Principles of Soil Mechanics - Scott

5-8] TRANSIENT FLOW; ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION 181
fluid hydrocarbons in studies of the output of oil wells and the effect that
repressuring or water flooding has on oil-bearing beds [28]. Fluid and effective
pressures up to 106 psf may be involved in such problems, whereas a soil
engineer normally deals with pressures or stresses in the order of 1 to 10 X
103 psf, at which the compressibility of water is a negligible item in a
computation.
(e) The degree of saturation of a soil can have an important influence on
its compressional behavior and should, if possible, be taken into account in
all problems where field investigations indicate incomplete saturation of the
soil to be stressed. However, the number of assumptions required to draw
numerical magnitudes out of term (1) is such that a detailed study would
involve a much less simplified analysis than that given here.
(f ) Because of the extremely small size of gas bubbles in clay soils (where
the bubbles are completely confined in the pores), the gas pressures are so
high that, to a first approximation, the denominator of the factor of term (1)
can be considered to be a constant independent of the excess over hydro
static pore pressure in incompletely saturated clays.
(g) When initial values are considered for a soil layer in which a hydrostatic
pore pressure prevails everywhere, it is apparent that this pore pressure
increases with depth so that, to the extent that the unit weights of water
and soil or the degree of saturation is taken into account in the equations,
the unit weights and initial gas pressure will not be constant with depth.
Thus, if a problem is being studied in which these factors are important,
the layer of soil undergoing compression must be relatively thin in com
parison with its depth below the water table or, if degree of saturation alone
is important, the excess gas pressure must be large in comparison with the
variation in external fluid pressure.
5-8 Transient flow equation; one-dimensional consolidation. Considera

tion of Table 5-1 and points (a) through (g) above leads to the conclusion
that the most interesting case of transient hydraulic flow in the present con
text is that of flow through finer-grained soils, both completely and incom
pletely saturated, although in rarer cases one must bear in mind the pos
sibility that in compression-time analysis the compressibility of granular
soils and water has to be considered also.
Since the right-hand side of Eq. (3-31) has now been fully developed
(however, strictly speaking, only from the point of view of one-dimensional
vertical compression), it is appropriate to consider the form of Eq. (5-25b)
as a substitution for dW/dt in Eq. (3-31). We note that, although the treat
ment of water flow through soil in Chapter 3 was based on the assumptions
of a volumetric element fixed in space, with spatial coordinates (x, y, z),
part of the analysis in this chapter has dealt with the possibility of a vertical
expansion or contraction of the soil. The summation of such incremental
expansions or contractions would obviously result in a vertical displacement
of all elements. Although the discussion of the storage rate of water referred
to the volumetric element dx dy dz, the analysis in fact proceeded on the
assumption that the weight of soil in the element remained constant as
discussed in the introduction to this chapter and therefore might be said to
be based on "material" coordinates, a system in which reference is made to
182 TRANSIENT FLOW [CHAP. 5
the history of a volume of soil bounded by specific soil particles. The validity
of substituting Eq. (5-25b) in Eq. (3-31) therefore depends directly on the
degree to which the compressing element remains fixed in space. If the
amount of contraction of all elements in the vertical direction remains within
roughly one or two per cent of the original dimensions, then we may say that
the flow analysis for a given spatial volume element also applies to the cor
responding material element. On the other hand, if the contraction is great,
greater say than 10%, then the substitution of Eq. (5-25b) in Eq. (3-31) is
invalid because the flow process is not directly related to the compressional
one.
In this event, the present analysis based on infinitesimal deformations is
inadequate, and another procedure developed from the theory of finite strains
is required. Much progress has been made in this direction in the study of
large elastic deformations [18], but the necessary extension to the present
problem has not yet been made.
Hence, provided that only small strains and deformations are involved,
Eq. (5-25b) supplies the right-hand side of Eq. (3-31) to describe the transient
flow of water through an incompletely saturated soil when the soil structure,
water, and soil solids are all compressible.
Although it is questionable, in general, whether the second group of
terms in the left-hand side of Eq. (3-31) is negligible with respect to all of
the terms in Eq. (5-25b) under all conditions of soil type, degree of satura
tion, and nature of pore fluid, we can assume with little error that it may
be neglected in the consideration of the compression of finer-grained soils.
With this proviso, and in the limiting case of relatively incompressible pore
fluid and solid grains, the equation of transient water flow in fine-grained,
compressible (structurally) soil becomes
d2h dVi
yw0 1 + ky dx dy dz
dx2 dy dz2
= Ww0 3PoUOO
- So -f HS0] du
+
ac fdu ~~ d<A| '
(5-26)
So(u + p'ge)2 dt Y0 \dt dt)\
We again wish to point out that, although three-dimensional water flow

is assumed in Eq. (5-26), the compressive changes in all elements occur only
vertically, since the constants are usually based on data empirically obtained
in the course of tests on samples confined laterally. Although, in the field,
elements may deform in any direction, the greatest freedom of movement
and the deformation of most importance will, in general, take place in a
vertical direction. This process is emphasized by the horizontal stratification
of many soils. Little research has been carried out on soil compressions (due
to transient water flow) in directions other than the vertical one. If com
pression occurs, especially in a very compressible soil, as a result of the con
it,
struction of a vertical wall which permits drainage through or as result

a
of the excavation of a trench in the soil, the lateral deformations are likely
to contribute substantially to the vertical movement of the adjacent soil
surface [46].
On the left-hand side of Eq. (5-26) the head is still the total head, i.e.,
in this case, the sum of the static or steady-state and transient (due to applied
stresses) pore-water pressures:
h = (hp + he) +
(5-27)
'it.0
Since Eq. (5-26) is formulated to treat transient phenomena, the static

head is considered to be invariant in time (u is the excess over hydrostatic
pore pressure). Thus Eq. (5-27) can be differentiated with respect to u and
substituted in the left-hand side of Eq. (5-26) to give an expression in terms
of u. In addition, the initial weight of water in a volume element can again
be written:
^--WTfe*** (5-28)
[the assumption is made implicitly that dx dy dz is constant and is referred to

the same coordinate frame as the left-hand side of Eq. (5-26)].
Using the derivative of Eqs. (5-27) and (5-28), we find that Eq. (5-26)
becomes
x + y + '
dx2 dy* dz*
_ o S0yw0 |~po[100
- S0 + HS0]' du a,
(du _ da\~\
(l+o) 100 L S0(u + p'ee)2 dt^ e0\dt dtjy
For
fine-grained soils the multiplier of du/dt in the first term on the right-
hand side can be approximately represented by a constant C2, where
L2
_ p0[100 - S0 + HS0]
'
So(u + P'ge)2
and Eq. (5-29) further reduces to
,
Kx
d\ + Ky d\ + , dju -~ e0 S0yw
^ '
dx2 dy*
>Cx
dz* 1 + e0 100 I 2
dt e0 \dl dtj.
(5-30)
It may be pointed out here that it is possible to develop Eq. (5-30) in terms
of the variable e, which is the void ratio; this may be more suitable for the
study of some problems.
In many problems treating a loaded soil surface which is large in extent
compared with the clay thickness, the water flow may also be considered
to occur in one direction vertically, and in this case, Eq. (5-30) becomes the
one-dimensional consolidation equation for an incompletely saturated fine
grained soil in which the total applied stress varies in time :
Further, if the soil is completely saturated, the equation becomes
kx(l + ea) d2u _ du da

(5-32)
ywoac dz2 dt dt
The group of constant terms on the left-hand side is given the name coefficient
of consolidation, cc, which can also be considered an hydraulic diffusion
coefficient, i.e.,
+
go)
= *(! .
Cc (5-33)
wOac
'
the external stress causing the transient condition applied rapidly and
If
is
held constant in time, the second term on the left-hand side of Eq. (5-32)
vanishes, and the equation becomes
In this form the equation of consolidation was first derived by Terzaghi [43]
and similar to Kick's law of thermal diffusion. Hence, owing to the large
is
number of simplifying assumptions which have been made, has been pos
it
sible to obtain an equation for the transient flow of water in compressible soils
which analogous to that describing the transient flow of heat in solid (which
is
a
has also been developed with the assistance of number of approximations to
a
the actual thermal properties of real solids). In the heat-flow equation, cc

of Eq. (5-34), the hydraulic diffusion coefficient representing the ratio of the
permeability, or hydraulic conductivity, of the medium to its compressibility
or water storage capacity, replaced by a, the thermal diffusivity, given by
is
the ratio of the thermal conductivity of the material K to its thermal capaci
tance (volumetric specific heat), pcp, in which the density of the material
is
p
and cp its gravimetric specific heat

:
a = (5-35)
.
pcp
The thermal diffusion equation written as

is
where represents the temperature excess over the steady-state value, cor
6
responding to the excess pore pressure, u, in the hydraulic problem.

