Noun

Noun is a word which names a person, a place or a thing.

For example chair, table, book, New York, computer, cup, boy, John, hospital, Newton, garden,
room, man, Paris, doctor, and pen are nouns because each of these words is a name of a person,
a place or a thing.

Examples.

Chair, table, book, cup, computer, picture, (names of things)

New York, Paris, Canada, Toronto, school, hospital, cinema, garden, (names of places)
John, Newton, R.H Stephen, Einstein, man, boy, doctor (names of persons)

Types of Noun

There are two main types of noun.

Common Noun
Proper Noun

Common Noun.
Name of a common or a non-specific thing, place, or person is called common noun.

Common noun refers to a non-specific or non-particular thing, place or person.

For example book, pen, room, garden man, girl, road, camera, month, day, chair, school, boy,
car, are common nouns because each of these nouns refers to a common thing, place or person.

Proper Noun.
Name of a particular or a specific thing, place or person is called proper Noun.

For example BMW Car, April, Monday, Oxford University, New York, America, John, Newton,
Einstein, R.H Stephen, are proper nouns because each of these nouns refers to a particular thing,
place or person.
If a common noun is specified it becomes a proper noun. For example day is a common noun but
if it is specified like Monday or Friday, it becomes proper noun. Similarly car is a common noun
but if it is specified like BMW Car, it becomes proper noun.

Use of CAPITAL LETTER for proper noun.

The first letter of proper noun is always written in capital letter.

Examples.
He lives in Paris.
She studies in Oxford University.
Author of this book is John Stephen.
Laws of motion were presented by Newton
The richest person of the world is Bill Gates.

Use of THE for proper noun.

1. The article the is used before some proper nouns. Here are some rules for the use of
article the before proper nouns.
2. Article the is not used before the name of countries, cities, for example New York,
Mexico, Canada, Toronto, London, Paris, America. But if the name of country or city or
place expresses group of places or lands or states, then article the will be used before it.
For example, the Philippines, the Netherlands, the United States
3. Article the is not used before the name of universities, for example Oxford University,
Yale University, or Columbia University. But if the name of university is written in a
order that it includes the word of then article the will be used before it, for example,
the University of British Colombia, the university of Oxford, the University of Toronto.
4. Article the is used before names composed of both common noun and proper noun, for
example the New York city, the Dominion of Canada, the River Nile
5. The is used before the names of laws, principles, theories or devices, for example, the
Pythagorean Theorem, the Fahrenheit Scale, the Law of Newton, the Allais effect. But if
the proper noun is used in possessive form, no article will be used, for example Newtons
Laws of Motion, Hookes Law of Elasticity, Daltons Law of Partial Pressures.
6. The used by the name of ocean, sea, river, dessert or forest (except lakes and fall) for
example the Pacific Ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Sahara, the Black Forests.
7. The is used before the names of buildings, hotels, libraries having particular names, for
example the Brunel Hotel, the Lahore Museum, the Library of Congress,
8. The is used before the name of a geographical region and points on globe, for example
the Middle East, the West, the Equator, the North Pole
 9. The is usually used before the names of organizations for example, the Association of
Chartered Accountants, the World Health Organization,

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns.
A noun which can be counted is called countable noun.

For example, "book" is countable noun because we can count it and can say one book, two
books, three books and so on. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples
countable nouns. A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article a or an is used
before singular noun but not before plural noun. If a singular noun starts with consonant letter
then a is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen. If a singular noun starts
with............................

Countable and Uncountable Nouns

Countable Nouns.
A noun which can be counted is called countable noun.

Pen is countable noun because we can count it and can say one pen, two pens, three pens or more
pens. Pen, chair, cup, room, man, baby, bottle, dog, cat are examples countable nouns.

Singular and Plural noun (Countable Noun)

A countable noun can be singular as well as plural. Article a or an is used before singular
noun but not before plural noun.

If a singular noun starts with consonant letter then a is used before it, i.e. a book, a cat, a pen.
If a singular noun starts with a vowel letter or with consonant which sounds like vowel in that
word, an is used before it i.e. an apple, an umbrella, an onion, an hour.
Plural noun (Countable Noun)
Plural noun means more than one person, place or thing. Word chair is a singular noun but
word chairs is plural noun.

1. Plurals are usually formed by adding s or es to singular noun for example bookbooks,
catcats, boxboxes, taxtaxes. If a word ends with y, the y is changed to I then
es is added to make it plural, for example, babybabies, ladyladies. There may be some
exceptions.
2. Some plural are formed in different ways for example, manmen, childchildren, leaf
leaves, wifewives, footfeet, tootteeth, datumdata, basisbases. Such plurals are
called irregular plural forms.
3. Some nouns have same plural and singular form, for example, sheepsheep, deerdeer,
swineswine.

