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LAB CONTENTS

LAB # Date LAB TITLE PAGE # Signature

1 Introduction and Review of MATLAB 2-6

To familiarized with different Types of Pulse Modulation

2 schemes (PAM, PPM and PWM). Write MATLAB programs 7-9
to simulate the modulation process for all types.

3 To familiarized with Pulse Code Modulation. Write MATLAB

10-13
code to understand the fundamentals of PCM

4 To Implement Different Line Coding Schemes using

14-16
MATLAB

5 To find the effect of channel impairments and Implementation

17-18
of complex valued Gaussian Noise on Transmitted signal.

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Digital Communications (TE331) Lab Manual

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 1
OBJECTIVE

Introduction and Review of MATLAB

THEORY

1. Review of MATLAB fundamentals

In this course, we will use software MATLAB. The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory.
MatLab is a computer program that combines computation and visualization power that makes it
particularly useful for engineers. Originally MATLAB was developed to deal with only one single but
universal data type i.e. the matrix. A matrix is defined by
Its associated name
The number of rows
The number of columns
The value of all matrix elements

The matrix data type includes vectors, for the case when either of the number of rows or the number
of column equals to 1; and it includes scalars when both the number of rows and columns equal 1.
Furthermore, matrices can be either real-valued or complex valued, which is the most general case.

1.1 Methods used to get Help:

There are several methods in MATLAB to access texts, which explain the usage and behavior of given
functions:
The HELP command is the basic help feature to get help of a function. For example, to get help
on the SUM function, type at the command prompt:
help sum

HELPWIN is used in the same manner as help, but it opens a separate window with advance
search facilities and links to related topics.

HELPDESK uses a window of an installed web browser to display the help texts.

If the name of a command is not exactly known, the LOOKFOR function helps by seeking
through the first comment line of all available functions and listing all functions where a
desired expression is found.

b) Statement, expressions and variables:

MATLAB is an expression language. The expressions you type are interpreted and evaluated. MATLAB
statements are usually of the form
variable = expression
or simply,
expression
Expressions are usually composed from operators, functions and variable names. Evaluation of the
expression produces a matrix, which is then displayed on the screen and assigned to the variable for
future use.
A statement is normally terminated with the carriage return. However, a statement can be continued
to the next line with three or more periods followed by a carriage return. On the other hand, several
statements can be placed on a single line if separated by commas or semicolon.

1.2 The variable:

If the variable name and sign of equality i.e. = are omitted, a variable ANS (stands for answer) is

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automatically created to which the result is assigned.

Variable names:
Must start with a letter
May contain only letters, digits, and the underscore _
Matlab is case sensitive, i.e. one & OnE are different variables.
Matlab only recognizes the first 31 characters in a variable name.

1.2.1 Workspace:
The contents of all the variables are stored in the MATLAB workspace. This is the memory region
allocated for variable(s).
The command WHO lists all variable which currently exist in the workspace.
WHOS additionally lists the size and amount of allocated memory along with the variable
names
The entire workspace or single variable can be cleared by using the CLEAR command or by clc
command.

1.2.2 Suppressing screen output:

If the last character of a statement is a semicolon, the printing is suppressed, while the assignment is
carried out. This is essential in suppressing unwanted printing of intermediate results.
1.2.3 Colon notation:
Colon notation is used to generate vectors, and reference sub-matrices known as subscripting.
Creative use of this feature makes MATLAB programming code simple, readable and minimizes the
use of loop, which slows the processing speed of MATLAB.
An index vector is created by using the colon notation as; first : last
For example,
An spacing can be introduced between two elements of a vector by using the colon notation
as; first : spacing : last
For example,
Example of Row vector:
>> X=[1:5] or [1 2 3 4 5] or [1,2,3,4,5] generates row vector X = [1 2 3 4 5] % single row and 5
columns.
Example of Row vector: 1 : 5 creates the vector [1 2 3 4 5]
y= [2;4;6;8] generates column vector y = 2 %
single column & 4 rows.
4
6
1: 2 : 5 creates the vector 1 3 5 8

Comment statements are preceded by a "%".

