Intro 05 06

Chapter 5
Algorithms
By:
J. Brookshear
Modified by:
Yacoub Sabatin, BEng, MSc
Chapter 5: Algorithms
5.1 The Concept of an Algorithm

5.2 Algorithm Representation
5.3 Algorithm Discovery
5.4 Iterative Structures
5.5 Recursive Structures
5.6 Efficiency and Correctness
2
2005 Pearson Addison-Wesley. & 2014 Yacoub Sabatin. All rights reserved
1
Algorithm: definition
Before a computer can perform a task, it must be
given an algorithm telling it precisely what to do.
An algorithm is an ordered set of unambiguous,
executable steps that defines a terminating
process.
Requirements of an algorithm must comply with
these definition.
3
Algorithms: levels of abstraction

Problem = motivation for algorithm
Algorithm = procedure to solve the problem
Often one of many possibilities
Representation = description of algorithm
sufficient to communicate it to the desired
audience
Always one of many possibilities (algebraic, oral, flowchart,
electronic ckt, comp prog)
Distinguish between:
Algorithm: abstract, conceptual
Its representation 4
2
Figure 5.2 Folding a bird from a
square piece of paper
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Figure 5.3 Origami primitives
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3
Pseudocode primitives
Assignment name expression

Conditional selection if condition then action
Repeated execution while condition do activity
Procedure procedure name (generic names)
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Figure 5.4 The procedure

Greetings in pseudocode
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4
Figure 5.6 The sequential search
algorithm in pseudocode
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Problem solving steps
1. Understand the problem.

2. Get an idea how an algorithmic procedure
might solve the problem.
3. Formulate the algorithm and represent it as a
program.
4. Evaluate the program for accuracy and its
potential as a tool for solving other problems.
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5
Techniques for
getting a foot in the door
Work the problem backwards

Solve an easier related problem
Relax some of the problem constraints
Solve pieces of the problem first = bottom up
methodology
Stepwise refinement = top-down methodology
Popular technique because it produces modular
programs
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Sample problem
Person A is charged with the task of determining the

ages of Bs three children.
B tells A that the product of the childrens ages is 36.
A replies that another clue is required.
B tells A the sum of the childrens ages.
A replies that another clue is needed.
B tells A that the oldest child plays the piano.
A tells B the ages of the three children.
How old are the three children?
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6
Figure 5.5
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Figure 5.7 Components of

repetitive control
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7
Figure 5.8 The while loop
structure
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Figure 5.9 The repeat loop

structure
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8
Figure 5.10 Sorting the list Fred, Alex,
Diana, Byron, and Carol alphabetically
Insertion Sort:
Sort the list within itself.
Take a sublist, then sort
it alphabetically.
Details, textbook, p196
17
Figure 5.11 The insertion sort

algorithm expressed in pseudocode
Insertion Sort:
Sort the list within itself.
Take a sublist, then sort
it alphabetically.
Details, textbook, p196
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9
Figure 5.12 Applying our strategy to
search a list for the entry John
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Figure 5.13 A first draft of the

binary search technique
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10
Figure 5.14 The binary search
algorithm in pseudocode
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Figure 5.15
22
11
Figure 5.16
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Figure 5.17
24
12
Software efficiency
Measured as number of instructions executed

notation for efficiency classes
Example: insertion sort is (n2)
Best, worst, and average case
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Figure 5.18 Applying the insertion sort

in a worst-case situation
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13
Figure 5.19 Graph of the worst-case
analysis of the insertion sort algorithm
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Figure 5.20 Graph of the worst-case

analysis of the binary search algorithm
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14
Software verification
Proof of correctness
Assertions
Preconditions
Loop invariants
Testing
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Example problem: Chain

separating
A traveler has a gold chain of seven links.

He must stay at an isolated hotel for seven nights.
The rent each night consists of one link from the chain.
What is the fewest number of links that must be cut so
that the traveler can pay the hotel one link of the chain
each morning without paying for lodging in advance?
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15
Figure 5.21 Separating the chain
using only three cuts
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Figure 5.22 Solving the problem

with only one cut
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16
Figure 5.23 The assertions
associated with a typical while
structure
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Chapter 6
Programming
Languages
By:
J. Brookshear
Modified by:
Yacoub Sabatin, BEng, MSc
17
Chapter 6: Programming
Languages
6.1 Historical Perspective

6.2 Traditional Programming Concepts
6.3 Procedural Units
6.4 Language Implementation
6.5 Object Oriented Programming
6.6 Programming Concurrent Activities
6.7 Declarative Programming
35
Figure 6.1 Generations of

programming languages
36
18
Second-generation:
Assembly language
A mnemonic system for representing programs

Mnemonic names for op-codes
Names for all registers
Identifiers = descriptive names for memory
locations, chosen by the programmer
The machine language considered as the first-
generation, ex. Instruction Set (similar to
whats in chapter 2)
37
Assembly language characteristics
One-to-one correspondence between machine

instructions and assembly instructions
Programmer must think like the machine
Inherently machine-dependent
Converted to machine language by a program
called an assembler
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19
Assembly language example
Machine language Assembly language
156C LD R5, Price

166D LD R6, ShippingCharge
5056 ADDI R0, R5 R6
30CE ST R0, TotalCost
C000 HLT
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Third generation language