Uncountable Nouns.
Uncountable noun refers to substances which cannot be counted.

For example, water is an uncountable noun because we cannot count it. We cannot say, one
water or two water. Such substances which cannot be counted in terms of numbers are called
uncountable noun.
Examples: Water, milk, bread, honey, rain, furniture, news, information, pleasure, honesty,
courage, weather, music, preparation, warmth, wheat are examples of uncountable nouns.

Use of Uncountable Nouns.

Uncountable nouns are usually treated as singular noun for auxiliary verbs in sentence but
articles a or an are usually not used before uncountable nouns.

Examples.
Water maintains its level.
Necessity is the mother of invention
His preparation was not good.
The Weather is very pleasant today.
This information is very helpful in solving the problem.
The warmth of sun causes evaporation of water.

Uncountable nouns may be used as countable noun when it refers to an individual thing. For
example life is uncountable noun but it be used as countable noun if refers to individual, lives.
Example.
It was feared that two lives had been lost.

We can also use word like some, any, no, little, more etc before uncountable nouns if needed
in sentence.
Examples.
They have no information about the accused.
There is little milk in the glass.

Changing Uncountable nouns into countable nouns.

We can change uncountable noun into countable noun if we specify a unit or measuring
standard for it. For example water is an uncountable noun but we can make it countable by
saying one glass of water or two glass of water etc. In this example we selected a unit that is
glass. We can also say one litre of water or one cup of water etc. By selecting such units or
measuring standards we can change uncountable noun in to countable which can be counted in
terms of numbers.
Examples.
Uncountable countable
Bread a piece of bread.
Wheat a grain of wheat.
Milk a glass of milk
Information a piece of information
Verb

Verb is a word which shows action or state of something.

Examples. Write, run, eat, drink, catch, clean, speak, laugh, weep, are some verbs

He is writing a letter.

In the above example, the verb write tells us about the action (writing) of the subject (he). A
verb has its subject in sentence and verb tells us what its subject does, did or will do.

Verbs describe action or state. Most verbs describe action, such verbs are called dynamic verb,
for example write, eat, run, speak. Some verbs describe state of something, such verbs are called
stative verb and are not usually used in continuous tense for example be, impress, please,
surprise, belong to, consist of, resemble, seem

Examples.
He works in a factory(action)
I boughta computer. (action)
John seems happy. (state)
He resembles his brother (state)

Some verbs can be used as dynamic verb as well as stative verb.

Example.
She looks very beautiful. (look as stative verb)
She looked at black board. (look as dynamic verb)

Forms of verb according to tense or time of

action.
Verb has three forms according to tense.

Base form 2. Past Simple 4. Past participle

For example, gowentgone. Go is base form, went is past simple form, and gone is
past participle form. These three form may also be named as 1st form, 2nd form and 3rd form of
verb, which are denoted by V1, V2 and V3 respectively. ing is added to base form verb to
make present participle which can be used with auxiliary verb to be in continuous tense, for
example, gogoing, eateating, laughlaughing.

Formation of past simple and past participle

On the basis formation of past simple and past participle, verb is divided into

Regular verbs
Irregular verbs

Regular Verbs.
Some verbs form their past simple and past participle form by adding -ed to their base form,
such verbs are called regular verbs, for example laughlaughedlaughed, looklooked
looked.
Some examples

Base Past
Past simple Present
Verb form or participle
or V2 participle
V1 or V3
To advise advise advised advised Advising
To allow allow allowed allowed Allowing
To enjoy enjoy enjoyed enjoyed Enjoying
To rain rain rained rained Raining
To smile smile smiled smiled Smiling

Irregular Verbs.
Some verbs form their past simple and participle in different ways for example, buybought
bought, eatateeaten, such verbs are called irregular verbs.
Some examples

Past
Base form Past simple Present
Verb participle
or V1 or V2 participle
or V3
To know know knew known Knowing
To go go went gone Going
To drink drink drank drunk Drinking
To hold hold held held Holding
To write wriite wrote written Writing

Some verbs remain same in past simple and past participle.

Some example

Past
Base form Past simple Present
Verb participle
or V1 or V2 participle
or V3
To cut cut cut cut Cutting
To shut shut shut shut Shutting
To spread spread spread spread Spreading
To put put put put Putting
To read read read read reading

Main Verbs and Auxiliary or Helping verbs

A sentence can have both main verb and helping verb (auxiliary verb).