1.3 Defining Matrices

A Matrix array is two-dimensional, having both multiple rows and multiple columns, similar to vector
arrays:
it begins with [, and end with ]
spaces or commas are used to separate elements in a row
Semicolon or enter is used to separate rows.
Example:
>> f= [2 4 7 ; 1 5 3] generates a 2 x 2 metrics f = 2 4 7
1 5 3

1.3.1 Real and complex matrices:

In general, any matrix within the MATLAB can be complex-valued. However, for efficient storage,
MATLAB distinguishes between real-valued and complex-valued matrices. Real valued matrices are

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matrices where the imaginary parts of all matrix elements are zero. The following essentials must be
known to deal with complex-valued matrices:
The variables i and j are assigned, by default, the value i -1 . This is used to define
the complex values. For example,
5 j *10
generates a complex-valued variable.

The real part of a complex-valued matrix can be extracted by using the function REAL and
imaginary part can be extracted by using the function IMAG. Both functions deliver the real-
valued matrices as outputs.

The function CONJ is used to produce the complex conjugate of a matrix.

The special character generates the complex conjugate transpose of a matrix, the hermitian
matrix. This character is written after an expression or variable.
For example, the hermitian of a matrix A can be obtained through:
A
1.4 Elementary operations on Matrices:
MATLAB contains a number of arithmetic, relational, and logical operations on matrices.
Algebraic expressions can be formed by the following basic operations:
Transpose of a vector/matrix can be produced by: .
For example: B.

+ is used to add two vectors/matrices of identical size, or a vector/matrix and a scalar. For
example:
[1 2;3 4] + [5 6;7 8]

- subtracts two vectors/matrices of identical size, or a vector/matrix and a scalar. For example:
2B

performs element-wise multiplication of two vectors/matrices of identical size, or a

vector/matrix and a scalar. For example, to square all elements of B, we may write
B.*B

/ performs element-wise division of two vectors/matrices of identical size, or a vector/matrix

and a scalar. For example, the reciprocal of all elements in B is computed through
1./B

performs vector/matrix multiplication. The number of columns in the first vector/matrix

must equal to the number of rows in the second. Example:
B*B

1.4.1 Often Needed Special Matrices:

Some special vectors and matrices are often required:

ONES: Creates a matrix with all entries being equal to 1.

ZEROS: Creates a matrix with all entries 0. This is used frequently to pre-allocate a matrix.
EYE: Creates an identity matrix.

1.4.2 Subscripting Matrix Elements:

Parts of matrices can be extracted by subscripting these elements, using braces () to specify the

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subscripted elements. MATLAB distinguishes three methods of subscription, here explained for the
example of a matrix B

B(2,3) extracts the value in row 2, column 3

B(1:3,3) extracts the first three elements in column 3
B(2,:) extracts all elements in row 2
B(2,[3 1]) extracts the third and first element in row 2
B([1 3],[2 3]) extracts the four elements in rows 1 and 3,columns 2 and 3

1.5 Logical Expressions:

The following relational operations are dened in MatLab;
< less than
<= less than or equal to
> greater than
>= greater than or equal to
== equal to
~= not equal to
These are element-be-element operations which r eturn a matrix o f o nes ( 1 = true) and zeros (0 =
false). Be careful of the distinction between = and ==.

1.6 M-files:
MATLAB can execute a sequence of statements stored in a file. Such files are called M-files because
they have .m extension as the last part of their file name.
There are two types of M-types:
Script files
Function files

1.6.1 Script file:

In a script file, script is a sequence of commands as they could be entered at the prompt. The script
allows to execute the entire sequence multiple times in a comfortable way, or to test modified
versions.

1.6.2 Function file:

In a function file, function has the additional feature of passing parameters. On calling a function, it
may read input arguments and after execution, it may return output values. The FUNCTION
command specifies the input and output parameters of a function. It must be very first command in a
function file. Only comment may be written before the FUNCTION command. Any text after a % sign
inside an m-file is a comment.

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LAB Task:
Task1:
Try all help methods to get help for any MATLAB Command.

Task2:
Generate a Row Vector A with values from 0 to 9.

