Performance of Cooling tower

Contents
1. Abstract
2. Introduction
3. Need of cooling tower
4. Types of cooling towers
5. Components of cooling tower
6. Principle of cooling tower
7. Efficiency of cooling tower and calculations
8. Treatment of water
9. Applications
10. Effect on environment
11. References
1. Abstract
Cooling towers play a major role in the operaton of power plants ,refrigeration
units,petroleum and oil refineries. In this project work, it is planned to investigate the
effect of different operating parameters on the performance of cooling towers

2. Introduction
Cooling towers are used to remove waste heat from a process by releasing it to the
atmosphere. Cooling is necessary for a steam cycle to continue to operate due to
equipment and thermodynamic limitations.In some ways, a cooling tower is analogous to
the radiator of an automobile.

3. Need of cooling tower

If a 100 MW steam power plant had no cooling tower and used once-through cooling
water, it would require about 25000 tons per hour. A large amount of water would have to
be continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and
continuously re-supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot
water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for
the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other aquatic
organisms or can also cause an increase in undesirable organisms such as invasive species
of zebra mussels or algae.
A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere instead and wind and air
diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water can distribute heat in a
body of water. Evaporative cooling water cannot be used for subsequent purposes (other
than rain somewhere), whereas surface-only cooling water can be re-used. Some coal-
fired and nuclear power plants located in coastal areas do make use of once-through
ocean water. But even there, the offshore discharge water outlet requires very careful
design to avoid environmental problems.
4. Types of cooling towers
1. Based on contact
i. Direct (open) cooling tower
In the direct (open) cooling towers, the cooling water mixes with air within the
tower which is cooled by a psychrometric process.

ii. Indirect(closed) cooling tower

With indirect (closed) cooling towers, the cooling water circulates through
tubes in the tower where it is air-cooled through convection from the pipes. In
this case, the water being cooled and the air doing the cooling are separated by
a pipe and do not mix.

2. Based on flow
i. Cross flow
In a crossflow cooling tower, evaporation occurs as air flows perpendicular to
water running down over the heat transfer surface.

ii. Counter flow

In counterflow open cooling tower, the air flows parallel to and in the opposite
direction of the water flowing down
3. Based on draft system
i. Natural draft
Natural-draft cooling towers are very tall often up to a height of several
hundred feet so that the necessary change in pressure can be obtained. Instead
of using fans, natural-draft cooling towers depend on natural driving pressure
caused by the difference in density between the cool outside air and the hot,
humid inside air. The function of natural-draft cooling towers is based on this
change in pressure.

ii. Mechanical draft

Mechanical-draft cooling towers consist of one or more mechanically-driven
fans. These fans have multiple blades that usually range from 2 feet to 44 feet
in length . An electric motor uses reduction gearing to turn the blades at
relatively low speeds in order to achieve high volumetric flow rates at
relatively low static pressures. The blades are usually made from aluminum
alloys, stainless steel, or fiberglass . However, some are known to be
manufactured from plastic or laminated wood. Using a mechanicaldraft
cooling tower has some advantages, such as: the low initial capital and
construction costs (because they are smaller size than natural-draft cooling
towers), low physical profile, and the capacity to reliably provide the required
quantity of air. However, there are disadvantages to using this type of cooling
tower as well, such as: higher power consumption, operating costs,
maintenance costs, and noise levels
1. Forced draft
A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top) which
pulls air up through the tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the
discharge. This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities,
reducing the possibility of recirculation in which discharged air flows
back into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as
draw-through.
 2. Induced draft
A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan
forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air
velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to
recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible
to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is
that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower
than an equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft
design is its ability to work with high static pressure. Such setups can
be installed in more-confined spaces and even in some indoor
situations. This fan/fin geometry is also known as blow-through.
iii. Hybrid wet/dry cooling tower
A hybrid wet/dry cooling tower incorporates the characteristics of both the
natural and mechanical-draft cooling towers. The hybrid tower is constructed
with a reinforced concrete hyperbolic shell that is similar to, but smaller than
that of a natural-draft tower. The smaller size enables the tower to consume
small amounts of power and requires half the space. The hybrid tower also
makes use of the electrically-driven fans of a mechanical-draft tower. The fans
are positioned around the base of the tower to provide better airflow control
and consume less power compared to the mechanical-draft tower. The high
velocity and height of the exit air from the tower have eliminated the hot-air
recirculation problems mechanical-draft cooling towers typically experience.
4. Classification by build
i. Package type
These types of cooling towers are factory preassembled, and can be simply
transported on trucks, as they are compact machines. The capacity of package
type towers is limited and, for that reason, they are usually preferred by
facilities with low heat rejection requirements such as food processing plants,
textile plants, some chemical processing plants, or buildings like hospitals,
hotels, malls, automotive factories etc.
Due to their frequent use in or near residential areas, sound level control is a
relatively more important issue for package type cooling towers.

