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BEARING MATERIALS
P. G. Forrester
To cite this article: P. G. Forrester (1960) BEARING MATERIALS, Metallurgical Reviews, 5:1,
507-549, DOI: 10.1179/mtlr.1960.5.1.507
Article views: 29
BEARING MATERIALS
By P. G. FORRESTER, * M.Sc., F.T.M.
The present concept of solid friction is, very briefly, as follows. The
two surfaces are in real contact at high points and over an area that in-
creases as the normal load increases. Over the area of real contact
elastic and/or plastic deformation occurs, and the surfaces adhere to an
extent that depends upon the materials involved and the presence of
surface contaminants such as oxides or boundary lubricant films. When
sliding occurs, energy is absorbed in plastic deformation and in ruptur-
ing the bonds that have formed between the surfaces. 'Vear takes
place by particles being torn from one or other of the surfaces; these par-
ticles, which are frequently oxides, may themselves act as abrasives
giving rise to further wear. Breakdown of the surfaces due to continued
plastic deformation may also contribute to wear.
1. Strength Properties
The ability of a bearing material to carry a static load depends on its
compressive yield strength at operating temperature, a property that
can be closely defined and tested by well-established techniques. It is,
however, only rarely that lack of compressive strength constitutes a
limitation to bearing performance.
The commonest manner of mechanical breakdown is that known as
cracking, crazing, or fatigue failure. This type of failure occurs only
35-M.R. xx
510 Forrester: Bearing 1.11aterials
when the loading varies in a cyclic or random manner. A varying load .
may be inherent in the application, as in reciprocating engines. Suffi-
cient variations of load to cause failure may also arise through vibration,
&c, in applications in which the normal load is static, e.g. in turbines and
electric motors. The primary loads applied to a bearing surface are
wholly compressive, and it has never been satisfactorily shown how and
why such compressive stresses can cause fatigue failure in a ductile
material. Fatigue is generally the result of a tensile-stress component
and it has been suggested that tensile stresses may be set up by flexure
of the bearing, by plastic deformation inducing resolved tensile stress,
by differential thermal contraction of lining and backing, and by forces
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acting parallel to the surface resulting from friction.7 The part played
by thermal effects has been further considered by Boas and Honeycombe
who showed that anisotropy of thermal expansion could cause cracking
in polycrystalline zinc, cadmium, and tin,S and that tin-base alloys also
cracked superficially when subjected to. prolonged thermal cycling.1)
The present author has confirmed this observation but has been unable
to detect any effect on subsequent fatigue performance, as observed by
rotating cantilever tests.to
The mechanism of fatigue in bearings must therefore be regarded as
not fully resolved. There is, however, increasing evidence to suggest
that the continuity of the oil film is a major factor.!1 Negative pres-
sures developing in the film can cause cavitation, while gaps in the film
can give rise to sharp stress gradients, which in turn result in shear
stresses within the lining.
It has been suggested 12 that temperature fluctuations might bring
about fatigue. In the presence of a complete oil film it seems unlikely
that temperature gradients of a sufficient order could be developed, but
with discontinuous fluid lubrication leading to brief periods of boundary
friction, temperature gradients sufficient to induce fatigue stresses might
well be produced.
A number of types of machine have been designed and successfully
operated for the fatigue testing of bearings. The simplest and most
widely adopted principle is to utilize a shaft carrying eccentric weights;
the rotation of the shaft then imposes cyclic loading on the bearings.
