologists, and is the
subject of a larger twentieth-century literature in cognitive psychology. (Oakeshotts practical knowledge is
similar, but he stresses the idea that such knowledge cannot be reduced to rules. Instead, he says, it is a matter
of skills: it is absorbed through practice. For him technical knowledge is rules, while practical knowledge is
skills. The difficulty in using this distinction is that in art instruction techniques, materials, and media-specific
knowledge include both rules and skills.)
(vi) Phenomenal knowledge: things youve experienced, that have an intensity in memory. They appear as
plenary experiences, but they may not have any good verbal equivalents. An example might be the experience of
climbing a mountain.
184 Each of these six senses of knowledge, except the common definition (propositional knowledge, the fourth one),
share a very thorny problem. Each is by nature a mixed substance, partly cognized, and partly inchoate. Part of each
one (except propositional knowledge) is nonverbal, extra-linguistic or non-linguistic, non-logical or a-logical,
unarticulated, medium-specific, non-conceptual or pre-conceptual, embodied, felt, or otherwise different and
separate from language. In each definition, the border between the linguistic and what is taken to lie outside it is
drawn differently. In visual knowledge (ii), for example, part of what counts as knowledge must remain beyond a
border that has to be identified with the visual. Some aspects of phenomenal knowledge can be communicated: for
example, I can follow a guide up a mountain, and learn things the guide has absorbed from previous expeditions. I
will not have the guides phenomenal knowledge, but parts of it that I can put into words, or put to use.
185 The second sense, visual knowledge, appears in a number of forms in the literature on the studio-art PhD. Haseeb
Ahmeds introduction to the collection N52: Art and Research at MIT (www.n-52.com) suggests that the practices
of art and research at MIT result in objects and practices that produce objects of non-reproducible knowledge. One
of his sources is Adornos essay Commitment, which includes the line that artworks are knowledge as non-
conceptual objects. Such work, Ahmed writes, disrupts the continuous reproduction of the world as we know it
and renders that world into material for the free production known as an artwork. The resulting artwork cannot be
easily ignored, repressed, or dissipated into the substrate of the world from which it came. This position necessarily
leaves it unsaid what kind of particularity is at stake, because a pure non-reproducibility would be a pure
unintelligibility. Partial communicability is always what is at issue, and programs that rely on it are necessarily
unable to describe what counts as knowledge beyond disruption of normative communication.
186 The salient point here is that all six, except propositional knowledge, present a problem for pedagogical and
institutional literature on the PhD. Often uses of artistic knowledge in the PhD literature are not so much coherent
concepts in their own right, as signals that what matters in the PhD programs is something other than ordinary
propositional knowledge. Much of the literature on artistic knowledge is tortured because it amounts to an attempt to
find a zone of freedom, outside the confines of propositional knowledge, which is at the same time somehow
connected to propositional knowledge. The words understanding, expression, and meaning avoid that
confusion, so they may be preferable.
187
188 C. How is this knowledge extracted from, read into, or interpreted in, visual art?
189 If artistic knowledge is partly outside of language, then it presents a problem for assessment and what are called in
the UK learning outcomes. The fundamental choice here has to do with how the artistic knowledge is imagined to
be related to the art object. There are fundamentally two choices here:
(i) Artistic knowledge inheres in the visual object or practice, so that the object or practice is itself a form of
knowledge, or
(ii) artistic knowledge is interpreted to exist in the object or practice, so that discourse reveals the arts
contribution to knowledge.
192 PhD programs wrestle with this. Possibility (ii) corresponds to part of what is entailed in Fraylings research for art
(see the previous entry in this list of reasons, on research). If thinking is, so to speak, embodied in the artifact, and
what is at stake is some kind of visual or iconic or imagistic communication, then it is necessary to say how, exactly,
the visual or non-verbal inheres in the work.
193 Possibility (i) is tricker, and (ii) logically depends on it, because if meaning doesnt inhere in the artwork, then it
wouldnt make sense to say it can be extracted. Although Frayling does not cite it, there is a large literature on the
idea that thinking can take place in and through works of visual art. Paintings, in particular, have been said to
embody thought, or to have a kind of thinking proper to themselves. Writers as different as Gaston Bachelard,