Task 3:
Assign a 3x3 Matrix to B by using Magic command.

Task 4:
Assign a 3x3 Matrix to C without printing its output on Screen.

Task 5:
Check what variables you currently have e in workspace. Clear variable C.

Task 6:
Investigate the difference between Matrix Multiplication and Element-wise Multiplication.

Task7:
Explore and use the following Command with suitable example. Ones, Zeros, and eye.

Task 8:
Generate a Matrix C through magic command of size 3then extracts:
i. Elements of 3rd row and 1st column
ii. All elements of 2nd column
iii. All elements of 3rd row
iv. 1st and 2nd elements of column 2
v. 1st and 3rd elements of 2nd and 3rd column

Task 9:
Explore and use the following Command with suitable example. Real, Imag, and Conj.

Task 10:
Generate a complex valued matrix z=ones(1,5)+i(1:5) and calculate the absolute square of each
element.

Task 11:
Explore and use the following Command with suitable example. Plot, semilogy, stem and subplot.

Task 12:
Explain the difference between Script and function file.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 2
OBJECTIVE

To familiarized with different Types of Pulse Modulation schemes (PAM, PPM and PWM). Write
MATLAB programs to simulate the modulation process for all types.

THEORY

2. Pulse Modulation:

The process of transmitting signals in the form of pulses (discontinuous signals) by using special
techniques is known as Pulse Modulation. It consists essentially of sampling analog information signals
and then converting those samples into discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a source to a
destination over a physical transmission medium.

2.1. Types of Pulse Modulation:

Analog Pulse Modulation

Digital Pulse Modulation

2.2. Analog Pulse Modulation:

Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

2.3. Digital Pulse Modulation

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Delta Modulation (DM)

2.2.1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)

PAM is a modulation scheme where the message is encoded in the amplitude of a series of amplitude
pulses. Its an analog modulation scheme in which the amplitudes of a train of carrier pulses are varied
according to the amplitude of message signal. In the pulse amplitude modulation, the message signal is
sampled at regular periodic or time intervals and this each sample is made proportional to the magnitude
of the message signal. These sample pulses can be transmitted directly using wired media or we can use
a carrier signal for transmitting through wireless.

Example: A two-bit modulator (PAM-4) will take two bits at a time and will map the signal amplitude
to one of four possible levels, for example 3 volts, 1 volt, 1 volt, and 3 volts. There are two types of
sampling techniques for transmitting messages using pulse amplitude modulation, they are

FLAT TOP PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is

directly proportional to instantaneous modulating
signal amplitude at the time of pulse occurrence and
then keeps the amplitude of the pulse for the rest of
the half cycle.

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Natural PAM: The amplitude of each pulse is

directly proportional to the instantaneous
modulating signal amplitude at the time of pulse
occurrence and then follows the amplitude of the
modulating signal for the rest of the half cycle.

2.2.2. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)

It is a type of analog modulation. In pulse width modulation or pulse duration modulation, the width of
the pulse carrier is varied in accordance with the sample values of message signal or modulating signal
or modulating voltage. In pulse width modulation, the amplitude is made constant. We can vary the
pulse width in three ways

By keeping the leading-edge constant and vary the pulse width with respect to leading edge
By keeping the tailing constant.
By keeping the center of the pulse constant.

2.2.3. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

In the pulse position modulation, the position of each pulse in a signal by taking the reference signal is
varied according to the sample value of message or modulating signal instantaneously. In the pulse
position modulation, width and amplitude is kept constant.

Fig 2.1 An illustration of Pulse Modulation Schemes

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Lab Exercise:

Task1: Generate PAM wave form.

Construct a time array from 0 to 1 sec with 0.01 intervals. Name it t.

Find the size of the array t. Use length function. Name the size n.
Construct signal array x. Signal is a sinewave with unity amplitude and unity angular
frequency.
Construct carrier array c. Carrier is a rectangular pulse with 1 amplitude and sampling
frequency 20.
Modulate the signal and carrier for each time interval (for each element of array t). Name it
pam.
Show the output with proper labelled diagrams through subplot command.