In one-dimensional homogeneous electrically conducting medium of re
a
sistance per unit length and uniformly distributed electrical capacitance

C
R
per unit length, the electrical diffusion coefficient, usually called the time
constant given by
is
and the analogous diffusion equation

is
5-8] TRANSIENT FLOW-; ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION 185
which is a special case of the so-called telegraph equation representing the

change of potential in a long telegraph cable (neglecting the inductance)
as a function of time when the voltage at the end of the cable is
changed.
In all processes of hydraulic, thermal, or electrical diffusion, the diffusivity
is measured in units of L2T~l. Because of the similarity of the processes
involved, many solutions obtained in the study of thermal or other diffusion
problems [9, 12] can be adopted to give results of practical utility in soil-
consolidation applications.
An examination of Eq. (5-32) reveals that it is linear; that is to say, the
excess over hydrostatic pore pressure u and its derivatives appear only to the
first power, and there are no products of u and its derivatives. This is an
important property since it means that the replacement of u by au, where a
is a constant, has no effect on the equation. Therefore, if a solution u(t) is
obtained to Eq. (5-32) under an arbitrary set of applied stress conditions,
multiplying the applied stresses by the arbitrary factor a yields a new solu
tion identical to the first, the only difference being the replacement of u(t)
by au(t). A further important result of the linearity of Eq. (5-30) is the
additive, or superposable, nature of the solutions. For instance, if a solution
ux(l) is obtained as a consequence of an applied stress <ri(t) varying in time,
and another solution u2(t) is obtained for a varying stress application a2(t),
then the simultaneous application of both <ri(t) and a2(t) will give the solu
tion ui(t) + u2(t) directly.
This would not be the case if the logarithmic form of the relation of void
ratio to effective stress were used in the derivation of Eq. (5-32). Taking
the derivative of void ratio in Eq. (5-15) and making the appropriate sub
stitutions give rise to a diffusion equation,
+ eg) \
/ k(l d\ =
1
(du _ da\ , .
dtj' K '
\0AMyw0CcJ dz2 (a u)\dt
w.hich is no longer linear. This development and the requirement that only
small deformations in the soil be permitted are related to each other since
the latter restriction allows the assumption of linearity in the relationship
of void ratio to effective pressure. Although Eq. (5-32) describes the behavior
of soil in an artificial way, its solvability and superposition properties render
it both attractive and useful, provided that inherent limitations are observed.
Utilizing Eq. (5-39) is precluded not only by the difficulty of solving it in
closed form, but also by the fact that if a relationship of exponential compres
sion to effective stress is to be used, the theory may have to be further ad
justed to take into account large strains. Certainly, the most persuasive
reason for employing Eq. (5-32) is the fact that, if the assumptions we made
are adhered to as closely as possible, it describes the behavior of real soils
quite closely, and, in many practical cases, its solution enables us to predict
settlement quantities with acceptable accuracy.
Because of the linearity of Eq. (5-32), it is appropriate to normalize the
various parameters to make the equation nondimensional. In this way the
solution obtained in terms of dimensionless parameters is in a more suitable
form for general applications. The normalization in one-dimensional terms,
for example, is accomplished by relating the variables to the characteristic

constants of the system as follows: An arbitrary constant value of pore-
water pressure u,. is chosen and a dimensionless pressure variable W is
denned such that
W = (5-40a)
ui
Next, a characteristic length H in the system is selected to give a dimension-
less length variable Z :
Z =
jj>
(5-40b)
when measured from the surface of the compressing layer. Finally,

is
z
choosing an arbitrary time constant t, we are able to obtain dimensionless
a
time variable T:
= -.
T
(5-iOc)
Substituting in the one-dimensional Eq. (5-34) gives
c a2w aw
i
(5-41)
H2 az2 t ar '
where W function of and T.

Z
is
a
It apparent that one of the characteristic constants can be selected

is
for convenience to make
=
ih' (5^2)
\
and therefore Eq. (5-41) becomes
a2w aw
dT (5-43)
az2
when the dimensionless time variable usually called the time factor,
T,
is
redefined from Eqs. (5^10c) and (5-42) to be
=
jf2
T
(5-44)

In a particular case, therefore, the solution to Eq. (5-43) will be presented

W in terms of from which the real variables u, and can be
T,
as, say and

Z
extracted by means of Eqs. (5-40a), (5-40b), and (5-44) and knowledge

a
of ui, H, and c, the characteristic constants of the system.

As in the steady-state flow of water through soils, Eq. (5-43) describes the
excess pore pressure (head) in medium of defined physical boundaries, but
a
with the additional consideration of boundaries in time. Thus, in layer

a
of soil, an initial excess over hydrostatic pore pressure generated by the

is
imposition of superimposed load building or fill on the surface of the

(a
a
ground), and this excess pressure dissipates in time as result of the drainage
a
conditions and pore pressures at the boundary of the layer under study.
In addition to being initiated by applied loads, an excess over hydrostatic
pressure can be caused in the pore water of a soil layer by a decrease in the
pore-water pressure of adjacent soil layers below the original steady-state
value. At some initial time, therefore, an excess over the steady-state pore
pressure in a soil layer is caused by some process (which may thereafter vary
in time), and this excess pore pressure in general decreases in time to a final
zero value. The excess pore pressure at a point at any instant is computed
to be the difference between the total pore pressure at the point at that in
stant and the total pore pressure at the point when the eventual steady-
state condition is reached.
The process of consolidation therefore takes place through the gradual
transfer of the applied stress (from whatever source) from the pore-water to
effective stresses [a process indicated by Eq. (5-6)], so that ultimately the
load is carried by the soil structure. In the process of assuming the load, the
soil structure compresses, and in most cases, it is this compression which is
of interest to soil engineers. Since, however, the shearing deformational
behavior of the soil is dependent on the effective stresses also, the values of
pore-water pressures in the consolidation process are also important in
calculations of the strength characteristics of a soil during and after load
applications. This aspect of consolidation is discussed in a later chapter.
It will be noted that consolidation is a one-way process, since it has been
observed that the compressibility of soils changes greatly between loading
and unloading. Thus a solution of Eq. (5-43) can be obtained only if the excess
pore pressure is continuously decreasing at all points in the soil mass as a
function of time. Any increase implies a swelling of the soil, and hence dif
ferent properties come into play, and the solution is no longer adequate.
The latter is a nonlinear problem and different, usually approximate, methods
of solution must be attempted. Since many soils swell only to a small extent
on unloading, their water-storage capacity during swell is small, and swelling
may therefore be considered to take place instantaneously. In other words,
the coefficient of consolidation during swell is very large or infinite. Even
with this simplifying assumption, approximate analyses are necessary.
Some discussion of the distinction between exact or analytical and approxi
mate or numerical solutions is in order at this point. To represent some physi
cal process mathematically, a model of the material undergoing the process
or a model of its behavior must be hypothesized. The performance of this
model is then described in suitable terms, which are combined into an equa
tion. Up to this point, the only limitation on the generality of the model and
derived equation is a lack of knowledge of the nature of the processes which
characterize the behavior of the prototype; apart from this, the descriptive
equation derived may be an adequate one. To illustrate this point, it may be
remarked that in the present case of consolidating soil, we are aware of a
variation both in the compressibility and the permeability of the soil as the
void ratio decreases, and we can, at least crudely, obtain estimates of the
interrelationships between these parameters for insertion into our model.
However, because the observed behavior of compressing soil arises through
a number of superimposed mechanisms, only one of which we have dealt with,
a generally adequate description of transient effects requires the inclusion
of other phenomena on which, at present, quantitative information is scanty
or lacking. Thus, in this chapter, the model which represents consolidating
soil is known at the outset to be inadequate.
If, on the other hand, the postulated variations in permeability and com
pressibility (and the other processes alluded to above) are included in the
model, the resulting descriptive equation, such as that given by McXabb [25],
for example, may be in a form which we are unable to integrate, under a given
set of boundary conditions, to obtain a solution in closed analytical form.
This applies to consolidation, and the mathematical limitations on obtain
ing a solution compel us to revise the already faulty model. In this case,
the revision is one which may be made superfluous by the use of numerical
techniques of solving the original equation.
For the present, we will leave the problem of computing the initial excess
pore pressure to a later section, and we will discuss the mathematical solution
of Eq. (5-43) in various circumstances, in an order similar to that in which
the steady-state problem was treated.
5-9 Mathematical analysis. One-dimensional

flow and compression:
(a) rectilinear case (load applied instantaneously and kept constant there
after). Equation (5-43) will be solved in terms of the dimensionless param
eters given. For any one soil, the real parameters can be obtained from the
solution obtained and Eqs. (5-40a), (5-40b), and (5-44); in the latter the
coefficient of consolidation is obtained from Eq. (5-33) if the soil is saturated,
and approximately from the relationship
Mi + loo
go)

Cc = (5^5)
the soil incompletely saturated. Since u occurs in the term C2, Eq.
is
if
(5-45) also gives rise to nonlinear consolidation equation, which can only
a
be linearized for an approximate solution by the use of an average value of u.

It will be noted that in all cases the results can be applied to transient fluid
flow in confined granular medium, where both fluid and medium (structural)
a
compressibilities are important, for saturated soil, con

if
of
a
coefficient
solidation or hydraulic diffusivity obtained from the following equation
is
_~ *,(! + Cp)
"
+
(
'
7u,0(a e0pu)
Semi-infinite compressible layer. The simplest case to which solution

(i)
of Eq. (5-43) can be obtained one in which a semi-infinite bed of clay

is
is
subjected to an applied load everywhere along its upper surface, as shown

in Fig. 5-5(a). very large building may develop such load in an approxi
A
mate manner, or may be caused by fill placed everywhere on the surface

it
to raise the level of the existing ground.

