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J. R. Sulebak
SINTEF Institute of Applied Mathematics
Department of Geographic Information Technology
E-post: jrs@math.sintef.no
White paper developed as part of the DYNAMAP project, Oslo 2000. The document gives and insight into different
applications areas for Digital Elevation Models.
georeferenced 3D products can be derived and the first continuos large-scale product, which has
complemented by a coordinate system and not been mosaiced from data derived from
presented in a 2D-map projection or as a 3D differing sensors, formats and dates. It will be
perspective view. global consistency and based on one geodetical
reference system. The expected low cost of SRTM
The availability of DEM data data will make DEM affordable for many scientific
The science community and the commercial and operational users.
market are increasingly aware of the importance
of DEMs in their applications. However there are DEM and Geographical information systems
certain limitations in their employment. On the DEMs can be used together with other spatial
one hand, there is only limited access to existing data, image data in geographic information
digital topographic data due to high costs and systems (GIS), for instance. A GIS is an
military secrecy. On the other hand, free available information system designed to acquire, store,
global data sets with a horizontal resolution of 1 process and display data referenced by spatial or
km and a vertical one of 100 m do not meet the geographical coordinates. In a sense, a GIS may be
requirements of detailed spatial and geographical thought of as a higher-order map, being both a
analysis. Additionally, when using the mosaic of database system with specific capabilities for
existing DEMs, which where derived by different spatially referenced data as well as a set of
resolutions, datums, frequencies and operations for processing and analyzing the data.
polarizations, in order to arrive at global The DEM provides a basic spatial reference
representations of the Earths relief, the results are system to the GIS spatial data set. Images or vector
inhomogeneous, inconsistent and, consequently, information can automatically be draped over and
incomparable. integrated with the DEM for more advanced
analysis.
At present, currently available digital elevation
models exhibit discontinuities with respect to
APPLICATIONS OF DEM
coverage, resolution, accuracy and reference
datum. They are also inhomogeneous because Geographical information technology and digital
they are derived through different acquisition image processing have become a rapidly
methods. The currently best, most comprehensive, expanding field in recent years with particular
global data set comes with a horizontal resolution significance in the treatment of geo- and image
of one kilometer and an elevation accuracy of 100 information for scientific, commercial and
meters. operational applications. For most applications in
these three domains, digital elevation models
Unfortunately, the acquisition of digital terrain (DEMs) are an important, integral part. In the
models is too expensive for most environmental following sections the various applications and
authorities and private users. This however, may application areas of DEMs is described in more
change with the Shuttle Radar Topographic detail. It is decided to consider these as a selection
Mission project carried out in february 2000. The
aim of this project was to map the topography of of representative activities in the domains of
the earth surface (80%) from space within 11 days
Scientific applications
by using SAR interferometry. The result will be
Air traffic routing and navigation For many years, companies and agencies have
offered digital elevation data from different
Planning and construction
countries. The cost varies from country to country.
Geological exploration The largest distributor of DEMs worldwide is the
French company ISTAR, followed by Atlantis
Hydrological and meteorological services
Scientific Inc., USA. The main data source used by
Geokoding of remote sensing and ISTAR is the SPOT system, complemented by ERS
and RADARSAT and recently by airborne SAR
Market of multimedia applications and
DEMs.
computer games
ASA and Fotonor, offering high-resolution DEMs may be planned without having to send surveyors
by e.g. using laser interferometry and digital onsite. For example digital topographic data sets
photogrammetry. facilitate urban planning and enable engineers to
model new roads within an existing landscape
Customer are only willing to invest in DEMs if the context.
data product is according to their specific needs,
e.g. delivered in a specific data model (TIN, Hydrology and meteorological services including
GRID), covering the entire study area risk assessment
homogeneously at accurate resolution.
For hydrological modeling of watersheds, it is
necessary to have very precise and homogenous
Value added DEM products
DEMs. Only through the combination of
In the long run, the sales of basic digital elevation
topographic data, land use information,
models only cover the operational costs of a
precipitation, water storage etc. is a forecast on
company. The real market opportunity lies in the
river flooding possible. Apart from such extreme
value-adding process during which the basic
events, an ongoing analysis of hydrological
products are tailored to the requirement of an end-
situation is important for the agricultural activities
user. Value-adding cover a variety of processes
like irrigation management and for power
ranging form transforming the reference
companies when estimating the market of
coordinate system into a user specific grid to
electricity. Small and medium-sized value-adding
applications in the fields of e.g.
companies in cooperation with local and central
water management authorities can carry out this
- planning and construction
work.
- hydrological and meteorological services,
including risk assessment It should be possible to provide services of
hydrological parameter extraction form
- geocoding of remote sensing data
interferometric SAR data and the development of
In all the above market segments digital elevation flood forecast models based on remote sensing
models are required. The marked dynamics are and digital elevation data. Examples of such
vivid. Some of the end-users buy DEM data others parameters are flow paths and slope that may
license them. Some offers DEMs for resale. serve as input into a rainfall-runoff model for
Presumably, the value-adding enterprise will flood forecast and flood prediction. Insurance
show the most rapid growth rate for DEM use companies are very interested customers of this
within the next decade. kind of manipulated DEM data for a client-
oriented assessment of flood risks.
