Wear 249 (2001) 354360

Abrasive and erosive wear characteristics of plasma nitriding

and HVOF coatings: their application in hydro turbines
B.S. Mann , Vivek Arya
Materials Science Laboratory, BHEL, Corporate R&D Division, Vikasnagar, Hyderabad 500093, India
Received 27 July 2000; received in revised form 3 January 2001; accepted 8 February 2001

Abstract
This paper describes the abrasion and silt erosion characteristics of plasma nitriding and HVOF coatings along with commonly used
steels in hydro turbines. For silt erosion characterisation, hydrofoils scaled down to 1/10 of the actual hydro turbine blade were selected.
Angles of incidence, velocity and Reynolds numbers were maintained similar to those that commonly occur in hydro turbines, simulating
low as well as high-energy impingement wear. The abrasive wear characterisation was carried out as per ASTM G-65. HVOF coated steel
performed much better than plasma nitrided 12Cr and 13Cr4Ni steels. Plasma nitrided 12Cr steel performed better than plasma nitrided
13Cr4Ni steel. This is due to its higher microhardness and its ability to absorb more nitrogen under identical plasma nitriding experimental
conditions. Based on this experimental study, HVOF and plasma nitrided 12Cr steel are being field-tried on a hydro turbine component,
which is severely affected due to abrasion and silt erosion. 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Hydromachinery; HVOF coating; Plasma nitriding; Abrasion; High- and low-energy particle impingement wear

1. Introduction plasma nitriding at these velocities [58]. However, contra-

Silt erosion is a serious problem in a number of Indian
hydropower stations especially those located in Himalayan
region [1,2]. This causes a loss of the order of US$ 120150
million in a year for these hydro power stations due to drop
in efficiency, forced outages, and repair. Attempts are be-
ing made to reduce the damage caused by silt erosion ei-
ther by reducing the particle velocity, controlling their size
and concentration, or by using HVOF cermet coatings and
surface hardening by plasma nitriding [38]. HVOF cermet
coatings of hard carbide phase tungsten carbide (WC) em-
bedded in ductile matrix; typically coating system consisting
of WCCo, WCCoCr, WCNiCr and FeCrAlYCr3 C2
are being used in different industries. The most satisfactory
results have been obtained with the powder having carbide
content of >80% [9].
Other coatings, such as oxides applied by atmospheric
plasma spraying technique, cladding by laser process, spray-
ing by detonation, PVD and boronising are in use and some
of these have been investigated in abrasive and erosive wear
using silica sand at different water velocities. It has been re-
ported that detonation as well as HVOF sprayed coatings and
boronising provide remarkable improvements compared to
Corresponding author. Fax: +91-40-3776320.
E-mail address: msl@rnd.bhel.co.in (B.S. Mann).
dicting results regarding plasma nitriding have been reported
and depending upon their degree of success, plasma nitrid-
ing as well as HVOF coatings are being exploited commer-
cially to overcome the power loss arising due to excessive
erosion of hydro turbines [3,4].
For HVOF coatings, tungsten carbide-based powder hav-
ing a carbide content >85% with 10Co5Cr matrix was
selected in the present study. The silt erosion and abrasive
wear behavior of this coating, along with plasma nitrided
steels, have been studied. These coatings were compared
with 13Cr4Ni steel, which is commonly used in hydro
turbines. For silt erosion study, hydrofoils scaled down
to 1/10 of the actual hydro turbine blade were selected.
Angles of incidence, velocity and Reynolds numbers were
maintained similar to those that commonly occur in hydro
turbines, simulating low as well as high-energy particle im-
pingement wear. The abrasive wear study was conducted as
per ASTM G-65. The silt erosion damage mechanism of all
these coatings has been compared with the data available
in the literature. The morphologies of the coated hydrofoils
were examined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
and phases were identified using X-ray diffraction.
Two types of silt erosion, which are prominent, are low
and high-energy particle impingement. These can be con-
trolled by velocity or silt size based on the equation given
below.

