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Teachers and Teaching: theory

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A Contemporary Study of
Teacher Planning in a High
School English Class
Gail Mccutcheon & H. Richard Milner
Published online: 25 Aug 2010.

To cite this article: Gail Mccutcheon & H. Richard Milner (2002) A Contemporary Study
of Teacher Planning in a High School English Class, Teachers and Teaching: theory and
practice, 8:1, 81-94

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 Teachers and Teaching: theory and practice, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2002

A Contemporary Study of Teacher

Planning in a High School English Class
GAIL MCCUTCHEON
The Ohio State University, USA

H. RICHARD MILNER
Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, USA
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ABSTRACT A case study of a contemporary secondary school English teacher is presented

and compared with prior research about teacher planning. Drawing on his rich content
knowledge, this teachers long-range pre-active planning is his major form of planning
when he develops interconnected themes for the course, selects literature, and develops
curriculum materials for it employing technology. Because this case differs substantially
from prior research, a call is made for more studies of teacher planning.

Introduction
Teacher planning is important because the teachers planning makes it possible for
that teacher to enact the curriculum so that students can experience learning. This
fundamental area of research has profound implications for teacher education, for
supervision, and for curriculum and instruction. It also has important implications
for educational reform and policy studies because, ultimately, only through
teachers plans are reforms and policies put into action through understanding
and applying the reform or a new policy. However, much of this research about
teacher planning was carried out 20 years ago. Furthermore, most studies were
carried out about elementary school teachers planning. This is not to dismiss that
research. But, are its major ndings still relevant? In this article, we review that
literature and present a case study of a highly professional English teachers
planning for a course in British literature and compare it with research literature
about teacher planning. We close with a discussion.

What Do We Know About Teacher Planning?

A great deal of research was carried out about teacher planning approximately
two decades ago. Clark and Peterson (1986, p. 260) say of this early research that
researchers conceptualized these studies in two ways. First, where planning
consisted of a set of basic psychological processes where a person visualizes the
future, inventories means and ends, and constructs a framework to guide future

ISSN 1354-0602 (print)/ISSN 1470-1278 (online)/02/010081-14 2002 Taylor & Francis Ltd
DOI: 10.1080 /1354060012011058 3
 82 G. McCutcheon & H. R. Milner

action. A second way the early researchers conceptualized their studies was
by de ning planning as what teachers say they do when planning, yielding
phenomenological or descriptive studies, and the teacher was an important
informant or collaborator in the research.
By and large, that literature reveals teachers do actively plan, although very few
teachers plan by objectives and do not write highly detailed plans. Not only is it
a very active process, but planning is also primarily a cognitive enterprise where
teachers create mental images of a plan to guide their actions (Morine-Dersheimer,
1979; Smith & Sendelbach, 1979). That is to say, teachers envision themselves
enacting the plan, what they will say, questions they will ask, when to pass out
what materials, where they will stand, how to arrange the students, and they
anticipate potential dif culties and how to deal with them, among other matters
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they consider. So, when teachers plan, their plans and planning do not follow linear
models included in some teacher education preservice courses where teachers are
to write objectives, materials needed, then the instructional procedure, plans for
student practice and evaluation (Clark & Yinger, 1977; McCutcheon, 1980; Clark &
Peterson, 1986). Apparently teachers even those with only a few years of class-
room experience nd that writing detailed lesson plans does not help them
conceive lessons except for the rst time that they are planning a new lesson. As
a result, most lessons are planned mentally with little committed to paper. While
teaching, the teacher recalls and enacts the mental image developed of the lesson
while planning it (Smith & Sendelbach, 1979).
One distinction made in the literature about planning concerns pre-active and
interactive planning (respectively, planning before the lesson and planning while
enacting the plan). However, as Clark and Peterson (1986, p. 258) report, `The kind
of thinking that teachers do during interactive teaching does not appear to be
qualitatively different from the kind of thinking they do when they are not
interacting with students. A third type of planning was called `post-active,
comprised of re ections after enacting the plan and used subsequently to revise the
plan.
However, some teachers depend heavily on published teachers guides to
begin their planning (Smith & Sendelbach, 1979). While the teacher planning
studies were being carried out, studies about textbook use were simultaneously
undertaken. In fact, Davis et al. (1977) found 78% of the fth-grade curricula they
studied to be associated with textbooks. Stake and Easley (1979) found teachers
to rely on textbooks for the basis of the curriculum in science, mathematics, and
social studies. Goodlad (1984) claims that textbooks are the dominating form of
curricula. Having reviewed teachers school practices, Fullan (1982, p. 118) claims
that `teachers frequently take and teach the textbook. These and other studies
indicated a pervasive reliance on textbooks for curriculum and instructional
decisions, leading Talmage (1972, pp. 21 22) to assert that the textbook serves
as the `arbiter of the curriculum of a school system. This research seems to indicate
teachers being controlled by textbooks rather than using their professional
judgment.
 Teacher Planning in High School English 83

