Cao Ting

Training Services
Introduction to Corrosion
and Fouling
Mark W. Mucek
Senior Metallurgist
Engineering Fellow
EDS 2005/Corrosion-Fouling-1
Outcomes
Define corrosion
Define anode and cathode
Describe corrosion problems carefully
Classify corrosion by temperature
What is Corrosion?
There are two ways of defining it
Definition of Corrosion
All interactions between a material and the

environment
Undesired interactions between a material
and the environment
Neither is wrong and both are useful
depending on the situation
What are Anodes and Cathodes?
Anode
Location of oxidation reaction

Fe <=> Fe2+ + 2e-
Oxidation number increases in an
oxidation reaction
Cathode
Location of reduction reaction

2e- + 2H+ <=> H2
Oxidation number decreases in a
reduction reaction
Description of Corrosion Problems
Does the chemical reaction described by
Fe + 2HCl => FeCl2 + H2
represent a significant corrosion problem?
Cant tell
Equation as written contains insufficient
detail
Fe(s) +2 HCl(g) => FeCl2(s) + H2(g)

Problem at high temperature
Not a problem at low temperature
Dry HCl is shipped in carbon steel cylinders
Fe(s) +2 H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) =>

Fe2+(aq) + H2(g) + 2Cl-(aq)
Aqueous corrosion - a big problem

HCl and FeCl2 are present as ions not molecules
Corrosion is caused by H+, not HCl
Classification of Corrosion by Temperature
Low temp corrosion

<450F (232C)
Aqueous
Over 450F considered high temp
Liquid water unlikely
Cutoff temp varies with industry
Dry oil environments hard to classify
Low Temperature Corrosion
Outcomes
Define and describe the key features of

General corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Crevice corrosion
Under deposit corrosion
Pitting
Environmental cracking
Characteristics
Normally aqueous
Anodic reaction normally metal dissolution
Fe => Fe2+ + 2e-
Cathodic reaction normally oxygen or
hydrogen reduction
4e- + O2 => 2O2-
2e- + 2H+ => H2
General Corrosion
Characteristics
Most common type of corrosion

Not necessarily biggest problem
Can be measured and predicted
If monitored, wont cause unexpected failures
General Corrosion
Metal Solution
Anode
m
2+
m
-
e
H2O
O2
Cathode +
H3O
Anode and cathode locations are almost random and

move with time
Characteristics
Uniform
Metal may look new - but thinner
Non-uniform
Shallow depressions and undulations
What many people call pitting
Not pitting in an electrochemical sense
Pits deeper than wide
Refinery Examples
Many locations
Liquid water
Acids or oxygen
Sites of condensation
Crude tower overhead
Exterior corrosion
Walkways
Handrails
Corrosion under insulation
Control Techniques
Understand the environment

Understand the chemistry
Remember the trace contaminants
Monitor the environment and the corrosion
rate
Metallurgy upgrade AFTER understanding
problem
Remember
General corrosion is the only corrosion type for

which thickness measurements and (typically)
field electrochemical measurements are
reliable!!!!!
Galvanic Corrosion
Characteristics
Preferential corrosion of one metal of two or

more electrically connected dissimilar metals
Requires an aqueous environment which is
corrosive to at least one metal
Wide separation on galvanic series intensifies
effect
Galvanic Corrosion
Solution
Zn 2+
Zn
-
e
-
4OH
O2
Cu 2H O
2
Galvanic Series
Cathodic (dont Aluminum

corrode) Zinc
Platinum Magnesium
Gold Anodic (Corrode)
Silver
Hastelloy C Active stainless steels
Austenitic and nickel alloy are
Stainless slightly more cathodic
Copper (brass than steel
bronze)
Steel
Example
Exit elbow from water wash column

Carbon steel
Bolted to Monel liner which is connected to
Monel deminster
Environment
CO2
Cl-
pH varies
Example
Example
Monel essentially uncorroded

