1.

1 INTRODUCTION

Apart from the classical light there is also another category of light which is known as non-

classical light. It is a kind of light that cannot be described using classical electromagnetism; its

characteristics are described by quantized electromagnetic field and quantum mechanics.

Quantized electromagnetic fields are analogous to the harmonic oscillator which has a non-zero

energy even at the ground state. The number state which represent the number of photons of the

quantized electromagnetic field when zero has a corresponding fluctuation. That is, when there are

no photons there is still some sort of quantum fluctuation which is called the vacuum fluctuations.

Classically, the state in which no photon is present is the vacuum state. There is a quantum state

that gives a very sensible limit to errors associated with classical light. This state represents the

most classical quantum state of a harmonic oscillator. It is been established mathematically that

the coherent state is nearly classical like state because it contains only the noise of the vacuum [1].

The coherent state minimizes the uncertainty principle and exhibit equal uncertainties in both

quadrature. In spite of its nearness to classical states it is still a quantum state [2]. In fact, all states

of light must have some quantum mechanical features as the quantum theory of light is more

fundamental than classical theory. However, it is generally difficult to observe the quantum

properties of light. Another important quantum state of light is the squeezed state. The quantum

state in which one of the quadrature will have less noise than the coherent state is a squeezed state

[3]. In order not to violate the Heisenberg uncertainty principle the other quadrature is certainly

enhanced. In this sense, squeezed light contains phase-dependent noise reduced below that of the

vacuum state for some phases and enhanced above that of the vacuum or coherent state [4]. The

fact that some parts of a light wave in a squeezed state are less noisy than for a field in a vacuum

state, a light in a squeezed state has possible technological applications particularly in the detection

1|Page
of weak signals such as gravitational waves [5]. It can also be applied in optical communication,

optical measurement and quantum information processing [6]. In fundamental quantum optics, it

allows the production of entangled states and the experimental demonstration of the socalled

Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox; a paradox which constitutes the essence of the Einsteins

objections against quantum theory being a complete theory [7]. Non- classical light sometimes

exhibits photon antibunching; a reduced probability of two photons being detected within a short

interval or sub-poissonian statistics. Also there are states with special correlations between two or

more different light beams. For example signal and idler in parametric amplification exhibit strong

intensity noise correlation [8].

Non-classical light is often generated either in non-linear devices such as threshold optical

parametric oscillators or frequency doublers with only a single atom or ion such as single atom

lasers [9]. Three level atom is an example of single atom laser which has basically three energy

levels. The three level atoms come in several configurations such as the cascade configuration and

ladder configuration. There are also emissions by the three level atom which can be categorized

into spontaneous emission and stimulated emission. Atoms in the upper energy level decay with

time because they are in the excited state and they give off radiation in the process of spontaneous

emission. If however the three level atom interact with light, there is an absorption of photons

making the atoms more excited. This leads to the decay of atoms in the upper state leading to a

stimulated emission. A process in which there is a mixing of atomic states; for example the mixing

of atoms from the top and bottom levels is called atomic coherence and it is responsible for the

squeezing phenomenon.

Several studies have shown that a three level laser under certain conditions generate

squeezed light [10-16]. The three-level atoms may be initially prepared by a coherent superposition

2|Page
of the top and bottom levels and are injected into a cavity and may be driven by coherent light.

The coherent superposition of the top and bottom level is responsible for the squeezing

phenomenon. When the three level atom in a cascade configuration makes transition from the top

to the bottom level via the intermediate level, two photons are generated. If these two photons have

the same frequency then it is a degenerate three -level atom otherwise non- degenerate [11, 12].

Ansari, et al [12] has studied the squeezing and statistical properties of a degenerate three-level

laser with the atoms initially prepared in a coherent superposition of the top and bottom levels. He

has shown that the cavity mode of such a laser is in a squeezed state when there are more atoms

initially in the bottom level than in the top level. Also, with the aid of Q function he has calculated

the photon number distribution and has shown that the probability of finding photons decreases

smoothly with increasing the number of photons.

A three level laser in which the top and bottom levels of the atoms are injected into the

cavity and are driven by a strong coherent have been studied by different authors [13-16].

Fesseha [13] using the c- number langevin equation has shown that the light generated by the

coherently driven degenerate three level laser is in a squeezed state when the probability for the

injected atoms to be in the bottom level is greater than that of the upper level and the degree of

squeezing increases with the linear gain coefficient. Misrak [14] has shown that the coherent light

has no effect on the degree of squeezing. He has calculated the quadrature variance of the cavity

mode and the output light of degenerate three- level laser whose cavity contains a parametric

amplifier and with cavity mode coupled to a squeezed vacuum reservoir by using the steady state

solutions of the cavity mode variable. Again, the degree of squeezing increases as a result of the

parametric amplifier and the increase in the linear gain coefficient. He obtained maximum

interactivity squeezing for his quantum optical modeled system to be 96.5% for the cavity mode

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and 89.8% squeezing for the output mode below the coherent state level. Mengistu [15] has also

studied the squeezing and statistical properties of the output light of the three level laser but in his

case the driving coherent light into the cavity is in such a way that it has no direct interaction with

the three level atoms. He has shown that the linear gain coefficient and the driving coherent light

enhanced the mean photon number. He has shown also that the output light generated by this

system is in a squeezed state and the squeezing is unaffected by the interaction of the cavity

coherent photons with the three- level atoms. He obtained maximum interactivity squeezing of

69% for the cavity mode and 50% squeezing of the output light below the coherent state.

