ANL-6675

Engineering and Equipment

( T I D - 4 5 0 0 , 19th Ed.)
AEC R e s e a r c h and
Development Report

ARGONNE NATIONAL LABORATORY

9700 South C a s s Avenue
Argonne, Illinois

NUCLEATE BOILING CHARACTERISTICS AND THE CRITICAL

HEAT FLUX OCCURRENCE IN SUBCOOLED

AXIAL-FLOW WATER SYSTEMS

by

R. J. Weatherhead

R e a c t o r Engineering Division

M a r c h 1963

Operated by The University of Chicago

under
Contract W-3 1-109-eng-38
with the
U. S. Atomic E n e r g y C o m m i s s i o n
 DISCLAIMER

This report was prepared as an account of work sponsored by an

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Government nor any agency Thereof, nor any of their employees,
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otherwise does not necessarily constitute or imply its endorsement,
recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any
agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors expressed herein
do not necessarily state or reflect those of the United States
Government or any agency thereof.
 DISCLAIMER

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

NOMENCLATURE . 5

ABSTRACT 7

I. INTRODUCTION. . 8

11. CHARACTERISTICS O F S I M P L E N U C L E A T E BOILING 8

III. CRITICAL HEAT FLUX 11

IV. E F F E C T O F S U B C O O L E D F L O W R E G I M E ON C R I T I C A L

HEAT FLUX 17

V. DISCUSSION AND C O N C L U S I O N S Z3

REFERENCES . 25

APPENDIX

T A B U L A T I O N O F 1958 A N L C R I T I C A L H E A T F L U X D A T A . . 27
 3

LIST O F FIGURES

Noo Title Page

1. C o m p a r i s o n of Values of Surface Tension with the P r e s s u r e

T e r m of Eq. (l) for Nucleate Boiling E x c e s s Surface
Teraperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2. S i m i l a r i t y between Nucleate Boiling E x c e s s P r e s s u r e

Characteristic P ^ - P and the Z u b e r - T r i b u s Equation for
C r i t i c a l Heat Flux Q" during Pool Boiling of Saturated
Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3. Variation of Nucleate-bubble-dianaeter C h a r a c t e r i s t i c D D
with System P r e s s u r e P for Water H

4. Variation of N u c l e a t e - b u b b l e - d i a m e t e r C h a r a c t e r i s t i c D g
with Specific Volume of Saturated Water Vapor, v . . H

5. Variation of I n v e r s e N u c l e a t e - b u b b l e - d i a m e t e r C h a r a c t e r -
i s t i c 1/Dg with I n v e r s e Volumetric Latent Heat of Water,
Vfg/Hfg. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U

6. S i m i l a r i t y between I n v e r s e Nucleate-bubble C h a r a c t e r i s t i c
l / D g and the P r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t M a s s - v e l o c i t y Exponent m
in Eq. (5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

7. C o m p a r i s o n of E m p i r i c a l Values of P r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t
M a s s - v e l o c i t y Exponent m in Eq. (5) with the Inverse Vol-
u m e t r i c Latent Heat of Water, Vfg/Hfg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l^

8. C o m p a r i s o n of P r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t Coefficient C in Eq. (5)

with the Latent Heat of Vaporization of Water, H 13

9. Effect of D i a m e t e r of Flow Channel on C r i t i c a l Heat Flux

O c c u r r e n c e at 2000 psia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

10. Effect of T r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e Nucleation Capability upon

C r i t i c a l Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e at 2000 psia and Mass V e l o c -
ity of 1.5 X 10^ lb/(hr)(ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

11. C o m p a r i s o n of UCLA and Purdue data'^) with Eq. (7) for

C r i t i c a l Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e in Subcooled Water Systems . . 15

12. C o m p a r i s o n of 1954 ANL Data^''') with Eq. (7) for C r i t i c a l

Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e in Subcooled Water S y s t e m s . . . . . . . . 16
4

LIST O F FIGURES

No. Title Page

13. C o m p a r i s o n of WAPD Data^-' for C i r c u l a r and Rectangular

Flow G e o m e t r i e s with Eq. (7) for C r i t i c a l Heat Flux
O c c u r r e n c e in Subcooled Water S y s t e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

14. C o m p a r i s o n of WAPD Data(8) for Rectangular Flow G e o m e t r y

with Eq. (7) for C r i t i c a l Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e in Subcooled
Water S y s t e m s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

15. Inversion of M a s s - v e l o c i t y Effect at 2000 psia in a V e r t i c a l

SST-304 Tube (of 0.304-in. ID) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1?

16. C o m p a r i s o n of Low- and H i g h - p r e s s u r e C r i t i c a l Heat Flux

Data with Eq. (8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

17. C o m p a r i s o n of 1958 ANL C r i t i c a l Heat Flux Data with Eq. (9)

for G > 0.90 x 10^ lb/(hr)(ft2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

18. C r i t i c a l Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e in Vertical Stainless Steel

Tubes, Channels, and Annuli for G < 0.90 x 10^ lb/(hr)(ft2) . . . 20

19. C o m p a r i s o n of E x p e r i m e n t a l Data with E q s . (8) and (9),

Showing Effect of System P r e s s u r e on C r i t i c a l Heat Flux
Subcooling Dependency for Small Stainless Steel Tubes . . . . . 20

20. C o m p a r i s o n of E x p e r i m e n t a l Data with E q s . (8) and (9),

Showing Effect of Geometry and Size F a c t o r s on C r i t i c a l Heat
Flux Subcooling Dependency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
 NOMENCLATURE

^B'' ^b Nucleate b u b b l e - s i z e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , in.

^e Equivalent flow-channel diameter, in.

G Coolant m a s s velocity, lb/(hr)(ft^)

H Local enthalpy, Btu/lb

Hf Saturated liquid water enthalpy, Btu/lb

Hfg L a t e n t h e a t of v a p o r i z a t i o n Btu/lb

P System p r e s s u r e , psia

Pw Saturation p r e s s u r e at the t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e , p s i a

Q" A p p l i e d h e a t flux, Btu/(hr)(ft^)

Q^ C r i t i c a l h e a t flux, Btu/(hr)(ft^)

T L o c a l w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e , F

Tf S a t u r a t e d l i q u i d w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e , F

Tw L o c a l t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e , F

S p e c i f i c v o l u m e of s a t u r a t e d w a t e r \ a p o r , ft^lb
^g

vfg Specific voluine change during v a p o r i z a t i o n . ftVH'

0 S u r f a c e t e n s i o n of l i q u i d w a t e r , I b f / i n .

(Hf - H ) Subcooled water or w e t - s t e a m enthalpy difference, Btu/lb

(Pw - P ) Nucleate boiling e x c e s s p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , psi

(Tw ^ T f ) N u c l e a t e b o i l i n g e x c e s s t e m p e r a t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , F

(Vfg,/Hfg) I n v e r s e v o l u m e t r i c l a t e n t h e a t of w a t e r , f t ^ / B t u
CJs
NUCLEATE BOILING CHARACTERISTICS AND THE CRITICAL
HEAT FLUX OCCURRENCE IN SUBCOOLED
AXIAL-FLOW WATER SYSTEMS

by

R. J. Weatherhead

ABSTRACT

An e m p i r i c a l a n a l y s i s is u s e d to equate the p r e s s u r e
t e r r a i n the J e n s - L o t t e s nucleate boiling wall superheat equa-
tion to the liquid coolant surface tensions which modifies the
equation to

T ^ - Tf - 0.18 x 10^a(Q"/lO^)^^^

for surfaces of " a v e r a g e " nucleation capability. This equa-

tion is u s e d to d e t e r m i n e the p r e s s u r e dependency of s e v e r a l
nucleate boiling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , including proportionate nu-
cleate bubble s i z e s . The p r e s s u r e dependency of the nucleate
b u b b l e - s i z e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is shown to be v i r t u a l l y identical
with the p r e s s u r e dependency of the m a s s - v e l o c i t y t e r m in
the J e n s - L o t t e s subcooled water c r i t i c a l heat flux c o r r e l a -
tion. Other a l t e r a t i o n s and additions a r e explained, and the
modified f o r m of the equation:

7 / '^ r H-f H 1
Qi!/l06 ^ ^ De-^/^(Hfg/l03)(G/lO^) |^ 1 + t a n h - ^ ^ J

with m = 0.175 x 10"^(vf /Hf)"-^, is c o m p a r e d with data for

c i r c u l a r and r e c t a n g u l a r flow channels.