Accelerated corrosion on carbon steel near
connection with Monel
Flange corroded
Effect diminishes with distance
Wall thickens moving away from connections
What We Should Learn
In galvanic corrosion
Both metals continue to corrode
Anodic metal faster than if no galvanic couple
Cathodic metal slower than if no galvanic couple
May approach 0
Rate depends on
Corrosivity of the environment
Separation of metals on EMF or galvanic series
Area Effects
Galvanic corrosion damage also depends on

anode and cathode areas
Big anode, little cathode not bad
Big cathode little anode causes trouble
Area Effects
Area Effects
Coatings change the effective areas of the

anode and cathode
Painting the material which is more corrosion
resistant is sometimes effective
Area Effects
Corrosive
Environment
Coating
Carbon Steel Stainless Steel
Refinery Examples
Heat exchangers with different bundle/shell

metallurgies
Material changes in piping
Should be done in non-corrosive area
Pump components / valve trim
Control Techniques
Consider the consequences of any bimetallic

connection
Fully isolate bimetallic bolted connections
Insulate Flanged Connections
Insulating
Washer
Flange
Bolt
Gasket
Flange
Insulating Nut
Sleeve
Crevice Corrosion
Characteristics
Selective corrosion in a narrow gap

May or may not be accompanied by general
corrosion
Related to both pitting and under deposit
corrosion
Crevice Corrosion
High Oxygen
Low Oxygen
Cathode
Anode
Corroded Area Flange
Gasket
Crevice Corrosion
Rolling
Grooves
Tube
Sheet
Tube
Crevices Crevices
Example
Drain valve
Environment
H2S, oxygen, chlorides, water
Narrow crevice accelerated attack
Note that the retaining bolts have been
completely corroded
Example
Example
Refinery Examples
Anywhere where there is a crevice and general

corrosion may be expected
Flanged connections especially with fiber gaskets
Threaded connections
Tube/tubesheet connections
Plate type heat exchangers
Control Techniques
Use materials less sensitive to pitting

Crevices are extremely bad in material
environment combinations such as 304 / Cl-
which tend to pit
Eliminate crevices - especially those with
porous gaskets
Eliminate threaded connections
Under Deposit Corrosion
Under deposit corrosion results from

Concentration cell
Anode reaction enhanced under deposit
Cathode reaction enhanced away from deposit
Reverse possible not called under deposit
corrosion
Anode and cathode may be separated
Location of deposits not necessarily the same as
location of metal loss
Water Drop
Water Drop
en
Hig
yg
hO
Ox
ec
re en
xyg
O
h
as
xy
Hig
in
en
g
g
O
- 2
2+ OH
Fe
Fe2O3
e-
Location of Anodes and Cathodes
Consider a garden shovel partly covered with

wet dirt
Where will the rust stains be?
Where will metal be lost from?
Location of Anode and Cathode
Wet Dirt
Location of Anode and Cathode
rust
Metal Loss
Example
FCC gas con stripper reboiler bundle

Low fin tubes
H2S
Cl-
Foulant material
Refinery Examples
Any location in which in which scaling and/or

fouling occur especially if oxygen and chlorides
are present
Wet ammonium chloride deposits
Crude unit overheads
Hydrotreater effluents
Corrosion under insulation
Control Techniques
Eliminate deposits
Metallurgy upgrade if deposits are corrosion
products
Anti foulant may help for other foulants
Stay within specified fluid velocities
Minimize interfaces
Liquid / vapor etc.
Control Techniques
Design equipment to minimize deposition

Avoid dead legs on the bottom of horizontal
piping
Avoid low flow areas in exchangers through
good baffle design
Keep insulation dry
Weather shielding
Baffle Design
Pitting
Pitting Characteristics
What inspectors call pitting and actual pitting

are sometimes different
Pitting is normally discrete pits that are deeper
than they are wide
Pitting is most common on the tops of horizontal
surfaces and rare on the bottoms of horizontal
surfaces
Example
Example
Example
Type 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel

Factors Affecting Pitting
Normally found in active/passive metals in

passive state
Requires incubation time for pit to initiate
Some crevice corrosion is pitting in a preformed
pit (crevice)
Refinery Examples
300 Stainless + chlorides