Hubert Damisch, Hanneke Grootenboer, David Freedberg, Louis Marin, Jean-Louis Schefer, and W.J.T. Mitchell
have proposed ideas along these lines. It is one of Derridas four senses of the truth in painting, which he uses to
frame his own argument in The Truth in Painting. Graeme Sullivan sometimes writes about thinking in art, for
example when he says artists periodically think in a medium, although for him that is one of a triad (there is also
thinking in a language and thinking in a context, a set that none of these authors would subscribe to). (Artefacts
as Evidence Within Changing Contexts, Working Papers in Art and Design, 2006, accessed March 11, 2013.)
194 It wouldnt quite be right to say this field is contested, because I do not think anyone has attempted to correlate the
different theories. There is some talk in visual studies about Mitchells notion of picture theory (that pictures produce
theory, that they are theory), and there has been some interest in art history about Marins ways of reading images
(that they elicit thoughts about reading, even though they are not legible). Literature on performativity can also entail
the claim that the visual is itself argument, is propositional. So far those conversations are disconnected. If the art
object itself is to be the new knowledge, instead of or in addition to the dissertation, a great deal more work will have
to be done to define what kind of thought inheres in the object itself, how it inheres in the object, and what place
interpretation has.
195 The usual formulation is that it takes work, eloquence, introspection, critique, and analysis to extract the knowledge
from the work. Sullivan, for example, says that is a visual work is created as the result of visual arts research, then it
has the capacity to be interpreted as evidence in a range of robust ways. (Artefacts as Evidence Within Changing
Contexts, Working Papers in Art and Design, 2006, accessed March 11, 2013.) In other words, if the work is
appropriately structured (as the result of visual arts research) then it is possible to demonstrate how it embodies
ideas.
196 It has also been argued, less frequently, that it does not take work, eloquence, introspection, critique, or systematic
analysis to produce the knowledge embedded in the artwork, but rather that the knowledge can be revealed, shown to
exist, brought into the light. This model derives from Heideggers reading of Plato, and the concept
of aletheia (although it is not always attributed to Heidegger). (Altetheia is advocated, for example, in Daro Montags
Research Through Creative Practice, 2000, University of Hertforshire website, accessed March 11, 2013.)
197 But I wonder if both of these formulations arent a crucial equivocation. This is easiest to see if we adopt the second
of the six senses of artistic knowledge, which holds that visual art has or is a kind of visual knowledge. Then the two
options I am suggesting are:
(i) If a work of visual art is itself a form visual knowledge, then it cannot be made into language. Languagein
the form of the PhD dissertation, or the evaluation of the students accomplishmentcannot substitute for,
express, or translate what happens in the object or practice.
(ii) If the object or practice implies or contains visual knowledge, then that knowledge can be extracted and
written up, for example, in a dissertation: but if that is the case, then what remains of the visual object? Are
visual objects and practices just containers, out of which knowledge is extracted?
200 There are no easy answers to these questions. The commonest positions in the PhD literature are that knowledge is
the appropriate and necessary concept; that some form of tacit or visual knowledge is what is at stake; and that it
requires the structured research environment of a PhD program to bring out the knowledge implicit in the practice.
That concatenation of assumption produces, I think, a nearly incoherent literature.
201
202 D. Why the very idea of opening questions on this topic can seem misguided
203 When I have had conversations about this subject with teachers and artists involved in PhD programs, it has been
said that the very idea of interrogating the concept of knowledge in this way may be wrongheaded, or may start from
a mistaken point of departure. Let me try to evoke those objections with two examples. They both happen to have to
do with Mondrian.
204 I was once invited to discuss a new PhD program in Canada. I was sitting at a table with some of the faculty, and we
were reviewing the definition of their proposed program. As I remember it, the conversation went something like
this.
I said, You may want to reconsider the use of the word knowledge here, because it might not fit all the
students who apply to your program.
And one of the faculty replied, But art creates knowledge. My own art is research, and results in art that creates
knowledge.
I said something like, That may be true. (I hadnt seen her work.) But do you want to put it in the official
literature, so that it is true for all artists, or all applicants?
Yes, she said.
So, I wanted to know, if all art produces knowledge, then what knowledge is produced by a Mondrian