Several subcooled boiling flow r e g i m e s a r e hypoth-

esized and explained to account for the unusual effect of the
m a s s velocity upon the c r i t i c a l heat flux in the low-subcoolings
l o w - s t e a m - q u a l i t y region. A pronounced surface effect, p a r -
alleling the nucleate boiling surface effect, upon the c r i t i c a l
heat flux o c c u r r e n c e at the higher subcoolings is i l l u s t r a t e d
and used to explain a p p a r e n t d i s c r e p a n c i e s within and among
s e v e r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e bodies of c r i t i c a l heat flux data.
 L INTRODUCTION

In a forced-convection, axial-flow s y s t e m , the heat t r a n s f e r surface

is s e p a r a t e d from the coolant flow s t r e a m by a hydrodynamically established
boundary l a y e r . F o r nonboiling liquid coolants of low t h e r m a l conductivity,
this boundary layer constitutes a limiting t h e r m a l b a r r i e r , and the heat
t r a n s f e r and flow friction of the s y s t e m a r e d e t e r m i n e d by the velocity-
dependent d e g r e e of turbulence existing at the interface between boundary
layer and flow s t r e a m .

Nucleate boiling o c c u r s when the t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e

r e a c h e s a point sufficiently above the coolant s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e to
g e n e r a t e vapor bubbles in minute cavities (nucleation sites) on the heat
t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e . The l a r g e i n c r e a s e in the interfacial turbulence caused
by the expulsion of the nucleate bubbles through the boundary layer into
the flow s t r e a m r e s u l t s in c o r r e s p o n d i n g i n c r e a s e s in the heat t r a n s f e r
and flow friction. The m o s t simple form of nucleate boiling exists when
the vapor bubbles a r e quenched or so a b s o r b e d by the flow s t r e a m or
coolant m e d i u m as to have no further effect on the interfacial turbulence
after the initial eruptive action. E x a m p l e s of simple nucleate boiling a r e
subcooled and s a t u r a t e d pool boiling from h o r i z o n t a l surfaces and highly
subcooled forced-flow nucleate boiling.

Simple nucleate boiling is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a fixed e x c e s s surface

t e m p e r a t u r e which is dependent only on the applied heat flux, the p r e s s u r e -
dependent p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s of the coolant, and the nucleating capability
of the t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e . Its independence of the convective heat t r a n s f e r
c r i t e r i a - the flow s t r e a m m a s s velocity and subcooling - can be inferred
from e x p e r i m e n t a l data and has been explained by F o r s t e r . ^ ' Convincing
s u p p l e m e n t a r y evidence of this is supplied by r e c e n t F r e n c h datav2; which
shows that the turbulence induced by the imposition of a high-potential,
AC e l e c t r i c a l field on a pool-boiling s y s t e m has little effect on the nucleate
boiling e x c e s s surface t e m p e r a t u r e and a definite beneficial influence on the
convective t r a n s f e r m e c h a n i s m s of the nonboiling and film-boiling r e g i o n s .

IL CHARACTERISTICS OF SIMPLE NUCLEATE BOILING

The e x c e s s surface t e m p e r a t u r e ( T ^ - Tf) a s s o c i a t e d with simple

nucleate-boiling water s y s t e m s has been e m p i r i c a l l y defined by the J e n s -
Lottesi^j equation:

T ^ - Tf = 60 e""/' (Q"/l06)i'4 , (l)

the n u m e r i c a l coefficient and heat-flux dependency r e p r e s e n t i n g values for

t r a n s f e r s u r f a c e s of a v e r a g e " r o u g h n e s s . " T h e r e is strong e x p e r i m e n t a l
evidence for a predominating surface dependency, the data of Berenson,i'*/
 9

for example, illustrating the effect r a t h e r conclusively. If we accept the

t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e roughness as a qualitative m e a s u r e of the s t a t i s t i c a l
a v e r a g e of the size and concentration of the bubble-nucleation s i t e s , and
r e c a l l from accepted nucleation t h e o r y ^ ) that the nucleate-bubble size is
d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the size of the surface cavity in which it is forroied, it
m a y be concluded that the magnitude and heat flux dependency of the simple
nucleate boiling e x c e s s surface t e m p e r a t u r e is determined by the number
and size of the bubbles g e n e r a t e d p e r unit of t r a n s f e r surface a r e a .

The Gibbs equation,

^B = 2 a / ( P ^ - P ) , (2)

r e l a t e s the nucleate-bubble r a d i u s (r-o) to the e x c e s s p r e s s u r e (P - P)

which f o r m s the bubble against the r e s i s t i n g force of the liquid surface
tension (a). If the e x c e s s surface t e m p e r a t u r e is considered to be the
driving force r e q u i r e d to g e n e r a t e the e x c e s s p r e s s u r e , Eq. (2) shows that
the magnitude of the e x c e s s surface t e m p e r a t u r e is i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d to the
nucleate-bubble s i z e . The p r e v i o u s l y cited d i r e c t relationship between the
bubble and surface cavity s i z e s leads to the conclusion that the magnitude
of the e x c e s s surface t e m p e r a t u r e is i n v e r s e l y dependent upon the s t a t i s t i c a l
size of the nucleation s i t e s , and, by exclusion, that the heat flux dependency
v a r i e s i n v e r s e l y as the concentration of the nucleation s i t e s . (It should be
borne in mind that the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c constant surface t e m p e r a t u r e mieas-
u r e d during simiple nucleate boiling is the integrated average of varying
m i c r o s c o p i c a l l y local t e m p e r a t u r e s over some finite a r e a of the heat t r a n s -
fer surface.)

The liquid surface tension is also a determining factor in the nucleate-

bubble size [Eq. (2)]. F o r w a t e r it can be e x p r e s s e d as a linear function of
the coolant t e m p e r a t u r e :

a = (500-0.707T)I0"6 Ibf/in. (3)

Evaluated at the (Fahrenheit) s a t u r a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e and e x p r e s s e d as the

equivalent s a t u r a t i o n p r e s s u r e , c o m p a r i s o n (see F i g . 1) of the values of the
surface tension with the p r e s s u r e t e r m (e'^^'^") of Eq. (1) leads to the m o d i -
fied f o r m

Tw - Tf = 0.18 X 10^ 0(Q"/lO^)^'^'* . (4)

The quantitative classification of t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e nucleation capability

being c o n s i d e r a b l y beyond the scope of this discussions the coefficient and
heat flux dependency of Eq. (4) a r e b a s e d on the c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m s in
Eq. ( l ) . On a qualitative b a s i s , e x p e r i m e n t a l data show that finely grained
s u r f a c e s (such as stably c o r r o d e d s t a i n l e s s steel) have good nucleating
capability w h e r e a s highly polished s u r f a c e s p e r f o r m poorly.
10

70 y

SST-347 VERTICAL TUBE

LIGHT-WATER COOLANT
UCLA DATA (1951)

500 1000 1500 2000 2500

P, psia

Fig. 1. C o m p a r i s o n of Values of Surface Tension with

the P r e s s u r e T e r m of Eq. (l) for Nucleate B o i l -
ing E x c e s s Surface T e m p e r a t u r e .

Accepting the fixed e x c e s s surface t e m p e r a t u r e of Eq. (4) as an

identifying c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of s i m p l e n u c l e a t e boiling, the equivalent e x c e s s
p r e s s u r e deriving from it m a y a l s o be c o n s i d e r e d as c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , h a v -
ing a proportional validity r a t h e r
than n u m e r i c a l a c c u r a c y . This
proportionality is a r e s u l t of the
200 300 fact that T is an i n t e g r a t e d a v -
e r a g e of the varying m i c r o s c o p -
150 225 C ically local v a l u e s . A plot of the
excess pressure characteristic
100 150 a s a function of s y s t e m p r e s s u r e
(see F i g . 2) yields a curve closely
50 75 p a r a l l e l i n g the Z u b e r - T r i b u s ' 6 )
equation for the c r i t i c a l h e a t flux
1000 2000 3000 during the pool boiling of s a t u -
p^ psia r a t e d w a t e r . If p r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t
changes in the r e s i s t i n g forces
Fig. 2. S i m i l a r i t y between Nucleate Nucleate a r e neglected, the bubble d i s -
Boiling E x c e s s P r e s s u r e C h a r - c h a r g e velocity (from the boiling
a c t e r i s t i c P ^ - P and the Z u b e r - surface) should be p r o p o r t i o n a l
T r i b u s Equation for C r i t i c a l to the driving force of the ex-
Heat Flux Q^ during Pool Boil- cess pressure characteristic;
ing of Saturated Water. in a s y s t e m which i s not c o m p l i -
cated by the p r e s e n c e of flow or
subcooling effects, the limiting value of nucleate boiling (the c r i t i c a l heat
flux o c c u r r e n c e ) has a p r e s s u r e dependence d e t e r m i n e d by the escape
velocity of the nucleate bubbles.
 V a l u e s f o r t h e n u c l e a t e - b u b b l e s i z e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . (2) a r e
patently a b s u r d , but the p r e s s u r e dependency h a s a proportional validity
e q u a l to t h e e x c e s s p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c u s e d in the c o m p u t a t i o n . Fig-
u r e s 3 , 4 , a n d 5 s h o w t h e v a r i a t i o n of t h i s n u c l e a t e - b u b b l e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c
w i t h s y s t e m p r e s s u r e a n d p e r t i n e n t p r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t p r o p e r t i e s of t h e
coolant.