Main verb: A verb which has major meaning in terms of action are called main verb, i.e. write,
buy, eat etc.

Helping verb: A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence, according
a specific tense, is called helping verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had, is, will etc.

Main Verbs and Helping verbs (Axilliary)

A sentence can have both main verb and helping verb (auxiliary verb).

Main verb: A verb which has major meaning in terms of action are called main verb, i.e. write,
buy, eat etc.

Helping verb: A verb which supports the main verb to form the structure of sentence (according
to a specific tense) and give us information about the time of action expressed by main verb, is
called helping verb or auxiliary verb, i.e. is, am, have, was, had, is, will etc.

Main verb has real meaning and tells more about action while helping verb has no (or little)
meaning if it is alone but it adds time information about action if used with main verb to specify
the tense or time of the main verb. The examples below will help in better understanding.

She is eating an apple. (eat is main verb while is is helping verb)

She was eating an apple. (eat is main verb while was is helping verb)

The main verbs in these sentences eat convey the information about the action which is done
on an apple, while the helping verbs in these sentences "is, and was" tells us the about the time of
action by referring to specific tense. In first sentence with helping verb "is" action (eating an
apple) is being done right now in the present time while in the second sentence with hepling verb
"was" action (eating an apple) was being done in past.

It means the MAIN VERB CONVEYS the meaning of action with a little information about its
time, but the HELPING VERB (also called auxilliary Verb) tell us more about the time of action.
Helping verbs and main verbs together make a structure of sentence of a specific tense (action
and its time)

Use of helping verbs.

There are three primary helping verbs, be, do, and have, which are majorly used in tenses.
 Be (am, is, are). Forms of be are used for continuous tenses.

Example. She is laughing. (Present Continuous tense)

Have (have, has, had). Forms of have are used in perfect tense.

Example.
He has completed his work. (Present prefect tense)
He had bought a car. (Past perfect tense)

Do(do, does, did). Forms of do are used in indefinite(simple) tenses i.e. present simple
tense or past simple tense.

Example.
They do not play chess. (Present simple tense)
I did not see him. (Past simple)

Modal Verbs (Modal auxiliaries)

Modal verbs are used to express ideas such as ability, possibility, intention or necessity.
Examples.

Can, could (ability)

May might (possibility)
Will, shall, would (intention)
Should (necessity)
Must (necessity)
Ought to

Modal verbs can be used before main verb as helping verbs.

Examples
I can play violin.
It may rain today.
You must learn the test-taking strategies.
I will call you.
Transitive and intransitive verbs

Transitive Verbs.
A verb which needs to have object in sentence is called transitive verb.
Transitive verbs should have an object in sentence because without subject it does not covey
complete meaning.
Example.
He bought ______.

There should be some object in this sentence for verb buy. Without an object the verb
bought does not give complete meaning. To make it more meaningful we use some object for
verb bought i.e book or computer or car.

He bought a book.
or
He bought a computer.
or
He bought a computer.

More examples.
John is eating a mango.
He has completedhis work.
I caught a bird in bushes.
She wrote a story.

Intransitive sentence.
A verb which does not need to have object in sentence is called intransitive.
Intransitive verb can give complete meaning with an object in sentence for it.
Example.
He slept.
She is laughing.
It has rained.
Adjective

Adjective is a word that modifies (gives more information about) a noun or pronoun.

For example, tall man, old house, red car. The words tall, old, red are adjectives which give
more information about nouns man, house, and car in these examples.

More than one adjective can also be used for a single noun in sentence.
Examples.
The beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, thin, beautiful girl entered into the room.
The tall, thin, beautiful and intelligent girl entered into the room.

An adjective gives information about the colour, size, characteristic, quality, quantity or
personal traits of a noun or pronoun.

Some examples.

White, red, black, green, purple, yellow, orange, brown, and black are adjectives because
they mention the colour of noun or pronoun.
Beautiful, pretty, ugly, thin, slim, fat, tall, and short are adjectives and they describe
physical characteristic of a noun or pronoun.
Intelligent, brave, courageous, determined, exuberant and diligent are adjective and they
describe the personal traits of a noun or pronoun.

Use of adjective in sentence.

Adjective is used in sentence at two places depending upon the structure of sentence.

Before noun
 After some verbs (After stative verbs like seem, look, be (when used as stative verb), feel
etc)

Use of adjective before noun (Examples)

He ate a delicious mango.

She bought a red car.
A fat man was running in the street.
I saw a cute baby.
I dont like hot tea.
They live in a small home.
Poor cant afford expensive clothes.
Severe headache and fever are symptoms of malaria.
He is facing a difficult problem.

