Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
BONDING
Atomicstructure
Atomic number (Z): number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.
1
Rule 2 (Paulis exclusion principle): only 2 electrons can
occupy an orbital and they must have opposite spin ( ).
Rule 3 (Hunds rule): when there are degenerate orbitals, one
electron is added to each with their spins parallel until all are half
full. Then a second electron with opposite spin is added to each
degenerate orbital.
Chemical bonds
Ionic bonds: formed by the transfer of one or more electrons
from one atom to another to create ions, which electrically attract
each other.
2
Li
-e Li with filled shell
Li F
ionic compound
F
+e F with filled shell
(octet)
F F F F covalent compound
3
Polar covalent bonds: the electrons are not equally shared. The
electronegativity of one atom is greater than the other.
Representation of structure
4
Formal charges: calculated by subtracting the number of
valence electrons (nonbonding + 1/2 bonding) of an atom in its
bonded state from the number of valence electrons it has as a
neutral free atom.
Atomic orbitals
s orbitals have spherical shape. The 2s orbital contains a
node (region where the probability of finding an electron is
zero)
5
Bond length: distance between two nuclei that leads to
maximum bond stability.
H
- Tetrahedral molecule
H C H
- Bond angles: 109.5o
H
6
One 2s and three 2p atomic orbitals combine (hybridize) to
form four identical sp3 hybrid orbitals with tetrahedral
orientation (angles 109.5o).
H H - Planar molecule
C C
H H - Bond angles: 120o
7
sp Hybridization: bonding in molecules containing an atom
with a triple bond or two double bonds
H C C H - Linear molecule
- Bond angles: 180o
8
The carbon atom in CH3- is sp3hybridized. Three sp3 orbitals
overlap head-on to form bonds and the fourth sp3 orbital
contains a pair of nonbonding electrons.
109.50
+ =
2s 2p sp3
tetrahedral
1200
+ =
2s 2p sp2
trigonal planar
9
1800
+ =
2s 2p sp
linear
2 0 sp Linear 1800
10
3 1 sp3 Trigonal ~1070
Pyramidal
SCNOH
Molecular Geometry hybridi- bond
around Central Atom zation angle
a b c
CF3CH=C=O
Molecular Geometry hybridi- bond
around Central Atom zation angle
ab
< FCC = ______
)
abc
<) CCC = ______
bc
<
) CCO = ______
11
ab c
NCCH2CHO
Molecular Geometry hybridi- bond
around Central Atom zation angle
ab
<) NCC = ______
abc
< ) CCC = ______
bc
<) CCO = ______
ConstitutionalIsomers:Twocompoundsthathavethesame
molecularformulabuthavedifferentconnectivities.
Examples:
and CH3CH2CH=CH2
ThreedimensionalFormulas:
Adashedwedgerepresentsabondthatprojectsbehindthemain
planeofthemolecule.
12
Asolidwedgerepresentsabondthatprojectsinfrontofthe
mainplainofthemolecule.
Anordinarylinerepresentsabondthatliesinthemainplaneof
themolecule.
Forexample:themoleculeofmethaneistetrahedral.
Resonance:
13
The electrons are therefore shared by all six carbon atoms
delocalized. Electron delocalization occurs only when all atoms
sharing the delocalized electrons lie in the same plane, so their p
orbitals can effectively overlap.
resonance
resonancecontributors hybrid
14
+ +
CH3CH CH CHCH3 CH3CH CH CHCH3 CH3CH CH CHCH3
resonancecontributors resonancehybrid
- +
CH3CH CH NHCH3 CH3CH CH NHCH3 CH3CH CH NHCH3
resonancecontributors resonancehybrid
O O O -
+
CH3C CH CHCH3 CH3C CH CHCH3 CH3C CH CHCH3
resonancecontributors resonancehybrid
O
O
Draw all the important resonance structures for the following ions showing all lone pairs of
electrons and formal charges. Show the electron flow by using arrows for full credit.
15
Each resonance contributor may be more stable than another and
therefore is a better description of the overall molecular structure.
The greater the predicted stability of the resonance contributor, the
more it contributes to the resonance hybrid.
Factors that increase the predicted stability of a contributing
resonance structure:
1. all atoms have an octet
2. negative charges are on the most electronegative atoms (and
positive charges on the least electronegative atoms)
3. charge (and/or charge separation) can be destabilizing
16