Under chloride leaching insulation
Seawater cooling systems
Control Techniques
Understand environment
Avoid material/environment combinations
prone to pitting
If unavoidable or exist in present design
watch:
velocity
temperature
cleanliness
Environmental Cracking
Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC) in
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Intergranular SCC
Intergranular stress corrosion cracking occurs

between grains
Most common is polythionic acid stress
corrosion cracking (PTASCC)
To occur, five things are needed
Sensitized material
Sulfide scale on austenitic stainless steel
Tensile stress (residual or applied)
Oxygen (air)
Liquid water
Intergranular SCC
Sensitized Material
Carbides precipitate at the grain boundaries and

combine with Cr to form chromium carbides
Depletes the Cr at the boundary
Makes area susceptible to damage
Sensitization can occur during welding or during
elevated temperature exposure
Occurs in the 750F-1500F range
1200F peak sensitizing temperature
Sensitized Microstructure
Intergranular SCC
(continued)
If any of the five requirements is missing,

PTASCC wont occur
Generally occurs at low temperatures, in the

presence of moisture
Shutdowns
Intergranular SCC
(continued)
To minimize PTASCC:
Use stabilized materials, where carbides are tied up
with another element, and are not available to
combine with Cr
Common elements are Niobium (Type 347) and
Titanium (Type 321)
Use low carbon content materials (L grades)
Less carbon to precipitate
Cannot eliminate carbon because it is necessary
for strength, especially for elevated temperature
use (required by the ASME Code)
Neutralize the acid (refer to NACE RP0170)
Polythionic Acid SCC
Transgranular SCC
Transgranular stress corrosion cracking

occurs across (through) the grains
On austenitic stainless steels, the most
common form is chloride stress corrosion
cracking (ClSCC)
To occur, three things are needed
Presence of a halogen, such as chloride
Liquid water
Tensile stress (residual or applied)
Transgranular SCC
(continued)
Generally occurs at temperatures between

about 120F and the water vaporization
temperature
Lower threshold temperature can be
considerably lower if other contaminants
are present, such as H2S
Chloride SCC
Protection of Stainless Steel
Limit chloride in hydrotest water to 50ppm

If between 50 ppm and 250 ppm, add a 0.5%
sodium nitrate solution
More than 250 ppm is unacceptable
Water filled systems are limited to 200-400 ppm
SCC can occur at 500-600 ppm
Potable water is often limited to 50 ppm
Occasionally, limit is 250 ppm
Stress Corrosion Cracking of Carbon Steels
Wet H2S
Blistering
HIC
SOHIC
SSC
Alkaline SCC
Caustic
Alkanolamine solutions containing CO2 and/or H2S
Alkaline sour waters containing carbonates
There are others
High Temperature Corrosion
Outcomes
Describe basic mechanism of high temperature

corrosion
Describe significance of thermodynamics and
kinetics to high temperature corrosion
Outcomes
Describe conditions for and significance of

oxidation
sulfidation
naphthenic acid corrosion
High Temperature Corrosion Mechanism
Direct oxidation reduction reaction

2Fe(s) + O2(g) <=> 2FeO(s)
Ions, water not required
Result of high temperature corrosion is
normally a scale
Naphthenic acid is an exception
High Temperature Corrosion Rates
Many ways to express rate of high

temperature corrosion
Scale thickness
Scale growth rate
Mass gain (with scale on)
Mass loss (with scale removed)
Total depth of attack
Total Depth of Attack
To
Measures total
metal
compromised
by corrosion Tm
Total depth of
attack = (To -
Tm) / 2
Internal Metal Loss
Penetration
Thermodynamics and Kinetics
High temperature corrosion governed by both

thermodynamics and kinetics
Thermodynamics
Will corrosion occur at all
Kinetics
What rate will corrosion occur
Thermodynamics
If corrosion product is not thermodynamically

stable, no corrosion will occur
Required corrodant concentration varies
Temperature
Alloy
For this discussion assume sufficient
corrodant concentration
Kinetics
Corrosion rate function of

Temperature
Alloy
Corrodant
Corrosion rate only a minor function of
Corrodant concentration
Kinetics
Diffusion of ions through scale rate limiting

