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Metallic Bonding

Definition: Electrostatic force of attraction between metal

cations and sea of delocalized electrons in a metal.

Factors affecting strength of metallic bond

Number of valence electrons The larger the number, the

contributed per metal atom
Charge, radius and charge
density
stronger. (more
electrons=greater attraction
with cations)
Higher the charge and
smaller the radius, the
higher the charge density,
stronger the bond

Physical Properties

Melting and Boiling Points Strong electrostatic forces of

High attraction between metal
cations and sea of
delocalized electrons
Good electrical/heat Has sea of delocalized
conductivity electrons and ions acting as
mobile charge carriers.
Delocalised electrons can
also pick up heat energy to
vibrate faster.
Shiny Surface When photon strikes surface,
oscillating electric field
causes electrons to oscillate.
Photon bounces off without
loss in momentum.
Hard Depends on metallic bond
strength
Malleable and Ductile Layers of atoms can slide
over one another into new
positions

Allow Combinations

Bronze Copper and Tin

Brass Copper and Zinc
Steel Iron and Carbon
Stainless Steel Iron and Chromium

Ionic Bonding
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Definition: Electrostatic force of attraction between

positively charged cations and negatively charged anions.

Factors affecting strength of metallic bond

Charges on cations and The larger the number, the

anions stronger.
Radius Smaller the radius, the
higher the charge density.

LATTICE ENERGY=(Cc + Ca) /

(Rc + Ra)

Physical Properties

Melting and Boiling Points Strong electrostatic forces of

High
Good electrical when
dissolved in water
Hard and rigid but brittle
Usually Soluble in Water
attraction between cations
and anions in a giant ionic
lattice
Dissociate into mobile ions
and act as mobile charge
carriers to conduct electricity
Strong force causes like
charges to come to next to
each other-repel, shatter
Ion forms ion-dipole
interactions with water,
releasing energy in the
process, and if this energy is
greater than the ionic bonds,
the ions become detached
from crystals surface.

Covalent Bond

Definition: Electrostatic force of attraction between nucleus

of each of 2 bonded atoms and shared pair of electrons.

Sigma/Pi Bonds
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Sigma Bond

HEAD- ON OVERLAP
between (S-S/S-P/P-P)

Pi Bond

Side- Side
Overlap

(Single bond 1 sigma, double bond 1

sigma 1 pi, triple bond 1 sigma 2 pi)

VSEPR

Linear 180
Bent 118/104.5
Trigonal Planar 120
Tetrahedral 109.5
Trigon pyramidal 107
Octahedral 90
Square Planar 90
General Steps for Drawing 1. Determine number of
VSEPR pairs of electrons, be it
bond or not
2. Determine how many is
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lone pair
3. Find Structure for total
pairs of electrons (e.g
four pairs means
tetrahedral)
4. If there are lone pair,
take away one pair and
push the rest closer
together to form your
shape.
5. Visualize!

Hybridization

Consider this methane

molecule. It has a central C atom.

Carbon forms 4 bonds in CH4, and

as you can see its orbital diagram,
it only has 2 lone electrons in the
p orbital, so it cannot form 4
bonds with the 4 hydrogen!

AND SO IT HAS TO HYBRIDIZE,

WHICH MEANS

This happens, one of the electrons from 2s will fill up the last 2p orbital.

And since hybridization means the s and p orbitals join together to form
hybridized orbitals:

Why is it SP3 this time round?

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Because 1 S orbital combines with 3 P orbitals

They will look like this. As they have 75% P orbital shape and 25% S orbital
shape. This is probably the simplest way to visualize it.

And then we ask: Is there an easier and faster way to determine SP/SP2/SP3.
Definitely! The previous way was just to explain to you the concept.

Remember this: 1. All SIGMA BONDS are made from hybridized orbitals. 2.
All lone pairs are made from hybridized orbitals. 3. All p bonds are made from
LEFT-OVER P orbitals (if you understood the concept above)

Lets say we have BF3. How do we determine hybridization of B?

S
2 P
It has no lone pairs and 3 sigma bonds. Therefore it is SP2 hybridized.
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H2O has 2 lone pairs and 2 bonds for

the O central atom. Therefore it is (S+P+2+3) = SP3 hybridized.

ELECTRONEGATIVITY

Weve studied about IONIC/COVALENT bonds (complete

electron transfer and equal electron sharing), but have we
thought about atoms that are in the middle with both ionic
and covalent character? This is where electronegativity
comes in.

Definition: Ability of an atom to attract the electrons in a

covalent bond to itself.