In this thesis, we seek to study the squeezing and statistical properties as well as the photon

statistics of the output light generated by a degenerate three level cascade laser in a coherently

driven cavity mode coupled to a squeezed vacuum reservoir. We first determine the equation of

evolution of the density operator (master equation) in the linear and adiabatic approximations

scheme. We then use the master equation to obtain stochastic differential equations associated with

the normal ordering from which we employ formal solutions of the differential equations and the

correlation properties of the noise forces to calculate the quadrature variance and the squeezing

spectrum. Furthermore, we determine the mean and variance photon number distribution using

the Q-function. The Q-function is obtained with the aid of antinormally ordered characteristics

function defined in the Heisenberg picture.

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1.2 MODEL

The model of this project considers a degenerate three-level laser in which three level atoms which

are prepared initially by coherent superposition of the top and bottom levels are injected into a

cavity and is driven by strong coherent light and coupled to a vacuum reservoir as shown in Fig.

1. The atoms are injected into the cavity so that the light produced by the degenerate three level

atoms as well as the coherent light which interacts with it are preserved. The operators of the cavity

mode will then be used to study the squeezing and statistical properties of the light produced by

the interaction. The vacuum reservoir makes the system stable by nullifying the quantum

fluctuations of nature and also in some experiments it has been established that the vacuum

reservoir increases the degree of squeezing hence being called a squeezed vacuum reservoir.

5|Page
Fig. 1. A Scheme of a degenerate three-level cascade laser in a cavity mode driven by coherent

light and coupled to a vacuum reservoir.

6|Page
CHAPTER 2

In this chapter, we write down the Hamiltonian of the system and obtain density operator for the

three level atoms injected into the cavity and use the Heisenbergs general uncertainty relation to

obtain the master equation for the cavity mode. From the master equation we obtain stochastic

differential equations for the cavity mode variables and obtain solutions to the cavity mode

variables.

2.1 THE MASTER EQUATION

In this section we seek to derive the master equation for the system in the model. The master

equation is the equation of evolution of the density operator with time. By applying Heisenbergs

general uncertainty relation which describes conservation, we obtain the equation of evolution of

density operator of the three level atoms by applying the commutation of the density operator and

the Hamiltonian of the system. We first derive the equation of evolution of the density operator in

the linear and adiabatic approximation scheme in the sense that slowly occurring processes or say

atoms making transitions slowly are able to adapt to their configuration. After obtaining the

equation of evolution of reservoir submode operators, we derive the time evolution of the reduced

density operator for a cavity mode coupled to a vacuum reservoir and with the help of the two

equations, we write the master equation for the system we have considered in the model.

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2.2 DEGENERATE THREE LEVEL LASER

The three energy states of the degenerate three level cascade laser are denoted by | , | and |

representing the top, intermediate and bottom level or ground, first excited and second excited

state respectively as shown in fig. 1. We assume the case in which the cavity mode is at resonance

with two transitions; | | and | | with direct transitions between | | to be

dipole forbidden.

2.2.1THE INTERACTION OF THE DEGENERATE THREE LEVEL LASER WITH THE

CAVITY MODE

The degenerate three level laser interact with the cavity mode and the Hamiltonian described by

this interaction is given by

= ((|| +||) + (|| +||)),

(1)

Where is the coupling constant and is the annihilation operator of the cavity mode.

With reference to the fact that the atoms of the degenerate three level laser are initially prepared

in a coherent superposition of the top and bottom level, we represent the initial state of the atoms

by

| (0) = | + | (2)

We next obtain the density operator which describes the probability for atoms to be in an arbitrary

state. For simplicity the density operator for a single atom can be written as

(0) = | (0) (0)| (3)

= ( | + |)( | + |)

8|Page
 2 2
= | | || + || + || + | | ||

(0) (0) (0) (0)

(0) = || + || + || + || (3a)

(0) (0)
Where , are the probabilities for the atoms to be in the upper and bottom levels

(0)
respectively and is the atomic coherence at initial time.

Suppose (, ) is the density operator for a single atom plus the cavity mode at time ,

with the atom injected at time t such that .

Where is the time at which the atom is removed from the cavity.

Since a lot of atoms were injected into the cavity, the density operator for all atoms in the

cavity plus the cavity mode at time can be written as

() = (, ) t (4)

The continuous flow of atoms injected into the cavity requires the integration of the density

operator of the atom in the limit as t approaches zero. Thus, for lim (),
t0

() = (, ) (4)

9|Page
In order to obtain the equation of evolution of the density operator, we differentiate the density

operator with respect to time .We employ the Leibnitz rule;

() () ()
(, ) = ((, ) (, )
()

()

+ (, ) (5)
()

Therefore,

()
= ( (, ) (, )) + (, ) (6)

Clearly, (, ) represents the density operator for the cavity mode plus an atom injected at a

certain time and (, ) represents the density operator for an atom plus the cavity mode

at time with the atom being removed from the cavity at this time. This means the density operator

can be decoupled such that,

(, ) = (0)() (7)

(, ) = ( )() (8)

with () representing the density operator for the cavity mode alone.