0043-1648/01/$ see front matter 2001 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 4 3 - 1 6 4 8 ( 0 1 ) 0 0 5 3 7 - 3
 B.S. Mann, V. Arya / Wear 249 (2001) 354360 355

Impact energy = 21 mv 2 = 12 d v
1 3 2
Diamond jet and Praxair 2000 HVAF systems. These sys-
tems are based on liquid as well as gaseous fuel and
where m is mass, the density, v the velocity and d the oxygen/air. Using the HP/HVOF system, the performance
diameter of the particle. Silt erosion resistance at different of 10 different types of WC-based cermet coatings with Co
particle impingement energies is generally correlated with or Ni as binder has been evaluated under both dry particle
this above equation [7,8] although it depends upon a standard and slurry erosion conditions at 90 and 20 impingement
equation given below. angles [11]. It is reported that coating microstructure, hard-

 1.5  1.752.25 ness and composition were the major determinants in ero-
3.54.0 d Hs sive wear. The matrix corrosion also influences the erosive
KtcV D
d50 Hm wear.
However, similar coatings with 12% Co and 17% Co
where silt hardness (Hs ), concentration (c), distribution
as binder applied by HP/HVOF do not show significant
(D), quantity, shape, base material hardness (Hm ) and wear
difference in ASTM G-65 abrasion test results [15]. The
coefficient (K) and operating time (t) along with parti-
microstructures, porosity and phase composition of WC
cle velocity (V), and particle size (d) contribute signifi-
17% Co coatings when applied by this system using
cantly.
100 mm spray barrel instead of 200 mm spray barrel, do
Based upon the impact energy equation, the silt erosion
not make much difference. The difference in their abrasion
resistance of some of the hard materials and coatings, such
was reported only at 8%. The porosity variation was re-
as oxides, nitrides and carbides is already available in the
ported between 0.120 and 0.90% The powders used were
literature [7,8]. However, there is not much comparative
agglomerated and sintered (TAFA 1343V and Amperit
data regarding silt erosion resistance of plasma nitriding and
526.074).
HVOF coating under simulated hydro turbine conditions. In
the present paper, an attempt has been made to correlate
silt erosion resistance of these two techniques on hydrofoils 2.2. Plasma nitriding
scaled down to 1/10 of actual hydro turbine blade and these
are being field tried at one of the severely affected hydro Plasma nitriding is a modern technique for surface hard-
power stations. ening of metallic components to improve their service life.
Nitriding processes based upon solid, liquid and gas treat-
ment have been traditionally used which, however, suffer
2. HVOF spraying and plasma nitriding from several drawbacks. Plasma nitriding overcomes them
and has mostly replaced the conventional process in the in-
2.1. High-velocity oxy fuel (HVOF) spraying dustry. Basically the plasma nitriding is a glow discharge
process in a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen gases. The
main advantages of plasma nitriding over conventional ni-
In recent years, HVOF spraying has been considered an
triding processes are, reduced cycle time, controlled growth
asset to the family of thermal spray processes especially for
of the surface layer, elimination of white layer, reduced dis-
materials with melting point below 3000 K. It has proven
tortion, no need of finishing (grinding, machining etc.), pore
successful, since it shows advantages in density and bond
free surfaces and mechanical masks instead of copper plat-
strength making it attractive for many wear and corrosion re-
ing.
sistance applications [912]. Its high coating quality results
Plasma nitriding is extensively covered in the literature
from the use of a hot combustion-driven high-speed gas jet
[1824]. The nitrided layers consist of FeN, Fe2 N, Fe3 N,
for thermal spraying. These coatings have environmental ad-
Fe2 N3 , Fe3 N4 diffused layers. The diffused layers range
vantages compared to chemically/electrochemically formed
from tens to hundred of microns and these are ideal for
coatings.
improving wear resistance. By optimizing the nitrogen and
Tungsten carbide powders are widely used in the HVOF
hydrogen ratio, it is possible to either eliminate some of the
spraying system [1317]. These are used to produce dense,
layers or to improve the erosion/corrosion properties.
high hardness and excellent wear resistance coatings gener-
ally to combat the erosion and corrosion occurring in hydro
power plants and pumps. In applications where abrasive or
erosive wear resistance is of primary importance, WCCo 3. Experiments
with and without nickel or chrome is used. WCCoCr pow-
ders are preferred when high corrosion resistance is needed. 3.1. Surface preparation and HVOF coating
The abrasive and erosive wear resistance also depend upon
oxides, pores, and the phase transformation occurring dur- Surface preparation is a very important step in thermal
ing spraying [1417]. spraying. This is because the adhesion of coatings is directly
High-velocity oxy fuel sprayed coatings are commonly related to the roughness of the surface and it is controlled by
applied by HP/HVOF JP-5000, DS-100, Met jet II, OSU, the type of grit blasting machine, blasting pressure, angle,
356 B.S. Mann, V. Arya / Wear 249 (2001) 354360

