Fire/Explosion

Wednesday, July 12, 2017 10:04 PM

Combustion
Rapid exothermic reaction or heat-producing chemical reaction of oxygen with a fuel

Propagation of flame is the spread of the flame away from the source of ignition.
The most common source of ignition for fires in industrial operations is Electrical sources
One of the most common causes of fire in building renovation is from Welding and cutting operations

Deflagration
is a rapid reaction during which heat is transferred progressively from a reacting material to another nearby whose temperature is then
raised to a point at which it also reacts.
Hypergolic reaction is a violent reaction occurring when a fuel and oxidizer are mixed.
Detonation The explosion that results when the velocity of reaction through the reacting material reaches sonic or
supersonic speed is called a detonation.
Explosion is the sudden and violent release of large amounts of gas.

Heat transfer
Conduction Thermal energy transfer from one Q= K A (T1- T2) K, thermal conductivity
molecule to another by direct contact L L, thickness
A, surface area
Convection Takes place as a result of fluid motion Q= h A (T1- T2) h, heat transfer coefficient
A, area of transfer
Radiation Is electromagnetic mechanism q = T4 A , 5.6703 10-8 (W/m2K4) - The Stefan-Boltzmann Constant
T, absolute temperature in Kelvin (K)
A, area of the emitting body
, emissivity coefficient

Ignition temperature A substance that will burn should bring to a certain temperature , it will ignite.

Combustible

Combustible metals Magnesium Mg

- Intense hot fires
- Ability to decompose water into hydrogen and oxygen Sodium Na
- Produce toxic metal oxides Potassium K
Titanium Ti
Zirconium Zr

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 Zirconium Zr

Organic chemicals are combustible

Inorganic chemicals are non-combustible, before ignition can occur must preheated

Hazard classification for flammable liquids and combustible liquids

A flammable liquid is defined as a liquid whose flash point does not exceed 100F, when tested by closedcup test methods.
A combustible liquid is one whose flash point is 100F or higher, also when tested by closedcup methods.
Class Flash point Boiling point Examples
Flammable liquids I-A below 73F (23C) below 100F (38C) diethyl ether, pentane, ligroin, petroleum ether
I-B below 73F (23C) at or above 100F (38C) acetone, benzene, cyclohexane, ethanol
I-C 73-100F (24-38C) ---- p-xylene
Combustible liquids II 101-140F (39-60C) ---- diesel fuel, motor oil, kerosene, cleaning solvents
III-A 141-199F (61-93C) ---- paints (oil base), linseed oil, mineral oil
III-B 200F (93C) or above ---- paints (oil base), neatsfoot oil

Properties of flammable and combustible liquids

Flash point
Fire point
Auto ignition point Auto ignition temperature is higher than ignition temperature
Oxidation of fuel would generate heat and raise the temperature
Explosive or flammable range LFL UFL
Temperature Decrease Increase
Temperature Increase Decrease
Pressure Increase Decrease
Oxygen-enriched atmosphere Decrease Increase

LFL * 100 = VP /14.7

VP, Vapor pressure of liquid in PSIa at its flash point
Vapor pressure Temperature Vapor pressure
Temperature Vapor pressure

Specific gravity Density of liquid / density of water

Vapor density Density of vapor or gas / density of air
Most Vapor density of flammable liquid Greater than one Vapors heavier than air.
Most Vapor density of flammable gas Less than one Vapors lighter than air.

Evaporation rate Rate at which a liquid converted to vapor

Water solubility Mixing soluble flammable liquids with water reduces their flammability and eliminates static hazards

Vapor volume generated V = SG * 111 V, ft3 per gallon

V.D S.G, specific gravity
V.D, Vapor density

Flammable gas
A gas is considered to be flammable if any:
1. At ambient temperature and pressure it has UFL of 13% or less by volume
2. At ambient temperature and pressure has a flammability range that is wider than 12%
3. Any gas that will burn in the normal concentration of oxygen in air

Vapor exists below critical point liquefied by pressure.

Gas exists above critical point liquefied by pressure and temperature.

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 Gas exists above critical point liquefied by pressure and temperature.