Substituting Equations (6) and (7) into equation (5), it follows that,

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()
(
= (0)() ( )()) + (, ) (9)

Simplified as

()
= ( (0) ( ))() + (, ) (9)

With reference to the general Heisenberg uncertainty principle, if the cavity mode experiences no

damping by a vacuum reservoir, the density operator (, ) evolves in time according to

, (, )]
(, ) = [ (10)

So that if we substitute Eq. (9) into Eq. (8a), it can be put in the form

()
, ()])
= (( (0) ( ))() [ (11)

Furthermore, tracing over atomic variables we have

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 ()
, ()]
= [ (12)

In which we have used the fact that

( (0)) = ( ( )) = 1 (13)

Now, employing Eq. (1) and substituting it into Eq. (11) we have,

()
= [((|| + ||) + (|| + ||)), ()] (14)

Which then gives

()
= ( + + + + + + + ) (14)

In which we define the matrix element by

= | ()| (15)

With , = , , .

Next, we proceed to determine individually the matrix elements represented by . From

Eq. (8a) it is clear that the equation of evolution of each matrix element can be written as

12 | P a g e

, ()]|
= {| (0)| | ( )|}() |[ (16)

The atoms undergo atomic decay as a result of spontaneous emissions calling for the last term in

Eq.(15); which is the atomic decay rate. This is considered to be constant for all three levels.

Another assumption we make here is that, the atom is removed from the cavity after they

have decayed to other levels aside | and|. This implies that

| ( )| = 0 (17)

(0) (0) (0) (0)

= ( + + + )

+( + + +

+ + + + )- (18)

Using the fact that = 0 and = 1 = , it follows that

= ( + + ) (19)

= ( + ) (20)

(0)
= (+ ) (21)

(0)
= + (+ ) (22)

(0)
= + (+ ) (23)

13 | P a g e

= ( + + + ) (24)

From here, apply the linear and adiabatic approximation. We restrict ourselves linear analysis

which can be achieved by dropping the coupling constant for the interaction between the cavity

mode and the atoms; in Eqs.(21), (22),(23) and(24). This is because transitions for the atomic

states in the equations rightly mentioned are dipole forbidden.

Also in a good cavity limit , the cavity mode variables changes slowly compared to the

atomic variables and the atomic variables will reach a steady state in relatively short time. This

kind of approximation is the adiabatic approximation scheme.

Hence, dropping in Eqs. (21), (22), (23) and (24) and applying the adiabatic approximation

scheme such that = 0 , we obtain,

(0)

= (25)

(0)

= (26)

(0)

= (27)

= 0 (28)

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In view of the above result, Eqs. (22) and (23) can put in the form

(0) (0)
= ( + ) (29)

(0) (0)
= ( + ) (30)

In view of Eqs. (29) and (30), applying the adiabatic approximation once again ,

(0) + (0)
= 2
( ) (31)

(0) (0)
= ( + ) (32)
2

Finally, by substituting Eq. (31) and Eq. (32) into Eq. (14) we obtain

(0) (0)
()
= (2+ + + ) + (2+ + + )
2 2

(0) (0)
2 2
(2+ + + + ) (2 2 2 ) (33)
2 2

where

22
= (34) .
2

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2.3 THE COHERENTLY DRIVEN CAVITY MODE

The interaction between the driving coherent mode treated classically and the cavity mode can be

described by the Hamiltonian [17]

= (+ ),
(35)

Where is the annihilation operator for the cavity mode and real and constant and it is

proportional to the amplitude of the driving coherent light. Hence the master equation for a

coherently driven cavity mode coupled to a vacuum reservoir has the form ,

= ( + + + ) + (2 + + + ) (36)
2

Finally, taking into account Eq. (33) and Eq. (36), we can write the equation of evolution of the

density operator (master equation) for the degenerate three-level laser in cavity mode driven by

coherent light and coupled to a vacuum reservoir as

(0)

= ( + + + ) + (2+ + + )
2

(0) (0)
+ 2 2
+ (2+ + + ) (2+ + + + )
2 2

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 (0)

(2 2 2 ) (37)
2

(0) (0) (0) (0)

The terms involving and is the usual gain and absorption respectively. and is

the atomic coherence which would see later in this chapter is the term responsible for squeezing

properties of our quantum optical system in the model.

2.4 THE STOCHASTIC APPROACH TO OBTAINING CAVITY MODE VARIABLES

The goal to study the squeezing and statistical properties can be achieved when we obtain operators

for the cavity mode. Since the interactions occur in the cavity, the cavity mode operators are crucial

in studying the above mentioned non-classical property of the light. Obtaining expressions for the

cavity mode operators from the master equation would present not only rigorous but very tedious

mathematical approach. Avoiding this difficulty however, there are several approaches to

obtaining relations for cavity mode operators from the master equation. The monte-carlo approach,

the Q-function approach and the stochastic approach are well known mathematical tricks to

obtaining the cavity mode operators.

In this section, we obtain the cavity mode operators using the stochastic approach.

We first obtain stochastic differential equation associated with the normal ordering using the

master equation. To this end, we employ the relation

17 | P a g e

= ( ) (38)

is the trace operator.

