Martensite

Martensite, named after the German metallurgist Adolf Martens (18501914), most
commonly refers to a veryhard form of steel crystalline structure, but it can also refer to
any crystal structure that is formed by diffusionless transformation.[1] It includes a class
of hard minerals occurring as lath- or plate-shaped crystal grains. When viewed in cross
section, the lenticular (lens-shaped) crystal grains may be incorrectly described as
acicular (needle-shaped).

Martensite in AISI 4140 steel

Contents
1 Properties
2 See also
3 References
4 External links

Properties
Martensite is formed in carbon steels by the rapid cooling (quenching) of the austenite 0.35%C Steel, water-quenched
from 870 C
form of iron at such a high rate that carbon atoms do not have time to diffuse out of the
crystal structure in large enough quantities to form cementite (Fe3C). Austenite is -Fe,
(gamma-phase iron), a solid solution of iron and alloying elements. As a result of the
quenching, the face-centered cubic austenite transforms to a highly strained body-centered tetragonal form called martensite that is
supersaturated with carbon. The shear deformations that result produce a large number of dislocations, which is a primary
strengthening mechanism of steels. The highest hardness of a pearlitic steel is 400 Brinell whereas martensite can achieve
700 Brinell.[2]

The martensitic reaction begins during cooling when the austenite reaches the martensite start temperature (Ms) and the parent
austenite becomes mechanically unstable. As the sample is quenched, an increasingly large percentage of the austenite transforms to
martensite until the lower transformation temperature M [1]
f is reached, at which time the transformation is completed.

For a eutectoid steel (0.78% C), between 6 and 10% of austenite, called retained austenite, will remain. The percentage of retained
austenite increases from insignificant for less than 0.6% C steel, to 13% retained austenite at 0.95% C and 3047% retained austenite
for a 1.4% carbon steels. A very rapid quench is essential to create martensite.

For a eutectoid carbon steel of thin section, if the quench starting at 750 C and ending at 450 C takes place in 0.7 seconds (a rate of
[2]
430 C/s) no pearlite will form and the steel will be martensitic with small amounts of retained austenite.

For steel 0-0.6% carbon the martensite has the appearance of lath, and is called lath martensite. For steel greater than 1% carbon it
will form a plate like structure called plate martensite. Between those two percentages, the physical appearance of the grains is a mix
of the two. The strength of the martensite is reduced as the amount of retained austenite grows. If the cooling rate is slower than the
critical cooling rate, some amount of pearlite will form, starting at the grain boundaries where it will grow into the grains until the Ms
temperature is reached then the remaining austenite transforms into martensite at about half the speed of sound in steel.
In certain alloy steels, martensite can also be formed by the working and hence deformation of the steel at temperature, while it is in
its austenitic form, by quenching to below Ms and then working by plastic deformations to reductions of cross section area between
20% to 40% of the original. The process produces dislocation densities up to 1013/cm2. The great number of dislocations, combined
with precipitates that originate and pin the dislocations in place, produces a very hard steel. This property is frequently used in
toughened ceramics like yttria-stabilized zirconiaand in special steels like TRIP steels. Thus, martensite can be thermally induced or
stress induced.[1][3]

One of the differences between the two phases is that martensite has a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) crystal structure, whereas
austenite has a face-centered cubic (FCC) structure. The transition between these two structures requires very little thermal activation
energy because it is a diffusionless transformation, which results in the subtle but rapid rearrangement of atomic positions, and has
been known to occur even at cryogenic temperatures.[1] Martensite has a lower density than austenite, so that the martensitic
transformation results in a relative change of volume.[4] Of considerably greater importance than the volume change is the shear
[5]
strain which has a magnitude of about 0.26 and which determines the shape of the plates of martensite.

Martensite is not shown in the equilibrium phase diagram of the iron-carbon system because it is not an equilibrium phase.
Equilibrium phases form by slow cooling rates that allow sufficient time for diffusion, whereas martensite is usually formed by very
high cooling rates. Since chemical processes (the attainment of equilibrium) accelerate at higher temperature, martensite is easily
destroyed by the application of heat. This process is called tempering. In some alloys, the effect is reduced by adding elements such
as tungsten that interfere with cementite nucleation, but, more often than not, the nucleation is allowed to proceed to relieve stresses.
Since quenching can be difficult to control, many steels are quenched to produce an overabundance of martensite, then tempered to
gradually reduce its concentration until the preferred structure for the intended application is achieved. The needle-like microstructure
of martensite leads to brittle behavior of the material. oTo much martensite leaves steelbrittle; too little leaves it soft.

See also
Eutectic
Eutectoid
Ferrite (iron)
Maraging steel
Spring steel
Tool steel

References
1. Khan, Abdul Qadeer (March 1972) [1972], "3",The effect of morphology on the strength of copper-based
martensites, (in German and English),1 (1 ed.), Leuven, Belgium: A.Q. Khan, University of Leuven, Belgium, p. 300
2. Baumeister, Avallone, Baumeister. "6". Marks' Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 8th ed
. McGraw Hill.
pp. 17, 18. ISBN 9780070041233.
3. Verhoeven, John D. (2007).Steel Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist. American Society for Metals. pp. 2631.
ISBN 9780871708588.
4. Ashby, Michael F.; David R. H. Jones (1992) [1986].Engineering Materials 2(with corrections ed.). Oxford:
Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-08-032532-7.
5. Bhadeshia, H. K. D. H.(2001) [2001]. Geometry of Crystals (with corrections ed.). London: Institute of Materials.
ISBN 0-904357-94-5.

External links
Comprehensive resources on martensite, from the University of Cambridge
Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist from the American Society for Metals
PTCLab---Capable of calculating martensite crystallography with single shear or double shear theory
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Martensite&oldid=795438870
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This page was last edited on 14 August 2017, at 06:52.

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