painting?
210 The answer she gave really amazed me, and it is one of the reasons I am interested in this subject. She said, The
reason Mondrians paintings do not produce knowledge is that he did not have a consistent research methodology.
211 So one reason to doubt the project of doubting that art produces knowledge is that knowledge is always potentially
present in art, but only comes out when it is developed using appropriate research. An entirely different reason to
doubt the project of doubting that art produces knowledge came from discussions about an earlier version of this
text on Facebook. Here is part of that exchange:
DB: It sounds like you start by separating the visual from knowledge and then try to put them back together
again (probably in vain) I dont agree, Jim. I think artists have always thought of what they do in terms of
knowledge. Sometimes theyve called it truth (for example, Czanne) and sometimes theyve called it truth to
materials (for example, the high modernists) and others have called it Realism, shock, progress, and so
on
JE: I think your reply gives away the meaning of knowledge by spreading it out among neighboring
concepts. When knowledge is used in the literature on PhD programs, its fairly specific. I havent heard
people talk about Realism, shock, truth, truth to materials, or progress, and I am not sure I would
know how those are related anyway. Basically, I think if you expand knowledge in the way I think youre
doing, you dont have a problem: but PhD programs do have a problem because they dont expand it that way.
DB: Jim, I dont think Im expanding the concept of knowledge, Im translating it into the idiom of fine art
debates PhD programmes are happy for you to describe your contribution to knowledge in many ways, so
long as you define the terms in which the contribution takes place I dont think we should restrict the concept
of knowledge in the way you are suggesting, and I dont think we should isolate the concept of knowledge from
the actual debateshistorical and contemporaryin which knowledge is discussed in art.
JE: Wow, we have a fairly deep difference here. I dont think Im restricting the concept of knowledge. In the
essay, I propose several terms, including expression, and several definitions of knowledge, that are not used
in the PhD literature. Is it restricting the concept of knowledge to say that shock isnt knowledge? And may I
ask a question: do you think Mondrian paintings produce knowledge?
DB: Mondrians paintings, first, must be the result of knowledge (I think we can agree on that). Nobody makes
such paintings in the early part of the twentieth century without a profound knowledge of the most advanced
and ambitious painting. But we can go further than this, I think. Mondrians paintings do not merely reflect the
knowledge that Mondrian has acquired by looking at other painters: he makes his own contribution to
knowledge and to art history by making them. The qualities of the works ask new questions, make new
proposals, point in new directions. So, yes, these paintings produce knowledge.
JE: If you were to list some of those proposals, like a lozenge panting should now have stripes that end at 45
degrees to the edge of the canvas, instead of continuing on off the painted surface, then you could, in fact,
produce a list of new knowledge. That kind of work has been done by Yve-Alain Bois, and also by his teacher
Hubert Damisch but is that the same as the knowledge that includes shock or progress?
218 This exchange continued without a clear ending. Its probably true that if Mondrian were a PhD student, a
dissertation on topics like the ones Bois has chronicledindividual moves made between canvases, showing what
Mondrian was doing at each momentwould be appropriate. But DBs larger point is that knowledge should be
capacious: it should include many things. So from his point of view, what I had thought was an expansion of the
meanings and uses of knowledge and related terms seemed like a shrinkage or an artificial separation of the
visual from knowledge.
219 The first hesitation comes from the idea that knowledge needs to be discussed along with whatever counts as
research. (I am not convinced by that, and Im definitely not on board with the assumption behind it, that all art
potentially produces knowledge.) The second doubt comes from the idea that speaking about knowledge in the way I
was trying to do is not appropriatethat knowledge needs to be translated into the idiom of fine art debates before
it can be usefully analyzed. This seems entirely reasonable to me, but if theres one thing that characterizes the
massive literature on knowledge and research in third-level arts, it is its distance from whatever might count as
ordinary studio talk, art criticism, or even art theory before the advent of the PhD. Given the state of the literature, it
seems important to try to make the termsas they are being used in the current literatureas clear as possible.
220
221 Reason 13. The PhD is expensive.
222 Generally speaking, the cost for a studio art education is high for the BFA and MFA, and low for the PhD. That is