Use of adjective after verbs.

Adjectives may be used after stative verbs (i.e. seem, look, sound, taste, appear, feel, be).
Adjective are used after such verbs which behaves like stative verbs.
For example, Iron is hot
Hot is adjective in the above sentence which comes after is and is behaves like a stative
verb in this sentence. Hot after verb is but it tells us about the noun (subject) iron

Examples.
Your problem seems difficult.
That book was good.
This pizza tastes delicious.
The story sounds interesting.
He is stupid.
The man became angry.
She looks attractive.

Degrees of Adjectives and their use.

There are three degrees of adjectives.

1. Positive Adjective 2. Comparative Adjective 3. Superlative Adjective

Some Examples:

Positive Comparative Superlative

Big Bigger Biggest
Great Greater Greatest
Short Shorter Shortest
Old Older Oldest
Large Larger Largest
Happy Happier Happiest
Lucky Luckier Luckiest
Heavy Heavier Heaviest
Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful
Horrible More horrible Most horrible
Good Better Best
Bad Worse Worst
Little Less Least
Many More Most

Use of comparative adjective.

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to another
thing (one thing). It makes comparison between two things (only two things not more than two).

Word than is mostly used after comparative adjective but sometimes other words to may be
used after comparative adjective. See the following examples.

Examples.

She is taller than Mary.

A cup is smaller than a glass.
He is junior to me.
Chinese is more difficult than English.
Paris is more beautiful than New York.
Use of Superlative adjective.

Comparative adjectives are used to express characteristic of one thing in comparison to other
things (many things). It makes comparison among things more than two. Superlative is the
highest degree of a thing in comparison to other things. A superlative adjective means that a
object is surpassing all others (things in comparison) in quality or characteristic. For example,
John is the most intelligent student in his class. It means John is surpassing all other students in
his class and no other student in his class is as intelligent as John.

Article the is used before superlative degree. In or of etc is used after the superlative and
modifying noun in sentence.

Examples.

Bills Gate is the richest person in world.

Brunel is the most beautiful hotel in England.
Mount Everest is the highest mountain in world.
She is the tallest girl in class.
Our generation is the most modern.
His house is the biggest in the street.
The winter is the coldest time of year.
Adverb

Adverb is a word which modifies (gives more information about) a verb or adjective or other
adverb.

For example,
He replied.
He replied quickly.

The word quickly is an adverb which gives more information about verb reply in the above
example. The adverb quickly in above example tells us about the verb reply that the reply
was given quickly or with no time delay.
Similarly an adverb may also modify adjective or other adverb or other part of speech except the
noun.

Examples (adverbs modifying verbs).

He was driving carelessly.
John can speak French fluently.
They live happily.
Marry is laughing loudly.
He goes to school daily.
We sometimes get confused.
He met me yesterday.
Guests will come here.

Examples (adverbs modifying adjectives).

Note: The bold words (in following examples) are adverbs and the underlined words are
adjectives.

It is a very difficult problem.

He is seriously ill.
This book is really nice.
The story of crazy man was truly funny.
You are too weak to walk.
Examples (adverbs modifying other adverbs).
Note: The bold word (in following examples) is an adverb and underlined word is the other
adverb.

John drives very slowly.

He was talking too much angrily.
He ran fast enough to catch the bus.
They live very happily.

Formation of adverb
1. Most of adverbs are formed by adding -ly to adjectives. For example, happily, easily, quickly,
angrily, correctly, fluently, proudly, loudly, rapidly, immediately etc

1. A few adverbs exists without -ly. For example, fast, slow, deep, far, hard, high, wrong, right,
low, well, tight, straight, there, here, close, late, very, too, not

Examples.

Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of

Manner Place Time Frequency
Happily Here Now Sometimes

Sadly There Then Often

Easily Near Yesterday Usually

Rudely Somewhere Today Seldom

Loudly Outside Tomorrow Frequently

Fluently Inside Late Daily

Rapidly Ahead Early Generally

Angrily High Again Occasionally

Greedily Top Tonight Again and again

Wildly Bottom Soon Never

 Types/Kinds of Adverb

Adverb modifies verb by giving us the following information.

How the action occurs
Where the action occurs
How many times action occur
At which time the action occurs
Intensity of action

Adverbs are categorized on the basis of it information it gives, into the following categories.

1. Adverbs of manner
2. Adverb of place
3. Adverb of time
4. Adverb of frequency

Types of Adverb

Adverb modifies verb by giving us the following information.

1. How the action occurs

2. Where the action occurs
3. How many times action occur
4. At which time the action occurs
5. Intensity of action

Adverbs are categorized on the basis of it information it gives, into the following categories.