Two machines of this type, referred to as the Underwood machine 13
and the Glacier "Viking" machine,14, 15 respectively, have been used
for extensive investigations, some of which will be considered later
in this review. Another type of machine, described by Williams and
Ludicke,16 consists essentially of a dummy engine, cyclic loads being
imposed by the inertia of the pistons. A third type uses hydraulic
loading.!7-19 In all these machines a predetermined load characteristic
can be applied to a bearing or bearings, and from a series of tests it is
Forrester: Bear''ng Materials 511
possible to determine the limiting cyclic load that a bearing can with-
stand without failure. The absolute level of this value may differ
considerably from one machine to another. For example, the limiting
load as determined on one type of hydraulic machine18 is about three
times the figure for exactly the same type of bearing tested on the
Glacier "Viking" machine.I4, 15 The divergence is probably accounted
for by differences in operating temperature, in alignment, and in con-
tinuity of the oil film when the load is applied. The relative fatigue
strengths of different materials do, however, remain fairly constant
from one machine to another and are in line with general field exper-
ience. So far as fatigue properties are concerned, fairly reliable assess-
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2. Running Properties
This general term is used to describe the behaviour of a material as
regards wear of itself and of the opposing member and in respect of its
liability to seizure (i.e. locking of the bearing). Numerous testing
machines and techniques have been devised to assess these properties,
but none has proved wholly satisfactory. The basic difficulty is that
the running properties of a lubricated bearing depend upon a number of
factors besides the bearing material: the lubrication system, the chem-
ical and physical properties of the lubricant, the presence of abrasive
particles, the loading characteristics, the clearance, and the surface
finish of the bearing surfaces are all of major importance. A material
that is perfectly satisfactory under one set of conditions may be quite
useless if the conditions are changed. Furthermore, there is no single
criterion of good performance. In some cases, the minimum rate of
wear is the principal interest. In others, it is the maximum load that
can be carried without seizure or overheating, or the time for which a
bearing will function with restricted lubrication. This lack of clarity
in defining" good" bearing qualities helps to explain the diversity of
the conclusions that have been reached on the relative merits of different
materials.
At this stage brief mention should be made of two criteria sometimes
applied to bearing materials. The first is that of PV (pressure X
velocity). It was at one time fairly common to quote a maximum PV
figure, but this factor is now generally recognized to be meaningless as a
criterion of materials in lubricated bearings. In fact as V increases
P max. (the maximum permissible load) at first rises also, since the
higher the value of V the greater is the load-carrying capacity of the oil
film. P max. reaches a maximum value limited by the strength of the
material, and then falls, because material strength decreases as a result
512 Forrester: Bearing Materials
of increased temperature. As will be shown later, PV may be a valid
criterion for unlubricated bearing materials. .
The second criterion is that of minimum ZNjP. It can be shown that
in a "perfect" journal bearing, the p,f(ZNjP) relationship where
p, = coefficient of friction, Z = lubricant viscosity, N = rotational speed,
P = load per unit area, is a straight line passing through the origin. In
practice, this relationship holds down to a certain value of ZN j P below
whichp, increases sharply, owing to breakdown of full fluid lubrication.
Below this minimum the bearing is unstable, for the increase in fl causes
a rise in temperature which decreases Z and hence further increases p,.
Conversely, above the minimum the bearing is stable.
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04
~o.)
--
~
-0
02
~ 0'1
-.J
. 600 1000
HA3/F
[Courtesy Institution of ~Mechal1ical En(Jineers.
Field wear tests of vehicle chassis bushes have been reported by Brun-
strum and Hayne27 and by Ruppe,28 but in both cases the objective was
to test lubricants rather than materials. There is a need for similar
comparative tests of materials.
There can be little doubt that wear by contaminated lubricants is
best examined by field tests of this type, or failing this, by rig tests
designed to simulate field conditions. On the other hand the property
of seizure-resistance is much more difficult to examine, since in many
mechanisms seizure may be catastrophic in its effects. Oil-starved car
engines have been employed for seizure testing, but indirect methods
have been more usual. A particularly interesting series of tests was
made by Lunn,29 using a steel ball reciprocated under load against the
bearing material. The electrical resistance of the contact was deduced,
giving a so-called L value. A high L value indicated much metal-to-
Forrester: Bearing Materials 515
metal contact, and hence by implication a poor bearing material. Lunn
believed the differences he observed between various metals were due to
differences in the nature and adherence of the lubricant film. For in-
stance, he suggests that lead acts as an oxidation catalyst and thereby
assists in the production of a film, presumably some sort of soap,
formed by reaction between oxidized oil and oxidized metal; in a later
publication 30he refers to this film as a "plastic solid". While there is
undoubtedly indirect evidence for such an effect, it would clearly be
desirable to obtain more direct evidence before the hypothesis can be
regarded as securely based; surface examination by electron diffraction
might provide this.
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3. Corrosion-Resisting Properties
Some bearing materials are liable to attack by organic acids, which
may be initially present in the lubricant or may develop through oxida-
Forrester: Bearing Materials 517
tion. 'Vaters and Burnham term these conditions "existent" and
"potential" corrosivity, and describe tests for each property.34
Zuidema35, 36 has reviewed this subject in some detail.
