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Thermoelectric Generators
HoSung Lee,
Nomenclature
A cross-sectional area of thermoelement (m2)
COP the coefficient of performance, dimensionless
I electric current (A)
I max maximum current (A)
j electric current density vector (A/m2)
K thermal conductance (W/K)
L length of thermoelement (m)
k thermal conductivity (W/mK)
n the number of thermocouples
q heat flux vector (W/m2)
Q c cooling power, heat absorbed at cold junction (W)
Q h heat liberated at hot junction (W)
Qc max maximum cooling power (W)
R internal electrical resistance ()
Rn total internal electrical resistance for a module ()
T temperature (C)
Tc low junction temperature (C)
Th high junction temperature (C)
T average temperature Th Tc 2 (C)
V Voltage of a module (V)
Vmax maximum voltage (V)
Wn module power output (W)
x distance of thermoelement leg (m)
Z the figure of merit (K-1), Z 2 k
T temperature difference Th Tc (C),
Tmax maximum temperature difference (C)
Greek symbols
Seebeck coefficient (V/K)
electrical resistivity (cm)
Subscript
2
p p-type element
n n-type element
Superscript
* effective quantity
1. Introduction
The heat flux q is also affected by both the field E and the temperature gradient T .
However, the coefficients were not readily attainable at that time. Thomson in 1854
arrived at the relationship assuming that thermoelectric phenomena and thermal
conduction are independent [3]. Later, Onsager [4] supported that relationship by
presenting the reciprocal principle which was experimentally proved. The Thomson
relationship and the Onsagers principle yielded the heat flow density vector (heat flux),
which is expressed as
q Tj kT (3)
3
T
q q c p (4)
t
d
kT j 2 T j T 0 (7)
dT
The Thomson coefficient , originally obtained from the Thomson relations, is written
d
T (8)
dT
In Equation (7), the first term is the thermal conduction, the second term is the Joule
heating, and the third term is the Thomson heat. Note that if the Seebeck coefficient is
independent of temperature, the Thomson coefficient is zero and then the Thomson heat
is absent. The above two equation governs the thermoelectric phenomena.
Heat Absorbed
p
n
p
n-type Semiconductor n
n
p Positive (+)
p n
p-type Semiconcuctor p
(a)
4
(b)
Figure 1. (a) Cutaway of a thermoelectric generator module, and (b) a p-type and n-type
thermocouple.
d dT I 2
kA 0 (9)
dx dx A
The solution for the temperature gradient with two boundary conditions ( Tx 0 Th
and Tx L Tc ) is
dT I 2 L Th Tc
(10)
dx x 0 2 A2 k L
Q h n p n Tc I kA
dT dT
kA (11)
dx dx
x 0 p
x 0 n
5
where Q h is the rate of heat absorbed at the hot junction. Substituting Equation (10) in
(11) gives
1 p L p n Ln k p Ap k n An
Q h n p n Th I I 2 Th Tc (12)
2 Ap An L p Ln
1
Q h n Th I I 2 R K Th Tc (13)
2
where
p n (14)
p Lp n Ln
R (15)
Ap An
k p Ap k n An
K (16)
Lp Ln
If we assume that p-type and n-type thermocouples are similar, we have that R =
L/A and K = kA/L, where = p + n and k = kp + kn. Equation (13) is called the ideal
equation which has been widely used in science and industry. The rate of heat liberated at
the cold junction is given by
1
Q c n Tc I I 2 R K Th Tc (17)
2
From the 1st law of thermodynamics across the thermoelectric module, which is
W n Q h Q c . The power output is then expressed in terms of the internal properties as
W n n I Th Tc I 2 R (18)
W n nI 2 RL (19)
Equating Equations (18) and (19) with W n IVn gives the voltage as
6
Vn nIRL n Th Tc IR (20)
From Equation (20), the electrical current for the module is obtained as
Th Tc
I (21)
RL R
Note that the current I is independent of the number of thermocouples. Inserting this
into Equation (20) gives the voltage across the module by
n Th Tc RL
Vn (22)
RL R
1
R
RL
n Th Tc
2 2
W n R (23)
2
R RL
1
R
The thermal (or conversion) efficiency is defined as the ratio of the power output to
the heat absorbed at the hot junction:
W
th n (24)
Qh
Inserting Equations (13) and (23) into Equation (24) gives an expression for the
thermal efficiency:
Tc RL
1
th Th R
2
(25)
RL Tc
1
RL 1 Tc R Th
1 1
R 2 Th ZTc
7
2 2
where Z or, equivalently, Z .