Classes define the flammable materials in the atmosphere:

Class I Flammable gases or vapors are present in the air in quantities sufficient to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.
A, B, C & D
Class II Combustible or conductive dusts are present.
E, F & G
Class III Ignitable fibers or filings are present, but not likely to be in suspension in sufficient quantities to produce ignitable
mixtures. (Group classifications are not applied to this class.)
Divisions define the probability of the presence of flammable materials:
Division 1 The substance referred to by class is present during normal conditions.
Division 2 The substance referred to by class is present only in abnormal conditions, such as a container failure or system breakdown.

NFPA 704 HMIS Label-

Hazardous Materials Identification System

Oxidizers
1. Can expand flammable range Chlorine
2. Decrease ignition temperature Fluorine
3. Can initiate hypergolic combustion Chlorates and perchlorates
Peroxides and organic peroxides

Fire extinguisher
Class A and B:
4A" rating means the unit is four times as effective as one gallon of water, or conversely, it has the same effectiveness as four
gallons of water.
20B rating indicates that the extinguisher can extinguish 20 ft2 of burning liquid fire.
Class C do not have numerical rating
Class D do not numerical rating

Each one fire extinguisher can cover 3,000 ft2 in an office occupancy

Maximum travel distance for Class A 75 feet

Maximum travel distance for Class B 50 feet
Maximum travel distance for Class C
Maximum travel distance for Class D 75 feet

Wet chemicals inhibit the chain reaction of a fire and produce an emulsion effect that smothers the fire.
Carbon dioxide Reducing the oxygen concentration and raising the heat capacity of the atmosphere
Halocarbons work through inhibiting the chain reaction of the fire process.
Expansion ratio Final foam volume
Volume of original solution before aeration

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 Volume of original solution before aeration
Low expansion 20:1
Medium expansion 20:1 to 200:1
High expansion 200:1 to 1000:1

Six principal types of fire safety strategies

1. Prevention
2. Slowing of initial growth and spread
3. Detection
4. Suppression
5. Compartmentalization
6. Evacuation

Total flooding Automatically discharge a fixed concentration of agents into an enclosed system
system:
MFL wall Maximum foreseeable loss
A self-supporting wall designed to maintain its integrity if the structure on either side completely collapses
MEC Minimum explosion concentration
SADT self-accelerating decomposition temperature
The ambient temperature at which a self-sustaining chemical reaction of stored organic peroxides will occur.
Flame spread rate The number indicates the relative rate at which flame will spread over the surface of a material, as compared
with flame spread on asbestos-cement board (rated zero) and on red oak (rated 100).
Fire loading Maximum amount of heat that can be generated in a given area as a result of fire
A fire load of 7,000 to 8,000 Btu/lb can be expected in office environment
Steiner Tunnel Test is the test for flame spread and smoke developed for interior finishes such as carpeting and wall coverings.

Low hazard Low combustibility that no-self 0.1 100 gpm for hose
contents propagating fire can occur gpm/sq. ft stream demand

Ordinary Likely to burn with moderate rapidity or Travel distance without 200 feet Group I 0.15 250 gpm for hose
hazard to give off a considerable amount of automatic sprinkler system gpm/sq. ft stream demand
contents smoke
Travel distance with 250 feet Group II 0.2 250 gpm for hose
automatic sprinkler system gpm/sq. ft stream demand

High hazards Likely to burn with extreme rapidity and Travel distance without 75 feet Group I 0.3 500 gpm for hose
contents from which explosions are likely automatic sprinkler system gpm/sq. ft stream demand
Travel distance with 100 feet Group II 0.4 500 gpm for hose
automatic sprinkler system gpm/sq. ft stream demand

Leading cause of industrial fires Electrical 23%

Leading cause of civilian fires Smoking 35%

Categories of construction
Type I Fire resistive They will resist fire without collapse
There is no exposed steel or metal
Type II Non combustible Have fire resistance that enables to withstand some degree of severity
There may be exposed steel or metal
Type III Ordinary Have minimum fire-resistance ratings and stability under fire conditions
Type IV Heavy timber or Mill Have a minimum fire resistance rating of 2 hours
Type V Wood frame

Hypergolic: the ignition of a fuel when it comes into contact with an oxidizers without the presence of an outside source of ignition
There shall be no open flame or spark producing equipment in any spraying area within 20 ft, unless separated by a partition
Dead ends are not permitted in high hazard occupancies with an area of more than 200 square feet or an occupant load of more than 3

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Dead ends are not permitted in high hazard occupancies with an area of more than 200 square feet or an occupant load of more than 3
people
Two hour walls are needed when the building is four stories or more in height.