1. Adverbs of manner
2. Adverb of place
3. Adverb of time
4. Adverb of frequency

Adverbs of Manner
These adverbs tell us that in which manner the action occurs or how the action occurs or
occurred or will occur.

Examples.

She speaks loudly.

He was driving slowly.
You replied correctly.
He runs fast.
They solved the problem easily.
Listen to me carefully.

Adverb of Place.
Adverb of place tells us about the place of action or where action occurs/occurred/will occur.
e.g. here, there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead, on the top, at some place.

Examples.

He will come here.

The children are playing outside.
He was standing near the wall.
They were flying kites on the top of hill.
He lives somewhere in New York.
She went upstairs.

Adverb of time
These adverbs tell us about the time of action. e.g. now, then, soon, tomorrow, yesterday, today,
tonight, again, early, yesterday.

Examples.

I will buy a computer tomorrow.

The guest came yesterday.
Do it now.
She is still waiting for her brother.
He got up early in the morning.
Adverb of frequency
Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or occurred or will occur.
e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently, always, ever, generally, rarely, monthly,
yearly.

Examples.

He goes to school daily.

She never smokes.
He is always late for class.
They always come in time.
Barking dogs seldom bite.
The employees are paid monthly.
The employees are paid every month.
Pronoun

Pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun, e.g. he, she, it, they, his, her, him its etc.

Example.

John is an intelligent student. He goes to school daily. He studies a lot. He is making preparation
for examination. He will get high marks examination.

In the above paragraph pronoun he is used instead of noun John. If we do not use pronoun in
above paragraph we will have to use the noun John again and again in each sentence. So, the
purpose of pronoun is to avoid the repetition of a noun.

Examples. He, she, it, they, you, I, we, who, him, her, them, me, us, whom, his, its, their, your,
mine, our and whose, myself, himself, herself , yourself, which, this, that these, those, are the
pronouns which are mostly used.

Pronoun can be divided into following groups.

Personal Pronouns: e.g. I, you, He, she, it, they, who, me, him, her, them, whom
Possessive Pronouns: e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs,
Reflexive Pronouns: e.g. myself, himself, herself, itself, yourself, ourselves, themselves
Reciprocal Pronoun: e.g. each other, one another
Relative Pronouns: e.g. who, whom, whose, which, that
Demonstrative Pronoun: e.g. this, these, that, those

Types of Pronoun

There five types of pronoun

1. Personal Pronoun
2. Possessive Pronoun
3. Reflixive Pronoun
4. Relative Pronoun
5. Demonstrative Pronoun

Personal Pronouns.
Personal pronoun describes a particular person or thing or group.

Personal pronoun describes the person speaking (I, me, we, us), the person spoken to (you), or
the person or thing spoken about (he, she, it, they, him, her, them).

Types of Pronoun

There five types of pronoun

1. Personal Pronoun
2. Possessive Pronoun
3. Reflixive Pronoun
4. Relative Pronoun
5. Demonstrative Pronoun

Personal Pronouns
Personal pronoun describes a particular person or thing or group.

Personal pronoun describes the person speaking (I, me, we, us), the person spoken to (you), or
the person or thing spoken about (he, she, it, they, him, her, them).

Example.
He helps poor.

The pronoun he in above sentence describes a person who helps poor.

Use of Personal Pronouns.

Personal Pronoun
Namber Person
Subject Object
1st Person I Me

Singular 2nd Person You You

3rd Person He, She, It Him, Her, It

1st Person We Us

Plural 2nd Person You You

3rd Person They Them

Examples.
She is intelligent
They are playing chess.
He sent me a letter.
It is raining.
We love our country.
The teacher appreciated them.
I met him yesterday.
He gave her a gift.
Did you go to home?

Possessive Pronouns
Possessive Pronoun indicates close possession or ownership or relationship of a thing/person to
another thing/person.
e.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, hers,

Example.
This book is mine.

The pronoun mine describes the relationship between book and a person (me) who possesses
this book or who is the owner of this book.
Number Person Possessive Pronoun
1st Person Mine

Singular 2nd Person Yours

3rd Person Hers, his, its

1st Person Ours

Plural 2nd Person Yours

3rd Person Theirs

Examples.
That car is hers.
Your book is old. Mine is new.
The pen on the table is mine.
The smallest cup is yours.
The voice is hers.
The car is ours not theirs.
I have lost my camera. May I use yours?
They received your letter. Did you received theirs.