Fig. 3
Variation of Nucleate-bubble-diameter Character-
istic D with System Pressure P for Water.

r T VI
' ''

:
" "\ ^--SLOPE = -0 8 -
- '^< -1

^ v .
SLOP. = 2/3 0.1 :"

:5
;
/

-ULL.

0.1 10
(v^ /H^ ) , lo"^ ( f t ^ / B t u )
Tg fg

Fig, 4. Variation of Nucleate-bubble-diameter Fig. 5. Variation of Inverse Nucleate-bubble-

Characteristic Dg with Specific Volume diameter Characteristic 1/Dg with Inverse
of Saturated Water Vapor, Vg. Volumetric Latent Heat of Water, Vfg/Hfo.

III. CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

T h e l i m i t i n g v a l u e of n u c l e a t e - b o i l i n g i n t e n s i t y - t h e c r i t i c a l h e a t
flux o c c u r r e n c e - is r e a c h e d w h e n the p r e d o m i n a n t l y liquid b o u n d a r y l a y e r
f l a s h e s t o t h e v a p o r p h a s e . In s i m p l e n u c l e a t e b o i l i n g , t h i s r e v e r s i o n t o a
low-effeciency convective heat t r a n s f e r m e c h a n i s m is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an
12

e x t r e m e and abrupt t e m p e r a t u r e e x c u r s i o n of the t r a n s f e r surface and an

equally precipitous reduction in coolant flow as the volumetric change of
the flashing boundary l a y e r e x e r t s a throttling action on the flow channel.

Unlike the sinaple nucleate-boiling c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , the c r i t i c a l heat

flux o c c u r r e n c e in subcooled water-flow s y s t e m s shows a definite depend-
ence on the convective t r a n s f e r c r i t e r i a of m a s s velocity and local coolant
enthalpy. This dependency is e x p r e s s e d in the J e n s - L o t t e s w) equation:

Q^/lO^ = C(G/IO6) (Tf-T)''-22 (5)

which is an e m p i r i c a l e x p r e s s i o n for the c r i t i c a l heat flux o c c u r r e n c e in

axial-flow subcooled water s y s t e m s ; C and m a r e given as p r e s s u r e -
dependent n u m e r i c a l v a l u e s . The fractional exponent mi v a r i e s d i r e c t l y
with the s y s t e m p r e s s u r e , and a c o m p a r i s o n with the i n v e r s e n u c l e a t e -
bubble-size c h a r a c t e r i s t i c is shown in F i g . 6. The agreenaent is e x c e p -
tionally good, but a m o r e useful r e l a t i o n s h i p
m 0.175 X 10"2 (vfg/Hfg)"^ (6)

with the volum.etric latent heat of vaporization is i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig. 7.

0.8

0.6
1.0

0.8

0.6
0.4

0.2 - m = O.I75 I0'

0.16
0.4
0.2 0.4 o.s 0.8 1.0

(l/Og), 10* in.

Fig. 6. Similarity between Inverse Nucleate- Fig. 7. Comparison of Empirical Values of

bubble Characteristic l.'Dp and the Pressure-dependent Mass-velocity Ex-
Pressure-dependent Mass-velocity ponent m in Eq. (5) with the Inverse
Exponent m in Eq. (5). Volumetric Latent Heat of Water,
Vfg/Hfg.
F o r water at a p r e s s u r e just below the c r i t i c a l , m has a n u m e r i c a l value
approaching 0.80, the commonly accepted value for the m a s s - v e l o c i t y effect
in nonboiling convective heat t r a n s f e r . The turbulence factor r e p r e s e n t e d
by the m a s s - v e l o c i t y exponent m can be considered a method of c o m p e n -
sating for the d e c r e a s i n g mixing action of the nucleate-boiling p r o c e s s as
the nucleate-bubble size d e c r e a s e s with increasing system p r e s s u r e . As
a consequence of this d e c r e a s e of boiling turbulence, the m a s s - v e l o c i t y
turbulence b e c o m e s of i n c r e a s i n g i m p o r t a n c e , reaching its full nonboiling
effect at the c r i t i c a l p r e s s u r e . If we consider the total interfacial t u r b u -
lence as a summation of the relatively constant m a s s - v e l o c i t y turbulence
and the p r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t nucleate-boiling turbulence, its qualitative
contribution to the p r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t d e c r e a s e in the c r i t i c a l heat flux
is r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t .

T h e o r e t i c a l analyses i") of subcooled and saturated pool-boiling

s y s t e m s show a d i r e c t proportionality between the c r i t i c a l heat flux and
the latent heat of vaporization. A
c o m p a r i s o n of the values of the coef-
ficient C of Eq. (5) and the latent heat
of water is shown in Fig. 8. The a p -
p r o x i m a t e linear proportionality is far
from conclusive, but consideration of
the latent heat as a m e a s u r e of the
t h e r m a l t r a n s p o r t associated with the
nucleate-boiling p r o c e s s indicates a
d i r e c t l y proportional relationship.
If this be used as a working hypoth-
^fg-
e s i s , the contribution of the latent
heat to the p r e s s u r e - d e p e n d e n t d e -
Fig. 8. C o m p a r i s o n of P r e s s u r e - c r e a s e in the c r i t i c a l heat flux is also
dependent Coefficient C r e a d i l y apparent.
in Eq. (5) with the Latent
Heat of Vaporization of Figure 8 also indicates that the
Water, H fg- c r i t i c a l heat flux o c c u r r e n c e is i n -
v e r s e l y dependent upon the d i a m e t e r
of the flow channel. A s i m i l a r dependency, under m o r e closely controlled
conditions and of m o r e conclusive r e s u l t , is shown in Fig. 9. The p r e v i -
ously d e m o n s t r a t e d effect of other convective c r i t e r i a - m a s s velocity and
coolant subcooling - lends added credibility to this e x p e r i m e n t a l evidence.
E m p i r i c a l c o r r e l a t i o n of this p r e s u m e d variable (see Fig. 10) over a
r a t h e r n a r r o w range of d i a m e t e r s indicates that the c r i t i c a l heat flux
v a r i e s as the i n v e r s e square root of the d i a m e t e r of the flow channel.
 ^ ^ 1 1 1
1.6 O CI
SST-304 VERTICAL TUBE

1.4 AML DATA (1958) __

A O \

1.2
/ - 0 . 3 0 4 in. 10 X 18 in. L ~
s
1.0

o \^
O
0.8 0 . 4 3 6 in. ID x 18 in. L ^
^\^\
0.6
^"^X "
0.4 1 1 1 . ^ 0
200 150 100 50 -50 -00

CHf-H), B t u / l b

F i g . 9. Effect of Diameter of Flow Channel

on C r i t i c a l Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e at
2000 p s i a .

2.0 1
! ' 1
' M ^
1
e -
*^
-..^ \ Vn
1.5
"
NUCLEATING \
D^, in. SURFACE

D 0.243 GOOD \ -^
0.243 POOR
1.0 A 0.304 GOOD
A ~
O 0.436 GOOD *\
e 0.436 IMPROVED ^
- 0.436 POOR

n
1 1 1 1 1 J L__
300 20O 100 50 -50

CH|-H), B t y / l b

Fig. 10. Effect of T r a n s f e r - S u r f a c e Nucleation Capability

upon C r i t i c a l Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e at 2000 psia
and Mass Velocity of 1.5 x 10^ lb/(hr)(ft^).
 F i g u r e 10 also shows the decided influence of the t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e
nucleation capability, the initially clean, smooth-drawn t r a n s f e r surface
being p r o g r e s s i v e l y c o r r o d e d by r e p e a t e d o c c u r r e n c e s of the c r i t i c a l heat
flux. The a p p e a r a n c e of the dominant nucleate-boiling determinant in the
limiting value of the nucleate-boiling p r o c e s s should not be p a r t i c u l a r l y
s u r p r i s i n g . The apparent c e s s a t i o n of the surface effect in the low s u b -
cooling region is noteworthy, the pool boiling data of Berensonl^j showing
a s i m i l a r absence of surface effect at the saturation condition.