Focus of fire safety analysis and design process is concentrated in three areas.
a. Life safety
b. Property protection
c. Continuity of building operations

Stages of burning
Incipient stage No visible smoke & flame, but a significant amount of combustion particles generated
Smoldering stage Quantity of combustion particle increased, they become visible smoke
Flame stage The point of ignition occurs and flame starts
Heat stage Large amount of heat, smoke and flame are produced

Detection system
Smoke detector Ionization ionize the chamber air, smoke decrease the conductance
detector Provide for quick detection of slow developing fires by detecting incipient stage

Photo electric respond to combustion on reaching less or more light

detector

Heat detector Heat detectors work best in cases of high-heat release, rapidly developing fires.
1. Rate of temperature increase
2. Pre-determined temperature
Fixed Designed to alarm when the temperature of the operating element reaches a specific point
temperature Time lag before the device temperature reaches the temp. of air surrounding it
Eutectic are designed to melt (fuse) at a specific temperature
Lineal
Bimetallic two metals having different coefficient of expansions

Rate Designed to alarm when the temperature of surrounding air reaches a predetermined level
compensated These detector respond to temperatures that rise rapidly and have exceeded a present fixed
temperature
Rate-of-rise Monitor rate of temperature increase
A typical value is about 12oF per minute.

Flame detectors / Flame

Radiant energy detector detectors respond to either the ultraviolet or infrared portion of the light generated by the flame.
Both are used for fire detection in systems that require very fast response
UV detectors
Infrared detectors Effective in detecting flammable liquid fires

Decomposition product
sensing
Semi-conductor detector Responds to gases have either oxidizing or reducing capabilities by creating electrical charges in a semi-
conductor

Sprinkler system
Standard spray sprinkler Upright Attached to the topside of the distribution pipe and water discharge upward, striking the deflector
Pendant Attached to the bottomside of the distribution pipe

Maximum ceiling Temperature Temperature Color code Glass bulb colors

Temperature Rating classification
F C F C
100 38 135170 5777 Ordinary Uncolored or Orange or red
black
150 66 175225 79107 Intermediate White Yellow or green

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 150 66 175225 79107 Intermediate White Yellow or green
225 107 250300 121149 High Blue Blue
300 149 325375 163191 Extra high Red Purple
375 191 400475 204246 Very extra high Green Black
475 246 500575 260302 Ultra high Orange Black
625 329 650 343 Ultra high Orange Black

Types of sprinkler system

Dry pipe Release of air or nitrogen under pressure

Dry-pipe systems are used where there is a possibility

of freezing.

Wet pipe Attached to water supply under pressure

Pre action automatic
Deluge system
Combined dry & pre action
Special and limited water
supply
Detection independent of sprinkler. 1. The detection system identifies smoke or heat, which
Water actuated activates a pre-action valve that allows water to flow
into piping and creates a wet pipe sprinkler system.
2. Individual sprinkler heads release to let water flow
onto the fire
Valves open by detection The sprinkler heads are open at all the time
Detecting instruments activate and opens the deluge
valve
flammable liquid storage areas
Limited water supply

ESFR (early suppression are designed to fight high challenge, fast developing fires, often found in rack storage systems. ESFR sprinklers
fast response) sprinklers are also used in flammable liquid storage areas. The ESFR sprinkler is designed to extinguish the fire, rather
than just control a fire, like other sprinkler heads.
Special in-rack sprinkler 12 ft is considered the upper range for piled combustibles without utilizing special system design techniques
system design that can get water to a potential fire.