Task2: Generate PWM wave form.

Construct a time array from 0 to 1 sec with 0.001 intervals. Name it t.

Find the size of the array t. Use length function. Name the size n.
Construct signal array x. Signal is a sinewave with amplitude is 3 and unity angular frequency.
Construct carrier array c. Carrier is a sawtooth wave signal with 5 amplitude and angular
frequency 5.
Modulate the signal and carrier for each time interval (for each element of array T). Name it
pwm.
Show the output with proper labelled diagrams through subplot command.

Task3: Generate PPM wave form.

Construct a time array from 0 to (2/fm-1/fs) sec with 1/fs intervals. Name it t.
Find the size of the array t. Use length function. Name the size n.
Construct signal array x. Signal is a sinewave with 0.4 amplitude, 0.5 phase shift and 200
angular frequency.
Take carrier frequency 1000 and sampling frequency 10000.
Use MATLAB modulate command to modulate the signal and carrier for PPM.
Show the output with proper labelled diagrams through subplot command.

Task4:

Repeat Task 2 with MATLAB modulate command.

Task5:

Generate square wave, rectangular pulse and sawtooth waveform without using MATLAB built-in
commands.

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 3
OBJECTIVE

To familiarized with Pulse Code Modulation. Write MATLAB code to understand the fundamentals of
PCM

THEORY

3. Pulse Code Modulation (PCM):

Pulse code modulation is a method that is used to convert an analog signal into a digital signal, so that
modified analog signal can be transmitted through the digital communication network. PCM is in binary
form, so there will be only two possible states high and low (0 and 1). We can also get back our analog
signal by demodulation. The Pulse Code Modulation process is done in three steps Sampling,
Quantization, and Coding. Using PCM, it is possible to digitize all forms of analog data, including full-
motion video, voices, music, telemetry, and virtual reality (VR).

In sampling, we are using PAM sampler that is Pulse Amplitude Modulation Sampler which converts
continuous amplitude signal into Discrete-time- continuous signal (PAM pulses). Basic block diagram
of PCM is given below for better understanding.

Fig 3.1 Block Diagram of PCM Encoder

3.1. Sampling

Sampling is a process of measuring the amplitude of a continuous-time signal at discrete instants,

converts the continuous signal into a discrete signal. For example, conversion of a sound wave to a
sequence of samples. The Sample is a value or set of values at a point in time or it can be spaced.
Sampler extract samples of a continuous signal, it is a subsystem ideal sampler produces samples which
are equivalent to the instantaneous value of the continuous signal at the specified various points. The
Sampling process generates flat- top Pulse Amplitude Modulated (PAM) signal.

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Fig 3.2 Different types of Sampling

Sampling frequency, Fs is the number of average samples per second also known as Sampling rate.
According to the Nyquist Theorem sampling rate should be at least 2 times the upper cutoff frequency.
Sampling frequency, Fs>=2*fmax to avoid Aliasing Effect. If the sampling frequency is very higher
than the Nyquist rate it become Oversampling, theoretically a bandwidth limited signal can be
reconstructed if sampled at above the Nyquist rate. If the sampling frequency is less than the Nyquist
rate it will become Under sampling. Basically, two types of techniques are used for the sampling
process. Those are 1. Natural Sampling and 2. Flat- top Sampling.

3.2. Quantization

In quantization, an analog sample with an amplitude that converted into a digital sample with an
amplitude that takes one of a specific defined set of quantization values. Quantization is done by
dividing the range of possible values of the analog samples into some different levels, and assigning the
center value of each level to any sample in quantization interval. Quantization approximates the analog
sample values with the nearest quantization values. So almost all the quantized samples will differ from
the original samples by a small amount. That amount is called as quantization error. The result of this
quantization error is we will hear hissing noise when play a random signal. Converting analog samples
into binary numbers that is 0 and 1.

In most of the cases we will use uniform quantizers. Uniform quantization is applicable when the sample
values are in a finite range (Fmin, Fmax). The total data range is divided into 2n levels, let it be L
intervals. They will have an equal length Q. Q is known as Quantization interval or quantization step
size. In uniform quantization, there will be no quantization error.