The e m p i r i c a l subcooling t e r m of Eq. (5) is an adequate r e p r e s e n t a -

tion of the data upon which the c o r r e l a t i o n is based, but it has the obvious
disadvantage of e x p r e s s i n g a c r i t i c a l heat flux of zero at and beyond the
s a t u r a t e d liquid condition. To avoid this difficulty, the subcooling t e r m is
r e p l a c e d by a hyperbolic tangent function of the s a t u r a t e d enthalpy differ-
ence, Hf - H, on the purely a r b i t r a r y b a s i s of s i m i l a r i t y .

The modified f o r m of Eq. (5) i s

Hf.H
Qi!/l06 = -J De"^-2 (Hfg/103)(G/106)"^ 1 + tanh (7)
100

where

m = 0.175 X 10-3 (V^^/H^^)"1

E r r o r - p l o t c o m p a r i s o n s of Eq. (7) with data from c i r c u l a r and r e c t a n g u l a r

flow geonaetries a r e shown in F i g s . 11 to 14. It will be subsequently shown
that the surface effect and a lower l i m i t on the m a s s velocity accounts for
m o s t of the deviation appreciably above the 20% e r r o r band.

-1 1' ' 1 'T \ 1 1 [ xrj-n

'
. 0 . 2 2 6 in. ID 2 4 . 6 n. L
. VERTICAL S S T - 3 4 7 TUBE
Q
y/~
2 0 0 0 psio
1000 psio
/ / -
5 0 0 psia

AT
/. J ^
W
f Fig. 11
' % Comparison of UCLA and Purdue
Dataw) with Eq. (7) for Critical
-
+20S
y/o
yy -
Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e in Sub-
0.143 m. ID 3 m. L
cooled Water S y s t e m s .
VERTICAL SST-304 TUBE
3000 psia
y 000 psia
1000 psia

1
0.1 1 1 1 i-Lx,; i -l ! l 1 1 L-
0.2 10
CALCULATED Q%
16

Fig. 12

Comparison of 1954 ANL Data^"^^ with Eq. (7) for

Critical Heat Flux Occurrence in Subcooled Water
Systems.

CALCULATED Q V

F.g. 13
Comparison of WAPD Data^) for Circular and
2000 psia
Rectangular Flow Geometries with Eq. (7) for CH,-H)>-50
Critical Heat Flux Occurrence in Subcooled
Water Systems.

10
- , ,|, . ..,|^_. , 1 1 1 V 1/ V

~ 2000 psia y y y ' VERTICAL SST-304 CHANNEL

frlf-H)>-50 . / 0.050 in. X I in. K 12.0625 in.
"
y// -
v^ I 10

-
y/y CALCULATED 0"

o
//y

-
-
^y
y^y
"
/ VERTICAL SST-304 CHANNEL
0 0.097 in. s 1 m. 27 in.
Fig. 14
'/ 0.097 in. s 1 in. 11.0626 in.
Comparison of WAPD Data^^^ for Rectangular Flo\^;
_l \ 1_1_J_J_LJ 1 \ \ 1 LU_J_i.
Geometry with Eq. (7) for Critical Heat Flux O c -
currence in Subcooled Water Systems.
CALCULATED Q"e
 17

IV. E F F E C T OF SUBCOOLED FLOW REGIME

ON CRITICAL HEAT FLUX

Figure 10 shows a subcooling threshold above which there is a

pronounced s e p a r a t i o n in the data from a r b i t r a r i l y defined "good" and
"poor" nucleating s u r f a c e s , the "good" surface data showing a predominant
and approximately linear enthalpy
d e p e n d e n c y . The r e c e n t d a t a of
S i l v e s t r i ( 9 ) show t h a t the l o c a l
enthalpy r e m a i n s predominant
t h r o u g h o u t the b u b b l e a n d a n n u l a r
flow r e g i m e s of the w e t - s t e a m
r e g i o n and is a c c o m p a n i e d by a
^ 1.5 r e v e r s a l of the m a s s - v e l o c i t y ef-
^o, " V X ~ f e e t . A s i m i l a r r e v e r s a l of the
"^ " \^ \ ' m a s s - v e l o c i t y i n f l u e n c e is i l l u s -
x^ ^ t r a t e d in F i g . 1 5 . A s i m i l a r i n -
1.0
v e r s i o n in t h e n u c l e a t e - b o i l i n g
h e a t t r a n s f e r a t low s u b c o o l i n g s
h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d , the n u c l e a t e -
boiling e x c e s s s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e
i n c r e a s i n g a b o v e its c h a r a c t e r i s -
0 s t i c fixed l e v e l at h i g h m a s s v e l o c i t y
[G 11 x 10^ lb ''(hr)(ft2)J and d e -
150 c r e a s i n g slightly at lower velocities
[G X 1 X 10^ l b / ( h r ) ( f t 2 ) ] . T h e
b e g i n n i n g of t h i s g r a d u a l r e v e r s a l
F i g . 15. I n v e r s i o n of M a s s - v e l o c i t y a n d s u b s e q u e n t s t a b i l i z a t i o n of t h e
m a s s - v e l o c i t y effect on the c r i t i c a l
E f f e c t at 2000 p s i a in a
h e a t flux o c c u r r e n c e a n d e x c e s s
V e r t i c a l SST-304 Tube
surface -temperature characteristic
(of 0 . 3 0 4 . i n . ID)
c o i n c i d e s r o u g h l y w i t h the c e s s a -
t i o n of the s u r f a c e effect. S h e r ( l O ) r e p o r t s a p a r a l l e l i n v e r s e m a s s - v e l o c i t y
effect upon b o i l i n g f l o w - f r i c t i o n in t h e l o w - s u b c o o l i n g , l o w - s t e a m - q u a l i t y
r e g i o n . A l l t h e s e c h a n g e s c a n b e r e l a t e d to c h a n g e s in t h e effect of the
b o u n d a r y - l a y e r t u r b u l e n c e , a n d it i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e s u r f a c e - d e p e n d e n t ,
s i m p l e n u c l e a t e boiling r e g i m e has b e e n supplanted by a new r e g i m e which
is a d v e r s e l y affected by i n c r e a s i n g m a s s velocity.

T h i s b o i l i n g b u b b l e - f l o w r e g i m e m a y be d e s c r i b e d a s d i s c r e t e n u -
c l e a t e b u b b l e s of v a p o r in t h e s u b c o o l e d o r s a t u r a t e d l i q u i d c o o l a n t , q u e n c h -
ing of t h e b u b b l e s b e i n g p r e v e n t e d by t h e i r p r o x i m i t y to the h e a t i n g s u r f a c e ,
i n a d e q u a t e m i x i n g , o r an i n a d e q u a t e l i q u i d - v a p o r t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e .
C o n t a i n m e n t of t h e s e b u b b l e s w i t h i n t h e flow s t r e a m a p a r t f r o m the i n t e r -
f a c i a l t u r b u l e n c e r e g i o n w i l l not a c c o u n t for t h e d e c i d e d c h a n g e s in the
effect of t h e s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s c i t e d . An e x p l a n a t i o n c a n be found on t h e
18

basis of a stratified bubble flow, the s e p a r a t i v e action of the f l o w - s t r e a m -

velocity profile tending to s e g r e g a t e the bubbles in a sub-boundary layer
adjacent to the zone of interfacial turbulence. With the degree of s e g r e g a -
tion i n c r e a s i n g d i r e c t l y with m a s s velocity, the sub-boundary bubble layer
increasingly a b s o r b s the mixing action of the nucleation turbulence, with
resulting d e c r e a s e s in the heat t r a n s f e r , c r i t i c a l heat flux, and flow friction.