Putting Eq. (37) into Eq.(38) we can see that,

= ( + + + ) +

(0) (0)
+
(2+ + + ) + (2+ + + )
2 2
(0)
2 2
(2 + + + + )
2
(0)

(2 2 2 ) (39)
2

Applying the cyclic property of the trace operation and the commutation relations

[, + ] = 1 (40)

and

[, (+ , )] = (+ , ) (41)
+

Eq.(39) reduces to

1 (0) (0)
= [ + ( )] + (42)
2

2 (0) (0) (0)

= [ + ( )] 2 + 2 + (43)

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 + (0) (0) (0)
= [ + ( )] + + (+ + ) + (44)

(0) (0)
If we let = + ( ) (45),

Then we can write Eq. (42) as

1
= + (46)
2

2 (0)
= 2 + 2 + (47)

+ (0)
= + + (+ + ) + (48)

Eqs. (46) , (47) and (48) are stochastic differential equations in the normal order (of the form

(+ ) ). We intend to obtain solutions to the stochastic differential equations, but since the

operators are very sensitive we rather write the equations in terms of non-operators. These non-

operators are called c-numbers.

Hence, Eq.(46), (47) and (48) can be written in terms of c-numbers as

1
= + (49)
2

2 (0)
= 2 + 2 + (50)

(0)
= + ( + ) + (51)

It follows clearly from the above equations that Eqs. (49), (50) and (51) are in normal order(of the

form ( , ) ).

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Eq. (49) can be expressed as [18]

1
= + + () (52)
2

Where () is the noise force.

Comparing Eq. (52) to Eq.(49) we find out that ,these two equations would be equal if

() = 0. (53)

Applying the relation

2
= 2 (54)

Substituting Eqn. (52) into Eq.(54) can be written as

2 1
= 2 ( + + ()) (55)
2

Simplified to

2
= 2 + 2 + 2()() (55)

Comparing Eq. 55a to Eq. 50

It follows clearly that,

(0)
= 2()()

Or

1
(0)
()() = (56)
2

20 | P a g e
In view of Eq. (56) we need to find the formal solution to the first- order differential equation (our

stochastic differential equation) in Eq.(52).

The formal solution is

( )

() = (0) /2 + 2 (1 2 ) + 2 ( ) (57)
0

Substituting Eq.(57) into Eq.(56) we see that,

( )

1 (0)
(0)() /2 + 2 (1 ) () +
2 2 ( )() = (58)
0 2

Considering the fact that in Eq. (53), the noise force has no effect on the cavity variables at earlier

. It implies that

(0)() /2 = 0 = 2 (1 2 ) () (59)

( )
1 (0)
2 ( )() = (60)
0 2

Applying the Dirac-delta function

1
( )( ) = () (61)
0 2

Eq.(60) can be put in the form

( ) ( )
(0)
2 ( )() = 2 ( )( ) (62)
0 0

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It follows clearly that,

(0)
( )() = ( )( ) (63)

Furthermore, applying the relation = + alongside Eq.(52) and its

complex conjugate ;

= + ( + ) + ()() + ()() (64)

So that when we compare Eq. (64) with Eq. () we get

(0)
()() + ()() = (65)

Now, using the solution to the differential equation obtained in Eq. (57) as well as its conjugate,

we get

( (0)() + (0)()) /2

( )
+ 2 [(() + ()) + ( )() + ()( )]
0

(0)
= (66)

Considering once again the fact that, the noise force has no effect on the cavity mode variables at

earlier time, it follows clearly that

( )
(0)
2 [ ( )() + ()( )] = (67)
0

Again, applying the Dirac delta function in Eq. (61)

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 ( )

2 [ ( )() + ()( )]
0

( )
(0)
=2 2 ( )( ) (68)
0

Making the assumption that ( )() = ()( ), we have

( )

2 [ ()( )]
0

( )
(0)
= 2 ( )( ) (69)
0

It then follows that

(0)
()( ) = ( )( ) (70)

Eqs. (54), (63) and (70) represent the correlation properties of the noise force associated with the

normal ordering.

2.5 SOLUTIONS TO STACHASTIC DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

In the previous section, we have found stochastic differential equation of (). In this section we

seek rather to find the solution to the stochastic differential equation by introducing a new

variable (). The new variable will be used to represent the cavity mode variable which will

then be used to study uncertainties associated with the light in the cavity. The whole idea of

squeezing of light is based on uncertainties in two quadrature (one and its conjugate quadrature).

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Therefore the will represent a plus quadrature as well as a minus quadrature. This accounts for

why we choose a new variable () instead of maintaining ().

Therefore, introducing the new variable

() = () () (71)

and applying Eq.(52) along with its complex conjugate we see that

1
= + + () () (72)
2

Where

= (73)

Following Eq. (57) the solution to Eq.(72) can be written as

( ) ( )

() = (0) /2 + 2 (1 2 ) + 2 ( () () (74)
0

In view of Eq. (72) and (74), we finally obtain

2
() = + ()(0) + () (0) + () + (1 2 ) (75)

1 ( )
( )
= [ 2 2 ] (76)
2

And

() = [+ ( ) ( ) + ( ) ()] (77)
0

24 | P a g e
CHAPTER 3

Previously, we have found solutions to the stochastic differential equations which are the

mathematical relations of the cavity mode operators. Now in this chapter, we seek to calculate the

quadrature variances of the cavity mode as well as the output modes of the light produced after the

interaction between the degenerate three level laser and coherent light in the cavity mode coupled

to a vacuum reservoir using the stochastic differential equation and the correlation properties of

the noise force obtained in the previous chapter.