k RK
Since the maximum current inherently occurs at the short circuit where RL 0 in
Equation (21), the maximum current for the module is
Th Tc
I max (26)
R
The maximum voltage inherently occurs at the open circuit, where I = 0 in Equation
(20). The maximum voltage is
Vmax n Th Tc (27)
n 2 Th Tc
2
W max (28)
4R
T 1 ZT 1
max 1 c (29)
T h 1 ZT Tc
Th
ZT T 1
ZT c 1 c (30)
2 Th
8
There are so far four essential maximum parameters, which are I max , Vmax , W max , and
max . However, there is also the maximum power efficiency. Most manufacturers have
been using the maximum power efficiency as a specification for their products. The
maximum power efficiency is obtained by letting R L R 1 in Equation (25). The
maximum power efficiency mp is
Tc
1
Th
mp (31)
T
4 c
1 T T
2 1 c h
2 Th ZTc
Note there are two thermal efficiencies: the maximum power efficiency mp and the
maximum conversion efficiency max .
RL
4
W R
(32)
W max RL
2
1
R
I 1
(33)
I max RL
1
R
Equations (22) and (27) give the normalized voltage as
RL
Vn
R (34)
Vmax RL
1
R
ZTc Tc Tc
1
RL
1 1
R 2 Th Th
th
(35)
max RL
2
T
1 c
ZTc Tc
1
RL 1 1 1 Tc R Th
1 1
1
R
2 Th
ZTc 2 Th
Note that the above normalized values in Equations (32) (34) are a function only of
RL R , while Equation (35) is a function of three parameters, which are Tc Th , RL R and
ZTc . Also, note that the present analysis is on the basis of Tc .
1
th
0.9 W max
Wmax
0.8
0.7 V
0.6 Vmax
0.5
0.4
0.3 I
I max
0.2
0.1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
RL
R
Figure 2. Normalized chart I, where Tc/Th = 0.7 and ZTc = 1 are used.
It is first noted, as shown in Figures 2 and 3, that the maximum power output and the
maximum conversion efficiency appear close each other with respect to RL R . mp
occurs at R L R 1 , while max occurs approximately at RL R 1.5 . The maximum
conversion efficiency max is presented in Figure 4 as a function of both the
dimensionless figure of merit (ZTc) and Tc/Th. Considering the conventional combustion
process (where the thermal efficiency is about 30%) where the high and low junction
temperatures would be typically at 1000 K and 400 K, which leads to Tc/Th = 0.4.
Therefore, in order to compete with the conventional way of the thermal conversion
(30%), the thermoelectric material should be at least ZTc = 3, which has been the goal.
10
1 5
0.9 W
Wmax
th
0.8 4
W max
Wmax 0.7
0.6 3
RL
th 0.5 V R
max Vmax
0.4 2
0.3
V RL
0.2 R 1
Vmax
0.1
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
I
I max
Figure 3. Normalized chart II, where Tc/Th = 0.7 and ZTc = 1 are used.
0.7
Tc
0.1
0.6 Th
0.5 0.2
0.4 0.3
max
0.4
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.6
0.1 0.7
0.8
0.9
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
ZTc
4 A L W max
(35)
n I max
2
The effective Seebeck coefficient can be obtained using Equation (26) and (35),
which is
4W max
(36)
nI max Th Tc
Note that both the effective resistivity obtained and the maximum current equally
affect the Seebeck coefficient. The effective figure of merit is obtained from Equation
(29), which is
max Tc
2
1
2 c Th 1
Z (37)
T 1 max
Tc 1 c 1
Th c
4 Tc
Tc Th
Z (38)
1 1
c 2
mp 2
2
k (39)
Z
The effective material properties include various effects such as the contact
resistances, Thomson effect, and radiation and convection. Hence, the effective figure of
merit appears slightly smaller than the intrinsic figure of merit as shown in Table 1. Note
that these effective properties should be divided by two for the single p-type or n-type
thermocouple.
13
Table.1
a
Short circuit current
b
Open circuit voltage
14
Example E-1
We want to recover waste heat from the exhaust gas of a car using thermoelectric
generator (TEG) modules as shown in Figure E-1a. An array of N = 24 TEG modules is
installed on the exhaust of the car. Each module has n = 98 thermocouples that consist of
p-type and n-type thermoelements. Exhaust gases flow through the TEG device, wherein
one side of the modules experiences the exhaust gases while the other side of the modules
experiences coolant flows. These cause the hot and cold junction temperatures of the
modules to be at 230 C and 50 C, respectively. To maintain the junction temperatures,
the significant amount of heat should be absorbed at the hot junction and liberated at the
cold junction, which usually achieved by heat sinks. The material properties for the p-
type and n-type thermoelements are assumed to be similar as p = n = 168 V/K, p =
n = 1.56 10-3 cm, and kp = kn = 1.18 10-2 W/cmK. The cross-sectional area and leg
length of the thermoelement are An = Ap = 12 mm2 and Ln = Lp = 4.6 mm, respectively,
which are shown in Figure E-1b.