Note: Possessive adjectives (my, her, your) may be confused with possessive pronouns.
Possessive adjective modifies noun in terms of possession. Both possessive adjective and
possessive show possession or ownership, but possessive adjective is used (with noun) to modify
the noun while Possessive pronoun is used instead (in place of) a noun.

Examples.

This is my book. (Possessive adjective: my modifies the noun book)

This book is mine. (Possessive pronoun: mine is used instead of noun to whom the book
belongs)

Reflexive Pronoun.

Reflexive pronoun describes noun when subjects action affects the subject itself.
e.g himself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves, itself are reflexive pronouns.
Reflexive pronouns always act as objects not subjects, and they require an interaction between
the subject and an object.

Namber Person Subject Reflive Pronoun

1st Person I Myself

Singular 2nd Person You Yourself

3rd Person He, she, it Himself, Herself, Itself

1st Person We Ourselves

Plural 2nd Person You Yourselves

3rd Person They Themselves

Examples.
I looked at myself in the mirror.
You should think about yourself.
They prepared themselves for completion.
She pleases herself by think that she will win the prize.
He bought a car for himself.
He locked himself in the room.
He who loves only himself is a selfish.

Note: Reflexive noun can also be used to give more emphasis on subject or object. If a reflexive
pronoun is used to give more emphasis on a subject or an object, it is called Intensive
Pronoun. Usage and function of intensive pronoun are different from that of reflexive pronoun.

For example, she herself started to think about herself.

In the above sentence the first herself is used as intensive pronoun while the second herself
is used as reflexive pronoun.
See the following examples of intensive pronouns.
Examples. (Intensive Pronouns)
I did it myself. OR. I myself did it.
She herself washed the clothes.
He himself decided to go to New York.
She herself told me.

Reciprocal Pronouns.
Reciprocal Pronouns are used when each of two or more subjects reciprocate to the other.
or
Reciprocal pronouns are used when two subjects act in same way towards each other, or, more
subjects act in same way to one another.

For example, A loves B and B love A. we can say that A and B loves each other.

There are two reciprocal pronouns

Each other
One another.

Examples.
John and Marry are talking to each other.
The students gave cards to one another.
The people helped one another in hospital.
Two boys were pushing each other.
The car and the bus collided with each other.
The students in the class greeted one another.

Relative Pronouns.
Relative Pronoun describes a noun which is mentioned before and more information is to be
given about it.
Or
Relative pronoun is a pronoun which joins relative clauses and relative sentences.

For example, It is the person, who helped her.

In this sentence the word who is a relative pronoun which refers to the noun (the person)
which is already mentioned in beginning of sentence (It is the person) and more information (he
helped her) is given after using a relative pronoun (who) for the noun (the person).
Similarly, in above sentence the pronoun who joins two clauses which are it is the person
and who helped her.

Examples. The most commonly used five relative pronouns are, who, whom, whose, which, that.
Who is for subject and whom is used for object. who and whom are used for people.
Whose is used to show possession and can be used for both people and things. Which is used
for things. That is used for people and things.

Examples.
It is the girl who got first position in class.
Adjective is a word that modifies noun.
The man whom I met yesterday is a nice person.
It is the planning that makes succeed.
The boy who is laughing is my friend.
It is the boy whose father is doctor.
The car which I like is red.

Demonstrative Pronouns.
Demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points to a thing or things.
e.g. this, that, these, those, none, neither

These pronouns point to thing or things in short distance/time or long distance/time.

Short distance or time: This, these.

Long distance or time: That, those.

Demonstrative pronouns this and that are used for singular thing while these or those are
used for plural things.

Examples
This is black.
That is heavy.
Can you see these?
Do you like this?
John brought these.
Those look attractive.
Have you tried this.
Preposition

Preposition is a word that shows relation between noun or pronoun and the other words in
sentence.

e.g. in, on, at, to, with, under, above, into, by, of etc

Preposition is always used before a noun or pronoun and shows the relation of the noun or
pronoun to the other words in sentence. The following examples will help in better
understanding.

Example.

Subject + Verb Preposition Noun

The cat was sleeping on table
He lives in Paris
She looked at Stranger.
He will come in January.
Wedding ceremony will be held on 20th December.
I was waiting for you
Someone is knocking at The door.
She came by bus.

Prepositions show many relations (for different nouns) in sentence. On the basis of relation they
show, preposition may be divided into following categories.