Uses high-level primitives
Similar to our pseudo-code in Chapter 5
Machine independent (mostly)
Examples: C, Basic, FORTRAN, COBOL
Each primitive corresponds to a short sequence
of machine language instructions
Converted to machine language by a program
called a compiler
Some languages are interpreted i.e. require
Interpreter, ex. Basic.
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20
Figure 6.2 The evolution of
programming paradigms
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Figure 6.3 A function for checkbook

balancing constructed from simpler
functions
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21
Figure 6.4 The composition of a
typical imperative program or
program unit
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Figure 6.5 Variable declarations

in C, C++, C#, and Java
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22
Figure 6.6 A two-dimensional
array with two rows and nine
columns
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Figure 6.7 Declaration of

heterogeneous array
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23
Figure 6.8
Control
structures
and their
representations
in C, C++, C#,
and Java
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Figure 6.9 The for loop structure

and its representation in C++, C#,
and Java
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24
Figure 6.10 The flow of control
involving a procedure
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Figure 6.11 The procedure

ProjectPopulation written in the
programming language C
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25
Figure 6.12
Executing the
procedure Demo
and passing
parameters by
value
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Figure 6.13
Executing the
procedure Demo
and passing
parameters by
reference
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26
Figure 6.14 The function
CylinderVolume written in the
programming language C
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Figure 6.21 The complete

program preparation process
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27
Figure 6.15 The translation process
Lexical Analysis:
The process of recognizing which strings of symbols represent a single
entity.
Analyzer reads the source symbol by symbol & identify which group of
symbols are related.
Parser: Views program in terms of lexical units (tokens) rather
than individual symbols, to form a statement in the language.
Code Generation: Machine-language constructing to implement
the statements recognized by the parser.
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Figure 6.16 A syntax diagram

of our if-then-else pseudocode
statement
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28
Figure 6.17 Syntax diagrams
describing the structure of a
simple algebraic expression
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Figure 6.18 The parse tree for

the string x + y x z based on the
syntax diagrams in Figure 6.17
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29
Figure 6.19
Two distinct
parse trees for
the statement
if B1 then if B2
then S1 else S2
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Figure 6.20 An object-oriented

approach to the translation
process
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30
Objects and Classes
Object = active program unit containing both

data and procedures
Class = a template for all objects of the same
type (blueprint)
An Object is often called an instance of the class.
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Components of an object
Instance variable = variable within an object

Method = function or procedure within an
object
Can manipulate the objects instance variables
Constructor = special method to initialize a
new object instance
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Encapsulation
Encapsulation = a way of restricting access to

the internal components of an object
Private
Public
63
Additional object-oriented
concepts
Inheritance: allows new classes to be defined in

terms of previously defined classes
Polymorphism: allows method calls to be
interpreted by the object that receives the call
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32
Figure 6.22 The structure of a
class describing a laser weapon in
a computer game
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Figure 6.23 A class with a

constructor
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Figure 6.24 Our LaserClass definition using
encapsulation as it would appear in a Java
or C# program
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Programming concurrent activities
Parallel or concurrent processing =

simultaneous execution of multiple processes
True concurrent processing requires multiple CPUs
Can be simulated using time-sharing with a single
CPU
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Figure 6.25 Spawning processes
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Interaction between processes
Mutual exclusion = a method for ensuring that

data can be accessed by only one process at a
time
Monitor = a data item augmented with the
ability to control access to itself
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Declarative programming
Resolution = combining two or more statements to

produce a new, logically equivalent statement
Example: (P OR Q) AND (R OR Q)
resolves to (P OR R)
Resolvent = a new statement deduced by resolution
Clause form = statement whose elementary components are
connected by the Boolean operation OR
Unification = assigning a value to a variable in a
statement
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Figure 6.26 Resolving the statements

(P OR Q) and (R OR Q) to produce
(P OR R)
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Figure 6.27 Resolving the
statements (P OR Q), (R OR Q),
R, and P
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Prolog
Fact = predicateName(arguments).
Example: parent(bill, mary).
Rule = conclusion :- premise.

:- means if
Example: wise(X) :- old(X).
Example: faster(X,Z) :- faster(X,Y), faster(Y,Z).
All statements must be fact or rules.
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37

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Chapter 5

5.1 The Concept of an Algorithm

Algorithms: levels of abstraction

Figure 5.3 Origami primitives

Assignment name expression

Figure 5.4 The procedure

Problem solving steps

1. Understand the problem.

Work the problem backwards

Person A is charged with the task of determining the

Figure 5.7 Components of

Figure 5.9 The repeat loop

Figure 5.11 The insertion sort

Figure 5.13 A first draft of the

Measured as number of instructions executed

Figure 5.18 Applying the insertion sort

Figure 5.20 Graph of the worst-case

Example problem: Chain

A traveler has a gold chain of seven links.

Figure 5.22 Solving the problem

6.1 Historical Perspective

Figure 6.1 Generations of

A mnemonic system for representing programs

Assembly language characteristics

One-to-one correspondence between machine

Machine language Assembly language

156C LD R5, Price

Third generation language

Figure 6.3 A function for checkbook

Figure 6.5 Variable declarations

Figure 6.7 Declaration of

Figure 6.9 The for loop structure

Figure 6.11 The procedure

Figure 6.21 The complete

Figure 6.16 A syntax diagram

Figure 6.18 The parse tree for

Figure 6.20 An object-oriented

Object = active program unit containing both

An Object is often called an instance of the class.

Instance variable = variable within an object

Encapsulation = a way of restricting access to

Inheritance: allows new classes to be defined in

Figure 6.23 A class with a

Programming concurrent activities

Parallel or concurrent processing =

Interaction between processes

Mutual exclusion = a method for ensuring that

Resolution = combining two or more statements to

Figure 6.26 Resolving the statements

Rule = conclusion :- premise.

All statements must be fact or rules.

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