Increases across the period Effective nuclear charge

increases across the period,
stronger electrostatic forces
of attraction between
nucleus and outermost
electron, much easier to
attract electrons.
Decreases down the group. Effective nuclear charge
decreases due to increasing
shielding effect due to
increasing quantum shells.

AND SO, we have unequal sharing of electrons, which brings about polar
bonds, in every tug of war game someone will win!
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IONIC BONDS WITH COVALENT CHARACTER (SUB TOPIC)

We KNOW some cations with very
significant charges and very small
radiuses (high charge density)
Some anions are very large too, so
the electron cloud is very far from the
nucleus, and is less attracted.
These will attract the electron cloud of
the anion.
We say they have high polarizing
power.
This will allow the cloud to be easily
pulled away by the cation.
We say they have high polarisability!

This is WHY some metal non-metal compounds are considered covalent! (e.g
BeCl2 AND AlCl3)

And this is also why you might have heard that electronegativity determines
whether a bond is PREDOMINANTLY IONIC or PREDOMINANTLY
COVALENT.

COVALENT BONDS: formed when atoms of metals and non-metals

respectively have similar electronegativity (and so will share electrons
EQUALLY)

IONIC BONDS: formed when atoms of metals and non-metals have great
difference in electronegativity (one will pull ALL the electrons towards itself!)
NET DIPOLE MOMENT

As we can see in C2CL4. It has polar C-CL bonds, but the overall
molecule has no net dipole MOMENT. This is because its bond dipole
moments cancel out. Use vectors.

This is why TETRAHEDRAL molecules ARE ALWAYS NON POLAR!

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Low melting and Boiling Points Less energy needed to overcome

weaker dispersion/dipole
attraction/hydrogen bonding
forces.
Electrical conductivity No mobile charges, unable to
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conduct electricity as all electrons

held in covalent bonds and cannot
move.
Solubility Something is soluble if energy
released from solute-solvent
interactions higher than energy
needed to overcome solute-solute
interactions and solvent-solvent
interactions.

Polar solutes will dissolve in polar

solvents, same applies for non-
polar solutes. Water is polar.
Giant Covalent Structures (Learnt Strong Covalent bonds. Graphite
in Sec 4 Diamond, SIO2, Graphite) can conduct electricity since its
carbon is only bonded to 3 others,
leaving 1 delocalised electron to
act as mobile charge carriers. Its
layers can also slide over one
another easily.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

*Differentiate this between your ionic/covalent/metallic bonding! This is

the force that holds molecules together, not individual atoms or ions!
This is also the determinant for your melting/boiling points.

Dispersion Forces -Instantaneous dipole-induced dipole

(between non-polar molecules, remember that
electrons are never stationary and always
moving, so at some random point of time
more may be on one side, causing an
instantaneous dipole which induces a dipole
in another non polar molecule) (This is short
lived, since it works based on randomness.)

*POLAR MOLECULES experience

instantaneous dipole-induced dipoles too, in
addition to their permanent dipole-permanent
dipole attractions!

Factors affecting Strength

No. of -Larger molecules with
electro more electrons have
ns larger electron clouds,
(more being more polarizable,
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import forming more

ant) instantaneous and
induced dipoles,
resulting in stronger
dispersion forces.
Surfac -Larger surface area
e area allows more points of
of contact over which
contac electron clouds can be
t btw distorted, so induced
adjace dipoles can form easily.
nt
molecu
les
(same
numbe
r of
electro
ns)

*Here you can see both

have same number of
electrons but n-pentane
has higher boiling point
as it has a larger
surface area.
Permanent dipole- -Between POLAR molecules. Positive dipole of
permanent dipole one molecule attracts negative dipole of
attractions another.
Hydrogen Bonding -Stronger type of permanent dipole-permanent
dipole attraction

That is why it requires TWO polar molecules

too!

-Requires H bonded to FON with another FON

that has a lone pair

-Why H20, NH3, HF have different boiling

points then (consider electronegativity and
limiting factor of number of lone pairs and H
bonded to FON)

-Water to have high surface tension

- Higher density in solid than liquid. Ice less
dense than water!
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VERY IMPORTANT THINGS YOU HAVE TO TAKE NOTE!

1. Smaller atoms form stronger bonds. Overlap between orbitals

more effective and orbitals closer to nucleus.

2. Polar bond stronger and shorter than non-polar bond. Electron

more attracted to a nucleus, requires more energy to break, bond
length shorter.

3. Multiple bonds stronger than single bonds. (More shared

electrons, more attraction between nucleus and electrons)