The extent of corrosion can be measured dimensionally or by weight
loss, and there is no inherent difficulty in designing bench tests for
materials or lubricants. Since temperature, time, presence of catalysts,
and removal of corrosion product are all important, actual engine tests
have their advantages, as pointed out by Underwood.37 Corrosion will
be further discussed when particular types of alloy are considered.
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IV.-WHITE METALS
1. Composition
[Courtesy "lIIelalluruia".
Fro. 4.-The influence of antimony and copper content on the fatigue strength of
tin base alloys at 1000. (Forrester, Greenfiel~, and Duckett.41)
2. Properties
The good bearing qualities of the white metals were at one time attri-
buted to their characteristic structure-a hard compound or compounds
in a soft matrix. Tabor46 was unable to find much support for this
conception, and, as already pointed out, the evidence of Lunn 29 tends
to indicate that compounds are undesirable. The merit of the white
metals probably.lies much more in their achieving the right compromise
between softness and strength, and the fact that the stronger alloys
have a two-phase structure may be incidental.
There is extensive information in the literature on the physical
properties of white metals. This has been summarized by Greenfield
and Forrester,40 who have also published detailed information on the
fatigue properties of tin-base alloys,41 and by Gillett, Russell, and
Day ton. 50 An investigation of their elastic properties is described by
Cuthbertson. 51 There is, however, little factual information on the
comparative performance of the various white metals based on field
tests or on laboratory tests simulating all aspects of practical application.
The presence of a considerable quantity of lead in tin-base white metals
has been known to cause failure at high temperatures, but apart from
this the author is not aware of any clearly substantiated case where
Forreste1': Bearing 1'1a,terials 521
performance has been greatly affected by small changes in alloy com-
position. In most cases the effects of composition appear to be mar-
ginal and likely to be swamped by more important variables, such as the
lubrication system and factors affecting heat transfer. In choosing white
metal, prior practical experience of similar applications still appears to
be the best guide.
White metals are generally used as relatively thin linings bonded to
steel, bronze, or cast-iron shells, and the lining thickness and quality
of bond have much more influence on performance than the composition
of the alloy. The greater resistance to fatigue of thin linings has been
known for some time,52, 53but the first quantitative data appear to be
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4500
! 4000
,
~
:i 3S00
l-
I.?
Z
~ 3000
w
:>
I.?
~ 2S00
2000
o 2 4 6 8 10 12
LINING THICKNESS, IN. X 10")
thickness down to zero, but that with a Poisson's ratio value < 05,
there is an optimum thickness for minimum effective stress. This
theory has not, to the author's knowledge, been tested experimentally.
Corrosion by organic acids does not occur with tin-base white metals
nor significantly with lead-base metals containing tin and/or antimony. 50
A peculiar type of attack characterized by the formation of tin oxides
has been observed in certain turbine bearings,66 the reason for which has
not yet been determined.
3. Manufacturing Methods
Unbacked white metal is sometimes used for small, lightly loaded
bearings, which are commonly manufactured by a conventional die-
casting technique.57 The great majority of white-metal bearings,
however, consist of a steel, bronze, or cast-iron backing with the white-
metal lining firmly bonded to it. Such bearings can be made either by
lining preformed components individually or in pairs, or, in the case of
steel-backed bearings, by manufacturing bimetal strip and then forming
this into half-bearings, bushes, thrust-washers, &c. The individual
methods are the best known and the most widely practised, but by far
the largest number of white-metal bearings and bushes are now made by
pressing from bimetal strip. Individual lining methods have been
described by a number of authors. The main steps of the process are:
(a) Preparation of the shell to give a clean and readily tinned surface;
(b) hot-tinning of the shell (thereby preheating it and providing a
surface to which the white metal can bond); and (c) lining with the
bearing alloy.
FIr.. :~.-Structure of tin-base alloy containing 9~o antimony and 4~o copper,
,;howing fl. )', and ternary peritectic constituents. X 100.
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Fw. ;).-~tructure of lead-base alloy containing 1.+" antimony. ]0% tin. O.i~"
copper. Principal constituents: ~bSn Hlld eutectic. ]00.
FIG. R.-Cast copper-/eall alloy sholl'ing marked I.,' dC'ndritic "trlletllrC' of (oppel'.