The application of such load will produce an excess over the original
a
hydrostatic pore pressure in the underlying clay layer, and drainage

if
is
available at the surface of the clay immediately under the applied load, the
excess pressure will dissipate as the water flows from the clay layer into the
porous medium lying immediately above it. The permeability of any such
porous medium considered to be infinitely large with respect to that of the
is
clay, an approximation which usually holds true in practice a granular

if
layer adjoins the clay. This case, therefore, represents the situation in which
5-9] MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 189
1 I II Applied stress a or p
1 i 1 1
1.1 Water
table
Clay
(a)
Applied stress
I
-I - -----
I I I I I 1
~^U^!~ x:c: .1 1
"
Water
table
:'Sand
t
Clay
(b)
Reduction in water pressure
Fig. 5-5. Consolidation: initial conditions, (a) Semi-infinite clay layer, (b) Clay
layer of finite thickness, (c) Triangular initial excess pore pressure.
an initially uniform excess over hydrostatic pore pressure throughout a depth

of clay of infinite extent is suddenly reduced to zero at the ground surface
(with the assumption that the applied load is placed instantaneously). The
dimensionless boundary conditions are :
T < 01 T > 0)
The problem is similar to that of the temperature distribution in a semi-

infinite medium which initially is at some uniform temperature and is sud
190 TRANSIENT FLOW [cHap. 5
E-i
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

Z
2vf
Fig. 5-6. Error function.
denly subjected to a lower temperature at its surface. The solution for this
problem can be found in the literature on heat transfer [9], and can be given
in the following consolidation form:
in which erf is the error function defined to be
erf x =
2 r
yr J f
o
e-'* dt.
Numerical values of erf, the error function, can be obtained in tables [21],
and are plotted in Fig. 5-6 in dimensionless form. Thus, Eq. (5-47) expresses
the relationship of the excess pore pressure u at any point at depth z in the
clay to the initial excess over hydrostatic pore pressure as a function of
time t and the coefficient of consolidation of the clay.
Although the solution in the form of Eq. (5-47) is useful on occasion, a
in general, more interested in the settlement of the ground
is,
soil engineer
surface as the pore water drains out of the compressible soil. The settlement
at any given time proportional to the total quantity of water per unit
is
area which has flowed out of the compressing layer up to that time. This
cumulative quantity obtained by the following calculation (first in dimen
is
sional terms). The quantity of water flowing out of the clay surface gr=o.<
at time given by Darcy's law as follows:
is
t
(The subscript "0" will hereafter be dropped from 7w0 when the constant
7 is referred to.) The gradient of the excess over hydrostatic pore pressure
is the derivative of the dimensional form of Eq. (5-47) with respect to distance,
and the surface gradient will be found by substituting z = 0 in that deriva
tive expression. Thus
kz (du\ kui 1 . .
The cumulative flow, Qt, up to time t is the integral of the flow qt with respect
to time:
f t
Qt= f
Jo
qz=0.tdt = ~^= f
ywy/ircvJo dt=^L=Vt.
(5-50)
Vt 7wVircv
Equation (5-50) then represents the total settlement of unit surface area of
the compressible soil up to time t. The derivation has been carried out in
the more meaningful terms with dimensions, but it is of interest to obtain
the settlement in a dimensionless form also. The characteristic dimension
H was originally chosen to convert distance to a dimensionless form; we may
also consider the amount of total settlement which would occur in a hypo
thetical surface layer of thickness H under the applied load. In the general
case of an unsaturated soil, the application of stress p leads to an instantaneous
contraction in the gas volume which in turn causes an immediate compres
sion of the soil by an amount corresponding to some effective stress at the
same time, the pore-water stress is increased to a value Ui whose computation
will be considered later. In this case,
p = Si + ui> (5-51)
and in a completely saturated soil, ff, will be zero, so that
p = m. (5-52)
In the course of consolidation, water will drain from the soil until the excess
pore pressure becomes zero when the entire applied stress is transferred to
effective pressure. Therefore the total compression of the layer of thickness
H under an applied stress p (or the total storage of water up to a given
effective stress) during the drainage process is given by
1 + e0
The ratio of the compression of the semi-infinite medium at time t to the

total compression of the layer of finite thickness H will then yield a dimension
less settlement parameter, called the average consolidation ratio or average degree
of consolidation, for which the symbol U is used :
v = Qt_
QH
= k(l +
av7w
go)
_2= v- (5_M)
H\/ircv
Substituting the time factor T from Eq. (5-44) in Eq. (5-54) and using Eq.
(5-33) for cv give the result in dimensionless parameters for a saturated soil:
U =
yj (5-55)
or, in words, the relationship of average degree of consolidation to time

factor is parabolic. We will return to this expression below.
We will see that the degree of consolidation Uz,t, a dimensionless term,
can also be applied to a point in the soil at any time, to describe the extent
to which the excess pore pressure has dissipated there or the degree to which
consolidation has taken place at that point. The degree of consolidation
may be defined as
U,.t or Uz,T = 1
- Wz.t = 1
- .
(5-56)
(ii) Compressible layer of finite thickness and infinite extent. In many

practical cases, the depth of the compressible soil is finite with drainage at
one or both surfaces, and a useful solution to the consolidation problem is
the one which holds for the application of load to soil that includes a clay
layer of given thickness and some determinable conditions of boundary
drainage. In this instance, we may assume for a first solution a clay layer of
thickness H with its base on impermeable rock, and a freely draining upper
surface, as shown in Fig. 5-5(b). Once again, the application of a load every
where on the surface of the ground causes an initial uniform distribution of
excess pore pressure throughout the mass of the soil. In this case, the boundary
conditions are
T < T >
o]
T >
0)
0|
0 < Z < l|
and the solution for excess pore pressure as a function of time and distance is
W" =
it (^TT)
e-lA2m+11'/4]r *>
I V + 1)Z, (5-57)
where m is an integer. The degree of consolidation Uz.t is then given by Eq.

(5-56).
By the method adopted for the semi-infinite compressible soil medium,
the average value W is given by
and
U = 1 - W. (5-59)
It is also possible to obtain the average degree of consolidation at a given

time by integrating the expression for excess pore pressure, Eq. (5-57), with
respect to depth, keeping time constant, dividing the integral by the integral
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fig. 5-7. Pore pressure dissipation and degree of consolidation. (a) Excess
pore pressure versus time and depth (values on curves are T), according to Eq.
(5-57). (b) Average degree of consolidation versus time compared by means of
Eqs. (5-55), (5-59), and (5-62).
of the initial excess pore pressure (which, in general, may not be uniform
with depth) with respect to depth [42], and subtracting the result from unity:
(5-60)
The curves of Wz.t (and Uz.t) versus T and Z from Eq. (5-57) are given
in Fig. 5-7 (a), and Fig. 5-7 (b) shows U versus T from Eqs. (5-58) and
(5-59). Each curve in Fig. 5-7 (a) holds for one value of time factor and is
called an isochrone.
It might be expected that in the initial stages of consolidation of the layer,
before the W z,t differed substantially from unity at Z = 1, the clay would
behave essentially as if it were very thick. Thus, for small values of T it
might reasonably be assumed that Eq. (5-57) would closely approximate
Eq. (5-47) and that the average consolidation could be represented by
Eq. (5-55). In fact, this is found to be the case, as illustrated by Fig. 5-8,
which demonstrates a comparison between Eqs. (5-47) and (5-57) at
T = 0.1 and T = 0.3. Figure 5-7(b) shows a plot of Eq. (5-55), which is
seen to follow the curve of Eq. (5-59) closely up to about U = 0.6 or T = 0.3.
Since there is no limit to the compression of the semi-infinite layer, the
consolidation ratio (which is a comparison of the amount of settlement
occurring in the semi-infinite layer with that occurring in the layer of finite
thickness) can, of course, exceed unity.
The curves in Fig. 5-7 (a) owe their shapes to the fact that they were
obtained by the summation of the product of a sine term in distance and an
exponential term in time. If it is assumed that, at a time long after the
beginning of the process, the distribution of excess pressure with depth can
be reasonably represented by one sine wave only, Eq. (5-57) can be simplified
f
to the form
Wm.t =
1 sin e-*!r'\ (5-61)
and the average degree of consolidation diminishes exponentially in time in

a straightforward fashion:
U = 1
- e-^/4 (5^62)
A plot of Eq. (5-62) is also shown in Fig. 5-7(b) from which it can be seen
that the average degree of consolidation can be adequately described over

its range without recourse to the complexity of Eq. (5-58). Equations
(5-61) and (5-62) can be used in practice if T > 0.2.
Should the compressible layer be drained at both top and bottom surfaces,
the variation of excess pore pressure and degree of consolidation will behave
exactly as described by Eqs. (5-57), (5-58) and (5-59) and, to the same degree
of approximation, as described by Eqs. (5-47), (5-55), (5-61) and (5-62) if
the layer is considered to be of thickness 2H. In this way, the boundary
conditions of the previous problem are preserved since the symmetric con
dition of no drainage across the midplane corresponds exactly to the former
condition at the impervious boundary. In this circumstance, Fig. 5-7(a)
can be considered to represent one symmetric half of the compressing layer,
and the curves of Fig. 5-7(b) give the average consolidation versus time for
both singly and doubly drained layers. It is thus convenient to consider H
as representing the length of the longest drainage path, on a straight-line
basis, followed by water in the compressing layer.
It may be pointed out that the applied load on the compressible layer
need not necessarily be effected by an added surface load, since, as shown in
Fig. 5-5 (a) and (b), a lowering of the water table to a new steady-state level
in the upper sand layer will change the formerly hydrostatic steady-state
pore pressure in the compressible soil to a transient condition. The initial
excess pore pressure is then given by the difference between the two hydro
static pressures, and the clay layer will consolidate and settle as a result
of the change in the water-table elevation; alternatively, it may be considered
that an additional load is imposed by the conversion (due to the reduction
in water level) of a zone of sand from a buoyant weight to a total weight.
This is the reason for many "mysterious" ground-elevation changes in the
absence of loading on the surface. The effect can be used conveniently to
cause settlement of a compressible soil (preloading) prior to the erection of
a structure so that future settlement of the structure is diminished [36].
The lowering of water tables before construction excavations are under
taken should always be carefully studied from the point of view of the con
solidation of the underlying soil layers and the effect of their compression on
existing buildings.
Occasionally, in the construction of a tunnel or other subsurface workings,
the water pressure below a compressible soil layer may be lowered to inhibit
the inflow of water into the construction area. In this case, because of the
impermeable nature of the clay layer, and because the water table above it is
usually maintained at some more or less fixed level by a river, lake, or sea
elevation, the final steady state may be one of steady seepage through the
compressible layer (a final condition which, in practice, may not be realized
in a short construction time but which controls the transient process). The
distribution of the initial excess over hydrostatic pore pressure in the clay
will then be triangular as shown in Fig. 5-5(c); the boundary conditions are
Z
W W = 0,
2'
and in this case, u0 is taken to be the initial excess pore pressure at the bottom
of the compressible layer where Z = 2, so that at any time, Wz.t equals
uz,t/uo. The solution is found to be
n= l
and the average degree of consolidation is again given by Eq. (5-58).