because PhD programs try to fund their students with grants and stipends; and in the EU, the fee structure is much
lower.
223 But getting to the PhD is definitely expensive. Dave Hickey once said to students where I teach, at the School of the
Art Institute of Chicago, that if he was a beginning student, he would take the $200,000 in student loans that it
would take to get him an art degree, and hed invest in a De Kooning drawing instead. That figure is not far off. In
2011, the BFA at major North American institutions cost between $28,000 per year (Kansas City Art Institute) and
$36,000 per year (Rhode Island School of Design), and the MFA cost between $26,000 (Cranbrook) and $42,000
(Columbia University). So thats roughly $200,000 for an MFA.
224 There are also living expenses to consider. In the US, living expenses might amount to around $10,000 per year, so
that in a 3-year MFA, as Carrie Ann Baade points out, that would be an additional $30,000. Living expenses matter
when you are not also earning money: if you add $10,000 per year to the costs in the paragraph above, you end up
with $260,000 of debt.
225 In the EU, non-EU students can expect to pay approximately $12,000 per year for their PhD program, so thats
roughly $30,000 for a three-year studio-based PhD, depending on the length of the program. Here are some other
examples. At Wimbledon, the new MFA (going onstream in 2013) is a two-year program, without a dissertation;
Mark Sibley informs me it costs 7500 for the two years. The Royal College of Art also posts its costs for non-EU
citizens: they would be over 25,000 per annum, depending on what financial assistance the student could get.
226
227 Reason 14. No one knows how to asses the PhD.
228 There are at least four distinct elements of the PhD that require assessment:
A. Evaluating the PhD exhibition. It is difficult to know what counts as a PhD level art exhibition, as opposed to
an MA, MFA, or BFA level exhibition.
B. Evaluating the degree. It is hard to decide how to evaluate what students produce: how to measure learning
outcomes, quantifiable criteria, benchmarking, or transferrable knowledge are produced by the studio-art
PhD.
C. Evaluating the supervisor. It is not easy to describe how studio-art or practice-led supervision should work
at the PhD level.
D. Evaluating the academic supervisor. And there are no guidelines for those supervisors who are not
themselves artists or studio instructors.
233 I will comment briefly on the first three, and a bit more on the fourth.
234 The first responds to the idea that the PhD is a professional level or terminal degree. That wording is carried over
from institutional definitions of the MFA and MA, and in those contexts it was either undefined or assumed to
correspond with measurable professional competence (which was not defined beyond appropriate skills or
techniques). Because professional competence was never elaborated for the MFA, it remains undefined for the
PhD. There is a flavor to PhD-level exhibitions, which can be easy to spot, but it can happen at any level. (It involves,
I would say, a large amount of text; visual material that is partly evidence of research; and documentation in the form
of books or online resources.) What is missing is a conceptualization of what should count as a terminal or
professional level exhibition.
235 It might be helpful here to compare different arts. Assessment is not usually discussed outside of individual media
and arts, but there are a few such projects. Mark Callahans comparative study at the University of Georgia, for
example, compares assessment in writing, art education, dance, theater, film studies, and even sports.
(ideasforcreativeexploration.com) Even if comparative studies like this turn out to be comparisons of
incommensurate things, or of different kinds of under-theorized criteria, they might still be useful in revealing each
fields assumptions.
236 The second, the issue of evaluating the degree, is more a product of the UK literature, which stresses measurable
results. The commonest approach is known in the UK, Australia, and elsewhere as weighting. For example the 2010
Postgraduate Research Student Handbook, authored by the Creative Industries Faculty, Queensland University, says
The weighting for the practice component shall be between 40% and 75% of the whole study. I have sometimes
wondered if mathematicians have found this kind of measurement funny. Two things can only be weighted if they are
the same kinds of things, and if they are both quantified. Weighting makes it seem as if there is a reliable system in
place, but the percentages are meaningless; they postpone the problem of making a quantified assessment of the art
practice. At least one PhD program Tokyo Geidai, has explicitly noted this and removed the weighting criterion. Their
statement (2012) says that weighting:
237 is not believed to have any inherent meaning it is far more realistic and productive in terms of both artistic practice
and academic research to conduct an integrated evaluation that focuses on how artistic practice and academic