3.1 QUADRATURE VARIANCE IN RELATION TO SQUEEZING

The uncertainties associated with the plus and minus quadrature of the light produced after the

interaction is what we term as quadrature variance. These uncertainties calculated will correspond

to the degree of squeezing. The lesser the quadrature variance the higher the degree of squeezing.

We shall focus on the minus quadrature because it is the quadrature that will reduce in uncertainty

corresponding to the squeezing whereas the plus quadrature will increase in uncertainty in order

to satisfy the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

3.2 QUADRATURE VARIANCE OF THE CAVITY MODE

If the cavity mode operators are represented as

+ = + + (78)

and

= (+ ) (78),

we can express the variance of quadrature in the normal order as

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 2 = 1 [ 2 2 ] (79)

The corresponding c-number equation of the variance of quadrature can be seen as

2 = 1 [ 2 2 ] (80)

Where has been defined by Eq.(71).

Actually, the quadrature variance is the second term [ 2 2 ] in Eq. (80). However, the

first term 1, of the same equation represents the coherent state level and therefore the plus and

minus quadrature variance will be measured above and below the coherent state level respectively.

Now, using Eq.(74) we can write

( )

= (0) /2 + 2 (1 2 ) + 2 ( ( ) ( )) (81)
0

Considering the fact that the cavity mode is initially in a vacuum state, (0) = 0 and also the

properties of the noise force has no effect on the cavity mode at initial time as shown in Eq.(53),

thus ( ), ( ) = 0, Eq. (81) becomes

= 2 (1 2 ) (82)

Again, employing Eq.(74)

2 2
2 = 2 (0) /2 + 4 (1 2 )
2
2( )

+ 2 [ () ( ) ( )() ( ) ()
0

( )()] (83)

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Applying Eq. (63) and (70) and the fact that the cavity mode is initially in a vacuum state, Eq. (83)

reduces to

4 2
(0) (0) (0)
2 = (1 2 2 + ) + ( + 2 )(1 ) (83)
2

Now, applying Eq.(82) and (84) we obtain

(0) (0) (0)
[ 2 2 ] = ( + 2 )(1 ) (84)

It proves more convenient from here to define probabilities for the atoms to be in different levels

in terms of a new parameter , such that [18]

(0) 1
= (85)
2

In view of the fact that at initial time, there is coherent superposition of the top and bottom levels;

(0) (0) (0) (0) (0)

+ = 1 and also | |2 = ,

One easily gets

(0) 1+
= (86)
2

and

(0) 1 2
| | = (87)
2

(0) (0)
Which follows clearly that, = (88)

From Eq. (45) and (88), it follows that

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 = + (89)

Upon setting

(0) (0)
+ = 1 2 (90),

and substituting Eq.(85) and (90) into Eq. (84), we obtain

2
[1 2 (1 )]
[ 2 ]= (1 ) (91)
+

Therefore, from Eq. (80), we see that

[1 2 (1 )]
2 = 1 (1 (+) ) (92)
+

At steady state,

[1 2 (1 )]
2 = 1 (93)
+

We see that Eq. (72) will have well behaved solution if > 0.applying this to Eq. (45) implies

(0) (0)
that > or 0 1. A well behaved solution of Eq. (72) will require 0 1.

28 | P a g e
 3
-quad. var.
+quad. var.
2.5
quadrature variance (+,- quad.)

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
n

Fig. 2. Plots of the quadrature variance of the plus and minus quadrature for =0. A=1000, = 0.

From Fig.2 we see that that as the minus quadrature decreases below the coherent state, its

conjugate quadrature (the plus quadrature) increases above the coherent state. This implies that the

Heisenberg uncertainty is satisfied.

Finally, the variance in the minus quadrature below the coherent state level at steady state is given

as

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 [1 2 (1 )]
2 = 1 (94)
+

0.9

0.8
variance in minus quadrature

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3
A=30
0.2
A=100
0.1
A=1000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
n

Fig.3. Plots of the variance in the minus quadrature, (Eq.(94)), versus for =0.8, for = 0 and

for different values of the linear gain coefficient (A).

30 | P a g e
 We note from Eq. (94) that, the quadrature variance does not depend on the parameter .

This implies that the strong driving coherent light has no effect on the degree of squeezing of the

cavity mode.

Fig. 3 shows a plot of the variance of the minus quadrature versus for different values of . We

see from this figure that, the degree of squeezing increases with the linear gain co-efficient. In the

atomic crystal, the linear gain coefficient corresponds to the degree of overlap of atomic states.