This Case
One of several high school English classes Bill Gathergood teaches is a senior level
elective, semester-long course in British literature at Channington High School. The
course stands alone in that it has no prerequisites and is not a prerequisite to other
courses. It partially ful lls the graduation requirement of four units of English.
Part of understanding this case is dependent on understanding the context in
which it occurs. In this next section, we describe the school and community where
this study took place.

The Context of the Case

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Channington High, originally built in 1964, was remodeled extensively in 1994. It

is the only high school in Channington [1]. Light and airy, artwork is displayed in
the halls along with a statue of the Channington cheetah. Ninety-three percent of
its students graduate; following graduation, 65% go on to a 4-year college, and
15% go to a technical school or 2-year college. A total of 1687 students attend
9th 12th Grades here. The faculty numbers 110. Class size averages 23.2 students.
Channington High is a professional development school allied with Ohio State
University as well as a member of the coalition of essential schools. The student
population is basically blue collar, but mixed economically. Roughly 87% of
students are European-American, with small percentages of African-American,
Hispanic-American and Asian-American students. About 10% of students receive
free or reduced lunch.
Channington itself has a population of 30,000 and is within the metropolitan
area of Columbus, OH. In 1998, homes in the community ranged in price from
$60,000 to $250,000, and many rental units of a wide range were also available
here. Another matter necessary to understand is the teachers background, and in
this next section we turn to Bill Gathergoods background.

This Teacher
Bill began teaching 25 years ago, immediately following his graduation from
college. He began college at a small Catholic school, then transferred to Ohio State
University once he realized he wanted to be an English teacher. He says he was
in awe of the library at Ohio State, while his former colleges library reminded
him of the library in the small town where he grew up. He later did graduate
work at Ohio State, becoming the professional development school clinical educa-
tor at Channington for several years. During his graduate work, in 1973, he held
a part-time job at the Universitys radio station where he engineered radio
programs, thus becoming familiar with audio equipment. This contributed to his
early interest in technology. At Channington High, Bill used the schools reel-to-
reel videotape machine, and he gained the reputation of being a `techie. He says,
`Anything with buttons to push was sent to me, including VCRs. He directed
video production, but needed to work on his editing ability, which he did. About
 84 G. McCutcheon & H. R. Milner

15 years ago, the journalism teacher asked him if he was interested in broadcast
journalism. He built a television studio at the school, and they team-taught a
broadcast journalism course, producing over 500 programs to broadcast within
the school. When the school recently subscribed to Channel One [2], however,
this broadcast venture was reduced to producing a few minutes of morning
announcements.
At 6 foot 4 inches, Bill towers over most students. Hes slightly overweight, and
his typical school `uniform consists of dark slacks and a sweatshirt, typically one
with a literary theme of some sort. He usually also wears a somewhat jovial
expression, with twinkling eyes shining through his glasses and a smile. Most of
his hair and short beard are dark, although now that he is in his late forties a few
gray streaks are starting to appear. One clear part of Bills planning concerns his
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long-term preparation for the course, and this is related in the next section.