ii. Field erection type

Facilities such as power plants, steel processing plants, petroleum refineries,
or petrochemical plants usually install field erected type cooling towers due to
their greater capacity for heat rejection. Field erected towers are usually much
larger in size compared to the package type cooling towers.
A typical field erected cooling tower has a pultruded fiber-reinforced plastic
(FRP) structure, FRP cladding, a mechanical unit for air draft, drift eliminator,
and fill.
5. Components of cooling tower
1. Fill
Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by
maximising water and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type.
i. With splash fill, water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars,
continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface.
Plastic splash fill promotes better heat transfer than the wood splash fill.
ii. Film fill consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water
spreads, forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat,
corrugated, honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more
efficient and provides same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.

2. Water distributing system

i. Gravity distribution
Crossflow cooling towers typically use gravity distribution. This involves a
reservoir that can hold hot water to be cooled above the heat transfer surface.
The water is forced down through nozzles into the fill by gravity where it is
then cooled by the air.Gravity distribution systems can be inspected while in
operation and only require minimal pump work since it is not a pressurized
system.
ii. Spray distribution
Spray distributors, which are used on counterflow cooling towers,use spray
nozzles which forcibly spray the water to be cooled down onto the fill. Spray
distribution systems require additional pump work to supply the pressure
needed but must be shut down in order to inspect or perform maintenance on
the system.

3. Drift eliminators
Drift eliminators are another component implemented into cooling towers which help
improve the efficiency. The drift eliminator helps reduce the loss of large amounts of
water from the cooling tower. This is done by employing a fill similar to that of
cooling fill, but instead the airflow is forced through it before exiting the cooling
tower. Large droplets of water in the air impact the drift eliminator getting stopped
and returned to the cooling tower while still allowing the rest of the cooling air to pass
through.

4. Cold water basin:

The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower, receives the cooled
water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or low
point for the cold water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold water
basin is beneath the entire fill.
5. Shell structure
Cooling towers were originally made from wood, then evolved to steel, and finally to
the reinforced concrete used today. Due to their distinctive shape, the structures are
also called hyperbolic towers. Natural-draft cooling towers are usually used in cool,
humid climates where there is a low wet-bulb temperature and a high relative
humidity.

6. Louvers:
Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalize
air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower
designs do not require louvers.

7. Nozzles:
These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of
the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can
either be fixed in place and have either round or square spray patterns or can be part
of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-section towers.