Because of the linearity of the consolidation equation (5-32), the solution
to a problem involving a trapezoidal distribution of initial excess over hydro
static pore pressure is obtained by superposing (adding) Eqs. (5-57) and
(5-63) with the appropriate values of initial excess pressure.
To predict settlements and time-settlement functions in practice, it is
necessary to determine a value of the coefficient of consolidation. This is
usually carried out in the laboratory consolidation test in which the external
load is applied instantaneously to a sample of the compressible soil being
studied which then consolidates under double drainage conditions. The
ultimate compression under increasing incremental loads is measured, as is
the compression of the sample as a function of time. Comparison of the sample
behavior with the applicable equation, (5-59), by means of various curve-
fitting methods permits one to estimate the coefficient of consolidation
[37, 42]. The techniques are described in laboratory manuals [22].
If the curve of void ratio versus effective stress is plotted for the soil
sample on either a natural or a logarithmic scale of stress, the slope of the
curve, av or Cc, respectively, can be obtained for the range of stress expected
to be applied to the soil in the field. In this respect, it is more logical to use
a natural scale of stress, since the curve is empirically determined in any
event and is usually curved in the region of interest on either a logarithmic
or arithmetic plot. Although a simple calculation serves to relate a, to Ce,
0, = f^,
w avc
(5-64)
where ?ave is the average effective stress over the range for which the com
pressibility of the soil is being determined, it is more desirable to avoid the
necessity for any calculation whatsoever by the use of the arithmetic stress
scale. When the soil compressibility has been evaluated, the ultimate settle
ment pu of the soil layer is given, in general, by the equation
rTh
p" = pdz'
(TtW0 (5_65a)
where p is the ultimate change in effective stress in each soil layer of incre
mental thickness dz, and Th is the thickness of the compressing region.
For an ultimate increase in effective stress p uniform throughout the depth
of the layer, the equation becomes
P =
rrr vTh. (5-65b)
(iii) Nonhomogeneous soil profile. When onc-dimensional flow and com

pression are occurring in a compressible medium containing layers of soil of
different thicknesses, permeabilities, and compressibilities, an analytical
is,
solution, although still attainable, becomes very complicated and more
over, tedious to evaluate numerically. Only the result for the special case
of a semi-infinite saturated soil medium consisting of finite layer of one
a
soil, of thickness H, overlying a semi-infinite mass of another soil will be given
here. The properties of the coefficient of consolidation ci, derived from verti
cal permeability ki, compressibility a.i, and void ratio et in Eq. (5-33) are
associated with the upper finite layer, and the corresponding parameters
C2, ^2. Q2, and e2 with the semi-infinite lower region of the soil.
Under the condition that uniform stress applied suddenly at =
is
T
a
0
to the upper surface and held constant with time, the average degree of
U,
consolidation, given by the following equation (derived from reference

is
9)
:
= Jir - W -

J)
+ erf
U
\(l
\ (l
(5-66a)
2
me-m2IT) 4
,
VT/
V
m= m=i
/
i
where given by Eq. (5-44) with ci, m an integer, and

T
is
is
a = - .
(5-67)
+
&2VC1 K1VC2
When small, Eq. (5-66a) reduces to Eq. (5-55), and when large,
is
T
is
T
the exponential function tends to unity and the error function to zero, so
that a2 < Eq. (5-66a) becomes
if
1,
One-dimensional flow and compression: (b) radial case (load applied

instantaneously and kept constant thereafter). In the laboratory triaxial
soil-testing apparatus used for the investigation of the shearing strength of
soil, cylinder of compressible soil enclosed in a rubber membrane or jacket
a
may be allowed to consolidate under an applied stress (see Appendix A).

Under certain circumstances of testing, the drainage permitted to take
is
place either vertically only (to porous stones at the top and bottom of the
sample) or may be accelerated through a provision for lateral radial drain
age, either alone or in conjunction with vertical flow. In the latter case,
it
important to have a solution available for the case of radial drainage alone.
is
If only vertical drainage occurring, the solution given in Eq. (5-57)

is
is
applicable; both vertical and radial flows are permitted, the separate solu
if
tions to vertical flow and radial flow may be combined in form which will
a
be discussed later [Eqs. (5-76) through (5-78)].

In addition, there exists one other case of radial drainage of practical
significance for which an analytical solution can be determined, namely the
situation which arises when vertical hole drilled through clay layer
is
a
and filled with sand so that acts as a vertical sand drain to which water
it
may drain radially. These vertical sand drains are usually spaced in a
regular pattern and, together with surface load, arc used for the purpose of
a
o : o
,a
(
A ^
i
I o
A
'
Pattern of wells
(a) (I,)
Fig. 5-9. Radial consolidation. (a) Cylindrical triaxial specimen. (b) Vertical
drain wells.
accelerating the consolidation (and consequently the shear strength, as we

will see later) of a soft compressible soil before construction, by providing a
drainage path for water traveling in the usually more permeable lateral
direction in soil [see Eqs. (3-41b) and (3-44)].
In both of these cases, it must be noted that lateral strains are again pre
sumed to be absent; the clay drains radially, but compression takes place
in the vertical direction as a result of the lateral drainage. For radial flow,
the left-hand side of Eq. (3-36) multiplied by the permeability is equated
to the expression for rate of storage, Eq. (5-25b), to give the transient-flow
equation describing radial drainage :
kr
\dr2
i
+ r dr =
/ 1 + e0 ^\C2
rr^- 100
g
M
+ ^fe
eo \9t |_
- %)l
/]
dt
(5-68)
The solution obtained to Eq. (5-68) depends on the boundary conditions

adopted for the problem. In the first case of the triaxial specimen (Fig.
5-9a), the applied stress will initially cause a uniformly distributed excess
pore pressure throughout the medium which will begin to dissipate first
near the drainage boundaries. Thus, in the early stages of consolidation, a
vertical column near the periphery of the specimen will have consolidated to
a greater degree than a vertical column nearer the axis of the sample. Con
sequently, the vertical settlement will not be uniform from the center to
the edge of the sample. If in a uniform sample, the top and bottom capping
disks were flexible, they would be distorted to a dish shape, concave down
ward, during the consolidation process, before becoming plane again when it
was completed. However, the capping plates are rigid, and the material must
therefore either be presumed to strain equally in a vertical direction at all

points on the radius or, more likely, the soil near the edges will compress
radially during consolidation, a condition which probably does not correspond
to the behavior of the soil in nature. For this reason, the results of a con
solidation test carried out in a triaxial apparatus must be interpreted cau
tiously with regard to future field predictions. The coefficient of consolidation
from such a test will reflect the lateral compression in addition to the radial
permeability in tests with both vertical and radial drainage or radial drain
age only. The test is usually employed merely to compute the time at which
consolidation will be substantially complete for further shear-strength
testing.
A similar situation arises in radial drainage to a vertical sand drain: the
distribution of initial excess over hydrostatic pore-water pressure may be
considered uniform everywhere throughout the clay layer because of the
superimposed soil mass. If we consider the soil mass which applies the load
to the surface of the clay to be flexible, then the surface of the clay distorts
differentially as it consolidates with each vertical column settling to a dif
ferent amount.
Even a gravel fill, however, possesses some rigidity, and since the deflec
tions which take place close to the drain wells are greater than those in the
regions between drain wells, it has been postulated that the applied stress
on the upper surface of the clay will vary from place to place. In other words,
if the surface of the clay yields more at one location than at another, then
it may be expected that the applied stress at the region of greatest yielding
would diminish somewhat as the stress is distributed by the rigidity of the
gravel, and that this extra load would be thrown on those areas which
have settled less. If we consider this variation of stress due to differential
yielding to be carried to an extreme in the case of an exceedingly rigid
load surface, then we might expect no differential settlement to occur
whatsoever.
Both radial-flow problems (triaxial specimen and sand drain) just described
are characterized by the assumed presence of a rigid loading surface and small
or zero differential vertical settlements; this situation is called the equal-
strain case. When the loading surface is considered flexible so that the stress
distribution on the soil remains constant regardless of the deflection of the
surface, we have the free-strain case. When the effect of drain wells is being
studied, it is likely that the material in nature behaves in a manner inter
mediate between the free- and equal-strain cases (if the load is applied by
a fill at ground surface), and therefore an analysis of each case should shed
light on the possibilities of the extreme behavior to be expected. If these
two limits are not too far apart, then we may conclude that the problem
as it will actually arise in nature is fairly closely circumscribed, and we can
expect our predictions to have a valid application to real circumstances.
The problem of consolidation of the cylindrical triaxial specimen by radial
flow will be considered first.
The boundary conditions for radial flow and vertical compression in the
triaxial test sample are given below for the free-strain case, which is the one
most frequently considered, perhaps because of the availability of the solu
tion in numerical form. In our example, the radius of the specimen is a and
Fia. 5-10. Triaxial specimen; radial drainage.
a dimensionless radial coordinate R is chosen which is denned as
R=r-
a
(5-69)
In addition, the time factor T is now defined to be
T = Cft
(5-70)
a2
The boundary conditions are:
T < 0 T > 0] T -> 0