Bills Planning for this Course

Bills Long-range Pre-active Planning for this Course
While many teachers seem to plan on a day-to-day or weeklong basis, Bill plans
each course before he teaches it. This is a form of what we are calling here
`long-range pre-active planning, to distinguish it from shorter-range pre-active
planning, such as the day-to-day lesson plans some teachers develop. This is the
second semester Bill has taught Major British Writers, and the course concerns
British literature from Romantic poets to modern literature. To prepare to teach
the course the rst time, Bill read through the Channington graded course of
study. In Ohio, this document is prepared by local school systems, and by state
law it comprises the document that is to control the content of a course. After
studying it, however, Bill believed the course of study was `too general to be
useful, and [it] assumed most of the authors in the book purchased by the school
system would be covered. Because the course is only 18 weeks long, Bill believed
it would be dif cult to treat everything in suf cient depth.
In further thinking about the course the rst time he taught it, Bill also looked
at the way the previous teacher of the course had organized it, but he rejected that
organization because in his view it centered too much on the textbook. Hence, he
began his planning by selecting literature meeting several criteria. For one, it had
to be literature he himself liked, or at minimum literature he knew. It further had
to have a theme that students could link to other pieces of literature `to weave a
purpose through the literature and the course. In fact, the structure of the course
is based on these themes. The themes overlap, and Bill frequently reminds
students of previous discussions or foreshadows an impending one to facilitate
students connecting the themes together or connecting a piece of literature to a
current, previous, or upcoming theme. The rst theme he discusses is a theme of:
Who are we, and where are we going? This theme begins and ends the course,
beginning with extracts from Genesis, Exodus, and John from the King James
version of the Bible, and ending with Childhoods End. Bill continues, `A second
 Teacher Planning in High School English 85

theme concerns songs of innocence and experience . Included here are works
by Blake and both the books Peter Pan and Alice in Wonderland. The major idea
here, Bill says, is one of `adults spending a lot of time with children recapturing
their youth, and adults trying to stave off pessimism. Then comes the Age of
Romanticism, with Shellys sensuous view of the world and authors being
punished for their views, so they wind up cloaking their sensuality. A
fourth theme, that of `playing God , is tied to the rst theme and includes Mary
Shelly as well as Tennyson and Victorian poets where these people tried to bring
order back to poetry and literature through a new form of fantasy while also
discussing important issues such as roles of men and women in society. Clarkes
Childhoods End then brings the theme full circle back to the initial theme of the
course.
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In addition to the criteria of themes and literature he liked or at least knew, a

third criterion for selecting the literature concerned whether it was available on
the Web so he would be able to transfer it to his course materials easily. He
searched the Web for literature available there, since he intended to develop a
computer disc containing literature for the course (with the exception of Child-
hoods End, not available on the Web, so purchased in paperback form). He came
to call these `textdiscs. So, unlike some English teachers who might begin their
long-range pre-active planning by consulting their textbook, Bill does not start
with a textbook or with the assumption that he should introduce authors and their
work chronologically. He says he devotes about 2 weeks each summer to planning
each course, re-designing some courses on the basis of his previous years
teaching of them, recreating a textdisc for each course and locating relevant
videotapes for the course. He reports he considers the genre, then the theme, the
piece of literature to use, and the media to use. He uses videotapes when he has
one available that is a `key contributor to the content. He particularly favors
having students see plays. `Shakespeare did not write these plays to be read, he
remarks once during class; `he wrote these plays to be seen!. Other than planning
for pacing and sequencing purposes, Bill does not do short-term lesson planning
because of his extensive long-range planning; he does not think lesson planning
would be helpful. Concerning pacing, for instance, he recalls a few years ago
when he had students make brief animation videotapes about selected readings.
Although some students prospered greatly, particularly in terms of self-esteem, by
the end of the projects second week Bill realized the assignment was too lengthy.
While they did complete it, he did not incorporate it in his subsequent plans
because it consumed too much time, given the total amount of time he had for the
course. This is a clear case where his post-active re ections about this assisted him
with subsequent pre-active planning.

Interactive Planning in this Case

One further reason why Bill does not do much short-term pre-active planning is
that he strives to have `an improvisatory nature to discussions in class. Too much
 86 G. McCutcheon & H. R. Milner

planning restricts the ow of discussion and the exploration, in his view. `As
were having a discussion, maybe something in the literature strikes me, but they
may not have had the experience to draw on. So sometimes I have to be able to
go out in left eld, and I dont always know ahead of time where Im going to go
or exactly where the discussion will take us. That preempts too much short-term
planning. Sometimes we have an almost explosive session in class. I have to
analyze what happened and go on perhaps to a new idea.
Bill further desires to integrate technology into the English curriculum so
students can learn about technology `almost through osmosis. A stand-alone
course in technology is probably important, but until they see its uses in their
lives, they might not really understand the uses of technology.
In short, Bill is not following someone elses curriculum. He consulted the
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graded course of study and the previous teachers ideas, but in the end he himself
developed a curriculum for this course including a textdisc to use in lieu of a book.
His thinking has further led him to incorporating technology into the English
curriculum so students will learn its uses in their normal classroom work rather
than through separate coursework. He selected literature from the Web that
would serve to develop major overlapping themes of the course. This extensive
long-range planning is another reason why he does not do much short-range
planning. His interactive planning is also important to him so he can capitalize on
discussions and meanings that students and he associate with the literature. In
this next section, we describe parts of several class sessions; all of this elaborate
planning goes for naught if it does not work in action in Bills enactment of the
plans he made.