Moreover, squeezing does not occur at = 0 and = 1. According to Eq.(90), = 0 = 1

respectively corresponds to the maximum injected atomic coherence and minimum injected

atomic coherence. However, squeezing occurs between the maximum and minimum injected

atomic coherence; it starts from maximum injected atomic coherence and decreases until minimum

injected atomic coherence .We can then conclude that, the atomic coherence is responsible for the

squeezing phenomenon. Also, from the figure, the minimum values of the quadrature variance are

recorded for small values of which in other words mean almost perfect squeezing can be

achieved small values of , i.e., when the probability that for the atoms to be in the lower level is

slightly greater than the probability for the atom to be in the upper level at initial time. Finally,

squeezing increases with increase in linear gain coefficient. The maximum value of the linear gain

coefficient for our atomic crystal is approximately 1000 according to Fig. 2.

3.3 QUADRATURE VARIANCE OF THE OUTPUT MODE

We next proceed in this section, to calculate the quadrature variance of the light generated after

the interaction in the output mode.

The operators of quadrature of the output mode are represented by

+
+, = ( + ) (95)

31 | P a g e
 +
And , = ( ) (96)

Therefore the quadrature variance of the output mode in terms c-number is given by

2 = 1 [, 2 ,, 2 ] (97)

Where the c-number variables are associated with the normal ordering with

, = () (98)

On account of Eq. (82) and (98), we see clearly that,

, = 2 (1 2 ) (99)

Furthermore, in view of Eq. () and (98) we obtain

4 2 (+) [1 2 (1 )]
, 2 = (1 2 2 +
) +
( + )2 +

. (1 (+) ) (100)

By employing Eq.(99) and (100) along with Eq.(97), we obtain the quadrature variance for the

output mode at steady state

[1 2 (1 )]
, 2 = 1 (101)
+

The minus quadrature gives

2
[1 2 (1 )]
, = 1 (102)
+

32 | P a g e
 We next proceed to compare the quadrature of the output mode with the quadrature variance of

the cavity mode at very large linear gain coefficient i.e. A=1000.

1
2, -output
2
, 0.9 -cavity

0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
u

Fig. 4. Plots of the quadrature variance of the cavity mode (Eq.(102)) and output mode (Eq.(94)

versus for =0.8, = 0 = 1000.

33 | P a g e
3.4 CALCULATION OF PERCENTAGE DEGREE OF SQUEEZING

3.4a. Quadrature squeezing for cavity mode:

Minimum value for the quadrature variance =0.0405

Squeezing below coherent level (quadrature variance = 1) is 1-0.0405=0.959

In terms of percentage squeezing, the maximum intracavity squeezing is 95.9%

3.4b. Quadrature squeezing for output mode:

Minimum value for the quadrature variance =0.2325

Squeezing below coherent level (quadrature variance = 1) is 1-0.2325=0.768

In terms of percentage squeezing, the maximum squeezing for the output mode is 76.8%.

The degree of squeezing of the output light as seen from Fig.4 is less than that of the cavity

mode. The quadrature variance records a minimum value of 0.2325 for the output mode which

occurs at = 0.0300.This represents a maximum output mode squeezing of 76.8% below the

vacuum level or coherent state level. The minimum quadrature variance of the cavity mode on the

other hand, is found to be 0.0405 which occurs at = 0.0410. This represents a maximum

intracavity squeezing of 95.9% below the vacuum level. Therefore, the output mode squeezing is

less by 19.1% from the cavity mode.

34 | P a g e
3.5 SQUEEZING SPECTRUM OF THE OUTPUT LIGHT

The squeezing spectrum of the output mode of a single mode light in terms of c-number variables

associated with the normal ordering can be written as [19]

() = 1 2 , (), , ( + ) (0 ) (103)
0

is the frequency of the output light at some time ( + ). The subscript ss represents steady

state

Employing Eq. (98) and substituting it into Eq. (112)

() = 1 2 (), ( + ) (0) (104)
0

represents the real part of the integral.

Eq. 104 can be written as

2
() = 1 2 [ () ( + ) ( + ) ] (0 ) (105)
0

The solution to the expectation value in Eq. (81) can written as

(+ )
( + ) = () (+ )/2 + 2 (1 2 ) (106)

By applying the quantum regression theorem [20]

35 | P a g e
 () ( + )

2 (+ )
= 2 () (+ )/2 + () [ (1 2 )] (107)
+

Putting Eq. (106) and (107) into Eq.(105) we obtain

[1 2 (1 )]
() = 1 2 (0) (+ )/2 (108)
+ 0

Upon performing the integration and taking the real part and considering the spectrum at steady

state, we get

[1 2 (1 )]
() = 1 2
[( + )/2 ]2 + 2

The squeezing spectrum in the minus quadrature gives

[1 2 (1 )]
() = 1 2 (109)
[( + )/2 ]2 + 2

Fig.4 represents the squeezing spectrum of the output mode in the minus quadrature [Eq.(109)]

versus and . A closer inspection of the figure shows that almost perfect squeezing for very

slightly greater than zero and = 0. For values of greater than 0.05 very small squeezing occurs.

36 | P a g e
 1

0.8
squeezing

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
4
2 0.2
0 0.15
0.1
-2 0.05
frequency(w) -4 0
n

Fig.5. Plot of the squeezing spectrum (Eq.(51) ) versus and for =0.8, = 0 and = 1000.

37 | P a g e
 1

0.9
A=100
0.8
A=40
0.7

0.6
squeezing

0.5
A=10
0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
n

Fig.6. Plots of the squeezing spectrum at zero frequency ( = 0) versus for =0.8, = 0 and

for different values of linear gain coefficient (A).