Gunther,'^'' / whose l o w - p r e s s u r e , c r i t i c a l heat flux data show a

steep dependency on linear subcooling s i m i l a r to that in Fig. 10, r e p o r t s
visual observation of bubble segregation on or near the t r a n s f e r surface
at high local subcoolings, the bubbles traveling at approximately 80% of
the flow s t r e a m velocity. Figure 16 shows a c o r r e l a t i o n of these data in a
form s i m i l a r to that of Eq. (7), the differing flow r e g i m e s requiring changes
in the coefficient, m a s s velocity, and subcooling t e r m s :

1/2 / H f - H
Q"/lO^ = 1.75 D : 1 / 2 (Hf '102)(1 + G 10^) (8)
g I 100

With the equivalent d i a m e t e r evaluated on the basis of the boiling surface

only, the validity of the latent heat and e q u i v a l e n t - d i a m e t e r t e r m s is illus-
t r a t e d by the c o m p a r i s o n with the ANL and BMI data from small tubes at
200 and 2000 psia. The m a s s - v e l o c i t y t e r m was e m p i r i c a l l y determined,
and its proportional difference from Gunther's original velocity t e r m is
g e n e r a l l y smallj the linear approximation of the subcooling is retained
from the original.
10
\- , , 1|_p_p-T-q 1 1 1 1 T-T~l__
L VERTICAL CHANNEL (REF. !1) J
1
HEATED Dp = 1.5 ir.
H
m- en ps a A
G5=; 106 0/(1 ) (ft2) '^^O
h OG^2.5 !C6 H
A G ^ 8.H , 106 /\
J
L ^ ^1.75 {H,-H)/iOO

!
J'
%
/
yX VERTICAL SST-30H TUBE
0.0U5 .T. ID X .5 ir. I
200 p-,,a

U / y -
n S - 10 12 > 106
-
r y 5' ^ -
h -

y.
^
VERTICAl HASTELLOY-C TUBE (REF. 12)
0.075 r. . ID X 6 r. L
2000 Pi a
VG 1 6 2.9 X 108

0.1 i ) 1 J L 1 1 .1 1 1 1 f 1 ! UL.
!0 00 .COC
(Hf-H), Btu/l5

Fig. 16. Comparison of Low- and H i g h - p r e s s u r e

C r i t i c a l Heat Flux Data with Eq. (8)
 19

An apparent p r e s s u r e influence on the stratified bubble-flow-regime

c r i t i c a l heat flux o c c u r r e n c e a p p e a r s in the c o r r e l a t i o n of the 1958 ANL
data shown in Fig. 17. The c o r r e l a t i o n is generically s i m i l a r to Eq. (7)
and (8):

Hf-H
Q;:/106 =A D-1'^ (Hfg/lO^)(l + G/lO^)''' 1 + tanh , (9)
100

for

G s 0.90 X 10^ lb/(hr)(ft2)

and

H - Hf . 5 0 B t u / l b

The velocity t e r m is identical with that of Eq. (8) and, within the p r e -
s c r i b e d l i m i t s , l a r g e l y c o m p e n s a t e s for the i n v e r s e m a s s - v e l o c i t y effect
in the low-subcooling, low-quality region. These data and those of Gunther
a r e unusually coherent, and the pronounced divergence of the subcooling
dependencies, as will be d i s c u s s e d l a t e r , a r e only partially resolvable.

I I' I I I I \ ' I r ^ j _
Tr

2 / . H, H

VERTICAL SST ^014 TUBE, 2000 !J<i a

0.H36 IP. ID X 18 n. L
O 0.3CH (1. ID 18 n. L
<= o.s *T
VERTICAL SST 3117 TUBE, i 000 p s i a
D 0.179 n. ID / M . 6 2 5 in L ^

50 50 -50
(Hf-H), Btj/lt

Fig. 17. Comparison of 1958 ANL Critical Heat Flux Data

with Eq. (9) for G > 0.90 x 10^ lb/(hr)(ft2).

At velocities below the a r b i t r a r y limit p r e s c r i b e d for Eq. (9), the

f l o w - s t r e a m - v e l o c i t y turbulence apparently contributes a relatively minor
supplementation to the nucleate-boiling turbulence effect, and the forced-
convection d e t e r m i n a n t s of naass velocity and equivalent d i a m e t e r no
20

longer a p p e a r a s significant f a c t o r s . F i g u r e 18 p r e s e n t s a c o m p a r i s o n
of data for a c o m p a r a t i v e l y wide range of p r e s s u r e s and flow geometry
and size in the form:

Hf
QI/IO' = (Hf/103) 1.75 + (10)
100

for
G < 0.90 X 10^ lb/(hr)(ft2)

These data show a c o m p a r a t i v e l y low sensitivity to subcooling, comparable

with that of the simple nucleate-boiling r e g i m e .
iO
L 1 1 1 1 1 \y'v
TUBES; 2000 o s i a
O 0.30H n. ID 18 ! n . L

L A 0.436 m . I D / 18 i n . L / / 7
CHANNELS, 2000 ? s , a (REF. 8)
a 0.097 i n . / 1 1 . . 11.0625 . n .
V 0.050 i n . X 1 m . x 12.0625 r,.
y/y "
/ / y
y/y
% u +20% -A^ / / y
y/
% Ay /
2
yvwi4 /

-
/ iwf /
(XJW W
^ " V ^ / ^
ANNULI
2 . 1 2 5 , 1. ID X 5 . 7 6 , r . 00 < 70 , r . L
/ y^^T/ 500-650 p s i a (REF. iH)
^^ y y U 2.25 in ID X 2.90 m . OD X l|0 i n . L
y Ay lOOO PS a (REF. 13)

/ / 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 6
1 .75 + (2/3) [(H,-H)/100]

Fig. 18. C r i t i c a l Heat Flux O c c u r r e n c e in V e r -

tical Stainless Steel Tubes, Channels,
and Annuli for G < 0.90 x 10^ lb - (hr)(ft^).

Figure 19 c o m p a r e s the "high" UCLA and Purdue data, the 1954

ANL data from s t a i n l e s s steel s u r f a c e s , and l o w - p r e s s u r e KAPL data
with E q s . (8) and (9). A p r e s s u r e dependency is apparent, the data at
p r e s s u r e s of 500 p s i and below following the linear subcooling behavior
of Eq. (8) and the 1000-2000 p s i data conforming to Eq. (9).
 T 1 1 1 p

PURDUE T 3C0C
2000
iCOC
3 UCLA 0 200C
h. 500
.76 r ( H , - H ) / i C 0 ] -J ANL V 200C
{l95U) D lOCC
KAPL A 5-115
(REF. 5)

l[

J 1 I I
300 200 I CO
(H, H), B f j , I

Fig. 19. Coinparison of E x p e r i m e n t a l Data with

Eqs. (8) and (9), Showing Effect of System
P r e s s u r e on Critical Heat Flux Subcooling
Dependency for Small Stainless Steel Tubes.

F i g u r e 20 c o m p a r e s a wide range of the diaixieter variable with

Eqs. (8) and (9). The Columbia data for large stainless steel tubes and
1 I I 1 \ \ I ';\' n \r
COLUMBIA (REFS. i s l 'U)
i a, GEOHETRY ID.ir. D. r.
i.75 r ( H , - H ) / i 0 0 l A iCOO

C 600 "'-us
S
650 SST-soil
~ 2 500 AMNULUS
SST-304
TUBE

MIT (REF. 1 6 ) , 30 ps a
TUBE ID, 1.

O NICKEL C.I80
Q SST 3CH 0.0911
V SST aOli 0.01465

!80 150 I DC EC -50

(H.-H), 8-./

Fig. 20. C o m p a r i s o n of E x p e r i m e n t a l Data with E q s . (8)

and (9), Showing Effect of Geometry and Size
F a c t o r s on Critical Heat Flux Subcooling
Dependency.
annuli g e n e r a l l y follow an advantageous combination of the subcooling fac-
tor of both equations, the e x c e s s i v e l y high s c a t t e r apparently being caused
by a decided inversion of the m a s s - v e l o c i t y effect which o c c u r s well within
the subcooled region. T h e r e is good agreemtent between the tubular and
annular data which, together with the c o m p a r i s o n of the data of Gunther
with the ANL 200-psi data, adequately validates the boiling-surface evalu-
ation of the equivalent d i a m e t e r . The l o w - p r e s s u r e MIT data for s m a l l
s t a i n l e s s s t e e l tubes tend to follow the linear subcooling behavior, d e -
parting upward fronn. it toward the curve of Eq. (9)- Such d e p a r t u r e is to
be expected, since Eq. (8) cannot be expected to apply to the point of z e r o
subcooling and heat flux.