"I d\v =
W = 1; W = 0; 0.
aft
0 < R < 1 R = 1) R = Oj
Under these conditions, the solution of Eq. (5-68) for the average degree of
consolidation in which we are interested is
(5-71)
n= l
where /3n are the roots of the equation J0(p) = 0, in which Jo(p) is a
Bessel function of the first kind and order zero. Values of U versus T taken
from Newman [29] are plotted in Fig. 5-10. Initially the clay cylinder also
consolidates on the average as the square root of time, a fact used in the deter
mination of cr in the triaxial test [6].
For the equal-strain the initial applied stress on the sample due to
case,
an applied load P will be uniform across the radius; however, as soon as
consolidation begins, the distribution of stress will change so that the com
pression is uniform over the radius. If ar is the applied stress at some time
after consolidation has begun, then the following relation must hold :
[aar2Trrdr = P. (5-72)
Jo
Since the total stress at any radius at any time is equal to the effective stress
a plus the pore-water pressure ur, and since the effective stress must at any
time be constant over the cross section [from Eq. (5-65b) and the knowledge
of equal settlements], Eq. (5-72) becomes
2 it f urr dr = P ira2a,
(5-73a)
Jo
in which both ur and a are functions of time. Dividing both sides by the area
gives the average value of excess pressure, u:
u = a0 S, (5-73b)
where a0 is the space average of the applied stress and is invariant with time.
Because of the uniform settlement condition, a is the same at all points
in the cylindrical cross section at any time. If it is assumed that the clay
cylinder is "smeared" around the periphery as a result of remolding during
specimen preparation and has a surface hydraulic contact resistance 1/K due
to the reduced permeability at the surface such that the flow condition at
the boundary r = a is
=
krfr+Ku 0,
then the solution to the average degree of consolidation is
U=l-W=l - e-8Tlm, (5-74)
where m= (1 + 4fcr/Ka) and kr is the permeability of the undisturbed

soil in radial direction.
a If there is no smear at the periphery, m equals
unity, and U for this case is shown in Fig. 5-10.
Turning now to a consideration of radial consolidation in the case of vertical
sand drains, we must first examine the process by which they are constructed.
Drain wells in the field are usually prepared by driving a hollow tube to the
depth required (usually the thickness of the most compressible layer) and
washing out the clay soil contained within the tube with water jets. Obviously,
the process of driving will result in a zone of disturbed soil immediately
adjacent to the hollow pipe. If, as is usually the case, the soil through which
the pipes are driven is stratified in layers of different permeabilities, the
effect of driving the pipe is to remold and mix the soil along its immediate
periphery, thus causing a "smeared" zone similar to that around the cylindri
cal surface of the triaxial specimen. The permeability in the smeared zone
will be considerably smaller than the horizontal permeability of the undis
Fig. 5-11. Drain wells; radial drainage with smear; equal strains.
turbed soil. We must also take into account the nature of the soil which is
used to fill the sand drain in order to provide the theoretically infinitely
permeable pathway for the escape of the pore water in the consolidation
process. To simplify the problem for the purpose of carrying out a mathe
matical analysis, it is usual to assume the following conditions: The sand
drain has infinite permeability and zero compressibility; the permeability
k, of the smeared zone is smaller than the permeability kr of the undisturbed
soil, and the smeared zone is incompressible; the ratio of the radius of the
smeared zone, r to the radius of the well, rw, is s; the spacing between the
wells is such that the effective radius of each well is re.
The complete problem was analyzed by Barron [3] and later discussed by
Richart [32]. It was found that the difference between the free-strain solu
tion and the equal-strain solution was small, and that the relative simplicity
of the equal-strain equation makes it a more convenient tool for analyses of
drain performance. The solution for the equal-strain case, including a smeared
zone, is presented here in a form more convenient than that given by Barron:
U=l-W=l - e-27Vm, (5-75a)

where
[n
nTZTJ
,
- -5JT- + VJt
3n 1 , kr n2 1 1
'
__. .
(5-75b)
in Eq. (5-75b) n = re/rw, Tr = crt/r2, kr is the permeability of the undis

turbed soil in a horizontal direction, and 1/K is a surface resistance at the
well due to the smeared zone. Equation (5-75a) is plotted in Fig. 5-1 1(a)
for different values of m; m is given in Fig. 5-1 1(b) as a function of n and
kT/rwK which equals kr(s l)/k,. In this case, u,. is the initial excess pore
pressure which would result if the applied stress raised the pressure uniformly.
The usual design technique is to consider that a real well with a given smeared
zone may be represented by an "ideal" well of a smaller diameter with no
smeared zone. It is obvious that the amount of smear should be kept down
by any construction techniques available, to make the wells more effective.
These are the principal practical situations in which radial flow must be
considered. Although it would be possible to set down the solutions for con
solidation when drainage occurs spherically, they would be of academic
interest only, because of the lack both of isotropy in most soils and practical
application of the process. In spherical or radial flow to a central source,
when the compression is also radial, the condition of strain in the consolidat
ing soil must be taken into account.
Two- and three-dimensional flow: vertical compression (load applied in
stantaneously and kept constant thereafter). When a soil consolidates under
an applied load in nature, drainage and compression frequently take place
in three dimensions rather than the one assumed so far in this chapter.
As pointed out earlier, however, our knowledge of the compression char
acteristics of soil in three dimensions is meager, and the displacement of
principal importance in structural applications is the vertical one, so that,
with reservations, the influence of other than vertical compressions is
neglected. However, the process of water flow in three dimensions obviously
has a considerable effect on the time-settlement behavior of a surface structure
anisotropic, with horizontal
if,
especially as usually the case, the soil

is
is
permeabilities larger than vertical permeabilities.

In general, some analysis (which may be approximate) involving lateral
flow should be performed for most structures whose horizontal dimension
not large in relation to the thickness of the compressible soil layer.
is
In certain cases, the lateral boundaries of the compressing layer are

prescribed for instance, in the triaxial sample or in system of drain wells
.
a
and for these useful technique developed in studies of thermal flow by

a
Newman [29] may be employed. If drainage taking place to two or more

is
(a) (b)
Fig. 5-12.Two- and three-dimensional consolidation. (a) Rectilinear flow,

(b) Radial and vertical flow.
pairs of faces bounding a region of compressible soil (Fig. 5-1 2a or b), the
excess over hydrostatic pore pressure, Wx.y.z.t or Wr,z,t, in space and time
due to simultaneous three-dimensional flow (we continue to assume that the
strains in the x- y- or r-directions are zero) can be obtained from the solutions
Wx.T, W y.t, etc., or Wr,t, Wz.t for the simple one-dimensional consolida
tion problems in the x-, y-, z-, or r-, z-directions individually. Thus, if the
faces of the soil element in Fig. 5-1 2 (a) perpendicular to the x- and y-axes are
considered impermeable, and drainage occurs through the faces perpendicular
to the z-axis only, the solution Wz,t to Eq. (5-57) applies. Similarly, assum
ing impermeability of the faces perpendicular to the y- and z-axes and
drainage through the pair of faces perpendicular to the x-axis gives rise to a
solution Wx.t for this one-dimensional configuration. A solution Wy.t is
derived in the same fashion. In the radial case, the perimeter of the sample
is first taken to be impermeable in order to yield the solution Wz.t for
drainage through the circular end faces, and subsequently W r,t represents
the solution for radial drainage in the sample with the faces perpendicular
to the z-axis assumed to be impermeable.
The solution given by Newman for the simultaneous three-dimensional
flow problem is
Wx.y.z.t = Wx.tWy.tWz.t, (5-76a)

or
Wr.z.t = Wr,tWz,t. (5-76b)
This product function can easily be verified by substitution in the appropriate
diffusion equations, and, since the consolidation equation is linear, it applies
also to the average forms of the individual functions. In this way we get
Wx.y.z = WxWyWz (5-77a)

or
Wr,z = WrWz, (5-77b)
where all W'b are functions of T. Therefore, in terms of average degree of
consolidation, we have
Ux.y.z = 1
- - Ux)(l - Uy)(l - Uz)
(1 (5-78a)
or
UR,z = - - UR)(l - Uz).
1 (1 (5-78b)
When both radial and vertical flows occur in the triaxial test, with drainage
at both ends of the sample, Eq. (5-78b) can be evaluated by means of Eqs.
(5-59) and (5-71) or (5-74), on the assumption that the sample has a height
twice its diameter, as is usually the case. Then the time factor can be referred
to either the height or the radius. The calculation has been carried out, and
the result is plotted in Fig. 5-10.
If the use of drain wells is being considered for a particular site, allowances
for both vertical and radial flows must usually be made, but several com
putations based on Eq. (5-78b) must be carried out, since different drain-
well spacings for a given layer thickness must be evaluated under the pre
vailing construction requirements [3].
The value of Eqs. (5-78a) and (5-78b) can be demonstrated with the help
of Eq. (5-55) which is a good approximation to the average degree of consoli
dation in a layer of finite thickness up to a time factor of about 0.2. If Eq.
(5-55) is substituted into the right-hand side of the two-dimensional recti
linear version of Eqs. (5-78), we can obtain the average degree of consolida
tion Ux,y in an infinitely long square prism of dimensions 2H by 2H:
Ux,y ~ 1 - (l - ^) (l - )
, (5-78C)
from which we get
IaT -
Ux.y 2 J
\ 7T
aT