X lI,L
V.-COPPER-BASE ALLOYS
1. Bronzes
The widespread use of cast and wrought bronzes for bearings is a good
example of the empiricism of bearing practice; there has been little
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2. Oopper-Lead Alloys
There is no sharp dividing line between the leaded bronzes and the
copper-lead alloys; the latter term generally implies 20-500/0 lead and ~
5% tin, nickel, or silver. Such alloys have been used for many years, and
Bassett, in his book published in 1937,83 devoted considerable space to
them, stating that they were then used "very extensively" for aircraft
and diesel engine bearings. They were developed intensively during
the Second Wodd War for aircraft, fighting vehicles, and ships. They
are almost invariably used as linings for steel-backed bearings, their
own strength being insufficient to maintain fit, and very considerable
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__ c_o~p_p_er
__ 1 1 L_ea_d _
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when tin exceeds r--J 10% because there is a tendency for the tin to form
a continuous phase. This implies a compromise of r--J 5-10% tin. To
obtain the required strength properties other elements were added, and
Hunsicker further states that elements forming a hard constituent im-
prove bearing wear properties and seizure-resistance. This led to the
development of such alloys as Alcoa 750, which nominally contains 6'5%
tin, 1% nickel, 1% copper. Hunsicker points out that when solid
aluminium bearings are assembled in ferrous housings the initial com-
pressive stress due to the usual "interference fit" increases when the
temperature rises, as a result of the relatively high coefficient of
expansion of the aluminium-base alloy. If the alloy has insufficient
yield strength and creep strength at operating temperature to resist this
compressive stress, the bearing shell will yield and on cooling down may
become loose. WOOd,109and later Frank and Lux,110 both report
generally very satisfactory performance from these alloys, but confirm
Forrester: Bearing Materials 533
the existence of difficulties arising from differential expansion. This is
probably the major limitation of solid aluminium bearings and explains
why their use has never become generaL They have, however, met with
considerable success in one American engine in particular, and probably
this is the result of very careful control of fitting conditions, alloy hard-
ness, and surface finish and hardness of the shaft.
The third approach to the use of aluminium alloys has developed
naturally from the recognition of the fundamental problem posed by
differential expansion in ferrous housings. The logical step was to bond
a thin layer of the aluminium alloy to a thicker steel backing, so that the
dimensional behaviour of the whole would be determined largely by the
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steeL In addition, the greater yield strength of the steel would ensure
maintenance of interference fit. This development was, however, de-
layed by difficulties experienced in obtaining a reliable bond between
aluminium and steeL When aluminium is cast on to steel, the two react
to form an aluminium-iron alloy compound layer. This layer very
rapidly attains considerable thickness, rendering the bond very brittle.
Methods of avoiding this brittleness are claimed in the patent litera-
ture,l11, 112but none appears to have proved commercially practicable
on any considerable scale.
The formation of a thick, brittle compound layer can be avoided by
adopting a solid-phase welding method, and several rolling processes
have been developed and are in commercial operation. They differ in
the methods used to prepare the steel and aluminium before bonding
and in the rolling temperatures employed. Two processes, both com-
mercially operated, prepare the steel by electroplating, respectively,
with silver113-'-115and with nickel,116 A third process uses aluminium-
clad steel,117 This last process, which has been the subject of develop-
ment work by the Tin Research Institute, is more fully documented
than the others. As described by Ellwood,118 it involves scratch-
brushing of the steel surface, applying scratch-brushed aluminium foil by
cold rolling, hot rolling to ensure a perfect bond, rolling on prepared alu-
minium alloy strip at .-...J 2200, and finally heating to consolidate the
bond and anneal the aluminium alloy. A later development, described by
Goad,119eliminates the aluminizing operation, the initial hardness values
of the steel and aluminium alloy being matched to provide extension
at about the same rate during rolling. In the author's experience this
latter process is rather less satisfactory than the process involving
aluminized steeL A direct-bonding method is also described in a
patent,120
In the United States the alloys used for steel-backed bearings have
generally been similar to those developed for use as solid bearings.
(An exception to this is a special aluminium-silicon-cadmium alloy).