Thick scale => long diffusion path => low
mass transfer
Fast corrosion when scale is thin, slow
when scale is thick
Normally parabolic
Scale growth time1/2
Parabolic rate constant
Other rate laws possible
Parabolic Growth Rate
12
10
Thickness
8
6
4
2
0
0 50 100
Time
Kinetics
If scale spalls (flakes) off, corrosion rate does

not fall with time
Linear kinetics
Kinetics
12
10
Scale Thickness
Linear
8
Parabolic
6
4
2
0
0 50 100
Time
Oxidation
Oxidation
Most common high temperature corrosion

Normally occurs in combustion gas environments
Normally studied in air
Similar but not identical results
Oxidation Issues
Alloy composition
Temperature
Oxygen concentration
Second order effect
Oxygen Concentration
Oxygen need not come from air

CO/CO2, H2/H2O equilibria
2CO + O2 <=> 2CO2
2H2 + O2 <=> 2H2O
Alloys
Chromium, aluminum, and silicon resistant to

oxidation
Alloys containing these elements used in high
temperature oxidation environments
Scale Chemistry and Corrosion Rate
Parabolic rate constant 1.E-06

FeO/Fe3O4/Fe2O3 (Fe)
1.E-07 Fe-Cr oxide/FeO/Fe3O4/Fe2O3

(Fe-2Cr)
1.E-08 (Fe,Cr)O3/Fe2O3 (Fe-9Cr)
FeFe(2-n)CrnO4(internal)/
1.E-09 Cr2O3/Fe3O4/Fe2O3
(Fe-16 Cr)
1.E-10
Cr2O3 (Fe-28Cr)
1.E-11
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Wt % Cr
Oxidation Rates of Alloys (Air)
1 = Carbon Steel
1 2 3 4 2 = 1 Cr - 1 /2 Mo
100 3 = 2 Cr - 1 /2 Mo
4 = 5 Cr - 1 /2 Mo
5 = 7 Cr - 1 /2 Mo
6 = 5 Cr - 1 /2 Mo - 1 1 /2 Si
7 = 9 Cr - 1 Mo
8 = TP 304 Stainless Steel
9 = TP 309/310 Stainless Steel
10 5
7
8
1.0
9
0.1
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Temperature, F
Metal Temperature, a Key Issue
Metal temperature, not process or flame

temperature is critical
Watch changes in heat transfer
External scaling
Lower metal temperature, lower corrosion
Internal fouling
Increased metal temperature, higher
corrosion
Refinery Examples
Fired Heaters
Flare Tips
Control Techniques
Decrease temperature
Increase alloy
Cr, Ni, Al, Si
Control environmental contaminants
Metals, e.g. V, in fuel
Sulfidation
Definition
High temperature interaction between metal

and H2S (in a hydrogen rich environment) or
organic sulfur
Sulfidation
Rates vary with

Alloy
Temperature
Concentration
Very minor for H2S/H2 environments
More significant for organic sulfur
Sulfidation Kinetics
Rates much higher than oxidation for similar

temperatures
Parabolic for thin scales
Linear for thick scales
Scales spall off
Sulfur Corrosion Rate Prediction
Two sets of corrosion curves

McConomy (API)
Based on total sulfur
UOP uses variation of this set of curves
Couper - Gorman
Based on hydrogen/hydrogen sulfide
High Temp Sulfur Corrosion
Hot H2S Corrosion
10 10
Carbon Corrosion
Rate
Steel mpy
1 50 Corrosion 1 4
30 3
20 Rate
Mole % H2S
Mole % H2S
40 2
10 25 mpy 1
1 3 15
5 .6
2 0.1 .4
0.1
.2
0.01 0.01 No Corrosion
No Corrosion
18 8 Stainless
0.001 0.001
400 600 800 1000 400 600 800 1000
Temperature F Temperature F
Oxygen and Sulfur
Oxidation/Sulfidation
Many environments contain both oxygen and

sulfur
Heaters
High sulfur fuel oil, low excess oxygen
Process
H2S/sulfur, steam, oxygenates, CO2
Oxidation/Sulfidation
Compete thermodynamically and kinetically