distance, time and grit blasting nozzle [25]. The hydrofoils 3.3. Silt erosion resistance of different coatings
and flat specimens were degreased by a carbon tetrachloride
vapor degreasing technique. The grit blasting was carried The silt erosion resistance of different coatings was eval-
out with a suction blaster having 8 mm nozzle and 3 mm air uated using a high-stress abrasive wear facility. This facil-
jet, operating at a blasting pressure of 0.440.49 MPa. Alu- ity was designed in-house and fabricated by considering the
mina grit of size 2024 mesh, equivalent to 600680 m was low and high-stress abrasive wear of hydro turbines compo-
used for grit blasting. The grit-blasting stand off distance nents. The details of the test facility are given [1]. In brief,
was 6075 mm so that an optimum surface finish was ob- water mixed with sand is pumped through a known gap be-
tained. The surface finish achieved on the test specimens was tween a rotating disc and the housing where hydrofoils of
Ra 56 m. During handling, special care was taken so that required shape and sizes were fixed. The coated samples
grit blasted surfaces did not get contaminated before coat- were mounted at required radial locations. The sand slurry
ing. The coatings were sprayed using Met Jet II HP/HVOF was accelerated and impinged on these hydrofoils, causing
system. This system is based upon liquid fuel kerosene and hydro-abrasion. By choosing different radii, the character-
oxygen. The parameters adopted while spraying were as istic velocity and the centrifugal force, and hence the in-
below tensity of abrasion, can be varied. By regulating the sand
and water flow rates the silt concentration was kept con-
Combustion pressure 0.72 MPa stant. The sand is continuously fed at the rate of 37 g/min,
Spray distance 380 mm which ensures continuous replacement of worn-out sand
Spray angle 90 particles. Velocity of the sand-laden water was of the or-
Powder feed rate 70 g/min der of 66.3 m/s, corresponding to a maximum acceleration
Fuel flow rate 24.75 l/h up to 18,000g. In principle, such high accelerations are
Oxygen flow rate 950 l/min reached only in extremely high-head and high-speed tur-
Carrier gas flow rate 45 l/min bines. This test facility has been designed in such a way
Barrel length 150 mm that silt concentration can be varied from 1.5 to 10 kg/m3 .
Spraying powder WC 10Co 5Cr, Praxair WC 636, In actual hydro power stations, such values of silt concen-
an agglomerated and sintered tration may occur only during a few days in a year. Thus
the abrasive wear results from this test facility, for a test
These parameters are within the range that is generally duration of just a few hours, can be considered to sim-
adopted for applying an HVOF coating [1317]. ulate the abrasive wear of the turbine components of the
actual power stations during the whole year. Test condi-
3.2. Plasma nitriding parameters tions:

Plasma nitriding was carried out using a 15 kV plasma ni-

Erodent type Mineral sand of hardness
triding reactor. The test specimens in the form of hydrofoils
1100 HV
for silt erosion and flat specimens for abrasion testing were
Silt concentration 2350 ppm
nitrided for 48 h to obtain a layer thickness of 250 m at
Water velocity and flow rate 66.3 m/s
545 C in a nitrogen and hydrogen atmosphere. Specimens
Water inlet temperature. 28 C
were slowly cooled in a nitrogen atmosphere after nitriding
Chamber pressure 330 mm of water column
to avoid formation of oxides. The following plasma nitrid-
Experimental error 3.2%
ing parameters were used.
Wear rate measurement error 0.5%
Specimen size [1,2] Hydrofoils scaled
Voltage 648700 V
down to 1/10 of
N2 /H2 ratio 65/35
actual hydro turbine
Current density 12.25 mA/cm2
blade
Partial pressure 320600 Pa
Hydrogen flow rate 1 l/min
Temperature 545575 C 3.4. Abrasive wear resistance of different coatings
Work piece Cathode
Total time of nitriding 48 h By applying a load of 50 N and using rubber wheels of
Holding time at 545 C 40 h different hardnesses, thin coatings, such as hard chrome
plating, thermally sprayed alumina etc. have been eval-
Steels used for nitriding were 13Cr4Ni of composition uated (as per ASTM G-65). Different quantities of ero-
0.058% C, 12.06% Cr, 1% Mn, 1% Si, 0.50% Mo, 3.85% dent were used to get 1001000 revolutions of rubber
Ni, 0.04% P, 0.03% S and balance Fe and 12Cr steel of wheel [26]. In the present investigation 1 kg of ero-
composition, 0.2% C, 13.20% Cr, 0.55% Ni, 0.55% Mn, dent corresponding to 600 number of revolutions was
0.30% Si and balance Fe. used.
 B.S. Mann, V. Arya / Wear 249 (2001) 354360 357