534 Forrester: Bearing Materials
In Great Britain the tendency has been to take full advantage of the
support give by the backing and hence to use softer alloys of high tin
content. To provide an essential basis for work in this field, the alum-
inium-tin diagram was investigated by Sully, Hardy, and Heal.121 It
had previously been noted that alloys with more than,...... 10% tin tended
to be relatively weak and brittle on account of the continuous tin phase
that surrounds the aluminium matrix grains. This structure can, how-
ever, be much improved by cold working followed by annealing to
recrystallize the aluminium, as described by Hardy, Liddiard, Higgs,
and Cuthbertson.122 Alloys so treated have very satisfactory fatigue
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Coil of
steel
Aluminium
foil I Alum~um I Copper
and tin
Clean Clean
Surface Surface Cast billet
VII.-OTHER BEARINGMETALS
While alloys based on tin, lead, aluminium, and copper are by far the
most important bearing metals, other metals and alloys have been
tested and used, and these will now be considered in order of their
melting point.
1. Oadmium Alloys
Cadmium alloys were used to a considerable extent in the 1930's, and
there are numerous references to them in the literature between 1930
and 1940. The principal alloys were cadmium-copper-silver and
cadmium-nickel, the properties of which are summarized by Gillett,
Russell, and Dayton.5o The use of these has now practically ceased,
probably because their advantage in fatigue strength over tin-base and
lead-base alloys was insufficient to justify the increased cost and the
corrosion problems that arose. They were, in fact, overtaken by copper-
lead and aluminium-base alloys before they could become established.
536 F orreste'J': Bear'ing Materials
2. Zinc Alloys
Zinc alloys clearly merit consideration as bearing materials on account
of their relatively low melting point and hardness and their low cost and
ready availability. They are, indeed, frequently used in lightly loaded
bushes, but evidence as to their suitability for more arduous applications
is conflicting. Von GOler and Sachs49 reported unfavourably on their
performance, but Weber 124 obtained rather more promising results from
a seizure-type test and from wear tests on two zinc-aluminium alloys
with 4 and 10% aluminium, respectively. At low running speeds the
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3. Silver Alloys
Silver is another material which for a time aroused great interest, but
this has now largely died away. At one period the pure metal was widely
used for aircraft-engine bearings, but owing to its tendency to sudden
seizure it became usual to plate it with lead, and then to protect the lead
from corrosion with a flash of indium.l27, 128 Silver-lead alloys .with
3-5% lead have also been used, and Faust and Thomas129 have des-
F OTrester: Bearing 1l!lateT'ials 537
cribed a method for the electrodeposition of such alloys. The decline of
interest in silver is probably due to the fact that other types of bearing,
such as overlay copper-lead, leaded bronze, and aluminium alloys,
appear to serve at least equally well in practice and are very much
cheaper.
4. Iron Alloys
Iron alloys also merit some mention. Cast iron is, of course, widely
used as a bearing, and it is generally believed that the presence of
graphite is a valuable asset. Sintered, oil-impregnated, porous iron is
chosen for applications in which the load is too high for sintered porous
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bronze. The author and his colleagues have experimented with an iron-
lead alloy produced by sintering in the same way as copper-lead.l30
This alloy is potentially stronger than copper-lead alloy, but at this
stage appears unlikely to rival reticular tin-aluminium alloy in its
combination of wear- and fatigue-resisting properties.
Strength
Test Material Fatigue Relative to Ref.
Strength,lb/in2 Tin-Base
White Metal
6100*
19
305
} 107
may have to be made. The use of water involves the risk of rusting of
the roll-necks when idle but Jones states that this can be overcome by
using dewatering oils. He refers to the power saving resulting from the
use of laminated phenolic roll-neck bearings and this point is also
emphasized by Delmonte,136 in considering the advantages of this type
of bearing. For a full discussion of the merits of the laminated phenolic
resin bearing, the reader is referred to "Roll-Neck Bearings" by Under-
wood.l37
Forrester: Bearing Materials 541
An unusual type of bearing has been described by Gilbert and
Liirenbaum,138in which the journal is wrapped with plastic-impregnated
fabric and run in a plain steel bearing. So far as is known, this develop-
menthas not been pursued.
The first published reference to P.T.F.E. as a bearing material
appears to be by Tait, who in two British patents claims the use of this
material incorporated in a metallic structure.139, 140 The concept
underlying this invention was to utilize the low friction coefficient of
P.T.F.E. (reported by Shooter and Thomas 141),while avoiding the prob-
lems resulting from the mechanical weakness, poor thermal conductivity,
and high coefficient of expansion of the unsupported plastic. Bowden 142
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showed that porous copper impregnated with P.T.F.E. had the same low
coefficient of friction as P.T.F.E. itself.