research are linked and complement each other.
238 Aside from weighting, benchmarking, learning outcomes, and other criteria are meant to be uniform so that
students in a program can be compared with each other, and so that art departments can be compared with non-art
departments, and so that art departments in different universities can be compared with one another. That looming
issue tends to be addressed by local protocols. In one program, students may be asked for structured reports on their
research outcomes; in another, those reports may be generated by the supervisor; in a third, the work itself is
considered to be the outcome. So far there is no consensus on these issuesbut the consensus on the MFA and MA
was only the common usage of words like professional, so in countries where national and international standards
are not immediately pressing, these issues may remain matters for each department or institution.
239 The third is a faculty training issue. There is an extensive website on this subject in the UK. (wp.me/POl0u-B)
Conversations turn around the idea that supervisors need to be creative, that the supervision needs to be mobile,
rhizomatic (there are a number of essays on Deleuze on the site), and unencumbered by disciplines. One of the few
texts that is based on conversations with supervisors is an essay by John Hockey (paywall) that stresses the ad hoc
nature of actual supervision, which is foremost a practical activity learned by trial and error. Most of the literature
at least 5 books and approximately 50 articlesis concerned with theorizing varieties of nonstandard roles for
supervisors. One of the larger initiatives, SuperVision, stresses the need to gather more examples of optimal
supervision, collaboration, and assessment. (tinyurl.com/8gepeu2) I am not exploring this literature here, because it
seems to me so often dependent on what is meant by knowledge and research.
240 The fourth issue is, I think, largely unexplored. If the thesis is ultimately bent on supporting ongoing artistic practice,
as opposed to understanding and interpreting that practice (practice-led, as opposed to practice-based), it is not
logical to have the text checked or supervised by experts in different academic disciplines. Why? Because the purpose
of the candidates exploration of academic disciplines is to mine them in order to further her artwork. Hence normal
scholarly criteria of truth, the production of new knowledge, thoroughness, clarity, and scholarly protocol just do not
apply. The dissertations can still be checked, and the candidates can be advised as if they were students of art
history, anthropology, and other disciplines: but in fact they arent, and the normal protocols of readings by
specialists is not logically appropriate.
241 I have acted as external supervisor for practice-led PhD dissertations, where the students were also supervised by
studio art instructors. My role was to direct their dissertations as an art historian. If I had done that job in the normal
way, I would have recommended all the scholarship on the students subject. But I knew the students, so I knew what
sources might interest them. I recommended particular sets of readingsnot the entire subject, but particular parts
of it. All that seemed very unproblematic, very natural: after all, thats what studio instructors do when they
recommend students look at certain artists, or read certain books.
242 The problem is that art history, like other academic disciplines, does not include criteria of exclusion. At history does
not include training in the selection of sources for creative purposes. I chose based on my own experiences in my
MFA program, my sense of the students as artists, and my years of teaching in an art school. And what discipline was
that, exactly?
243 Because this point has been elusive in the literature, let me put it another way. A PhD dissertation on, say,
seventeenth-century Dutch group portraits might be impeccable by art historical standardsit might include all the
relevant literature, primary texts, restoration reports, and the latest interpretive theoriesand yet fail as the support
for an ongoing art practice. The art historian who supervises such a thesis must read with an eye to rigor, argument,
research, and all the normal criteria of excellence in art history, because as an art historian she has no choicethere
is no possibility of improvising different criteria for art historical excellence other than ones determined by the
current state of interpretation in the field. And yet such an art historical reading can never be sufficient or even
demonstrably appropriate for a practicing artist. What matters for the student, presumably, is something about the
historical material that can be used in her own art practice. What is at stake is no longer how the dissertation might
contribute to the understanding of the subject, but how the dissertation might illuminate an interest the student has
developed.
244 Its a simple problem, and it almost seems invisible: but it is enormous, and it has no solution. If a supervisor cannot