Preposition for time e.g. in, on, at, etc.
Preposition for place e.g. in, on, at, etc
Preposition for direction e.g. to, towards, into, through etc.
Preposition for agent e.g. by
Preposition for device, instrument or machines. e.g. on, by, with, etc.
Prepositions used after verbs to make prepositional verb. e.g. look at, look after, laugh at
Types of Preposition

The types of preposition are as follows:

1. Preposition for Time

2. Preposition for Place
3. Preposition for Direction
4. Preposition for Agent
5. Preposition for Instrument
6. Prepositional Phrase

Types of Preposition

The types of preposition are as follows:

1. Preposition for Time

2. Preposition for Place
3. Preposition for Direction
4. Preposition for Agent
5. Preposition for Instrument
6. Prepositional Phrase

Prepositions for Time. (in, on, at)

Prepositions used for time of different natures are in, on at etc.

Preposition Time Nature

In 1. Month or Year.
e.g. in January, in 1985

2. Particular time of day or month or year

e.g. in morning, in evening, in first week of January, in summer, in winter
 3. Century or specific time in past etc
e.g. in 21st century, in stone age, in past, in future, in present
On 1. Day
e.g. on Monday

2. Date
e.g. on 5th of March, March 5

3. Particular day
e.g. on Independence Day, on my birthday,
At 1. Time of clock
e.g. at 5 Oclock, at 7:30 PM

2. Short and precise time

e.g. at noon, at sunset, at lunch time, at bed time, at the moment, at the same
time

Examples.
He was born in 1945.
She will go to New York on 25th of March.
The concert will begin at 7 Oclock.
He gets up early in the morning.
We enjoyed a lot in the summer.
The president will deliver speech to public on Independence Day.
She received a lot gifts on her birthday.
Where were you at the lunchtime?
I will call you at 12 A.M

Preposition for Place. (in, on, at)

Prepositions in, on or at are usually used for different places.

In is usually used for place which have some boundary (boundary may physical or
virtual).


On is used for surface
At is used for specific place.

Preposition Place Nature

In Place having some boundary (physical or virtual boundary)
Examples.
 In hall
In school
In a building
In a box
In a car
In library
In garden
In America
In room
In cupboard
On Surface of something.
Examples.
On a table
On blackboard
On a page
On the wall
On the roof
On a map
At Specific Place.
Examples.
At the entrance
At the bottom of glass
At front of the chair
At bus stop
At the edge of roof

Examples
She lives in New York.
Students study in library.
The wedding ceremony will be held in the hall.
There are some books on the table.
The teacher wrote a sentence on blackboard.
He was flying kite on the roof.
Her parents were waiting for her at the entrance of school
There was a huge gathering at bus stop.
His house is at the end of street.

Preposition for Direction.

(to, toward, through, into)
Prepositions like to, towards, through, into are used to describe the direction. Following
examples will help in better understanding.
Examples.
She went to the library.
He jumped into the river.
He ran away when he felt that someone was coming toward him.

Preposition for Agent. (by)

Preposition for agent is used for a thing which is cause of another thing in the sentence. Such
prepositions are by, with etc. Following examples will help in better understanding.

Examples.
This book is written by Shakespeare.
The work was completed by him.
The room was decorated by her.
The tub is filled with water.

Preposition for device, instrument or

machine.
Different preposition are used by different devices, instruments or machines. e.g. by, with, on etc.
Following examples will help in better understanding.

Examples.
She comes by bus daily.
He opened the lock with key.

Prepositional Verb

A prepositional phrase is a combination of a verb and a preposition. It is just a verb followed by

a preposition.

Prepositional Phrase = Verb + Preposition

Some verbs need particular prepositions to be used after them in sentences having a direct object.
Such a verb with its required preposition is called a prepositional phrase.

For example

He knocks at the door.

In above sentence knock at is prepositional phrase which contains a verb knock and a
preposition at. Without the use of correct preposition after a prepositional verb in a sentence,
the sentence is considered to be grammatically wrong. For example if we say, he knocks the
door, it is wrong because it lacks the required preposition at. So the correct sentence is he
knocks at the door.

Prepositional Verbs are transitive and they have a direct object in sentence. Some of the
frequently used preposition verb are, laugh at, knock at, listen to, look at, look for, look after,
wait for, agree to, agree with, talk about, talked to

Examples.
She is listening to music.
She looked at the blackboard.
We believe in God.
They were waiting for the teacher.
Do you agree with me?
Do you agree to my proposal?
Someone is knocking at the door.
You should not rely on her.
Conjunction

Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. e.g. and, but, or, nor,
for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where are some conjunctions.

Examples.

She tried but did not succeed.

He does not go to school because he is ill.
John and Marry went to the cinema.
He thought for a moment and kicked the ball.
I waited for him but he didnt come.
You will be ill unless you quit smoking.
We didnt go to the market because it was raining outside.