Fig.5 confirms the fact that almost perfect squeezing is achieved for zero frequency and

very small values of . In fig.6, the plots indicate that the degree of squeezing increases as the

linear gain coefficient increases and as approaches zero. For =0.8, = 0, A=100 and = 0,

the minimum value of the squeezing spectrum in the minus quadrature of the output light;

( = 0) is found to be 0.004 which occurs at =0.008. The squeezing value of 0.004 represent

99.6% squeezing of the output mode below the coherent state or vacuum level.

38 | P a g e
CHAPTER 4

PHOTON STATISTICS

In the previous chapter, we have found out that, the strong coherent light has no effect on the

degree of squeezing. In our quest to still find the significance of the coherent light, we go ahead

to study the photon statistics of the light produced after the interaction in the cavity mode as well

as the output mode. Generally, the photon statistics gives us an idea of the concentration of

photons in the light produced. The concentration of photons correlates with the brightness of the

light produced after the interaction.

In this chapter, we first obtain the Q-function using anti-normally ordered characteristic function

defined in the Heisenberg picture. Then, applying the resulting Q-function we calculate the mean

photon number and the variance of photon number as well photon number distribution for the

cavity and output modes.

4.1 THE Q-FUNCTION

In statistics, the Q-function is the tail probability of the standard normal distribution (x). in other

words, it is the probability that a normal (Gaussian) random variable will obtain a value larger than

x standard deviation above the mean.[21]

The Q-function for a single mode can be written in terms of the anti-normally ordered

characteristic function defined as [22]

1
( , , ) = ( , , ) (110)

Where ( , , ) is the antinormally ordered characteristic defined is the Heisenberg picture.

39 | P a g e
 () ()
( , , ) = ((0) (111)

By applying the relation = [,]

Which holds for [,

[, ]] = [, ]],
[,

Eq.(111) becomes

() ()
( , , ) =

Or

2
( , , ) = [ + (1 2 )( )] () () (112)

() = + ()(0) + () (0) + () (113)

With the aid Eq.() ,() and (), it can be easily established that,

1
() = [() 2 ()] (114)
2

Assuming the cavity mode is initially in the vacuum state and taking into account Eq.(86),

() = 0 (115)

() is a Gaussian with zero mean. Based on this, we can put (Eq.) in the form [22],

() ()
( , , ) = [ (1 + ()()]

Or

1
( , , ) = [ (1 + ()() + 2 ( 2 2 () + 2 2 ()] (116)

40 | P a g e
Therefore , for the system we are considering , the antinormally ordered characteristic function is

obtained as

1
( , , ) = ( () + ( 2 + 2 ) (117)
2

In which

() = (1 + ()()) (117)

And () = 2 () (117)

Therefore by substituting Eq.(117) into Eq.(110) and carry out the integration we obtain,

1 2 () ()).
exp(() + () 2 + () 2 )
( , , ) = [( () ] (118)
2

Where

()
() = (119)
2 () () ()

()
() = (120)
2 () () ()

Eq. (118) represent the Q-function for our system under consideration.

4.2 MEAN PHOTON NUMBER OF THE CAVITY MODE

In this section, we calculate the mean photon number of the coherently driven three level laser and

a special case in which the coherent light is absent for both the cavity mode and output mode.

Without proof, the mean photon number can be expressed as[22]

41 | P a g e
 = 2 ( , , )( 1) (121)

From Eq. (118), it follows that

1 exp(() + () 2 + () 2 )
= 2 [(2 () () ()). ] (
2

1) (121)

Upon integration, one can easily see that,

= 1 (122)
2 4

Substituting for from Eqs. (119) and (120),

= () 1 (123)

Comparing Eq. (123) with Eq.(117a), it follows that, the mean photon number of the cavity mode

associated with the normal ordering is given as,

= ()() (124)

With the aid of Eq.(74), and assuming that the cavity mode is initially in the vacuum state, the

mean photon number then becomes

4 2 (+) 2 1 2

= (1 2 ) + (1 (+) ) (125)
( + )2 2( + )

At steady state,

4 2 1 2
= + (126)
( + )2 2( + )

42 | P a g e
Furthermore, we proceed to a special case in which the three level laser is not driven by the strong

coherent light. Clearly, to obtain this, we put the coherent light parameter to zero .i.e. = 0.

Putting = 0 from Eq. (126) gives us the mean photon number of just the three level laser.

1 2
=0 = (127)
2( + )

We proceed to compare Eq.(126) to (127) graphically.

700

- =0
600
- = 10

500

400

300

200

100

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
u

Fig. 6. Plots of mean photon number of the cavity mode at steady state for =0.8,A=100 in the

absence of coherent light( = 0) (red curve) and in the presence of coherent light ( = 10) (blue

curve).

43 | P a g e
 In fig.6, we can conclude that the presence of coherent light increases the mean photon

number. The shows also that, the coherent lights contribution to the mean photon number occurs

at very small values of .

4.3 MEAN PHOTON NUMBER OF THE OUTPUT MODE

The mean photon number of the output mode is found to be

= (128)

Applying Eq. (126) , one can easily see that, the mean photon number of the output mode at steady

state is obtained as

4 2 1 2
= [ + ] (129)
( + )2 2( + )

Comparing Eq.(129) with Eq.(126), it is obvious that, the mean photon number of the output mode

is less than the mean photon number of the cavity mode. This is due to the damping the output

light experiences when being let out of the cavity.