evaluate a thesis according to the current interests of the field in question, then there is no way to evaluate the thesis
short of an improvised critiqueand that, aside from bibliographic matters, is something that can be done by any
number of readers in different fields. The specialist no longer acts as a specialist in her own field.
245 Notice, too, that all this assumes the student has control of what she wants and needs, and that she can formulate
questions well enough so that the supervisor can just lead her toward the appropriate historical resources. But often
in art history that has not been the case. Artists seldom know exactly why they want to see a given image or master a
given body of knowledge. And if a studio-art instructor has a hard time figuring out how to direct a student, how
much less likely is it that an art historian, a philosopher, or an anthropologist will have a better idea? It seems that
the problem of evaluating the studio-art PhD simply cannot be solved unless disciplines give up their shapes and
readers step outside their normal interpretive habits: exactly what might make the new degree so interesting, and at
the same time ensure it cannot be commensurate with other degrees. I am thinking that from now on I will agree to
supervise studio-art PhDs only if the student can explain what she wants from the discipline of art history.
246 In the end this problem has to be addressed as a paradox, and not with an eye to solving it. It would make sense to
put seminars on theories of reading at the heart of the new programs. Translation theory, too, could play a part, and
so could anthropological theories of interpretation. In that case the studio-art PhD should be understood a critique of
disciplinarity itself, as it is by writers like Henk Slager and Mick Wilson. The only difficulty with that position, I
think, is that it makes assessment untenable, and it renders disciplinary expertiseindeed, the idea of supervision
itselfincoherent.
247 If courses on these conceptual problems were built into the new degree programs, then the nearly intractable
difficulties posed by the new degrees could be addressed within the dissertations themselves. That would contribute
to the problematic issue of self-reflexivity (see [the earlier post]) it would make the new PhD degrees more
interesting, and certainly more challenging, for the university as a whole.
248 *
249 This list could be expanded in several directions, but these 14 points are, I think, the principal undecided features of
the studio-art PhD.
250 When I posted these entries on Facebook in 2012, I got several messages, on Facebook, Twitter, and WordPress,
expressing dismay or dissatisfaction at my critical approach. People asked why I am criticizing an institution that has
been around for forty yearsthats two generations of scholars, at least. Why criticize something that is practiced in
over 200 institutions in approximately 30 countries around the world? Does it make any sense to doubt a degree that
has produced several thousand graduates, and that continues to grow? Can it be sensible to criticize a literature that
is so large that no one can read it all? The amount of writing on the PhD is daunting. The PhD Design group has been
going since 1998, debating these issues in the field of the design PhD; authors like Graeme Sullivan have written
extensively on the subject; there are literally dozens of books on the subject, like the massive Routledge Companion
to Research in The Arts. There are numerous international organizations that discuss the PhD, and a number of
sessions and special conferences on the subject each year. Hundreds, perhaps thousands, of teachers work in these
programs throughout the world.
251 So what kind of sense does it make to question the institution? I have several answers.
252 First, just because something has been around a long time, and is widely accepted, doesnt mean it makes sense. I
read the literature as widely as I can, and I am still perplexed by the ways words like research and knowledge are
used, and the ways that people theorize the idea of writing dissertations that are entwined with art practice. These are
fascinating issues, and I dont at all mean they should be discarded: the very idea of research into art is very
interesting precisely because it is so hard to pin down. Outside of the PhD context, it is fair to say few people have
developed theories about the relation of visual art to knowledge. Its an ongoing philosophic problem, and PhD
programs shine an unusual light on it.
253 Second, the studio-art PhD isnt necessarily the well established thing it appears to be. The surge in writing on the
subject in the period from about 2007 to the present has come mostly from the EU. In the UK, it is traditional to
complain about these programs; they have an uneven reputation there and in Australia. The PhD isnt settled in the
way the MA or MFA are. (That isnt to say the MFA or MA are better understood! But that they are less actively
discussed, with some prominent exceptions.)
254 And third, the administrative literature that defines and guides the PhD programs is largely a product of the UK