The data t r e n d s shown in F i g s . 16, 19, and 20 can be s u m m a r i z e d

in the g e n e r a l i z e d approximations:

(1) At p r e s s u r e s of 1000 psi and above, flow channels of l a r g e r

(Dg w l / S in. or g r e a t e r ) d i a m e t e r and r e a l i s t i c L / D (>40) with good
nucleating s u r f a c e s follow the c r i t i c a l heat flux behavior of Eq. (9).

(2) At lower p r e s s u r e s (500 psi or below), or for s m a l l e r flow

channels, the c r i t i c a l heat flux follows the linear subcooling dependency
of Eq, (B). (Nucleating surface r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e i n d e t e r m i n a t e h e r e , and
no L / D limitation is apparent.)

(3) The h i g h e r - v a l u e d region of Eq. (S) is validated only by data

from channels of low L / D . The i n c r e a s e d t h e r m a l efficiency due to
t h e r m a l a n d / o r hydraulic e n t r a n c e effects seeins inadequate to r e c o n c i l e
the l a r g e d i s p a r i t y between E q s . (S) and (9) at high subcoolings, but no
a l t e r n a t i v e or additional explanation can be offered.

A possible, and speculative, explanation of the low-subcooling d i s -

c r e p a n c y between E q s . (8) and (9) can be p r e s e n t e d on the b a s i s of o p e r a -
tional p r o c e d u r e . The 1958 ANL 2000-psia data and the I960 ANL 200-psia
data w e r e taken at fixed heat flux and exit p r e s s u r e , with a slowly d e c r e a s -
ing inlet subcooling as the o p e r a t i o n a l t r a n s i e n t . (This method has the
advantage of only one v a r i a b l e changing with t i m e , and that in a slow and
r e a d i l y controllable m a n n e r . The o p e r a t i o n a l condition a p p r o a c h e s that of
steady state and yields highly r e p r o d u c i b l e data.) F o r the 2000-psia data,
upon which Eq. (9) is based, a d e t e r m i n e d effort was inade to m a i n t a i n a
constant m a s s velocity throughout each run of the s e r i e s . This r e q u i r e d
frequent r e - s e t t i n g of the t h r o t t l e valve to adjust the imposed driving
head to the changing flow r e s i s t a n c e of the t e s t section. The 200-psia
data, which conform to Eq. (8), w e r e obtained from r u n s at high velocity
and with a fixed driving head, to a p p r o x i m a t e a m u l t i p l e - c h a n n e l con-
dition. Consequently, the m a s s velocity existing at the time of the
c r i t i c a l heat flux o c c u r r e n c e was d e t e r m i n e d by the initial throttle-valve
setting and any subsequent enthalpy-induced changes in the flow r e s i s t a n c e
of the t e s t section. The constant m a s s - v e l o c i t y data a r e higher in value
than the c o n s t a n t - p r e s s u r e - d r o p 2 0 0 - p s i a data.

V. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

In axial-flow w a t e r s y s t e m s , the simple nucleate-boiling flow r e g i m e

e x i s t s only at the higher subcoolings [(Hf-H) > 50 ], the nucleate bubbles
being quenched by the liquid flow s t r e a m . In addition to an adequate liquid-
vapor t e m p e r a t u r e difference, effective bubble quenching r e q u i r e s flow
channels of sufficient length and d i a m e t e r that n e i t h e r the hydraulic a n d / o r
t h e r m a l e n t r a n c e effects nor the r a d i a l volurae of the flow s t r e a m prevents
d i s p e r s i o n of the bubbles into the flow s t r e a m . The system p r e s s u r e and
t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e condition control the size and number of bubbles, and the
equivalent d i a m e t e r d e t e r m i n e s the r a d i a l d i s p e r s a l volume of the flow
s t r e a m ; the unresolved relationship between bubble size and r e q u i r e d
d i s p e r s a l volume n e c e s s i t a t e s the use of e m p i r i c a l limits for the d e t e r -
mining conditions of this and other subcooled flow reginnes. F o r s y s t e m
p r e s s u r e s of 500 p s i or g r e a t e r , m a s s velocity not appreciably l e s s than
0.9 X 10^ lb/(hr)(ft^), and Dg > "r ^"' ^'^^ simple nucleate-boiling c r i t i c a l
heat flux o c c u r r e n c e has a low sensitivity to subcooling, a g r e a t e r depend-
ence on the t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e condition, and is predictable by the modified
convective heat t r a n s f e r c r i t e r i a of E q s . (7) and (9).

Subject to the s a m e l i m i t a t i o n s , E q s . (7) and (9) also apply to the

stratified bubble-flow r e g i m e which e x i s t s in the low-subcooling, low-
s t e a m - q u a l i t y region. In this flow r e g i m e , the unquenched bubbles a r e
c o n s i d e r e d to be c o n c e n t r a t e d in a sub-boundary l a y e r which actively
inhibits the frictional and heat t r a n s f e r effects of the nucleate-boiling
turbulence, and the c r i t i c a l heat flux shows no dependence on the surface
condition, a major influence of subcooling, and a p r o g r e s s i v e d e c r e a s e
and inversion of the m a s s - v e l o c i t y effect.

At low subcoolings and low m a s s velocity, the f l o w - s t r e a m t u r b u -

lence neither effectively supplements the nucleate-boiling turbulence nor
c o n c e n t r a t e s the unquenched bubbles about the f l o w - s t r e a m p e r i p h e r y .
In this n o n - s t r a t i f i e d bubble-flow r e g i m e , the c r i t i c a l heat fl\ix has a low
sensitivity to subcooling, s i m i l a r to the simple nucleate-boiling flow r e -
gime, and is effectively independent of the m a s s - v e l o c i t y and equivalent-
diaxneter c r i t e r i a of the convective h e a t t r a n s f e r m e c h a n i s m . The effect
of the t r a n s f e r - s u r f a c e condition is not d e m o n s t r a b l e , but the predominance
of the nucleate-boiling turbulence suggests a surface influence. Within the
a c c u r a c y and limitations specified, Eq. (10) p r e d i c t s the c r i t i c a l heat flux
o c c u r r e n c e in the n o n - s t r a t i f i e d bubble-flow r e g i m e . It should be obvious
that the distinction between these two r e g i m e s of bubble flow is a m a t t e r
of d e g r e e r a t h e r than of the e m p i r i c a l delineation given, the stratified r e -
gime gradually changing to n o n - s t r a t i f i e d flow as the concentration of bub-
bles about the f l o w - s t r e a m p e r i p h e r y d e c r e a s e s with d e c r e a s i n g velocity.
 At low subcoolings and with flow channels l e s s than in. in
d i a m e t e r , or p r e s s u r e s below 500 p s i , a t h i r d form of bubble flow o c c u r s .
The r e q u i r e d conditions suggest an a p p r e c i a b l e population of unquenched
bubbles whose a g g r e g a t e size is l a r g e in c o m p a r i s o n with the available
d i s p e r s a l volume; the resulting high void fraction conforms to d e s c r i p -
tions of froth flow. In this flow r e g i m e , the c r i t i c a l heat flux shows an
acute sensitivity to subcooling and follows the modified convective
c r i t e r i a of Eq. (8), with little or no indication of any i n v e r s i o n of the
m a s s - v e l o c i t y effect. A m i n o r effect of surface condition was o b s e r v e d
in the ANL 200-psi data.

As p r e v i o u s l y stated, the high subcooling range of Eq. (8) a p p e a r s

to be validated only by data from flow channels with low values of L / D e .
The nondetachment of bubbles from the boiling t r a n s f e r surface o b s e r v e d
by G u n t h e r \ l l ) in this region, which is probably due to the low values of
the e x c e s s p r e s s u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c (see Fig. 2) at low p r e s s u r e s , differs
from the sub-boundary o r i e n t a t i o n of the stratified bubble-flow r e g i m e ,
as does the m o r e acute subcooling dependency of the c r i t i c a l heat flux
and the noninversion of the m a s s - v e l o c i t y effect. (This l a t t e r o c c u r r e n c e
is r e a d i l y accounted for on the b a s i s of bubble retention by the h y d r o -
dynamic boundary l a y e r . ) Gunther c r e d i t s the additional b o u n d a r y - l a y e r
turbulence which r e s u l t s from the bubbles retained t h e r e i n for the a b -
n o r m a l l y high heat fluxes attained in the region of high subcooling. This
explanation, plus the beneficial effects of e n t r a n c e turbulence shown by
the data of B e r g l e s and Rohsenow,(l6) is possibly sufficient to explain
the l a r g e d i s c r e p a n c y in c r i t i c a l heat flux at high subcoolings between
the simple nucleate boiling r e g i m e and the b o u n d a r y - l a y e r bubble-flow
r e g i m e typified by the data of Gunther.

