The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted in

1979 by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an international bill of rights for women. Consisting of a
preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for
national action to end such discrimination.

The Convention defines discrimination against women as "...any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the
basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by
women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and
fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field."
By accepting the Convention, States commit themselves to undertake a series of measures to end discrimination
against women in all forms, including:

to incorporate the principle of equality of men and women in their legal system, abolish all discriminatory laws and
adopt appropriate ones prohibiting discrimination against women;
to establish tribunals and other public institutions to ensure the effective protection of women against
discrimination; and
to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination against women by persons, organizations or enterprises.
The Convention provides the basis for realizing equality between women and men through ensuring women's
equal access to, and equal opportunities in, political and public life -- including the right to vote and to stand for
election -- as well as education, health and employment. States parties agree to take all appropriate measures,
including legislation and temporary special measures, so that women can enjoy all their human rights and
fundamental freedoms.

The Convention is the only human rights treaty which affirms the reproductive rights of women and targets culture
and tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family relations. It affirms women's rights to acquire,
change or retain their nationality and the nationality of their children. States parties also agree to take appropriate
measures against all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of women.

Countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention are legally bound to put its provisions into practice. They
are also committed to submit national reports, at least every four years, on measures they have taken to comply
with their treaty obligations.

The Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (the
Torture Convention) was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1984
(resolution 39/46). The Convention entered into force on 26 June 1987 after it had been ratified by 20 States.

The Torture Convention was the result of many years work, initiated soon after the adoption of the Declaration on
the Protection of All Persons from Being Subjected to Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment
or Punishment (the Torture Declaration) by the General Assembly on 9 December 1975 (resolution 3452 (XXX)).

In fact, the Torture Declaration was intended to be the starting-point for further work against torture. In a second
resolution, also adopted on 9 December 1975, the General Assembly requested the Commission on Human Rights
to study the question of torture and any necessary steps for ensuring the effective observance of the Torture
Declaration (resolution 3453 (XXX)). Two years later, on 8 December 1977, the General Assembly specifically
requested the Commission on Human Rights to draw up a draft convention against torture and other cruel,
inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment, in the light of the principles embodied in the Torture Declaration
(resolution 32/62).

1 February 1982, Commission on Human Rights addressing the problems of genocide, political liquidations, mass
killings, arbitrary and summary executions, disappearances, torture, etc.The Commission on Human Rights began
its work on this subject at its session in February-March 1978. A working group was set up to deal with this item,
and the main basis for the discussions in the working group was a draft convention presented by Sweden. During
each of the subsequent years until 1984 a similar working group was set up to continue the work on the draft
convention.
There were a number of issues on which it was initially difficult to reach agreement. In particular, the following
issues gave rise to long discussions:

The Definition of Torture

The definition of torture which appeared in the Torture Declaration was considered not to be precise enough and
was criticized on various points. The discussions resulted in a more elaborate and also more complex definition
which appears in article 1, paragraph 1, of the Torture Convention

Jurisdiction

The discussion centred round the concept of so-called universal jurisdiction. In other words, the question was
whether each State should undertake, in respect of torture, to assume jurisdiction not only based on territory or
the offenders nationality but also over acts of torture committed outside its territory by persons not being its
nationals. The principle of universal jurisdiction which had already been accepted in conventions against
hijacking of aircraft and other terrorist acts was eventually accepted and found its place in article 5, paragraph 2,
of the Torture Convention.

International Implementation

As the effectiveness of the Torture Convention, like that of many other human rights conventions, would depend to
a large extent on the supervision system, the implementation at the international level gave rise to extensive
discussions. It was finally decided that a Committee against Torture would be set up (article 17 of the Torture
Convention) with the following tasks:

(i) To receive, study and comment on periodic reports from the States parties on the measures they have
taken to give effect to their undertakings under the Convention (article 19);
(ii) To initiate an investigation when there is reliable information which appears to contain well-founded
indications that torture is being systematically practised in the territory of a State party (article 20);
(iii) To receive and examine complaints by one State party of violations of the Convention by another State
party (article 21); and
(iv) To receive and examine applications by individuals claiming to be victims of a violation of the
Convention by a State party (article 22).
However, the competences of the Committee against Torture under (ii), (iii) and (iv) were not made compulsory
but apply with the following modifications:

- A State party may opt out and declare that it does not recognize the Committees competence to initiate
investigations under article 20 (article 28);
- The Committees competence to examine inter-State complaints only applies when a State party has
specifically recognized this competence (article 21);
- The Committees competence to examine applications by individuals only applies when a State party has
specifically recognized this competence (article 22).
A State Partys Undertakings