8. Fans:
Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally,
propeller fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans
are found in forced draft towers. Depending upon their size, propeller fans can either
be fixed or variable pitch. Afan having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades permits
the same fan to be used over a wide range of kW with the fan adjusted to deliver the
desired air flow at the lowest power consumption. Automatic variable pitch blades
can vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.
6. Principle of cooling tower
Heat and mass transfer
In a cooling tower both Heat transfer and Mass transfer proceed together. When air with
certain humidity [ not saturated with water or with humidity 100] comes in contact with
water , there is a mass transfer of water vapor from water to air and this process goes on
until air is fully saturated with water vapor. The relative humidity of the incoming air
which indicates how moist the air is decides how much water vapor air can accept from
water depending on the space the air has to take water vapor till it becomes water.
Relative humidity is the amount of moisture in the air compared to what the air can
"hold" at that temperature. When the air can't "hold" all the moisture, then it condenses as
dew. RH depends on the ambient temperature or the dry bulb temperature of air.
Therefore, in short, the key to understanding relative humidity is to understand that it is a
measure of the actual humidity, relative to the maximum possible humidity at a given
temperature.
RH % =[Moisture in the air / Maximum possible moisture air can hold at the
current temperature] x100
As unsaturated air stream mixes with water stream air pulls water vapor from water to
reach its moisture equilibrium with water and this triggers the mass transfer of water
vapor from water to air. This needs heat to vaporize water. The air and water mixture
releases latent heat of vaporization which has a cooling effect on water by converting a
certain amount of liquid into its gaseous state thereby releasing the latent heat of
vaporization. This is what is called evaporative cooling . There is also sensible heat
transfer between water and air in the cooling tower. When water is warmer than the air,
air cools the water. As air gets hotter as it rises through the cooling tower and gains the
sensible heat of the water and the water is cooled as its sensible heat is transferred to the
air. Since the specific heat of air is small compared to water the impact of quantity of heat
gain or loss by air on its temperature is smaller than water under identical condition.
Approximately 25% of the sensible heat transfer takes place in the tower while the
balance of the 75% cooling is due to the evaporative effect of latent heat of vaporization.
7. Cooling tower efficiency and calculations
Cooling Tower Approach:
The difference between the cold water temperature (cooling tower outlet) and ambient
wet bulb temperature is called as Cooling Tower Approach.
Approach = Cold Water Temperature Wet Bulb Temperature
Cooling Tower approach is the better indicator for the performance.

Cooling Tower Range:

The difference between the hot water temperature (cooling tower inlet) temperature and
cold water (cooling tower outlet) temperature is called cooling tower range.
Range = Hot Water Temperature Cold Water Temperature
Cooling tower efficiency:
The calculation of cooling tower efficiency involves the range and approach of the
cooling tower. Cooling tower efficiency is limited by the ambient wet bulb temperature.
In ideal case the cold water temperature will be equal to the wet bulb temperature. This is
practically not possible to achieve. This requires very large tower and results in huge
evaporation and windage or drift loss resulting in a practically not viable solution. In
practice the cooling tower efficiency will be in between 70 to 75%.
Cooling Tower Efficiency = (Hot Water Temperature Cold water Temperature) x 100/
(Hot Water Temperature Wet bulb temperature)
Or Simply
Cooling Tower Efficiency = Range/ (Range + Approach) x 100
In summer the ambient air wet bulb temperature raises when compared to winter thus
limiting the cooling tower efficiency.
Cycle of Concentration:
Cycle of concentration is a dimensionless number. It is a ratio between parameter in
Cooling Water to the parameter in Makeup water. It can be calculated from any the
following formulae.
COC= Silica in Cooling Water / Silica in Makeup Water
COC = Ca Hardness in Cooling Water/ Ca Hardness in Makeup water
COC = Conductivity of Cooling Water / Conductivity of Makeup water
The cycle of concentration normally varies from 3.0 to 7.0 depending on the Process
Design. It is advisable to keep the Cycle of concentration as high as possible to reduce the
makeup water requirement of the cooling tower. At the same time higher cycle of
concentration increases the dissolved solids concentration in circulating cooling water
which results in scaling and fouling of process heat transfer equipments.
Draw off or Blow down:
As the cooling water circulates the cooling tower part of water evaporates thereby
increasing the total dissolved solids in the remaining water. To control the Cycle of
Concentration blow down is given. Blow down in the is the function of Cycle of
concentration. Blow down can be calculated from the formula:
B = E/ (COC-1)
B = Blow Down (m3/hr)
E = Evaporation Loss (m3/hr)
COC = Cycle of Concentration. Varies from 3.0 to 7.0 depending upon Manufactures
Guidelines
Evaporation Loss Calculation:
Evaporation Loss in cooling tower is calculated by the following empirical equation.
(Reference: Perrys Chemical Engineers Hand Book )
E = 0.00085 x R x 1.8 x C
E = Evaporation Loss (m3/hr)
R= Range
C = Circulating Cooling Water (m3/hr)
Alternatively, The Evaporation loss can be calculated from the heat balance across the
cooling tower.
The amount of heat to be removed from Circulating water Q = m Cp DT = C x Cp x R.
The amount of heat removed by evaporative cooling Q = m x Hv = E x Hv
On Equating these two, we get
E = C x R x Cp / Hv
E = Evaporation Loss in m3/hr
C= Cycle of Concentration
R= Range in C
Cp = Specific Heat = 4.184 kJ / kg / C
Hv = Latent heat of vaporization = 2260 kJ / kg
Windage or Drift Loss Calculation:
Drift loss of the cooling tower is normally provided by the cooling tower manufacturer
based on the Process design. If it is not available it may be assumed as
For Natural Draft Cooling Tower D = 0.3 to 1.0 * C /100
For Induced Draft Cooling Tower D = 0.1 to 0.3 * C /100
For Cooling Tower with Drift Eliminator D = 0.01* C /100