Winner very important
Oxide scale slow corrosion
Sulfide scale fast corrosion
Scale Type vs. Corrosion Rate
CrS + FeS Cr2O3+ FeS

pS2 or H2S/H2
Cr2O3 + FeO
CrS + Fe
Cr2O3 + Fe
Cr + Fe
pO2 or H2O/H2
Idealized Corrosion Rates and Scales
20
Scale Thickness (arbitrary
15 Cr2O3
FeO
units)
10
CrS
5 FeS
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (arbitrary units)
Naphthenic Acids
Naphthenic Acids
=
Class of acids
-R-C-O-H
Not a single
acid
R = Hydrocarbon
MW varies
chain
greatly
Normally
1 or more 5 or 6
heavy member rings
Naphthenic Acid Corrosion
Direct reaction between metal and acid

Water and ionization not required
Function of
Temperature
Range 450-750F (230-400oC)
Max 520-535F (270-280oC)
Concentration
Wall shear stress
Naphthenic Acid Corrosion
Leaves metal bare (no scale)

If sulfur absent
Sharp ridges and grooves
Sulfur scale reduces corrosion
Corrosion Prediction
TAN best method readily available

Not very good
Acids other than Naphthenic acids part of TAN
Other acids dont corrode by same method
<0.6 TAN normally considered OK in crude
<1.5 TAN normally considered OK in side cuts
Corrosion Prediction
For different crudes

Ratio of napthenic acids to other acids varies
Molecular weight of napthenic acids varies
For crudes with only naphthenic acids and
only a narrow range of molecular weights
even a very low TAN will give high corrosion
in one cut
Sulfur Corrosion vs. Naphthenic
Acid Corrosion
Sulfur corrosion
Shallow scoops
Scale
Resolved by 410 metallurgy
Naphthenic acid
Sharp ridges
Bare metal
Not resolved by 410 metallurgy
Refinery Examples
Primarily crude units and vacuum units

Temperatures between 450-750F
Includes rundown piping until temps cool
Inlet piping and heaters of downstream units
Even after tankage
Naphthenic acids destroyed by catalysts and
temperatures over 750F
Control Techniques
Blend crudes to reduce TAN

Not perfect solution but best available
Check acid in individual cuts
Use 317 SS
Control Techniques
Use corrosion inhibitor

Phosphorus containing
Phosphate or phosphite esters
Non-phosphorus containing
Often contain sulfur
Phosphorus containing more effective but
may poison downstream catalysts
Corrosion Monitoring
Outcomes
Describe classes of corrosion monitors

Identify operating principles
Identify significant limitations
Types of Corrosion Monitors
Nondestructive Examination (NDE)

Corrosion coupons
Electrical resistance probes
Linear polarization resistance probes
Hydrogen probes
Nondestructive Examination
Advantages and disadvantages vary somewhat

with method
Advantages
Direct measurement of metal loss
Equipment is portable so measurements can be
made at any desired location
May be usable on stream
Portable move until corrosion is found
Disadvantages
May or may not show pitting or cracking
May or may not show corrosion around
complex geometries
Gives only an average corrosion rate
Corrosion Coupons
Corrosion Coupons
Advantages
Direct evidence of corrosion
Shows pitting
Can show cracking, crevice corrosion, and
galvanic corrosion
Can be conducted on line or in lab
Can be used in any corrosive environment
Available in essentially all commercial alloys
Corrosion Coupons
Disadvantages
Gives only an average corrosion rate
Must select proper location in process
Intrudes into process
Improper cleaning/handling will give
erroneous results
SLOW
Corrosion Coupons
Corrosion Coupons
Corrosion Coupons
Greatest benefit of using corrosion coupons is

for the selection of a new alloy in a process
known to be corroding
Electrical Resistance Probe
Advantages
Fast enough to detect the effects of process
changes on corrosion rate (sensitivity on the
order of 1 - 2 days)
High sensitivity probes reported to respond
more rapidly
Work in most corrosive environments
some limits on corrodants and temperature
Advantages
Available in most commercial alloys
May detect pitting
Disadvantages
Time sensitivity insufficient to measure the
effect of upsets on corrosion
May protrude into process
Must be changed periodically
Electrical Resistance Probes
Not so New
New
Electrical resistance of probe varies with cross section of wire
Linear Polarization Probe
Probe is electrochemical in nature