system. (Japanese PhD programs have been around as long as those in the UK, and there are as many of them; but
they have not had influence outside Japan.) As the programs spread around the world, that literature was adopted,
often for expediencys sake, and used in places where it did not fit. But the UK literature has its quirks, especially the
custom of adapting a number of existing philosophical systems, from Descartes to Deleuze, to the exigencies of
research and knowledge. In the Americas, in Africa, and other places where the PhD is relatively new, there is an
opportunity to rethink that literature from the ground up.
255 Those are my reasons for being interested in this subject. I dont want to stop the programs, or demonstrate that they
have some kind of fatal flaw. I want to rethink them, openly, with an eye to producing new forms of the program. The
issues the PhD raises are among the most fundamental in our understanding of visual art: the PhD pushes the ideas
of creativity, autonomy, research, practice, the visual, and the linguisticall the most difficult issues of visuality.
Because PhD programs are brick and mortar, they make those often abstract problems even more challenging.
Page 4
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Yes, another nice addition, thanks so much! I wonder what the best book on this might be.
There is some material on tuition I think its at the end of the Reasons to Mistrust chapter? anyway its
difficult to get that information because supposedly inexpensive EU institutions charge a lot for non-EU students,
but those fees are meliorated by grants, etc. The best Ive been able to do is estimate.
1 Comment on paragraph 2
1. Gwendolyn Starks September 12, 2013 at 7:21 pm
2 Comments on paragraph 3
1. Mirette Bakir June 9, 2013 at 7:15 pm
One of the first universities in Europe that offers a very good Ph.D. program for artists is the Bauhaus University in
Weimar Germany. The program is divided to two parts, practical and theoretical.
Please check this page: http://www.uni-weimar.de/en/art-and-design/studies/doctoral-degree-phddrphil/
1. jpe June 9, 2013 at 10:56 pm
This goes with the international listing.
1. cameron tonkinwise June 10, 2013 at 2:10 pm
The economics of higher education (and the world) are very different from the 1960s this will temper the way
PhDs roll out in the creative industries in the US significantly.
One thing that I havent seen reference to in your analysis is the question of tuition (might be there, in which case,
apologies). You mention the way UK/ANZAC and to a lesser extent European and Scandanavian higher education
budgets incentivize enrolling PhDs; and I think you mention that in those countries, PhDs are normally tuition-free
and often with a stipend except for foreign nationals students. As with undergraduate degree programs,
significant revenue comes from full fee-paying international students undertaking PhDs. Professional Doctorates
were attempts to create fee paying doctoral study programs for locals.
Mention a tuition-based PhD program in the US, and people have conniptions. To a US university administrator, a
PhD is always a $100k per year cost (tuition reduction, stipend, benefits) that is only possible if there is an external
funding source (NSF, NEA, Foundation, etc).
1. Tom McGlynn October 16, 2013 at 11:36 pm
1. Arlinda Henderson August 1, 2013 at 3:08 pm
Isnt the correct analogy that in the (social) sciences there is:
1) actual lab work (which includes non-specific to the experiment labor, like cleaning and callibrating equipment,
etc) or in the case of social sciences, raw interview/observation data
2) a curation of the lab work (or excerpted transcripts) which the advisory committee (if doing a quality job) will
want some first hand experience of
3) a contextual account of significance of what has been done (the dissertation)
This correlates with:
a) studio work
b) exhibited work
c) exegesis
?
Im not understanding this point. This seems to me precisely a reason to advocate strongly for practice-based PhDs,
so that practitioners can teach studies subjects and not just studios.
The problem with the MFA as a terminal degree is that it is very rare for an MFA to include a course on teaching
studio-based art (or design), or have the kind of qualifying exams that North American PhDs have to accredit the
graduate as being capable of teaching (along with some process of being mentored into teaching via TAs, etc
though this often ends up being, exploited to teach junior level courses with no instruction/support). As a result, the
great black box that is studio (apart from your investigations, James, I must say) is perpetuated. The only
qualification needed to teach a studio is to have suffered in one. (See
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1162/104648800564608#preview )
Youre right, from the point of view of the graduates; I was thinking of the administrators and institutions
perspective! Ill add something to balance that out.
In design, there is a significant body of literature building on Hubert Dreyfus Heideggerian/Merleau-Pontian