Most of the provisions of the Torture Convention deal with the obligations of the States parties. These obligations
may be summarized as follows:

(i) Each State party shall take effective legislative, administrative, judicial or other measures to prevent
acts of torture. The prohibition against torture shall be absolute and shall be upheld also in a state of war and in
other exceptional circumstances (article 2);
(ii) No State party may expel or extradite a person to a State where there are substantial grounds for
believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture (article 3);
(iii) Each State party shall ensure that acts of torture are serious criminal offences within its legal system
(article 4);
 (iv) Each State party shall, on certain conditions, take a person suspected of the offence of torture into
custody and make a preliminary inquiry into the facts (article 6);
(v) Each State party shall either extradite a person suspected of the offence of torture or submit the case to
its own authorities for prosecution (article 7);
(vi) Each State party shall ensure that its authorities make investigations when there is reasonable ground
to believe that an act of torture has been committed (article 12);
(vii) Each State party shall ensure that an individual who alleges that he has been subjected to torture will
have his case examined by the competent authorities (article 13);
(viii) Each State party shall ensure to victims of torture an enforceable right to fair and adequate
compensation (article 14).
II. The Optional Protocol

An Optional Protocol to the Torture Convention was adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 18
December 2002 (resolution 57/199). The Optional Protocol, which entered into force on 22 June 2006, establishes
a system of regular visits by international and national bodies to places of detention in order to prevent torture
and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. A Subcommittee on Prevention of Torture and
Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment has been set up to carry out such visits and to
support States parties and national institutions in performing similar functions at the national level.

III. The Committee Against Torture

The Committee against Torture holds two annual sessions. At each session, the Committee examines reports from a
number of States parties. Each report is examined orally in the presence of one or more representatives of the State
concerned. Each State whose report is to be examined at a session is informed in advance of the main questions the
Committee wishes to be discussed. After the examination of each report the Committee adopts its conclusions and
recommendations. The Committee may also adopt general comments on specific provisions of the Convention or
issues related to their implementation.

The Committee against Torture has also set up a working group to prepare the examination of individual
communications received under article 22 of the Torture Convention. The working group examines the
admissibility and merits of the communications and makes recommendations to the Committee.

ARTICLE 4 NO SLAVERY

No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.

In northern Uganda, the LRA (Lords Resistance Army) guerrillas have kidnapped 20,000 children over the past
twenty years and forced them into service as soldiers or sexual slaves for the army.

In Guinea-Bissau, children as young as five are trafficked out of the country to work in cotton fields in southern
Senegal or as beggars in the capital city. In Ghana, children five to fourteen are tricked with false promises of
education and future into dangerous, unpaid jobs in the fishing industry.

In Asia, Japan is the major destination country for trafficked women, especially women coming from the
Philippines and Thailand. UNICEF estimates 60,000 child prostitutes in the Philippines.

The US State Department estimates 600,000 to 820,000 men, women and children are trafficked across
international borders each year, half of whom are minors, including record numbers of women and girls fleeing
from Iraq. In nearly all countries, including Canada, the US and the UK, deportation or harassment are the usual
governmental responses, with no assistance services for the victims.

In the Dominican Republic, the operations of a trafficking ring led to the death by asphyxiation of 25 Haitian
migrant workers. In 2007, two civilians and two military officers received lenient prison sentences for their part in
the operation.
In Somalia in 2007, more than 1,400 displaced Somalis and Ethiopian nationals died at sea in trafficking
operations.

ARTICLE 5 NO TORTURE

No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment.

In 2008, US authorities continued to hold 270 prisoners in Guantnamo Bay, Cuba, without charge or trial,
subjecting them to water-boarding, torture that simulates drowning. Former-President George W. Bush
authorized the CIA to continue secret detention and interrogation, despite its violation of international law.

In Darfur, violence, atrocities and abduction are rampant and outside aid all but cut off. Women in particular are
the victims of unrestrained assault, with more than 200 rapes in the vicinity of a displaced persons camp in one
five-week period, with no effort by authorities to punish the perpetrators.

In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, acts of torture and ill treatment are routinely committed by government
security services and armed groups, including sustained beatings, stabbings and rapes of those in custody.
Detainees are held incommunicado, sometimes in secret detention sites. In 2007, the Republican Guard
(presidential guard) and Special Services police division in Kinshasa arbitrarily detained and tortured numerous
individuals labeled as critics of the government.