Fig. 1. SEM cross-section of HVOF coated hydrofoil after silt erosion. Fig. 3. SEM cross-section of HVOF coated hydrofoil showing pores.

In brief, the test parameters adopted are given below:

Erodent 1 kg mineral sand of hardness

1100 HV
Size of erodent 180250 m
Erodent flow rate 5.5 g/s
Load applied 37.5 N
(Lower loads below 50 N are generally recommended
for thin coatings [26])
Sample size 75 mm 25 mm 6 mm
Test duration 600 revolutions
Hardness of rubber wheel Shore 70.

3.5. SEM analysis

Fig. 4. SEM cross-section of plasma nitrided hydrofoil after silt erosion.
The scanning electron photo micrographs of eroded hy-
drofoils are shown in Figs. 14. The wear has occurred near visualization around the hydrofoil [27]. The SEM analysis
the leading edge towards the pressure side. This is similar to revealed <0.92% porosity level in HVOF coating.
flow patterns obtained on an actual hydrofoil (Fig. 5). The
eroded zone is the area that is clearly seen from the flow
3.6. X-ray analysis

Analysis of WC636 HVOF powder and all other coatings

was carried out using X-ray diffraction, Philips model X

Fig. 2. SEM cross-section of HVOF coated hydrofoil after silt erosion. Fig. 5. Wear pattern of a hydrofoil.
358 B.S. Mann, V. Arya / Wear 249 (2001) 354360
pert MPD, PW 3040. Analysis of WC636 powder revealed
WC as a main phase similar to the starting powder except
slight reduction in counts and partial oxidation of the ma-
trix (Co/Cr) along with small percentage of Co6 W6 C. After
HVOF coating, WC has partially converted into W2 C (only
small percentage 45%) and Co6 W6 C has been recorded in
traces. Cobalt and chromium has converted into amorphous
phases along with partial conversion into their oxides. X-ray
findings are similar to the ones, which have already been
reported in the literatures [1316].
The X-ray counts of diffused nitrogen is 560 in 12Cr steel
compared to 324 in 13Cr4Ni steel and this reduced nitrogen
is responsible for reduced abrasion/silt erosion resistance of
13Cr4Ni steel. It appears that excessive nickel in 13Cr4Ni
steel plays a passive role in the diffusion of nitrogen.
4. Results and discussions
4.1. Micro hardness results
The micro hardness of the coated steels was measured
using Leitzs Micro Hardness Tester by applying a load of
2.942 N. The micro hardness values are given in Table 1.
4.2. Abrasion and silt erosion test results
The silt erosion results of different coatings along with
stainless steel 13Cr4Ni are given in Fig. 6. The silt erosion
resistance for all the coated steels has been plotted against
the particle impingement energies. It can be seen from the
Table 1
Micro hardness of different coatings
Materials/coatings Micro hardness (HV)
WC 636 HVOF coating 10901226
Plasma nitrided 13Cr4Ni steel 774942
Plasma nitrided 12Cr steel 10001200
12Cr steel 290300
Fig. 6. Relationship between erosion rate and particle impingement energy.
Fig. 6 that HVOF sprayed WC636 steel has performed ex-
cellent at all the particle impingement energies whereas, the
plasma nitrided steel has not performed well. The perfor-
mance trends for all these coatings are similar to the abrasion
test results obtained using ASTM G-65 except the magni-
tude. For all the coated as well as uncoated steels, a drastic
reduction in volume loss is observed when particle impinge-
ment energy is reduced from 128 to 1 J. The test results,
especially for stainless steel show similar trends to those re-
ported by Wood [7,8].
Abrasion test results of various surface coated steels along
with uncoated 12Cr steel are shown in Fig. 7. It is seen
from Fig. 7 that excellent performance is given by diamond
ground HVOF WC636 coated steel (approximately 70 times
better than 12Cr steel) and followed by as sprayed HVOF
WC636. The wear resistance of plasma nitrided 13Cr4Ni
steel is only slightly better than uncoated 12Cr steel. Plasma
nitrided 12Cr steel performed better than plasma nitrided
13Cr4Ni steel (approximately 1.75 times). This improved
abrasion and erosion performance of 12Cr plasma nitrided
steel compared to 13Cr4Ni plasma nitrided steel is due to