Applies a small 10 - 20 mV sinusoidal potential
Measures current response
Calculates resistance of system
Calculates corrosion rate based on resistance
Potential
= Eapp - Ecorr

Slope = i = Rp
Current i
(measured)
B
Rp = i = i
corr
B is a constant for a given system and relatively

constant between systems
Advantages
Speed
Test are short
Responds quickly enough to detect
corrosion caused by upsets
Electrodes available for most commercial alloys
Will normally detect pitting
Disadvantages
Requires at least some electrolyte
Beneficial to determine B independently or to
calibrate with coupon tests
Probes can be 2 or 3 electrode

Hydrogen Permeation Sensor
Hydrogen Permeation
Indicator for
Aqueous corrosion when certain species are
present e.g. HF, H2S, CN-, As
Hydrogen embrittlement
Hydrogen blistering
SOHIC
Sulfide stress cracking
Pressure Gauge
Installed at a fixed location

Hydrogen penetrates the tip of the gauge and
is trapped. Pressure increases within the
system and is recorded on the gauge
The gauge is periodically reset
Pressure Gauge
Hydrogen Sensor
Patch attaches to pipe or vessel

Magnetic or Strap
Low or high temperature
Air pulled through channels in patch
Sweeps hydrogen to remote sensor
Sensor measures hydrogen concentration
Hydrogen flux calculated
Portable can move to find corrosion
Hydrogen Sensor
Useful for
High temp corrosion e.g. naphthenic acid
Predicting/measuring hydrogen blistering/sulfide
stress cracking
May or may not predict general corrosion rates
Effect of recombination poisons on hydrogen
penetration must be calibrated
Hydrogen Sensor
Fouling
Outcomes
Define Fouling
Identify common foulants
Identify common refinery locations for fouling
Identify common fouling prevention strategies
Definition
Fouling is any unwanted deposition of

material
Fouling
Fouling Issues
Increased pressure drop

Catalyst beds
Heat exchangers
Drop in heat transfer
Heat exchangers
Increased corrosion
Under deposit corrosion
Objective
Reduce fouling so it does not become

excessive during the length of the run
The objective may not be to totally prevent

fouling
Prevention may be too expensive where
control is economically justified
Types of Fouling
Corrosion products
Reaction products
Precipitates
Silt
Types of Fouling
Corrosion Products
Iron oxides
Iron sulfides
May form in situ or may be carried
downstream
Types of Fouling
Reaction Products
Polymers
Normally involves oxygen, olefins, and
free radicals
Hydrotreater preheat exchangers
Cracked Naphthas
Oxygen pickup in tankage
Coke
Types of Fouling
Precipitates
Inorganic salts
NH4Cl
NH4HS
CaSO4
NaCl
NaOH
NaHCO3
Na2CO3
Types of Fouling
Precipitates
Organic
Asphaltenes
Waxes
Very high molecular weight compounds and

agglomerations are not actually soluble in
lighter hydrocarbons - they are emulsified
Types of Fouling
Silt
Inorganic, insoluble material
Normally limited locations in refinery
Water side, once through cooling systems
Desalting equipment
Factors Affecting Fouling Rate,
Reaction Products
Oxygen is bad
High temperatures are bad
Crude type matters a great deal
Fouling Rate vs. Dissolved Oxygen
Louisiana HDS Feed
Fouling Rate vs. Temperature
California and Illinois A Feeds With
100 PPM Dissolved Oxygen
Common Fouling Locations
Exchangers
Condensers
Furnaces
Fractionators
Reboilers
Reactors
Compressors
Fouling Control Techniques
Gas blanket storage tanks