4.4 PHOTON NUMBER DISTRIBUTION

The photon number distribution for a single- mode light can be expressed in terms of Q-function

as[22]

2
(, ) =
[( , , ) ]=0 (130)
!

In view of the Q- function obtained for our system in Eq.(119), Eq.(130) takes the form,

[2 () () ()]1/2 2
(, ) = exp[(1 () + () 2
!
+ () 2 )/2]=0 (131)

44 | P a g e
 Now, using power series to expand the exponential functions , it follows that,

[2 () () ()]1/2 (1 ()) () ()
(, ) =
! 2+ ! ! !

( + 2)! ( + 2)!
(132)
( + 2 )! ( + 2 )! +2, +2,

Applying the properties of the kronecka delta and the fact that the factorial is defined for non-

negative integers, we obtain

[] 2
[2 () () ()]1/2 (1 ()) ()
(, ) = !
! 22 !2 ( 2)!
=0

Where

1
[] = [] = .
2 2

P(x)

x
Fig.7.Plot of photon number distribution against odd and even numbers of photons.

45 | P a g e
From Fig.7. we see that, the probability of finding even number of photons is greater than the

finding odd number of photons. This is because photons are generated in pairs by the degenerate

three- level laser.

CHAPTER 5

5.1 CONCLUSION

In this dissertation, we have considered a degenerate three level atom in the cascade

configuration whose cavity mode is driven by a strong coherent light and coupled to a vacuum

reservoir. In the atomic system, there is a coherent superposition of the top and bottom levels.

Since the atoms evolve with time due to the coherent superposition of the top and bottom level

and absorption of photons when interacted with the strong coherent light, we have found the

equation of evolution of the density operator (master equation). By applying the master

equation, we have used the stochastic approach to obtain stochastic differential equations for

the cavity mode variables and also obtained the quadrature variance and squeezing spectrum of

both the light produced after the interaction between the three level laser and the strong

coherent light in the cavity mode as well as the output mode.

A study of the squeezing spectrum and quadrature variance clearly indicates that, the light

produced after the interaction is in a squeezed state. The squeezing is due to the atomic

coherence of the top and bottom levels. It is also found that, the driving coherent light has no

effect on the degree of squeezing. Furthermore, almost perfect squeezing can be achieved in the

46 | P a g e
following cases; when the probability that the atoms are in the bottom state are slightly greater

than atoms in the top level or state and when the frequency of the light generated is within the

central frequency i.e. = 0. Moreover , for a large value of linear gain coefficient (high

overlap of atomic states) almost perfect squeezing can be achieved.

For linear gain coefficient, A=1000, cavity damping, =0.8 and = 0, the maximum intracavity

squeezing is found to be 95.6% below the vacuum level where as the squeezing of the output

mode is 76.8% below the vacuum level. This difference of 19.1% squeezing of the output mode

less than the cavity mode is as a result of the cavity damping experienced by the output light as

it is let out of the cavity.

Knowing that, the coherent light does affect the degree of squeezing, we have studied the photon

statistics to see the whether the coherent light plays a role in photon statistics generated after

the interaction. Using the Q- function for anti- normally ordered characteristic function defined

in the Heisenberg picture, we have determined the mean photon number and the photon

number distribution. The result shows that the mean photon number increases considerably as

a result of the driving coherent light. Again, the mean photon of the cavity mode is greater than

that of the output also due to the cavity damping.

Finally, since the strong driving coherent light increases the mean photon number of the light

generated as the three level atom in the cavity generates a squeezed light, we can consider our

quantum optical model as source of a squeezed and a bright light

47 | P a g e
REFERENCES

[1] A. Mengistu, MPhil Thesis, Addis Ababa University (2010).

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[3] C. Garry, P. Knight, Introductory Quantum, Optics Cambridge University Press, New York

(2005).

[4] R. W. Boyd, Non Linear Optics, Rochester Press, New York (2007)

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[6] H. Vahlbruch, S. Chelkowski,,B. Hage, A. Franzen, K. Danzmann, and R. Schnabel,Coherent

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[7] A. Aspect, P. Grangier and G.Rodger, Phys Rev. Lett.49,91 (1982), Experimental Realisation

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[8] W. Chow, W. Kah , M. Sargent III, Semiconductor-Laser Physics, Springer-Verlag, Berlin

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[9] www.rp-photonics.com/squeezed_states_of_light.html

[10] G. J. Milburn, D.F. Walls, Opt. Commun. 39 (1981) 401.

[11]E.Alebachew and K.Fesseha, Opt. Communication 265, 314 (2006)

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[13] K.Fesseha,Phys.Rev. A63,0811 (2001)

48 | P a g e
[14] M. Getahun, Phd. Thesis, Addis Ababa University (2010 )

[15] Mengistu, Mphil. Thesis , Addis Ababa University (2010)

[16] G. Guarneri,Phys Rev. A90, 022110 (2014)

[17] www.iflscience.com/physics/scientists-achieve-impossible-way-squeeze light.

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[20] Iopscience.iop.org/0305-4470/10/013

[21] en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Q-function.

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49 | P a g e