better diffusion of nitrogen. Presence of austenetic phases
in 13Cr4 Ni steel appears to work as a barrier for nitrogen
diffusion. The iron nitride phases having more nitrogen have
been identified by X-ray diffraction in 12Cr plasma nitrided
steel.
The superior performance of HVOF coating is due to the
hardness of tungsten carbide particles (1800 HV). These are
well embedded in the matrix and their percentage is much
more than iron nitride phases in the 12Cr plasma nitrided
steel. The wear out of matrix occurs as they come directly
in contact with the erodent. The nitrided steel has hardness
<1100 HV (< erodent hardness). The nitride phase is not as
hard as tungsten carbide so it wears out quickly.
The damage mechanism of HVOF coating is due to mi-
cro cracking and subsequently de-bonding and digging out
of WC particles. Micro cracking is initiated from the pores
and joins other pores. The carbide coated specimens showed
brittle erosion morphology as indicated by cracks and chip-
ping of the surfaces. Brittle erosion occurred by cracking.
 B.S. Mann, V. Arya / Wear 249 (2001) 354360
Fig. 7. Abrasion test results of various coatings as per ASTM G-65.
The chipping of fractured surfaces and their sizes are seen
in the microstructures (refer SEM micrographs of eroded tip
of the hydrofoils in Figs. 13. The pores are widespread in
the microstructures. There appears to be wide cracks, which
later on cause the removal of carbide particles along with
matrix (Fig. 3). These were not observed in plasma nitrided
steels, which have eroded in a slightly different way. This
appears to be ductile mode with smooth removal of the hard
layer without initiation of cracks (Fig. 4).
HVOF WC636 coated and plasma nitrided spears of a Pel-
ton turbine are being field tried at the Bhaba Hydro Power
station. This is the power station that was severely dam-
aged due to excessive silt occurring during monsoons. Fig. 8
shows the severity of damage on this component. Once
Fig. 8. Eroded spear of a Pelton turbine for Bhaba hydro power station
after an operation of 7500 h.
359
Fig. 9. Shows the HVOF coating process being adopted on a spear of a
Pelton turbine.
the field performance is known, the HVOF coating can be
adopted to combat the erosion of the hydro power stations.
Using robotic manipulation the HVOF coating is being ap-
plied on a spear of Pelton hydro turbine (Fig. 9).
5. Conclusions
1. Under identical erosive and abrasive wear test condi-
tions, the HVOF coated steel performed much better
than plasma nitrided 12Cr and 13Cr4Ni steels. The mi-
crostructures of HVOF sprayed tungsten carbide show a
few voids as defects. At high particle impingement en-
ergy, these defects could cause deterioration of the HVOF
coating. The microstructures of plasma nitrided 12Cr and
13Cr4Ni steels are free from all these defects. However,
they lack the resistance to abrasive and erosive wear as
their microhardness values are below those of the erodent
(<1100). Plasma nitrided 12Cr steel performed much
better than plasma nitrided 13Cr4Ni steels. This is due
to its higher microhardness and its ability to absorb more
nitrogen under identical plasma nitriding experimental
conditions.
360 B.S. Mann, V. Arya / Wear 249 (2001) 354360
2. HVOF sprayed tungsten carbide on steel appears to be
an excellent erosion resistance shield to combat low and
high-energy particle impingement wear. It can provide an
appropriate solution to the hydropower stations severely
affected due to silt. Plasma nitriding may not be an ap-
propriate erosion shield as indicated by unsatisfactory
performance in the laboratory.
Acknowledgements
The authors are thankful to Dr. B. Ganguli, IPR Gand-
hinagar, for establishing plasma nitriding process on
12Cr and 13Cr4Ni steels test samples. We are also
thankful to Mr Pankaj Joshi for his help in experimen-
tation. Authors are also thankful to the Management of
Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Corporate (Research
& Development) for granting permission to publish this
paper.
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