Subdivision of the recognized subcooled bubble-flow region into the

four classifications noted is justified on the b a s i s of o b s e r v e d changes in
the heat t r a n s f e r , flow friction, and c r i t i c a l heat flux. At the high inten-
sities of nucleate boiling c o n s i d e r e d , the hypothesized c a u s e s a r e c o n s i d e r e
to be adequate and r e a s o n a b l e . The d i r e c t proportionality between the c r i t -
ical heat flux and the latent heat of v a p o r i z a t i o n a p p e a r s to be a basic r e -
lationship for all nucleate boiling, both subcooled and net s t e a m generation;
it is believed that this s a m e r e l a t i o n s h i p applies to coolants other than
w a t e r . The e m p i r i c a l i n v e r s e s q u a r e root of the e q u i v a l e n t - d i a m e t e r r e -
lationship is valid over a wide range of this v a r i a b l e and is believed to be
extensible to coolants of low t h e r m a l conductivity other than w a t e r . Its
applicability in the w e t - s t e a m region beyond "bubble flow" is questionable.
The e m p i r i c a l a p p r o x i m a t i o n s used for the subcooling and m a s s - v e l o c i t y
t e r m s , a s well as the e m p i r i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s used for the s e v e r a l p r o j e c t e d
divisions of bubble flow, a r e in need of refinement a s b e t t e r and m o r e c o m -
plete information b e c o m e s available.
 REFERENCES

1. F o r s t e r , K. E., and Grief, R., Heat Transfer to a Boiling Liquid;

M e c h a n i s m and C o r r e l a t i o n s , ASME P r e p r i n t 5 8 - H T - l l , Chicago
(1958).
2. Bonjour, E., V e r d i e r , J., and Weil, L., Improvement of Heat Ex-
changes in Boiling Liquids under the Influence of an E l e c t r i c Field,
AIChE P r i n t 7, Houston (1962).
3. J e n s , W. H., and Lottes, P. A., Analysis of Heat T r a n s f e r , Burnout,
P r e s s u r e Drop, and Density Data for H i g h - p r e s s u r e Water, ANL-4627
(1951).
4. B e r e n s o n , P. J., T r a n s i t i o n Boiling Heat T r a n s f e r , AIChE P r e -
print 18, Buffalo (1960).
5. Zuber, N., Hydrodynamic A s p e c t s of Boilitig Heat T r a n s f e r ,
AECU 4439 (1959).
6. Z u b e r , N., and T r i b u s , M., F u r t h e r R e m a r k s on the Stability of Boiling
Heat T r a n s f e r , AECU 3631 (1958).
7. Weatherhead, R. J., and Lottes, P. A., Burnout Newsletter No. 1,
BNL-2097 (1954).
8. DeBortoli, R. A., et al., F o r c e d Convection Heat T r a n s f e r Burnout
Studies for Water in Rectangular Channels and Round Tubes at P r e s -
s u r e s above 500 psia, WAPD-188 (1958).
9. Silvestri, M., "Two-phase Flow and Heat Transfer," International
Developments in Heat T r a n s f e r , ASME ( l 9 6 l ) pp. 341-353.
10. Sher, H. C , E s t i m a t i o n of Boiling and Non-boiling P r e s s u r e Drop in
Rectangular Channels at 2000 psia, WAPD-TH-300 (1957).
11. Gunther, F . C , Photographic Study of Surface-boiling Heat T r a n s f e r
to Water with F o r c e d Convection, T r a n s . ASME, 73, 115-123 (1951).
12. Epstein, H. M., t al.. Heat T r a n s f e r and Burnout to Water at High
Subcritical P r e s s u r e s , BMI-1116 (l956).
13. Matzner, B., B a s i c E x p e r i m e n t a l Studies of Boiling Fluid Flow and
Heat T r a n s f e r at Elevated P r e s s u r e s , TIP-16813 (Aug 1962).
14. Begell, W., Burnout Studies for the DuPont Power Reactor - S u m m a r y
Report, AECU-4148 (1959).
15. Longo, J., A Statistical Investigation of Subcooled Burnout with Uni-
form and Locally Peaked Heat F l u x e s , KAPL-1744 (l957).
16. B e r g l e s , A. E., and Rohsenow, W. M., F o r c e d Convection Surface
Boiling Heat T r a n s f e r and Burnout in Tubes of Small D i a m e t e r ,
N P 11831 (1962).
 27

APPENDIX

TABULATION OF 1958 ANL CRITICAL

HEAT FLUX DATA
28

Table I

C R I T I C A L H E A T F L U X D E P E N D E N C Y F O R A 0 . 3 0 4 - i n . - I D , T Y P E 304
S T A I N L E S S S T E E L V E R T I C A L T U B E , 1 8 - i n . LONG, A T 2000 p s i a

Exit
Inlet Enthalpy
Q", G, Subcooling,* D i f f e r e n c e , **
Run No. 10^ B t u / ( h r ) ( f t 2 ) 10^ ro/(hr)(ft2) Btu/lb Btu/lb

8-53 1.70 1.89 299 -86.5

-54 1.42 1.93 223 -49
-55 1.29 2.00 184 -31.5
-56 1.14 1.97 155 -17
-57 0.995 1.95 118 4.5
-58 0.855 1.91 91 15.5
-59 0.720 1.88 63 27
-60 0.580 1.93 27 44.5
-61 1.67 1.95 284 -81.5
-62 1.44 1.95 221 -46.5
-63 1.23 1.99 170 -23.5
-64 1.14 1.98 155 -17.5
-65 1.00 1.96 119 2
-66 0,865 1.92 96 11
-67 0.715 1.89 62 28
-68 0,570 1.96 28 41

8-69^ 1.62 1.48 3 64 -103.5

-70 1.43 1.50 295 -69.5
-71 1.27 1.49 248 -46
-72 1.14 1.48 214 -30
-73 0.990 1.46 167 -6.5
-75 0.865 1.50 125 12
-76 0.715 1.46 86 30
-77 0.571 1.50 47 44
-78 0.480 1.48 17 60
-79^ 1.63 1.47 372 -109.5

8-34 1.65 1.23 426 -109.5

-35 1.37 1.22 347 -81
-36 1.29 1.22 317 -66.5
-37 1.15 1.28 251 -38.5
-38 0.980 1.25 197 -11.5
-39 0.840 1.24 151 8
-40 0.740 1.24 117 23.5
-41 0.595 1.22 74 42

*^lisub = ^ s a t - ^in **Ahsat = ^ex " ^ s a t

 29

Table I (Contd.)

Exit
Inlet Enthalpy
Q", G, Subcooling,* Difference,**
Run No. 10^ Btu/(hr)(ft^) 10^ lb/(hr)(ft^) Btu/lb Btu/lb

8-42 0,498 1.19 39 60

_43t 1.64 1.23 428 -113.5
-44 1,42 1.22 356 -80
-45 1.29 1.23 310 -62.5
-46 1,14 1.23 256 -35,5
-47 1.00 1.24 207 -16.5
-48 0.840 1.24 151 10
-49 0.715 1.24 112 25
-50 0.572 1.22 67 44
-51 0.484 1.18 35 62
-52 0.458 1.20 17 73.5
7-1 1.15 0.985 349 -72
-2 0.855 0.951 207 5
-3 1.425 1.03 452 -126
-4 1.13 0.996 327 -59
-5 0.855 0.960 200 11
-6 0,735 0.972 137 42.5
-7 0.573 0.990 85 51.5
-8 0,430 1.00 21 81.5
-9 1.57 1.08 480 -138
-10 1.29 1.02 385 -87
-11 1.00 1.04 258 -30
-12 0.860 1.01 196 5.5
-13 0.715 1.02 129 37
-14 0.565 1.00 74 60
-15 0.485 1.02 41 71
-16 0.425 0.987 16 86.5
-30 1.69 1.01 556 -159.5
-31 1.43 1.00 441 -105
8-1 1.57 1.00 525 -155
-2 1.43 1.01 456 -121
-3 1.30 1.00 400 -105.5
-5 1.02 0.998 268 -26.5
-6 0.855 1.02 198 0.5
-7 0.715 1.02 144 22.5
-8 0.580 1.00 96 41.5
-9 0.440 0,900 27 89.5
30

Table I (Contd.)