Single word Conjunction: Conjunction having one word

e.g. and, but, yet, because etc.

Compound Conjunction: Conjunction having two or more words

e.g. as long as, as far as, as well as, in order that, even if, so that etc

Types of Conjunction.

There are three types of conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunction
Subordinate Conjunction
Correlative Conjunction

Coordinating Conjunction.
Coordinating conjunction (called coordinators) joins words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions are short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.

Coordination conjunction joins two equal parts of a sentence,

 Word + word
Phrase + phrase
Clause + clause
Independent clause + independent clause.

Types of Conjunction.

Conjunction is a word that connects words, phrases, clauses or sentences. e.g. and, but, or, nor,
for, yet, so, although, because, since, unless, when, while, where etc.

There are three types of conjunctions

Coordinating Conjunction

Subordinate Conjunction

Correlative Conjunction

Coordinating Conjunction.
Coordinating conjunctions (called coordinators) join words, phrases (which are similar in
importance and grammatical structure) or independent clauses.

Coordinating conjunctions are short words i.e. and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.

Coordination conjunction joins two equal parts of a sentence,

Word + word
Phrase + phrase
Clause + clause
Independent clause + independent clause.

Examples.

Word + word: She likes tea and coffee.

Phrase + phrase: He may be in the room or on the roof.
Clauses + clause: What you eat and what you drink affect your health.
 Independent clause + independent clause: The cat jumped over the mouse and the
mouse ran away.

In the following examples, coordinating conjunctions join two words of same importance.

She likes pizza and cake. (pizza and cake)

I bought a table and a chair. (table and chair)
He may come by bus or car. (bus or car)

In the following examples, conjunction joins two independent clauses. Independent clause is a
clause which can stand alone as a sentence and have complete thought on its own.

I called him but he didnt pick up the phone.

I advised him to quit smoking, but he didnt act upon my advice.
He became ill, so he thought he should go to a doctor.
He shouted for help, but no body helped her.
He wants to become a doctor, so he is studying Biology.

Coordinating conjunctions always come between the words or clauses that they join. A comma is
used with conjunction if the clauses are long or not well balanced.

If both clauses have same subjects, the subject of 2nd clause may not be written again. See the
following examples

She worked hard and succeeded.

The player stopped and kicked the ball.
He became ill but didnt go to doctor.
Marry opened the book and started to study.

Subordinating Conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions (called subordinators) join subordinate clause (dependent clause) to
main clause.

e.g. although, because, if, before, how, once, since, till, until, when, where, whether, while,
after, no matter how, provided that, as soon as, even if,

MAIN CLAUSE + SUBORDINATE CLAUSE

SUBORDINATE CLAUSE + MAIN CLAUSE

Subordinate clause is combination of words (subject and verb) which cannot stand alone as a
complete sentence. Subordinate clause is also called dependent clause because it is dependent on
main clause. Subordinate clause usually starts with relative pronoun (which, who, that, whom
etc). Subordinate clause gives more information in relation to main clause to complete the
thought.

Subordinating conjunction joins subordinate clause to main clause. Subordinating conjunction

always come before the subordinate clause, no matter the subordinate clause is before main
clause or after the main clause.

Examples.
He does not go to school because he is ill.
I will call you after I reach my home.
I bought some cookies while I was coming from my office.
They played football although it was raining.
Although it was raining, they played foot ball.
As far as I know, this exam is very difficult.
I have gone to every concert since I have lived in New York.
You can get high grades in exam provided that you work hard for it.

Correlative Conjunction.
These are paired conjunctions which join words, phrases or clauses which have reciprocal or
complementary relationship.

The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are as follows

Either or
Neither nor
Whether or
Both and
Not only but also

Examples.

Neither John nor Marry passed the exam.

Give me either a cup or a glass.
Both red and yellow are attractive colours.
I like neither tea nor coffee.
He will be either in the room or in the hall.
John can speak not only English but also French.
Interjection

Interjections are short words which show strong feeling or emotions.

e.g. oh, ah, wow, hurrah, alas, ouch, Oops, aha, hey, etc

Interjections are short exclamations which express strong or sudden feeling of

Joy
Sorrow
Wonder

Exclamation sign is used after interjections.

Examples.

Hurrah! We won the competition.

Ouch ! It hurts.
Wow! What a nice shirt.
Hey ! what are you doing?
Alas! My parents are dead.
Oh! I forgot to bring my purse.

Besides these specific interjections, a normal word can also be used as interjection if it is used to
express feeling or emotion.

No! Dont touch it, its hot.

What! I am selected for the job?
Help! I am about to fall.
Well ! I will try my level best.