The Plans Enacted

On the rst morning of class, Bill establishes a few routines and explains some
matters about how the class will operate. Twenty-nine students bustle into the
room and stow their backpacks under desks. He has them arrange themselves
alphabetically and reseat themselves that way. On subsequent days, he takes
attendance by quickly scanning the room for empty seats. Following that, on this
rst day, he talks a bit about how the class will operate, using the textdisc. He
passes out a brief survey asking particulars of the computers they will be using.
Most students ll it out quickly, although a few want to check when they go
home, and Bill assures them they may turn it in the following day. He adds,
`Tomorrow Ill be handing out the discs. Why do we do this thing with discs in
here? First of all, I got to publish my own text. Theres no way to cover everything
in a normal textbook. By having this disc you get what I think is the best.
Secondly, this disc only costs 45 cents, so its cheaper for the school and you can
take it with you to college. Thirdly, when you go to college some faculty
membersll want you to know technology. Last year parents at Kelby High [a
nearby school] complained their kids werent ready for college, and it was because
of technology. The Kelby faculty decided to add another computer course, but I
think its better to integrate it into courses like this so youll see and learn how to
 Teacher Planning in High School English 87

use it. The experiments Im doing concern reading off the textdisc, although you
may also turn in homework if you want as an attachment to e-mail.
He devotes the remainder of this period and parts of the following two sessions
to having students play a game where they take turns making connections among
words so he can `get to know you better. For example, in the game, the rst word
is `lamb chop, then a student says `Lewis and Clark, then `Superman, then
`Martha Reeve and the Vandellas. At some points a student or he interrupts to
ask about the connection. Bill uses his observations of students in several rounds
of the game to form groups of students. He says of the connections and groups he
makes, `Leaders do complex associations; they also interrupt to ask each other
how they got there. Creative people make multiple jumps; their lateral synapses
are well connected. Workers follow along the same line by doing many synonyms;
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they tend to know a lot about a single topic. Rebels give antonyms. To put the
groups together, he ensures he has individuals of each sort in each group, based
on his observations of several rounds of the game as well as one round of written
responses. These groups later help each other with using the textdisc and com-
puter in class. So, Bill uses the rst three class sessions for organizational
purposes.
Subsequent class sessions typically revolve around a group of students turning
on the computers around the periphery of the room, inserting the textdisc and
locating the relevant selection for the days lesson. The computers are within most
students vision, and one laptop computer and overhead projector also display
relevant portions of the textdisc on the rear wall of the classroom. Students take
turns reading from it; occasionally Bill interrupts with a point or a question about
the reading. For instance, one set of readings consists of extracts from Genesis,
Exodus, and John from the King James translation of the Bible. He begins the
lesson today by reviewing the idea brought up yesterday that a main theme in
Genesis is that humans are to `be fruitful and multiply. He asks what that means,
and students nervously giggle although one student braves, `it has to do with
having babies. Bill agrees, then remarks, `During the time of the King James
version of the Bible, this was important because there was a seriously high infant
mortality rate, and life expectancy was only 34 or 35 years. Students exclaim
softly, `Wow!. Bill continues, `This gets to be a problem when modern science
reduces infant mortality and increases life expectancy. Does this mean we need to
rethink the be fruitful and multiply rule? At what point do you let science make
you rethink the scriptures? Thats a tough one.
A student continues by reading Genesis 1:26, and Bill interrupts, `Whoa!!.
Theres another instruction for us [having dominion over the beasts of the earth].
The students quickly proceed to a lively discussion of animal rights. A student
claims, `We take all their [the animals] land, then we look and say, Oh. Theyre
overpopulated , referring to a recent highly-publicized local controversy about
the overpopulation of deer in the city parks and the damage being made to
homeowners property by the deer. Bill goes on, `Well have to continue to think
about what original sin is. This will be important at the end of the semester when
we look at Childhoods End, and you almost have to come back to Genesis and
remember that plan about what we should be and do. When were reading this,
 88 G. McCutcheon & H. R. Milner