Fig 3.3 Quantization Process

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3.3. Encoding

The encoder does the digitization of analog signal. It designates each quantized level by a binary code.
The sampling done here is the sample-and-hold process. Encoding is the process of representing the
sampled values as a binary number in the range 0 to n. The value of n is chosen as a power of 2,
depending on the accuracy required. Increasing n reduces the step size between adjacent quantization
levels and hence reduces the quantization noise. The down side of this is that the amount of digital data
required to represent the analogue signal increases.

Fig 3.4 Encoding Process

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Lab Exercise:

Task1: Generate cosine wave with unit amplitude and 110 Hz frequency. Perform sampling of
generated signal with following:

o Nyquist rate
o Fs>2fm
o Fs<2fm

Take t=0:0.0005:0.2. Plot analog signal along with its sampled output and explain your observation for
above three conditions.

Task2: Generate cosine wave with unit amplitude and 110 Hz frequency. Perform sampling and
quantization of generated signal with following Matlab commands:

o Round
o Ceil
o floor

Plot analog signal, sampled output and quantized output. Explain results.

Task3:

By taking number of digits after decimal to be retained from user repeat task 2. Plot analog signal,
sampled output and quantized output. Explain results.

( 10())
=
10()

Task4:

write a program to quantize the signal x(n)=cos(2*pi*f*t) using truncation to 64,128,256 quantization
levels. In each case plot x(n), Xq(n) and Xe(n) and compute corresponding SQNR.

= cos(2 )

log( 1)
=
2

q=digits to be retained
N=sub Intervals
( 10^())
=
10^()

= 10log( )

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 4
OBJECTIVE

To Implement Different Line Coding schemes using MATLAB

THEORY

4. Baseband Transmission:
4.1. Waveform Representation of Binary Digits (Line Coding)

We have studied in lab 4 that how analog waveforms are transformed into binary digits via the use of
PCM. There is nothing "physical" about the digits resulting from this PCM process. Digits are just
abstractions- a way to describe the message information. Thus, we need something physical that will
represent or "carry" the digits. We will represent the binary digits with electrical pulses to transmit them
through a baseband channel. Thus, a sequence of electrical pulses having some can be used to transmit
the information in the PCM bit stream, and the process is known as line coding.

4.2. PCM Waveform Types (Line Coding Types):

When pulse modulation is applied to a binary symbol, the resulting binary waveform is called a pulse-
code modulation (PCM) waveform. There are several types of PCM waveforms that are described
below, in telephony applications, these waveforms are often called line codes. When pulse modulation
is applied to a nonbinary symbol, the resulting waveform is called an M-ary pulse-modulation
waveform. The PCM waveforms fall into the following four groups.

1. Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ)
2. Return-to-zero (RZ)
3. Phase encoded
4. Multilevel binary

4.2.1. Non Return to Zero (NRZ)

The NRZ group is probably the most commonly used PCM waveform. It can be partitioned into the
following subgroups:

a) NRZ-L (L for level)

b) NRZ-M (M for mark)
c) NRZ-S (S for space)

4.2.1.1. NRZ-L

NRZ-L is used extensively in digital logic circuits. A binary one is represented by one voltage level and
a binary zero is represented by another voltage level. There is a change in level whenever the data
change from a one to a zero or from a zero to a one.

4.2.1.2. NRZ-M

With NRZ-M, the one, or mark, is represented by a change in level, and the zero, or space, is represented
by no change in level. This is often referred to as differential encoding. NRZ-M is used primarily in
magnetic tape recording.

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4.2.1.3. NRZ-S

NRZ-S is the complement of NRZ-M: A one is represented by no change in level, and a zero is
represented by a change in level.

4.2.2. Return to Zero (RZ)

The RZ waveforms consist of unipolar-RZ, bipolar-RZ. and RZ-AMI. These codes find application in
baseband data transmission and in magnetic recording. With unipolar-RZ, a one is represented by a
half-bit-wide pulse, and a zero is represented by the absence of a pulse. With bipolar-RZ, the ones and
zeros are represented by opposite-level pulses that are one-half bit wide. There is a pulse present in each
bit interval. RZ-AMI (AMI for "alternate mark inversion") is a signaling scheme used in telephone
systems. The ones are represented by equal-amplitude alternating pulses. The zeros are represented by
the absence of pulses.