It has been found that bronze as a supporting metal is much superior
to copper, silver, iron, or stainless steel. This was reported by Mitchell
and Burke,143 who stated that bronze impregnated with P.T.F.E.
(known as DP) withstood pressure X velocity conditions of 500Olb/f"oo.I
The designer who wants to use a bearing needs to know the load/speed
conditions that can be sustained in a given environment without
catastrophic failure and the rate of wear to expect under the specified
conditions, or, to put it another way, the anticipated life before a given
degree of wear is exceeded. For plain lubricated bearings the difficulty
arises that lubrication factors (quantity and quality of supply of lubri-
cant, &c.) playa major part. With dry bearings, however, this difficulty
does not exist, and it is therefore practicable to quote permissible load/
speed conditions and wear rates under stated conditions which should be
reasonably comparative.
Nevertheless, much of the literature on dry bearings seems to be
deliberately designed to avoid providing this information. For
example, permissible loads are given without reference to speed, and the
results of wear tests are quoted without stating the duration of the test.
This does not simplify the task of the designer, or that of the reviewer,
who has found it impossible to interpret and compare the published data
in any meaningful way. Probably the most useful comparative infor-
mation is that given by Mitchell,145who summarizes the results of a
series of tests carried out on thrust washers operating at a PV of 20,000
544 For1'ester: Bearng Materials
Ib/in2 x it/min, and terminated either at 1000 h or when wear reached
a value between 0005 and 0010 in. This information is reproduced in
Table III. It should, however, be noted that the test conditions :were
very severe for certain of the materials, which might be expected to give
a disproportionately longer life under less stringent conditions. For
example, nylon failed after 03 h, whereas Cheney, Happoldt, and
Swayne 151report satisfactory continuous performance of nylon at a PV
of 500-1000 and satisfactory intermittent performance at a PV of 3000.
Me~D Time
Type of Material of Testing. h Re.lSODf,)r Stopping
XL-CONCLUSION
The author regrets that in this review so many hypotheses have been
described as untested, so many materials referred to as of uncertain
value, and so many questions left unanswered. This is, in his view, a
fair picture of the present state of affairs. Our basic knowledge of the
behaviour of sliding surfaces now rests on firm foundations, well laid by
ingenious and reliable work from a number of sources. Unfortunately,
the available information concerning the actual performance in service
of different materials and their comparative usefulness is by no means
always so reliable. Much of the published information is a matter of
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author wishes to express his thanks to the Directors of the Glacier
Metal Company for permission to publish this review, and in particular,
some hitherto unpublished information. He also desires to thank his
colleagues for their help in its preparation, and Mr. C. J. Faulkner, of the
Tin Research Institute, and Mr. B. Fullman of the British Non-Ferrous
Metals Research Association, for considerable help with references.
REFERENCES
1. M. C. Shaw and E. F. Macks, "Analysis and Lubrication of Bearings":
1949: New York and London (McGraw-Hill).
2. F. T. Barwell, "Lubrication of Bearings". 1956: London (Butterworths
Scientific Publications).
546 Forreste'J': Bearing Materials
3. J. Dick, Phil .. Mug., 1944, 35, 841.
4. J. T. Burwell, Trans. Amer. Soc. JIech. Eng., 1947,69,231.
5. F. P. Bowden and D. Tabor, "The Friction and Lubrication of Solids". 1950:
Oxford (Clarendon Press).
6. F. T. Barwell, Met. Rev., 1959,4, (14), 141.
7. D. J. l\Iacnaughtan, .T. Inst. Metals, 1934,55, 33.
8. W. Boas and R W. K. Honeycombe, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1946, [A], 186, 57.
9. W. Boas and R. W. K. Honeycombe, ibid., 1947, [A], 188, 427; J. Inst. Metals,
1947,73,433.
10. P. G. Forrester and B. Chalmers, Engineering, 1945, 159, 41.
11. Automobile Eng., 1960, 50, (1), 24.
12. J. W. Cuthbertson, private communication.
13. E. T. Johnson, "Symposium on Testing of Bearings ", p. 2. 1947: Philadel-
phia, Pa. (ArneI'. Soc. Test. Mat.)
14. P. P. Love, P. G. Forrester, and A. E. Burke, Proc. Inst. J.1Iech. Eng., Auto-
mobile Div., 1953-54, (2), 29.
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