look at the words these guys chose to use in the translation. The reason were
reading this is that it was translated during the reign of King James. Students
continue reading in Genesis until the end of the period, with occasional discus-
sions about whether God is male or female, word choices made by the translators,
and the amount of power God is giving to mankind. Bill directs students to write
an essay about `what our purpose on Earth is and what prevents us from
accomplishing it.
Most class sessions are like this one, with students taking turns reading works
such as Peter Pan, works by Lewis Carroll and Mary Shelly, or poetry by Byron,
Shelly, and Keats. At times, Bill gives brief lectures about the background of
authors and students frequently engage in discussions about the literature like
those already mentioned. Bill also shows several videotapes. They watch a
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videotape of Alice at the Palace as well as another about Lewis Carrolls biography.
They also devote three class sessions to working in small groups reading poetry
by Coleridge, Byron, Shelly, and Keats, and then each group develops a radio-play
relating of history about the poet, presenting background music to accompany
their text, and reading a representative or important poem. Each radio play is to
last approximately 15 minutes. One student helps Bill with the sound mixing to
synchronize when the music is to start and when students should read over the
music. The class ultimately listens to all six shows the groups have made and are
to decide which two are good enough to have Bills sixth-period class listen.

Students Views of Learnings in this Course

While it is important to eavesdrop on Bills enacted curriculum, it is also relevant
to discern what students believe they have opportunities to learn in this course.
Twenty-six of 29 students addressed this via e-mail, and they focused their
attention on two matters: technology and thinking/writing skills. In terms of
technology, for example, a student transmitted:
The best thing about this class is that it is the rst time a class has used
the technology that we have. It is a great way to learn about writings and
a great way to prepare us for college life. Since the world is focused
around technology and development, I believe I can apply the skills
learned from class to every day situations.
Other students mentioned the courses contribution to their thinking and ability
to write about their own views, as epitomized by two students who e-mailed:
I learned how to write what was on my mind instead of what teachers
put into my head. We have been so used to having writing guidelines
and in this class the only thing we were told to do was to write about a
certain subject. We were free to write anything we wanted to.
I believe the most important thing that we have learned in the brit lit II
class is the fact that we have not just read the literature, but we have seen
more. Brit lit II is not just about reading, its about how you think and
focused about. (sic)
 Teacher Planning in High School English 89

It is interesting to note that no student discussed the content of the course (British
literature) in this e-mail about what they learned in the course.

Discussion
The Historical Context of Previous studies of Teacher Planning
The historical context surrounding earlier studies of teacher planning is important
to understand in order to understand that research itself, for it affected the
research. The heyday of the early research on teacher planning occurred in the
1970s (Clark & Peterson, 1986, p. 261), and those times may have affected the
research in some serious ways. It is important to remember that this emphasis on
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teacher planning research came on the heels of the behavioral objectives move-
ment. Here, it was argued that pre-specifying behavioral objectives was important
to clarify and provide direction for teaching, evaluation, and learning (Duchastel
& Merrill, 1973). Popham (1969) and Mager (1962) had written extensively, and an
abiding message to teachers and teacher educators seemed to favor planning by
objectives, and behavioral ones at that. One in uence of the behavioral objectives
movement may have been to frame some studies to examine whether teachers
planned by objectives. It may have further in uenced the research to focus on
lesson planning rather than planning as a larger phenomenon. However, it is also
possible that some of us doing the early research about teacher planning believed
we needed to understand lesson planning before we could conceive of planning
in a larger sense.
The objectives movement may have also in uenced the teaching and planning
of the times. At that time, perhaps teachers could not help but view knowledge as
objective, so they prepared lectures and sessions for drill and practice. As a result,
the objectives movement may have in uenced not only researchers designs for
studying planning, but also the very nature of the planning itself being studied.
As a result, the context of the times may have had a profound impact on the
portrait we now have of planning, and that portrait may not be valid for the
contemporary situation. Schools have changed dramatically since those earlier
studies about teacher planning were carried out, and those changes may have
in uenced the nature of teacher planning signi cantly. It is well beyond the scope
of this article to discuss all of the changes in schools in the past 20 years, but two
are worthy of mention because they relate to this case. An obvious change not
present 20 years ago is the presence of technology in classrooms across the nation.
This involves teachers in conceiving of how to use technology, how to teach skills
of technology use, and how and whether to integrate technology into what they
are doing. A second major change, evident in this case and also in other class-
rooms across the nation, is a change in thinking about how students learn and the
nature of knowledge. Twenty years ago, knowledge may have been perceived to
be objective and value neutral, something to be transmitted directly from the
teacher or textbook to the students. But in many of todays classrooms, a more
constructivist learning theory seems to be in place and knowledge is seen as
 90 G. McCutcheon & H. R. Milner