Fig 4.1 Different Line Coding Schemes

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Lab Exercise:

Task1:

Generate Message signal (Binary Data that was output of PCM) by creating a Function [q]=bitgen(m,n)
which generates a matrix A of size m,n with random values with equal probabilities. Use the MATLAB
function RAND, which generates uniformly distributed pseudo random numbers.

Task2:

Generate Noisy signal (Random Complexed valued) by creating a Function [qc]=noisy_data(m,n)

which generates a matrix A of size m,n with random values with equal probabilities. Use the MATLAB
function RANDN, which generates gaussian distributed pseudo random numbers.

Task3:

Write a function [xL]=bit2sym(q,A), Which converts a vector of bits, Q, into a vector X of transmit
symbols, according to the binary transmit symbol alphabet specified by the 2-element vector A = [a0;
a1] by using NRZ-L Line coding scheme. (Hint: Take A= [-1 1] for NRZ-L Scheme and q is the output
of task1).

Task4:

Write a function [xM]=bit2sym(q,A), Which converts a vector of bits, Q, into a vector X of transmit
symbols, according to the binary transmit symbol alphabet specified by the 2-element vector A = [a0;
a1] by using NRZ-M Line coding scheme. (Hint: Take A= [-1 1] for NRZ-M Scheme and q is the output
of task1).

Task5:

Write a function [xS]=bit2sym(q,A), Which converts a vector of bits, Q, into a vector X of transmit
symbols, according to the binary transmit symbol alphabet specified by the 2-element vector A = [a0;
a1] by using NRZ-S Line coding scheme. (Hint: Take A= [-1 1] for NRZ-S Scheme and q is the output
of task1).

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LABORATORY EXERCISE 5
OBJECTIVE

To find the effect of channel impaiments and Implementation of complex valued Gaussian Noise on
Transmitted signal.

THEORY

5. Channel Impairments:

In the case of baseband signaling, the received waveforms are already in a pulse like form. One might
ask, why the n, is a demodulator needed to recover the pulse waveforms? The answer is that the arriving
baseband pulses are not in the form of ideal pulse shapes hence There are two primary causes for error-
performance degradation. The first is the effect of filtering at the transmitter, channel, and receiver.
Another cause for error-performance degradation is electrical noise and interference produced by a
variety of sources, such as galaxy and atmospheric noise, switching transients, intermodulation noise,
as well as interfering signals from other sources.

With proper precautions, much of the noise and interference entering a receiver can be reduced in
intensity or even eliminated. However, there is one noise source that cannot be eliminated, and that is
the noise caused by the thermal motion of electrons in any conducting media. This motion produces
thermal noise in amplifiers and circuits, and corrupts the signal in an additive fashion. The primary
statistical characteristic of thermal noise is that the noise amplitudes are distributed according to a
normal or Gaussian distribution,

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LAB EXERCISES:
Task1:

Use MATLAB command conv to find the effect of channel on transmitted information by performing
convolution of input signal with ideal channel impulse response.

Write a function [v]=chanres(x,h) where x is the transmitted symbols and h is the channel response.
Plot the output signal using STEM command.

Task2:

Investigate how above function works by passing a step function:

through a filter with the impulse response

Display all signals using the STEM function. Which part of the output signal must be out to obtain a
time alignment of input and output signals?

Task3:

Real-valued Gaussian noise can be produced using the built-in MATLAB function RANDN. This
produces pseudo-random numbers following a zero-mean Gaussian distribution with variance 1.

Write a function [D]=RANDNCP(M,N) which delivers an M x N matrix D of complex-valued Gaussian

noise with variance 1 in both real and imaginary parts. Test the function by producing a SCATDIAG
plot of delivered values.

Task4:

Generate Received signal by adding noise into signal coming from the channel (v). Test the function by
producing a SCATDIAG plot of transmitted and received symbols.

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