Crude desalting
Oxygen removal
Prefractionation and rerunning
Water wash
Metallurgy
Filters
Unit design
Gas Blanket Storage Tanks
Used for oxygen control

If possible dont run down to tankage
If necessary use tankage for surge but bypass
most of stream
Know quality of gas
Fuel gas may have contaminants
Natural gas has air
Crude Desalting
Critical to success
Eliminates problems before they occur
Reduces
HCl in overhead
NH4Cl downstream
NaCl in bottoms
NaOH in bottoms
Oxygen Removal
Probably unnecessary for refinery produced

feed if handled and stored well
Purchased feed probably has oxygen
Strippers are simple or complex depending on
need
Alternative is to use anti oxidant or oxygen
scavenger
Prefractionation and Rerunning
Know what is being run

Slops can contain many species which lead to
fouling
Incoming crude also may have fouling
inducing additives
Eliminate as early in the process as possible
Water Wash
Ammonium chloride and ammonium bisulfide

significant foulants
Sublimate from gas to solid
Water wash will dissolve
Water Wash
Water wash issues

Proper location
Upstream of sublimation point
Continuous, not intermittent (generally)
Damp material very corrosive
Sufficient water
Damp material very corrosive
Water injection
Good mixing essential
Metallurgy
Much fouling is due to corrosion products

Iron sulfide
Iron oxide
Selection of best material reduces corrosion
and therefore the production of foulants
Filters
In many cases the site that fouling material is

created (e.g. furnaces) is not the location of
the fouling problem (exchangers)
Foulant often carried with flow and deposits
in low flow areas
Filtration traps foulant material so it may be
removed easily
Unit Design
Consider
Metallurgy for corrosion prevention
Minimize dead spots
Baffle Design
Control heat transfer surface temperature
Minimize oxygen ingress
Tankage
Equipment (Pump seals etc)
Baffle Design

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Training Services

There are two ways of defining it

All interactions between a material and the

Location of oxidation reaction

Location of reduction reaction

Does the chemical reaction described by

Fe + 2HCl => FeCl2 + H2

represent a significant corrosion problem?

Fe(s) +2 HCl(g) => FeCl2(s) + H2(g)

Fe(s) +2 H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) =>

Aqueous corrosion - a big problem

Low temp corrosion

Define and describe the key features of

Most common type of corrosion

Anode and cathode locations are almost random and

Understand the environment

General corrosion is the only corrosion type for

Preferential corrosion of one metal of two or

Cathodic (dont Aluminum

Exit elbow from water wash column

Monel essentially uncorroded

Galvanic corrosion damage also depends on

Coatings change the effective areas of the

Carbon Steel Stainless Steel

Heat exchangers with different bundle/shell

Consider the consequences of any bimetallic

Selective corrosion in a narrow gap

Corroded Area Flange

Anywhere where there is a crevice and general

Use materials less sensitive to pitting

Under deposit corrosion results from

Consider a garden shovel partly covered with

FCC gas con stripper reboiler bundle

Any location in which in which scaling and/or

Design equipment to minimize deposition

What inspectors call pitting and actual pitting

Type 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel

Normally found in active/passive metals in

300 Stainless + chlorides

Intergranular stress corrosion cracking occurs

Carbides precipitate at the grain boundaries and

If any of the five requirements is missing,

Generally occurs at low temperatures, in the

Transgranular stress corrosion cracking

Generally occurs at temperatures between

Limit chloride in hydrotest water to 50ppm

Describe basic mechanism of high temperature

Describe conditions for and significance of

Direct oxidation reduction reaction

Many ways to express rate of high

High temperature corrosion governed by both

If corrosion product is not thermodynamically

Corrosion rate function of

Diffusion of ions through scale rate limiting

If scale spalls (flakes) off, corrosion rate does

Most common high temperature corrosion

Oxygen need not come from air

Chromium, aluminum, and silicon resistant to

Parabolic rate constant 1.E-06

1.E-07 Fe-Cr oxide/FeO/Fe3O4/Fe2O3

Metal temperature, not process or flame

High temperature interaction between metal

Rates vary with

Rates much higher than oxidation for similar