constructed individually and socially rather than being objective and separate
from the knower.

Other Relevant Studies about Teacher Planning and Thinking

Since the early teacher planning literature was developed, theorists and re-
searchers have developed several concepts useful for thinking about planning.
Pedagogical content knowledge addresses what teachers are aware of about their
subject matter and how that knowledge is to be translated into curriculum
decisions (how it is to be used in planning). Shulman and Sykes consider
pedagogical content knowledge to include:
understanding the central topics in each subject as it is generally taught
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to children of a particular grade level and being able to ask the following
kinds of questions about each topic: what are core concepts, skills and
attitudes which this topic has the potential of conveying to students
What students preconceptions are likely to get in the way of learning?
(1986, p. 9)
Shulman (1986) supports the importance of both pedagogical knowledge and
content knowledge. Bringing together the concepts of pedagogical knowledge
(how to teach) and content knowledge illustrates the equivalent importance of the
two in Shulmans view, rather than overemphasizing one to the neglect or
diminishment of the other. In addition, several scholars have addressed practical
knowledge, the knowledge teachers have of their own situations. This important
set of concepts concerns the knowledge teachers have of their classroom situations
and the practical dilemmas they face in carrying out action in those settings
(Carter, 1990). Doyle (1986) believes teachers make complicated interpretations
and decisions under conditions of inherent uncertainty. As a result, to plan,
teachers engage in practical thinking that leads to action appropriate to the
particular situation. Such practical knowledge evolves out of re ection-in-action
(Schon, 1983). Carter believes practical knowledge is shaped by `teachers personal
history, which includes intentions and purposes, as well as the cumulative effects
of life experience (1990, p. 300). Elbazs (1983) research, through a case study of
a high school English teacher, de ned the nature of practical knowledge in
teaching in ve broad domains: (a) self, (b) milieu of teaching, (c) subject matter,
(d) curriculum development, and (e) instruction. Other scholars have concentrated
on speci c teaching episodes in a teachers classroom and on the personal
practical knowledge de ned as a report of how the teacher knows a situation
(Clandinin, 1985; Connelly and Clandinin, 1985; Clandinin & Connelly, 1986).
Their work rejects Schons assessment of problems in favor of an emphasis on
principles, patterns, and practical rules. In other words, they contend that knowl-
edge is not separate from the knower.
In summary, practical knowledge constitutes the knowledge teachers possess
about the routines of school life and the teachers autobiography. This concerns
knowledge of students, subject matter, the world, and society in general in
relation to decisions teachers make about what is to occur in the classroom.
 Teacher Planning in High School English 91

This Study Compared with Previous Studies of Teacher Planning

Despite the differences in the context of the times 20 years ago and today, as well
as the difference between the fact that most earlier studies were carried out in
elementary schools and this one was carried out in a secondary school, we turn
now to comparing and contrasting ndings of those earlier studies to major
ndings of the case presented.
An obvious difference concerns Bills attention to long-range pre-active plan-
ning rather than lesson planning. This difference might be due to earlier re-
searchers having been in uenced by the times surrounding their research when
designing the studies in that the objectives movement of the times may have
directed their attention to short-range planning. It is also possible that teachers
practices had been in uenced to plan lesson by lesson rather than planning a
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whole scope of lessons. It is further possible that this difference is related to