7T
. (5-78d)
which is an expression valid for short time periods only. We might presume
that the average degree of consolidation of an infinite square prism would
vary with time in a manner very similar to that of an infinite circular cylinder,
and the plot of Eq. (5-78d) in Fig. 5-10 verifies our assumption.
It is interesting to observe that at a given time factor the degree of con
solidation in a two-dimensional prism or cylinder is twice as great as the
degree of consolidation in the one-dimensional flat slab at small time factors.
It is easy to show that in three dimensions, the degree of consolidation at a
given time factor is three times as great as that for a flat slab for small time
factors.
In general, however, three-dimensional flow occurs in soil regions whose
lateral boundaries, at least, are indeterminate, but may be assumed to extend
to infinity. Under these circumstances, a solution Wz.t may well be obtained,
but it may not be possible to determine the remaining solutions Wx.t and
W y.t required to complete a three-dimensional analysis. In addition, when
a load is applied to a limited area of the ground surface, then there arises
the problem of computing the initial excess over hydrostatic pore pressure
at all points in the compressible soil mass. Such a calculation involves addi
tional assumptions (see Chapter 6) concerning the manner in which soil

responds to stress applications. Whatever assumptions arc made, it is found
that the distribution of initial excess pore-water pressure can only be ex
pressed in a relatively complicated mathematical form unsuited for con
solidation analyses. For these reasons, and because of the uncertainties
associated with the behavior of compressible soils in the three-dimensional
stress state, only a few theoretical analyses have been made [5, 26].
As the higher excess pore pressures generated under the application of a
load to a circumscribed area dissipate during the consolidation process,
effective pressures in regions laterally adjacent to the zone of greater initial
stressing may decrease whereas the total stresses on these regions remain
constant, so that both compressing and swelling take place simultaneously
at different points in the soil. It was pointed out earlier that the coefficient
of consolidation is not equal to the coefficient of swell in natural soils, and
for this condition, analytical solutions have not been obtained. On the
unrealistic assumption that the coefficients were equal, Biot and Clingan
[5]
derived solutions for the settlement of circular loaded area on an infinite
a
depth of compressible soil. The initial excess pore-water stress distribut ion
was determined on the assumption that the medium was linearly elastic and
deformations were small.
5-10 Approximate numerical analysis. Problems involving consolidation

to which solutions have not been obtained analytically or cannot be found
in the available references may arise in practice. Hence, advisable to
is
it
be familiar with approximate methods for handling such solutions so that
practical results can be achieved with the degree of accuracy justified in
the light of the amount of information available on the soil properties at
the site and the importance of the structure. Most estimates of settlements
are based on one-dimensional analysis of consolidation under the center of
a
the structure, using an initial applied vertical-stress distribution throughout

the medium obtained from solutions based on the assumption that the soil
an elastic material. This stress in two- or three-dimensional problem
is
diminishes with depth so that not uniform throughout the thickness of

is
it
the compressible layer. The ultimate settlement computed by dividing

is
the layer into number of laminae of finite thickness Az, calculating the
a
average increase in effective pressure at the center of each layer from the
p
elastic solution and summing the incremental settlements to get the overall
settlement pu:
Th
+ e
1
o
The history of settlement then obtained by assuming that settlement

is
follows the curve expressed by Eq. (5-39) for the case of an initially uniform
excess pore-pressure distribution, so that pT, the settlement at a time
T,
calculated from
is
pT = UPu. (5-80)
When only modest deviations from uniform initial distribution are met,
a
the latter assumption not far from the truth. The error certainly small
is
is
5-10] APPROXIMATE NUMERICAL ANALYSIS 207
in comparison with that due to the assumption of one-dimensional flow in

general. For one-dimensional situations in which unusual variations of the
initial excess pore-pressure distribution must be considered, Terzaghi and
Froehlich [44] present both exact and approximate solutions to the con
solidation process. The approximate method entails the use of a simple
equation to represent the isochrone of pressure versus depth and is useful
in limited applications. A more general technique will be discussed below.
When a consolidation test is carried out on a sample of clay for the purposes
of determining its compressibility and coefficient of consolidation, it is usually
found that the coefficient of consolidation varies with the pressure increment,
reflecting the changes that take place both in the compressibility and per
meability of the clay as the interparticle spacing decreases. This fact might
be expected to have some effect on consolidation in a natural clay layer
since the coefficient of consolidation would not be constant throughout the
soil layer at a given time nor would it be constant with time at any point
in the soil layer. The problem is equivalent to one involving the transient
flow of heat through a solid whose diffusivity varies as a function of tem
perature. As pointed out previously, more correct initial assumptions would
lead to a nonlinear diffusion equation for which exact solutions are not yet
available. Faced with the necessity of obtaining some solution, we must
therefore, at present, abandon the approach of developing solvable equations
from approximate postulates and once more adopt the expedient of making
an approximate numerical analysis which can include, where desirable, more
realistic assumptions. The procedure involves a step-by-step numerical
development of the progress of excess-pressure dissipation with time and is
an extension of the methods discussed with reference to the steady-state flow
of water through soil in Chapter 4. Except for the transient heat-flow
analogy, which is impractical in application because of boundary and insula
tion requirements, there is no continuous model to consolidation, and there
fore the analogic method of solution will be introduced in this chapter after a
discussion of numerical techniques.
One-dimensional flow and compression: (a) rectilinear case. From Eq.
(4-63) it will be recognized that the left-hand side of the diffusion equation
(5-4.3) in one dimension can be represented in finite-difference form by the
expression
0 =
jzy2
[W2 + W4
- 2W0], (5-81)
where the numerical subscripts refer to the points of Fig. 4-18. In Eq.
(581), however, the values of W vary at each point in time, and therefore
the equation must be associated with a time; hence a time subscript will be
introduced. On the right-hand side of Eq. (5-43), W must be associated with
a point in space, which is conveniently taken to be point 0, the increment of
W in the numerator is a time increment, and the finite-difference form of this
side becomes
Combination of Eqs. (5-81) and (5-82) yields an expression which can be

used to determine the excess pore pressure at a point at a time (71 + AT)
in terms of the pore pressures at the point and adjacent points at time
T [16, 19, 34]:
Wo.t+at = [W2,T + W4iT - 2W0,T) + W0,T. (5-83a)
Since both AT and AZ are dimensionless, the factor M = AT/(AZ)2 is also

dimensionless and may be described as an operator on the prior values of W
by whose agency the new values can be calculated.
Therefore, if in a consolidating medium we have established a number of
points a distance AZ apart at which the excess over hydrostatic pore pres
sure is known at any time T, then the excess over hydrostatic pressure at
each of these points may be computed at time (T + AT) by means of Eq.
(5-83a). It follows that if the distribution of excess pressure is known at
time zero, the distribution at times AT, 2AT, 3AT, ... is determined. Usually,
and this is convenient from a practical point of view, the thickness of the
compressible layer, or geometry of the structure, will lend itself to a con
venient subdivision of the layer into the increments AZ, and hence it follows
that either a value of AT or a value of M may be chosen. The choice of one
automatically determines the magnitude of the other through the previously
selected AZ.
It is well to study the effect of the chosen or calculated value of M on the
behavior of Eq. (5-83a). For the equation to be useful in practice, it should
be stable in operation. In other words, if an error E is made in the determina
tion of W o.t at one cycle of solution, i.e., at a time T, from any cause (mistake
or rounding off), then the error in the subsequent value W0,t+&t should
not be more than E by reason of the iterative process of Eq. (5-83a). If this
is true, the step-by-step calculation of W0 as a function of time will not be
divergent, since the computational errors do not increase in the course of
the solution. An approximate analysis of this point can be made by assum
ing an error E in obtaining the value of W.t at one stage of the calculation,
so that if Eq. (5-83a) is used, the error in W0,t+at will be equal to

(2M + \2M 1\)E. For a stable solution, the inequality
(2M + \2M
- l\)E < \E\ (5-84)
must hold, from which it follows that
M < J. (5-85)
It is seen from Eq. (5-83a) that a positive error in Wo.r becomes a negative
error in W0,t+*t so that if the inequality (5-85) is not adhered to, an oscil
lating diverging solution may be expected. By trial it is found that the use
of M = results in a stably oscillating solution, which is also undesir
able.
In practice, the interval AZ is chosen, and if hand computations are to be
employed, it is desirable to select a value of M which will minimize the
calculational labor. These two choices dictate the time interval AT between
successive stages of the process. For instance, Eq. (5-83a) has the following
AT = 0.01 56 2 A7' = 0.0313 3 AT = 0.0469
0 0 0 0
Top of
100 75 63 55 clay
layer
100 100 94 88
100 100 100 99
100 100 100 100
100 100 100 99
Fig. 5-13. Consolidation by numerical iteration. Figures at intersections

represent pore pressures, initially taken as 100 everywhere and suddenly changed
to zero at surface at T = 0; M doubly drained layer.
forms for the values of M noted.
M = J: W0,t+at = W2.T + W4,T + Wo.t]; (5-86)

M = J: W0,t+at = i[W2,T + W4,T + 2W0.t\. (5-87)
If an electronic computer is programmed to solve the iterative expressions
(5-83a), the restriction placed on the value of M, due to the amount of work
involved is less severe, and M can be selected to minimize the error involved
in the iteration process by the neglect of higher-order differences. It has
been shown [34] that if the finite-difference expressions are developed by a
Taylor series expansion in a fashion similar to that demonstrated in Chapter 4
in the steady-state case, the first of the neglected terms, and therefore the
greatest error, is proportional to 1 6AT/(AZ)2. The choice of M = %
will then eliminate the largest error term and will result in smaller errors in
the solution than will be obtained by choosing much smaller values of M.
In addition, the smaller the values of AZ selected, the more accurate will
be the solution.
The first steps in carrying out an iterative solution of a consolidation
problem are shown in Fig. 5-13. The limitation on the time increments im
posed by the need to choose a reasonable value of AZ (by dividing the layer
into at least three or four subdivisions), together with the value M selected,
will always result in a slow progression of the desired solution. Although
this tedium is to some extent offset by the flexibility of the technique, the
use of electronic computers remains nonetheless an attractive alternative.
It is obvious that in terms of problem difficulty, the use of the finite-
difference equation (5-83a) is not affected by the distribution of initial
excess over hydrostatic pore pressure, and that the solution can be carried
out with equal ease regardless of whether the initial excess pore-pressure
distribution is a straight line or some more complicated function.
When layered soils of different properties are encountered, the value M
will differ in each layer for constant Az and At, or M and At may be invariant
if Az is changed for each layer. The first alternative requires the use of
Eq. (5-96) at layer interfaces, with W\,t = W3,t = W0,t.
Because of the small time steps imposed by the stability restriction on the
value of M, it is desirable occasionally to use a different technique by which
a solution can be obtained at a desired time or at least with fewer steps.
In the difference equation (5-83a) the "new" value of Wo is computed from
the second difference of the "old" values at points 0, 2, and 4. Such an
equation is called an explicit finite-difference relation, since it involves a
"new" value at one point only. Were the expression to be rewritten in terms
of the new values at the three points, a similar equation could be formed at
each point in turn, which would imply that a set of simultaneous difference
equations could be set up whose solution would describe the excess pore-water
pressure at the new time throughout the layer. The model equation would
then be an implicit function.
This can be done by rewriting the second difference of pore pressure with
respect to space as an average over the time interval involved to give the
implicit relation
AT
+ W2,T + W4,T - 2W0,T)]. (5-88)
Using Eq. (5-88) in which the values will be known at time T, we establish
a set of simultaneous equations in the unknowns at (T + AT) for a chosen
AZ-spacing and a AT on which no restriction is placed other than that the
second difference must be a reasonable approximation to the actual second
derivative. Thus a different AT may be selected for each computational step,
but will, in general, be related to the gradients developed in the layer over
the time step. The greater the changes in excess pore pressure, the smaller
the time steps which must be chosen. This question is analyzed by Tung
and Newmark [47]. The process of obtaining the values of W(T + AT) by
solving the simultaneous difference equations of course, not without labor
is,
in itself, and for small values of AZ, one may again resort to electronic com
puters [1].
method of changing the iterative equations into form suitable for per
A
forming relaxation procedure has been devised by Allen (reference 2,