Cooling Tower Mass Balance Make up water:

Cooling tower mass balance gives an idea about make up water requirement. Cooling
Tower Make up has to substitute the water losses resulting from Evaporation, Windage
and Blow down.
M=E+D+B
M = Make up water Requirement in m3/hr
B = Blow Down in m3/hr
E = Evaporation Loss in m3/hr
D = Drift Loss in m3/hr
8. Treatment of water
All cooling water treatment programs, if they are to be completely effective must consider
the following three components:
i. Microbiological control.
ii. Scale and deposit control.
iii. Corrosion control
As water evaporates, the concentrations of dissolved solids become greater, affecting the
operation and integrity of the facility. The most significant opportunity for water savings
in cooling tower operation is by reducing the amount of highly concentrated water
removed from the system as blowdown. One measure of water-use efficiency in a cooling
tower is the concentration ratio, also known as cycles of concentration, which indicates
the number of times water is used before being released as blowdown. There have been
significant recent advances in both chemical treatment and monitoring technology which
allow the concentration ratios in cooling towers to be increased, thus minimizing the
amount of required make-up water needed to replace blowdown.
Optimum concentration ratios for operation are highly dependent on the quality of the
make-up water used, which can vary significantly from region to region. For evaporative
cooling towers that use potable quality water, the minimum cycles of concentration
should be at least four (4). With the modern water treatment chemical and monitoring
technology available today, the potential exists for systems to be operated continuously at
six (6) to eight (8) cycles or even greater, contingent upon system metallurgy and
allowable corrosion rates. In cases where reuse and other non-potable sources are used for
cooling tower water, a lower goal for cycles of concentration may be used since these
non-potable sources typically have higher TDS or hardness than potable water. However,
using reuse water or alternative sources is encouraged in that it reduces potable water use.
Other operating efficiency techniques may include careful use of acid or other pH
lowering agents to reduce scale formation, sidestream filtration to filter out sediment and
suspended particles that may clog lines, prevention of biogrowth by use of biocides and
limiting exposure to sunlight, and use of ozonation to reduce chemical use.
Four general types of measures can reduce the amounts of water used in cooling towers:
i. improved system monitoring and operation
ii. optimal contaminant removal from cooling water
iii. use of alternative sources for make-up water
iv. reducing heat load to evaporative cooling by either good energy management or
by combining air and water cooling.
9. Applications
1. Thermal power plants
2. HVAC
3. Oil refineries
4. Chemical plants
5. Induction furnace
6. Petrochemical industries

10.Effect on environment
The bacteria that causes Legionnaire's disease can develop in the warm water basins
of cooling towers are then released and become airborne. Though Legionnaires
disease is not contagious, it can still cause flu-like symptoms such as chills, fever,
cough, headaches, fatigue, loss of appetite, muscle aches, and diarrhea.

11.References
1. http://www.chemicalengineeringsite.com/cooling-tower-efficiency-calculations/76
2. Heat transfer and Mass transfer in a cooling tower | Nikhilesh Mukherjee |
Pulse | LinkedIn
3. ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equipment
4. Bureau of Energy Efficiency