account of expertise development. The argument provides a useful (and I believe phenomenologically accurate)
explanation for the role of the dialectic of self-consciousness/incorporation. In short, it is not that mastery = less
self-consciousness, but rather pattern-based metaconceptual capacities.
The larger context here could be the attempt to recover phronesis (the art of judgement?) from the dominance of
techne.
Thanks, thats an excellent suggestion to help broaden the discussion.
MA or MFA?
Barbara Bolts work is useful on this:

http://www.barbbolt.com/publication.htm
It is crucial to point out that North American PhDs in the end are examined by the Committee who has been
advising the candidate all along. There is a public defense, but the final decision is by the Committee established at
the beginning of the research. Elsewhere, PhDs are examined externally.
An important point: part of the infrastructure established at RMIT, one of the leaders in practice-based (design)
research, was what was known as the GRC Graduate Research Conference (it is now called something different).
Every 6 months, every candidate, no matter where he or she was in their candidacy was required to present on their
progress before their peers and a panel of experts external to their supervision. This meant that everyone involved
candidates, prospective candidates, supervisors, externals was exposed to the collective process of evaluating
practice-based research. The intense weekend events were a combination of boot-strapping and quality assurance,
with benchmarking possible between different disciplines (landscape, architecture, fashion, visual communication,
etc) and between different stages of the process (seeing a candidates first progress review vs a candidates
penultimate review, prior to submitting for examination). The weekend was bookended by public defenses on the
Friday and Monday. As a result, I believe that RMIT would strongly push back on your claim that no one knows
how to assess the (practice-based) PhD.
The GRCs I attended were the richest aspects of my academic career to date and I miss them so much that I am now
determined to establish the ritual as part of practice-based design PhDs at CMU (having failed to get up design
PhDs at Parsons).
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14/8/2017 4 Fourteen Reasons to Mistrust the PhD | Artists with PhDs

Artists with PhDs

8 Reason 1. Students in the new degrees are expected to do scholarly research.

17 Reason 3. The new degree exacerbates the academization of art.

24 Reason 4. The PhD exacerbates issues of class and privilege.

31 Reason 6. The new degree is a double threat.

37 To some extent, reflexivity (self-reflection, introspection, self-awareness, articulateness, conceptualizationI am

53 Here is part of the version on the website:

74 Reason 9. The PhD seems to be driven by money.

95 A. Questioning the very idea of research

107 B. Questioning the proximity of art research to scientific research

108 There are three main alternatives in the literature:

1. Education for the professional artist,

into art 2. Art history, perhaps aesthetics

3. Research leading to the production of art, so that

142 D. Questioning how to teach or learn research

152 E. Questioning whether art research should be defined at all

166 A. Why use the concept of knowledge at all?

175 B. What kinds of knowledge are there?

Yes, she said.

221 Reason 13. The PhD is expensive.

227 Reason 14. No one knows how to asses the PhD.

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