a
Chapter 4); however, a less complicated technique was later proposed by

Liebmann [23]. For this purpose, Eq. (5-83a) rewritten in terms of and
T
is
at points AT),
(T AT) the and instead of and (T + and we
T
0,
2,
obtain
(W0,t - W0,t-*t) = W2,T + WA.T - 2W0,T, (5-83b)
or, in a form suitable for relaxation,
W2,T + W4,T ~(2+~^j W0,T W0,T-*T = R.

+
(5-83c)
^
Liebmann has shown that Eq. (5-83c) now stable for all values of M, so
is
that the following method of solution presents itself. Correct values of 11'
at all points at the selected spacing (AZ) are obtained at time (T AT)
zero time], and a value of M chosen to give
[for the first step (T
is
is
A7')
a desired time interval AT to advance the solution from (T AT) to T

according to the relation between M, AT, and (AZ)2. At time T, values of
W are estimated at all node points; from them the residuals at all points can
be computed by Eq. (5-83c). The residuals must then be eliminated by
relaxation to give the correct values of W at all points at time T. It will
be seen from Eq. (5-83c) that in this case, a change in W 0 by +1 will alter the
residual at point 0 by (2 + 1/M) and the residuals at points 2 and 4 by +1.
The relaxation pattern is not difficult to carry through, particularly if it is
noted that for a first reduction of residuals, 1/M may be neglected in com
parison with the number 2 in (2 + 1/M) when M is chosen large enough.
When residuals are reduced to a manageable size, the more exact expression
can be employed.
This method does not require the time steps to be equal in magnitude,
since the final values computed for each time value form the basis for the
next step, which may involve a different AT. Once again, it is advisable to
begin a solution with one or two short time steps, before advancing the
solution to longer time intervals. In many numerical studies, it is helpful
to obtain values at points near the boundaries a short time after consolida
tion begins, by the use of the error-function solution, Eq. (5-47), which is
valid up to small time factors, for many different boundary shapes, and
holds even when the coefficient of consolidation varies [25]. Although such
a technique (combination of an analytical result with a numerical process)
may be regarded as specious, it provides a smooth beginning for the numerical
work, increases the accuracy, and reduces the effort required.
When the distribution of excess over hydrostatic pore pressure with depth
and time in the soil has been obtained, it is usually desirable to calculate the
average value at any particular time over the thickness of the layer under
consideration. This may be done either by the application of Simpson's
rule to the pore pressures or by mechanical integration of the diagrams by a
planimeter. Division of the area underneath the isochrone by the depth of
the layer yields the average value of pore-pressure distribution at the given
time.
If it is desired to examine the pore-pressure distribution with time in
detail at any particular part of the layer under consideration, a network
of fine AZ-spacing can be chosen in the zone of interest so that the pore-pres
sure distribution at small spatial intervals can be obtained. For a consistent
solution, the time-factor steps, AT, must be the same everywhere throughout
the zone, and it will therefore be necessary to choose the factor M in a zone
of fine net size to ensure that the time steps remain constant. Thus M must
vary inversely as (AZ)2, and hence a further restriction is developed by the
requirement that all M be less than
Although the discussion of numerical methods has proceeded so far on the
basis of the reduction of the linear diffusion equation (5-34) to a finitc-
difTerence expression, the method may be made much more general in its
scope. When a loose or soft compressible material is subjected to a load such
that a large decrease in the void ratio is to be expected, it has been shown
that an exponential curve of void ratio versus effective pressure is a better
representation of the relationship than a straight line, and that consequently
Eq. (5-39) describes an improved consolidation equation under these cir
Or
Fig. 5-14. Consolidation with varying coefficient of consolidation, obtained

by numerical analysis. Note that cc varies linearly with effective stress c. =
CcQ (1 + aU); values of a shown on curves.
cumstances. This equation can also be put in finite-difference form with the
proviso that the coefficient of consolidation is made dependent on the pore
pressure. For the range of pore pressures expected in a given problem, a
plot of c versus pressure can be made. At a network point in the computa
tion model of compressible soil, the next value of pore pressure is computed
as before, except that the coefficient M will no longer be constant from point
to point and time to time, but will depend on the previous value of pore
pressure at the point. An initial selection of M must be made so that all
subsequent values satisfy the stability criterion. For solutions of this type,
the equations of the implicit method will be more complicated in formula
tion, since the value of M will itself depend on the unknowns W t+at if it is
represented in terms of the average pore pressure over the time interval.
It will be noted that in soils undergoing large void-ratio changes in com
pression, large deformations are also implied, so that the thickness of the soil
can no longer be considered to remain constant during the process. In addi
tion, the void-ratio variation will also have an effect on the permeability of
the soil, which will then differ from place to place in the compressing layer
and will change with time. All these factors must be taken into account in
any critical examination of the effects and limitations of the assumptions
inherent in the derivation of the linear consolidation equation. It must also
be borne in mind that the solutions are obtained by a nonlinear process and
hence cannot be superimposed or operated on in the same way as linear results.
An electronic computer (Burroughs Electrodata 220) has been used to
develop solutions to the diffusion problem for varying (for whatever reason)
coefficients of consolidation for a step variation of initial applied stress, and
the curves of average consolidation obtained are plotted in Fig. 5-14, to
gether with the mathematical solution of the constant coefficient case [37].
One-dimensional flow and compression: (b) radial case. The finite-difference
approximation, Eq. (4-7 5a), has already been given for the left-hand side
of Eq. (5-68), and therefore the complete finite-difference expression for

radial consolidation becomes
H;)
W0,t+at = M w3.t ~
+
WUT
+
W0.Tl
[(l
2^0.r]
(5-89)
with the convention adopted for Fig. 4-18.
In the sand-drain problem and similar situations involving well and con
a
trolled pore-pressure conditions along the central axis, the above equation
can be evaluated at all other points (of finite R0) without difficulty. How
ever, in the triaxial sample and other problems where the axis in the com
is
pressible material, another equation required for the central point (R0 =
0)
is
and may be obtained by consideration of the flow process into and out of
the element centered on the axis. The equation
is
W0,t+*t = 4M[WUT - Wq.t,
+
Wo.t) (5-90)
and will be seen that limits the value of M by the requirement that M
it
it
be not greater than

\.
In other respects, radial solutions may be obtained by explicit iterative

techniques, relaxation, or implicit methods using the procedures given for
rectilinear flow problems.
Once again would be possible to derive finite-difference equations for
it
spherically symmetric consolidating region, but the considerations con

a
cerning the impracticality of results are naturally the same as those described
in the discussion of mathematical analyses.
Two- and three-dimensional flow: vertical compression. The one-dimensional
finite-difference equation (5-83a) can obviously be extended to treat the prob
lems of two- or three-dimensional consolidation in the same manner in which
Eq. (4-63) was obtained. Two-dimensional flow represented by the
is
expression
^o.r+Ar = Mx[WUT W3,T -

+
2W0.t]
M,[W2,T W4,T - + W0,T,
+
2W0,T] (5-91a)
following again the convention of Fig. 4-18. Although the compressibility of

the material (again in the vertical direction only) remains constant in Mz
and Mz, the permeabilities will generally be different in the x- and z-directions.
Since convenient to consider only one M- and one Ai-value, neces
it
is
it
is
sary to set
M = Mx = M,
or
AX = AZ = VkJF, AZ, (5-92a)
in order that the difference equation become
-
4
= M W0,t.
2
w*.t 41F0,r (5-91b)

+
W0,T+*T
i
By similar reasoning the three-dimensional equation has the form
Wo. T+AT M wn,T - 6W0.r + Wo.T, (5-93)
= Vc,^ AZ = Vkjkx AZ (5-92b)
and Eq. (5-92a) is also adhered to.

The combination of radial and vertical flows gives rise to the expression
|g)
|g
W0,T+.T = M Wl., + ^3.r
+
+
W2.T
[(l
(l
+ TF4.r - 4ir0,r] + W0,r, (5-94)
A# = VFrT^ AZ. (5-92c)
In this case, the equation for center point becomes

a
Wo.t+at = M&Wlt W2,T + W4,T - 6W0.t] + W0,T. (5-95)

+
Except for the increase in labor, there no difficulty in handling these equa
is
tions in practice.
Where layered soil exists, finite-difference expression must be developed
a
for the points along the boundary. The method used follows the derivation
of Eq. (4-74) to yield the expression
+ *i/*a) 2ki
(1
Wo, W 2.T
+
T
+ (ea/ex)(*,/*a)]
ki
+
k2
[1
+ W3.t +
9k.
w,,r - iWo,T Wo.t,
2
(5-96)
,
ki +
1
k2
J
where fci, k2, Ci, and c2 are the permeabilities and coefficients of consolida
tion in the two soils and M2 based on c2. the values of the constants are
If
is
once computed and noted, no further difficulty encountered in the arith

is
metic computations. Here Az\ = Az2.