Exit
Inlet Enthalpy
Q", G, Subcooling, * D i f f e r e n c e , **
Run No. 10^ B t u / ( h r ) ( f t 2 ) 10^ l b / ( h r ) ( f t ^ ) Btu/lb Btu/lb

8-17 1.28 0.710 544 -117.5

-19 1.00 0.705 404 -65,5
-20 0.860 0.687 299 -2
-21 0,720 0,683 216 34
-22 0.545 0.673 112 79.5
-23 0.480 0,673 68.5 100.5
-24 0,434 0.690 42.5 102.5
-25 L29 0.690 557 -116.5
-26 1.14 0,705 489 -105
-27 1.00 0.695 407 -65.5
-28 0.860 0.685 306 -10
-29 0.707 0.682 208 37
-30 0.570 0.685 119 77
-31 0.485 0.685 68.5 98,5
-32 0.431 0.696 42.5 104.5
-33 0.386 0.656 10 129
7-17 1.14 0.512 556 -26.5
-18 1.00 0.541 524 -85
-19 0.860 0.511 391 6
-20 0.685 0.495 266 62.5
-21 1.10 0.545 565 -84.5
-22 1.08 0.520 554 -62.5
-23 0,975 0.491 460 9
-24 0.860 0.500 391 14
-25 0.715 0.485 273 77
-26 0,550 0.491 147 117
-27 0.488 0.511 94 130
-28 0.435 0,496 66 142.5
-29 0,370 0.470 4.5 182
8-10 1,00 0.508 538 . -72.5
-12 0,715 0.520 295 31.5
-13 0.572 0.500 192 78
-14 0.484 0.491 105 127.5
-15 0.430 0.480 71.5 140.5
-16 0.370 0.466 20 167
 Table II

CRITICAL HEAT FLUX DEPENDENCY FOR A 0.436-in.-ID, TYPE 304

STAINLESS S T E E L VERTICAL TUBE, 18-in. LONG, AT 2000 psia

Exit
Inlet Enthalpy
Q", G, Subcooling,* Difference,**
Rtm No. 10^ Btu/(hr)(ft^) 10* lb/(hr)(ft2) Btu/lb Btu/lb

.it 1.26 1.55 514 -380

-2t 1.13 1.51 401 -277.5
-3t 1.04 1.53 237 -126
-4t 0.954 1.47 149 -42
-5 0.838 1.47 98 -4.5
-6 0.741 1.47 77 6
-7 0.639 1.45 61.5 10.5
-8 0.559 1.35 26.5 41
-18 1.24 1.42 250 -106
-19 1.14 1.44 197 -67
-20 0.997 1.48 145 -34
-21 0.897 1.47 120 -20
-22 0.800 1.47 97 -7.5
-23 0.709 1.44 68.5 12.5
-24 0.583 1.40 37.5 31
-25 0.536 1.33 25 41
-36 1.32 1.48 246 -99.5
-37 1.19 1.52 195 -65.5
-38 1.085 1.50 162 -42.5
-39 1.075 1.50 160 -41.5
-40 0.997 1.50 145 -35.5
-41 0.897 1.49 118 -18.5
-42 0.804 1,51 91.5 -4.5
-43 0,705 1.51 62.5 14.5
-44 0.595 1,44 40.5 27.5
-45 0.499 1.30 10 53
-9 1.24 0.991 353 -147.5
-10 1.14 0.978 303 -111.5
-11 1.03 0.995 256 -85
-12 0.937 1.00 207 -54
-13 0.837 0.992 170 -31.5
-14 0.734 0.990 127 -4.5
-15 0.638 0.991 87.5 18.5
-16 0.522 0.991 39 47.5

*Ahgub = ^ s a t - ^in **Ahsat = hex " ^ s a t

'Runs 1 8 - 1 , 2, 3, and 4 a r e excellent e x a m p l e s of the effect of
surface condition.
32

Table II (Contd.)

Exit
Inlet Enthalpy
Q", G, Subcooling,* D i f f e r e n c e , **
R u n No. 10^Btu/(hr)(ft2) 10^ l b / ( h r ) ( f t 2 ) Btu/lb Btu/lb

18-17 0.443 0,885 8.5 73.5

-26 1.30 0.991 361 -146
-27 1.165 0.980 305 -109.5
-28 1.10 1.01 292 -111.5
-29 1.01 1.00 246 -79.5
-30 0.897 1.00 202 -54.5
-31 0.794 1.01 160 -30
-32 0,699 1.04 117 -6.5
-33 0.586 1.03 73 21
-34 0.505 1.01 37.5 45
-35 0.405 0,795 6,5 77
18-46 1.22 0,514 524 -134
-47 1.10 0.506 446 -90
-48 1.02 0.496 362 -25
-49 0.914 0.506 320 -24
-50 0.885 0.502 296 -6
-51 0.790 0.505 260 -3
-52 0.702 0.506 223 5.5
-53 0.600 0.497 162 37
-54 0.499 0.513 87.5 72.5
-55 0.415 0.496 28.5 108.5
-56 0.382 0.449 5.5 134.5
-57 1,24 0.500 477 -71
19-1 1.13 0.509 595 -229
-2 1.20 0.509 552 -166
-3 1.10 0.507 508 -152
-4 1,06 0.496 420 -70.5
-5 0.958 0.491 382 -62
-6 0.902 0.487 343 -39
-7 0.801 0.496 287 -22
-8 0.700 0.508 217 10
-9 0.602 0.503 159 38
-10 0,499 0.508 81 84
-11 0.406 0,508 25 110
19-12 0.818 0.245 481 68
-13 0.761 0,251 424 76.5
-14 0.672 0,246 332 117.5
-15 0,575 0,252 245 130
-16 0,473 0,252 140 168
 33

T a b l e II ( C o n t d . )

Exit
Inlet Enthalpy
Q", G, Subcooling, * D i f f e r e n c e , **
Run No. 106Btu/(hr)(ft2) 106 l b / ( h r ) ( f t 2 ) Btu/lb Btu/lb

19-17 0.417 0.262 78 182

-18 0.369 0.274 42.5 179.5
-19 0.330 0.256 5.5 206 5
-20 0.858 0.251 525 36
-21 0.781 0.250 464 51
-22 0.702 0,250 387 74
-23 0.670 0.255 327 105
-24 0,612 0 254 279 117.5
-25 0.549 0.256 204 147 5
-26 0.499 0 253 157 166
-27 0.475 0.266 126.5 166,5
-28 0,432 0 262 91.5 179.5
-29 0.373 0.260 42.5 193,5
-30 0.339 0.251 5.5 216.5
-31 0.880 0.258 601 -39 5
-32 0.801 0.255 510 8
-34 0.599 0.240 281 129.5
-35 0.489 0.254 152 164
-36 0.400 0,262 64 187
-37 0.320 0.250 0 210
19-38 0.499 0.147 499 58
-39 0.500 0.140 489 96
-40 0.480 0.149 443 87
-41 0.415 0.136 311 189.5
-42 0.383 0.140 173 276,5
-43 0.381 0.152 138 274,5
-44 0,349 0,135 128 296.5
-45 0.320 0.133 85 311
-46 0.279 0,136 26.5 309.5
-47 0.279 0,138 15 5 318.5
-48 0.509 0.155 500 36
-49 0.462 0.154 446 44
-50 0.450 0.154 422 59.5
-51 0.435 0 151 386 88
-52 0.423 0.141 311 180.5
-53 0.410 0.140 777
Ct Ct LJ 263,5
-54 0.383 0.140 170 281
-55 0.359 0.146 130 274
-56 0.355 0.144 120 287
34

Table n (Contd.)

Exit
Inlet Enthalpy
Q", G, Subcooling,* Difference, **
Run No. 10*Btu/(hr )(ft^) 10^ lb/(hr)(ft2) Btu/lb Btu/lb

19-57 0.316 0,140 75.5 294.5

-58 0.303 0,138 61 301
-59 0,296 0.126 54.5 331.5
-60 0,280 0.138 48.5 283.5
-61 0.259 0,132 42.5 281.5
-62 0.495 0.144 470 94
-63 0.463 0.148 413 101,5
-64 0.440 0.152 357 118,5
-65 0.399 0.135 241 244.5
-66 0.390 0.138 183 282
-67 0.370 0.145 140 280
-68 0,345 0.136 117 298.5
-69 0,315 0.134 83.5 301.5
-70 0.275 0.126 31.5 326,5