Planning and construction
Desktop planning and construction based on high Geocoding of remote sensing data
resolution digital elevation models is a market for A variety of applications require the combination
both, the small value-adding businesses as well as of imagery of different sensors, seasons,
the large construction companies. Linear resolutions or frequencies. For these purposes, the
constructions like roads, railway tracks, oil and remotely sensed data sets need to be geocoded,
gas pipelines, bridges and electric power lines meaning that each pixel in an image will be
transformed from its sensor dependent relative macro cell planning (area grid cells ranging
grid system position to its absolute geographic from 3-5km with elevated base transceiver
coordinates. If this is not or rather insufficiently stations)
performed, any quantitative interpretation of
remote sensing data will render erroneous results. micro cell planning (mainly applied in central
In the case of side looking sensors, the parts of large cities)
transformation from slant to ground range is
extremely important, especially of terrain with clutter data (land use information in the
large relief. Neglecting the influence of image telecommunication industry)
geometry distortions caused by topographical
Typically the databases of 100m grid elevation
effects will results in a great loss of detailed
data are used for macro cell planning while
information or in the worst case in incorrect
detailed 5-10 m elevation data are used for micro
analysis results. The providers of satellite data
cell planning. Tools are developed for modeling
usually carry out this kind of value-adding.
multitransmitter communication networks and for
However, in many cases, where DEMs of
aid in positioning of radio towers. Such tools
sufficient accuracy does not exists for geocoding
strongly rely on the availability of recent DEMs
purposes, this process has to be subcontracted.
and land use information supplied by value-
SRTM DEMs for example may prove beneficial
adding companies.
for geocoding ERS or Envisat products in cases
where no other digital elevation models are Actual digital elevation models are required for
available for the area under study. determining optimal locations for transmitting
masts for all forms of terrestrial radio signal
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS propagation. Based on e.g. the SAR data of the
For industrial applications digital elevation SRTM, DEMs will be calculated that have the
models are used for development of market- advantage of showing the existing situation "as is",
oriented product technology, improved services with all human-made and natural objects that
and to increase the economic outcome of the might impede radio wave transmission.
industrial production. Such applications are found
Avionics industry
within e.g. the Telecom, Telematics, Avionics,
Mining, Mineral exploration, Tourism and By combining land use data and terrain height
Engineering industry. information with airport databases, value-adding
software companies are able to provide avionics
Telecom industry industry with an important tool for collision
The telecommunication sector encompasses avoidance systems, ground proximity warning
manufacturers, wireless service providers and and flight management systems. Flight simulators
operators. About 60% of all DEM sales in Europe for crew training will have a realistic background
are to the telecommunication industry (GIS and together with real-time in-flight GPS
Europe 1996). Topographic data are used for positioning information air traffic will become
safer.
safely to such critical applications. Consequently, combined with geological, vegetation and soil
high accuracy and high resolution are of great information is important to detect risk areas in
importance. order to prevent building constructions and where
to start specific protection actions. Such
Forest planning and management information is also of interest for insurance
Resent years there has been an increasing focus on companies in determination of high-risk areas
a sustainable management of natural resources with larger potential for damages and thus
like forest. Tools have been developed e.g. at exposed for higher insurance fees.
SINTEF applied mathematics to create plans for a
sustainable management of forest during a longer Hydrology Flooding risk assessment
time span. By introducing digital terrain models The modeling of river catchment areas necessitates
different criteria concerning the topography of the high-precision DEMs that are homogeneous and
forest area can be considered in the planning not confined to areas of the respective water
process. Examples are calculation of slope authorities. Only the combination of exact
gradient and its influence on erosion process due topographic data, situational information, data on
to clear cutting of hill slopes; aspect computation precipitation, water retention and storage
and the effect of solar insolation on forest growth capacities enables precise statements as to the
and derivation of surface curvature related to soil duration and extent of floods caused by rivers.
moisture conditions. Aside from such extreme situations, a continuous
monitoring of hydrological phenomena is useful
Planning of breakwater constructions in agriculture, for example, in helping making
Breakwaters are important to protect harbors for decisions on the need for irrigation. In coastal
damages caused by large ocean waves e.g. along zones, DEMs can be used to assess in advance the
the Norwegian coastline. Exact location of the dangers in areas exposed to potential inundation,
breakwaters is important to give maximum and help governments in their task of maintaining
protection due to e.g. prevailing wind directions. open shipping routes.
Digital models of the seafloor bottom and the
coastal zone can be used to produce realistic Disaster management (prevention, relief,
computer simulations of the optimal location of assessment)
breakwaters before construction. It is well known Disaster management is often impeded by lacking,
that seafloor topography and coast morphology incorrect or simply imprecise information about
have significant effects on the direction and size of the situation on the ground. Up-to-date and
ocean waves at shallow water. precise data are imperative in assessing potential
risks (posed by floods, for example), in employing
Mass movement and hazard prediction relief personnel effectively, in disaster aid (e.g.,
locating adequate spots for dropping of relief
Rock fall and avalanches is responsible for large
supplies) and in analyzing damages and changes.
costs due to reparation of infrastructure and
buildings in addition to the loss of life for more
catastrophic events. An important task for the CONCLUDING REMARKS
public community is to predict and prevent such The terrain surface is 3D and should be treated
hazardous events. Digital terrain models like that. There is a large gap between the