In transient-flow problems as well as in steady-state flow, transformation
of the coordinates frequently cases the calculational labor of obtaining a
solution. The substitution equations (4-76a), (4-70b), (4-82a) and (4-82b)
can all be employed. The extension to the transient finite-difference opera
tion obvious. Three-dimensional numerical solutions have been obtained
is
by Gibson and Lumb [16].

External stress varying with time. In most practical applications of con
solidation theory the externally applied load not constant with time, but
is
increases in the course of, say the erection of structure at the surface. In
a
many cases, construction will begin with the excavation of the building
foundations or basement, and in this case, the swelling-settlement problem
; 400
. b
=
300
c.S 200
~
1(10
I I I
0.0156 0.0313 0.0469
7'
0 0.0156 0.0313 0.0469

(1
0 0 0 0
1
1 100
75+100 63+75+100 55+63+75+100
1
1!
100 100+100 94+100+100 88 + 94+100+100
3
4 100
100+100 100+100+100 99+100+100+100
1
1
100 100+100 100+100+100 100+100+100+100
100 100+100 100+100+100 99+100+100+100
Fig. 5-15. Iteration analysis. Applied stress increased by units of 100 in terms
of excess pore pressure at each time step; .1/ - \\ doubly drained layer.
can be solved only by numerical analysis in which it is usual to assume that

the coefficient of swelling is infinitely large, so that swelling takes place
instantaneously upon the removal of load. On the other hand, if the coeffi
cient of swelling is determined in the laboratory, a numerical analysis can
easily be carried out as before, except that two values of M are computed,
one to be used when the excess pore pressure is diminishing in time (con
solidation) and the other when it is increasing (swelling). The progress of
the solution must be constantly inspected at the boundaries of the swelling
region, to ascertain the direction of the process.
However, in a large number of practical cases, the applied load can be
considered to increase only with time. If its increase is rapid in terms of the
consolidation process, it may well be considered to be suddenly applied and
remain constant thereafter, but frequently it is desirable to examine the effect
of the "construction time" during which the applied stress is gradually built
up, on the variation of excess pore-water pressure in the soil. For the purpose
of numerical analysis, the plot of real applied stress versus time is approxi
mated by a stepwise incremental curve as illustrated in Fig. 5-15 which, for
simplicity, represents a uniformly increasing load applied to a layer com
pressing onc-dimensionally. At each increase in incremental stress, the
pore-water pressure in the soil is increased by the same amount, while
drainage takes place simultaneously. By writing the numerical solution in
the form shown in Fig. 5-15, it can be seen that at any given time, the pore
pressure at a point some time after the loading sequence has begun can be
considered to be a sum of pore pressures obtained at different time stages of
the simpler problem in which it was assumed that the excess over hydrostatic
pore pressure was initially uniform everywhere. This would indicate that
Fig. 5-16. Consolidation with applied stress varying in time, obtained by

numerical application of the superposition integral.
Fig. 5-17. Consolidation of layer under varying applied stress.
only the solution for an initial step change of loading is required to treat
any case of time-dependent loading. The pore pressure is thus obtained by
means of a superposition method which is an illustration of the application of
an integral known as Duhamel's integral, or the superposition, or convolution
integral. It may be formally stated as follows:
F z.'i L(T-T) dT, (5-97a)

Jo Qt
where Fz.t is the solution desired for time-dependent loading, Wz.t is the
solution for a step-change of load (used in the form of its time derivative),
and Lit-t) is the value of the load at time T t; or, in finite-difference
form,
(5-97b)
of course, only applicable to linear processes. In the differential

is,
which
form may be used in connection with the analytical solution to the problem
it
of a step increase of the load to give mathematical solution for variable

a
load in a closed form [9, 33], but for arbitrary loading functions the mathe
matical solution difficult and a numerical procedure may be adopted. The
is
integral or summation may also be expressed in terms of the product of

WZ.T and dL/dT.
The superposition integral states in effect that at time n AT the first ordi
nate of the loading curve (in time) multiplied by the n ATth ordinate of a
is
system function, the second ordinate of the loading curve is multiplied by

the (n 1) ATth ordinate of the system function, and so on, back to the
first (in time) ordinate of the system function which is multiplied by the
n ATth ordinate of the loading curve, at which point the products are summed.
The summation represents the desired solution at time n AT [30]. The system
function in this problem is the time derivative of the appropriate solution
for the step loading case. By "appropriate solution" is meant the average
consolidation for the layer if average consolidation under increasing loading
is desired, or the time history of excess pore pressure at a point if the varia
tion in that pore pressure with time under an increasing load is required.
The superposition process can be carried out graphically, as shown in Fig.
5-16, or in tabular form. Once again, it is less tedious to prepare a computer
program for such a digital process; an electronically obtained solution is
shown in Fig. 5-17.
Although the superposition technique is not applicable to the extension of
the solution of nonlinear problems, it may be employed in any type of two-
or three-dimensional situation, including the consolidation of soil profiles
containing compressible soils of different properties, provided only that the
solution has been obtained for the case of a step change of applied load.
5-11 Lumped-parameter analog methods of solution. For certain problems,

the difficulty or tedium of analytical or numerical solutions to the consolida
tion equation leads us to consider other ways of preparing solutions possibly
requiring less labor. One such method would be the construction of a model of
the consolidating clay layer such that the dissipation of pore-water pressures
could be studied in the model and could then be scaled to the behavior of
the natural sequence of events. These model studies are usually carried out by
means of analogs of the lumped-parameter type described in Chapter 4,
since continuous transient systems are difficult to simulate by a continuous
model. Again, the thermal analogy is impractical in application, and hence
one considers two alternative techniques, one electrical, involving lumped
electrical resistances in the same configurations as described in Chapter 4
but also including lumped electrical capacitances at the node points, and the
other hydraulic, again with lumped hydraulic conductances and capacitances.
These will be considered in turn.
Electric analog. In one development of the finite-difference equations,
a lumped-parameter system was postulated in which the layer of soil under
consideration was divided into elements; the flow of water into and out of
each element was considered. The net flow of water into or out of the element,
in the transient problem, of course, represents the net expansion or contrac
tion of the element from which we derive the settlement or swelling of a total
soil layer. The flow part of the analogy was examined in Chapter 4, in which
the reciprocal of the hydraulic conductance between the centers of two ad
jacent lumps was represented by an electrical resistor. In the transient flow
problem, part of the water flowing through each element may be stored in
the element, or the flow may be caused by the release of stored water. In the
derivation of the linear diffusion equation it was assumed that the relationship
of pore-water pressures to storage (effective stress to void ratio) was linear.
If this assumption is to be maintained in an electrical analogy, an electrical

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5-8] TRANSIENT FLOW; ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION 181

5-8 Transient flow equation; one-dimensional consolidation. Considera

We again wish to point out that, although three-dimensional water flow

struction of a vertical wall which permits drainage through or as result

Since Eq. (5-26) is formulated to treat transient phenomena, the static

[the assumption is made implicitly that dx dy dz is constant and is referred to

and Eq. (5-29) further reduces to

Further, if the soil is completely saturated, the equation becomes

kx(l + ea) d2u _ du da

the actual thermal properties of real solids). In the heat-flow equation, cc

and cp its gravimetric specific heat

The thermal diffusion equation written as

responding to the excess pore pressure, u, in the hydraulic problem.

sistance per unit length and uniformly distributed electrical capacitance

and the analogous diffusion equation

which is a special case of the so-called telegraph equation representing the

for example, is accomplished by relating the variables to the characteristic

when measured from the surface of the compressing layer. Finally,

choosing an arbitrary time constant t, we are able to obtain dimensionless

Substituting in the one-dimensional Eq. (5-34) gives

where W function of and T.

It apparent that one of the characteristic constants can be selected

for convenience to make

and therefore Eq. (5-41) becomes

In a particular case, therefore, the solution to Eq. (5-43) will be presented

as, say and

extracted by means of Eqs. (5-40a), (5-40b), and (5-44) and knowledge

of ui, H, and c, the characteristic constants of the system.

with the additional consideration of boundaries in time. Thus, in layer

of soil, an initial excess over hydrostatic pore pressure generated by the

imposition of superimposed load building or fill on the surface of the

5-9 Mathematical analysis. One-dimensional

be linearized for an approximate solution by the use of an average value of u.

compressibilities are important, for saturated soil, con

Semi-infinite compressible layer. The simplest case to which solution

of Eq. (5-43) can be obtained one in which a semi-infinite bed of clay

subjected to an applied load everywhere along its upper surface, as shown

mate manner, or may be caused by fill placed everywhere on the surface

to raise the level of the existing ground.

hydrostatic pore pressure in the underlying clay layer, and drainage

clay, an approximation which usually holds true in practice a granular

Reduction in water pressure

an initially uniform excess over hydrostatic pore pressure throughout a depth

The problem is similar to that of the temperature distribution in a semi-

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

in which erf is the error function defined to be

and in a completely saturated soil, ff, will be zero, so that

The ratio of the compression of the semi-infinite medium at time t to the

or, in words, the relationship of average degree of consolidation to time

(ii) Compressible layer of finite thickness and infinite extent. In many

where m is an integer. The degree of consolidation Uz.t is then given by Eq.

It is also possible to obtain the average degree of consolidation at a given

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

and the average degree of consolidation diminishes exponentially in time in

that the average degree of consolidation can be adequately described over

and the average degree of consolidation is again given by Eq. (5-58).

(iii) Nonhomogeneous soil profile. When onc-dimensional flow and com

consolidation, given by the following equation (derived from reference

where given by Eq. (5-44) with ci, m an integer, and

One-dimensional flow and compression: (b) radial case (load applied

may be allowed to consolidate under an applied stress (see Appendix A).

If only vertical drainage occurring, the solution given in Eq. (5-57)

be discussed later [Eqs. (5-76) through (5-78)].