differences between elementary and secondary school teachers. Elementary school
teachers, responsible for teaching many very different disciplines, may not possess
suf cient subject matter knowledge to plan entire courses as Bill does. An
interesting feature of Bills case in terms of Shulmans (1986) ideas about pedagog-
ical content knowledge is that Bill understands both the British literature he is
teaching at a very deep level and the technology with which he is teaching it. His
knowledge of British literature is evident in his lessons. Furthermore, his under-
standing the central topics of British literature is clear in his developing themes to
organize the myriad literature. In a sense, these themes are examples of what
Shulman and Sykes (1986) refer to as the core concepts of British literature. Bills
knowledge of technology is accompanied by his belief that it should be integrated
into coursework rather than taught separately. This is an example of Bills
practical knowledge as well as pedagogical content knowledge because it re ects
societys concerns and the concerns of the parents of students in his school.
Furthermore, Bills interest in technology resides in his autobiography when he
explored various facets of technology.
While Bill (like teachers in earlier studies) does not plan by objectives, one
important difference between this study and previous research about teacher
planning appears to concern planning producing a mental image of a lesson, or
`envisioning. His planning was a highly intellectual endeavor focusing on the
curriculum of the entire course. Bill never volunteered that envisioning was an
aspect of his planning, focusing instead on his development of the themes for the
course, selecting appropriate literature and videotapes, and making textdiscs. We
had originally planned the study to ascertain what things Bill said he did to get
ready to teach, what he said constituted planning. However, because we wanted
to compare his characterization of planning to the former literature, we asked him
via e-mail whether this idea of planning as producing a mental image of a lesson
also gured in his planning. He e-mailed the reply:
We may have talked about it, but from a different perspective. We
[teachers at Channington] use the term, `backwards building, which
refers to envisioning where we want the students to end up and then
 92 G. McCutcheon & H. R. Milner

making the plans backwards from there. A grand example would be that
a school would ask, `what do we want these people to be able to do after
graduation? Then build backwards from there down to the beginning of
9th grade. Then the Middle school asks, `What do we want them to
accomplish before they leave here so they are ready to do what will be
needed in the 9th grade? The elementary schools do the same thing right
down to kindergarten, which raises questions about `readiness for
school .
What is perplexing here concerns what earlier researchers meant by envision-
ing. The earlier literature does not clearly de ne the concept of imaging or
envisioning, making it dif cult to know what was meant. We assume they meant
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that teachers developed mental pictures of themselves teaching the lesson they
planned; however, the concept is not clear within the literature. For example,
Morine-Dersheimer (1979, p. 12) characterizes one teachers lesson planning as
being `image-oriented [where the] teacher was operating primarily on preformed
images of the pupils and of the instructional process. At another point (1979, p. 5),
Morine-Dersheimer implies that parts of lessons are a part of teachers mental
images , or set of expectations for the lesson. If a mental image consists merely
of a set of expectations, Bill does this as his planning of themes for the course and
his e-mail clearly suggests. However, if an image is a mental picture of oneself
teaching the lesson, Bill does not say he employs this as part of his planning.
Matlin (1998, p. 183) de nes imagery as a `mental representation of stimuli that
are not currently present. Johnston (1990) conceptualizes images as how teachers
view themselves within their teaching contexts in her study of how those images
guided teachers practice, and how teachers developed them. Bills highly intellec-
tual style of planning does not appear to incorporate imagery or imagining as part
of his planning.
Based on this case and its comparison with previous research about teacher
planning, more research is obviously needed about contemporary teachers plan-
ning. Furthermore, these studies should be undertaken in both elementary and
secondary schools. We can build contemporary studies on some concepts of
previous research, but it sorely needs to be updated. Furthermore, these studies
need to be undertaken in both elementary and secondary schools in order to
develop a fuller portrait of how teachers plan to inform teacher education, policy
studies, curriculum, instruction, and supervision.

Correspondence: Gail McCutcheon, The Ohio State University, 160-D Ramseyer

Hall, 29 West Woodruff Avenue, Columbus, OH 43210 1177, USA. E-mail:
mccutcheon.2@osu.edu

Notes
[1] Bill Gathergood is the real name of this teacher, but we masked the communitys and
high schools name in accordance with a research agreement made before conducting this
inquiry to protect its anonymity.
 Teacher Planning in High School English 93

[2] Channel One is a commercially produced television news program that is now broad-
casted directly into thousands of classrooms in the US. Students watch 10 minutes of
international and national news, and 2 minutes of commercials produced by Whittle
Communications, one of the largest publishers of material in the world. Schools, in
return, receive a satellite dish, two VCRs, and television monitors for each classroom for
showing Channel One.

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