Piping configuration
The three basic system configurations are the
1. Tree
2. Loop
3. Grid

Fire doors
CLASS (A) 3 hour approved for doors in dividing fire walls with openings not exceeding 1,200 sq. ft. in area.
CLASS (B) 1.5 hour approved for doors, in vertical shall openings not exceeding 1,200 sq. ft. in area.
CLASS (C) 0.75 hour approved for doors in corridor or room-partition opening not exceeding 1,200 sq. ft. in area.
CLASS (D) 1 .5 hour approved for doors in exterior wall opening not exceeding 1,200 sq. ft. in area.

Fire hydrant
Red corresponds to less than 500 gpm

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Red corresponds to less than 500 gpm
Orange corresponds to 500 to 999 gpm
Green corresponds to 1,000 to 1,499 gpm
Light blue corresponds to 1,500 or greater gpm

Normal areas the spacing between fire hydrants In normal areas 800 feet
In congested areas 500 feet

Private hydrants be opened and closed to ensure proper water flow and drainage Annually

standpipe is a type of rigid water piping which is built into multi-story buildings in a vertical position or bridges in a horizontal
position, to which fire hoses can be connected, allowing manual application of water to the fire.
Within the context of a building or bridge, a standpipe serves the same purpose as a fire hydrant.
Class I Systems Class I Systems [2-1/2" (64mm) hose connections] are provided for use by fire departments and those
trained in handling heavy water streams.
Class II Systems Class II Systems [1-1/2" (38mm) hose lines] are provided for use by trained building occupants until the
fire department arrives.

Jockey pump
The main purpose of a jockey pump is to maintain the water pressure in the pipes in a predetermined range when there is no fire. This helps main
fire pump to not run all the time and also prevent the sprinkler go off randomly
A jockey pump is a pump connected to a fire sprinkler system and is intended to maintain pressure in a fire protection piping system to an
artificially high level so that the operation of a single fire sprinkler will cause a pressure drop which will be sensed by the fire pump automatic
controller, causing the fire pump to start. The jockey pump is essentially a portion of the fire pump's control system.

Alarm strategy
Proprietary system is a normally closed-circuit system with electromechanical devices used to transmit signals to the central supervisory station
located in or near the building or groups of buildings being protected. The central supervisory station is constantly staffed by
qualified personnel hired by the building owner or occupant.
Central station is used to describe a type of alarm system that communicates trouble at a premises to those who will respond. These systems
system notify a constantly attended location operated by a company that notifies appropriate authorities

Type A (manual) Type A alarms require an operator to receive the alarm and transmit the alarm to the fire department
Type B (automatic) Type B the alarm is automatically transmitted to the fire station.
Fire alarm signals
Alarm signals Used to indicate water flow, manual station actuation, fire detector activation, discharge of a system, or other
indication of a fire
Supervisory Used to indicate time critical input, such a guard check-in, or loss of water or agent pressure, valves in wrong position,
signals exit light not functioning etc.
Trouble signals Used to indicate a fault in the system, shorted wiring, loss of signals, ground fault, etc.

Storage
At a construction site, no more than 25 gallons of liquid can store outside of an approved cabinet,
At a construction site, an approved/rated storage cabinet may hold:
a. 60 gal of flammable materials
b. 120 gal of combustible materials
Aged ethers can form explosive peroxides. These peroxides may frequently occur as visible crystal growths in the ether
solution.
Chlorobenzene is a flammable solvent. The other solvents are chain hydrocarbons with chlorine substitution. Normally,
this indicates a tendency towards non-flammability,
Containers over 30 gallons capacity shall not be stacked one upon the other.

Indoor storage of flammable liquids

Maximum flammable liquids shall be stored in a room outside of an approved storage cabinet No more than 25 gallons
Flammable liquids shall be stored in an approved storage cabinet 25 gallon or more
Category 1, 2 and/or 3 flammable liquids shall be stored in any one storage cabinet 60 gallon

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Category 1, 2 and/or 3 flammable liquids shall be stored in any one storage cabinet 60 gallon
Category 4 flammable liquids shall be stored in any one storage cabinet 120 gallon
Storage outside buildings
Storage of containers (not more than 60 gallons each) in any one pile or area shall not exceed 1,100 gallons
Storage in inside storage rooms must comply with NFPA30 which requires that every inside storage room be equipped
with one clear aisle at least three feet wide.

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