(a) Per one TEG module, compute the electric current, the voltage, the maximum
power output, and the maximum power efficiency.
(b) For the whole TEG device, compute the maximum power output, the maximum
power efficiency, the maximum conversion efficiency and the total heat absorbed
at the hot junction.
(a) (b)
Figure E-1 (a) TEG device, (b) thermocouple.
Solution:
Material properties: =p n = 336 10-6 V/K, =p + n = 3.12 10-5 m,
and k= kp + kn = 2.36 W/mK
Z
2
336 106 V K 2
1.533 103 K 1
k 3.12 10 m 2.36W mK
5
and
15
For the maximum power output, we use the condition of RL R 1 . The internal
resistance R is
R
L
3.12 10 5
m 4.6 10 3 m
0.012
A 12 10 6 m 2
I
Th Tc
336 10 6
V K 230 273K (50 273) K
2.528 A
RL R 0.012 0.012
RL
98 336 10 6 V K 503K 323K
2
n 2
T T
2
R
2
Wn h c
7.493W
R RL
2
0.012 2 2
1
R
Using Equation (31), the maximum power efficiency is
Tc 323K
1 1
Th 503K
mp 0.051
T 323K
4 c 4
1 T T 1 323K 503K
2 1 c h 2 1
2 Th ZTc 2 503K 0.495
W n 24 7.493W 179.8W
The maximum power efficiency is same as the one for the module, so
mp 0.051
T Th 1 323K 503K
1.533 10 K
3
ZT Z c 0.633
2 2
T 1 ZT 1 323K 1 0.633 1
max 1 c 1 0.052
Th 1 ZT
T 503K 323 K
c
1 0.633
Th 503K
The total heat absorbed is
W 179.8W
Q h n 3,525W
mp 0.051
References
[1] Seebeck T.J., Magnetic polarization of metals and minerals, Abhandlungen der
Deutschen Akademie der Wiessenschaften zu Berlin, 265-373, 1822
[2] Peltier J.C., Nouvelle experiences sur la caloricite des courans electrique, Ann.
Chim.LV1 371, 1834
[3] W . Thomson, Account of researchers in thermo-electricity, Philos. Mag. [5], 8, 62,
1854.
[4] Onsager L., Phys. Rev., 37, 405-526, 1931.
[5] Landau L.D., Lifshitz E.M., Elecrodynamics of continuous media, Pergamon Press,
Oxford, UK, 1960.
[6] Ioffe A.F., Semiconductor thermoelements and thermoelectric cooling, Infoserch
Limited, London, UK, 1957.
[7] D.M. Rowe, CRC Handbook of Thermoelectrics, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA,
1995.
[8] Lee H.S., Thermal design: heat sinks, thermoelectrics, heat pipes, compact heat
exchangers, and solar cells, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey, USA, 2010.
[9] Goldsmid H.J., Introduction to thermoelectricity, Spriner, Heidelberg, Germany, 2010.
[10] Nolas G.S., Sharp J., Goldsmid H.J., Thermoelectrics, Springer, Heidelberg,
Germany, 2001.
17
Problem P-1
NASAs Curiosity rover is working (February, 2013) on the Mars surface to collect a
sample of bedrock that might offer evidence of a long-gone wet environment, as shown
in Figure P-1a. In order to provide the electric power for the work, a radioisotope
thermoelectric generator (RTG) wherein Plutonium fuel pellets provide thermal energy is
used. The p-type and n-type thermoelements are assumed to be similar and to have the
dimensions as the cross-sectional area A = 0.196 cm2 and the leg length L = 1 cm. The
thermoelectric material used is lead telluride (PbTe) having p = n = 187 V/K, p =
n = 1.64 10-3 cm, and kp = kn = 1.46 10-2 W/cmK. The hot and cold junction
temperatures are at 815 K and 483 K, respectively. If the power output of 123 W is
required to fulfill the work, estimate the number of thermocouples, the maximum power
efficiency and the rate of heat liberated at the cold junction of the RTG.
(a) (b)
Figure P-1. (a) Curiosity rover on Mars, (b) p-type and n-type thermoelements.
18
Problem P-1-2
We want to recover waste heat from the exhaust gas of a car using thermoelectric
generator (TEG) modules as shown in Figure P-1-2a. An array of N = 36 TEG modules is
installed on the exhaust of the car. Each module has n = 127 thermocouples that consist
of p-type and n-type thermoelements. Exhaust gases flow through the TEG device,
wherein one side of the modules experiences the exhaust gases while the other side of the
modules experiences coolant flows. These cause the hot and cold junction temperatures
of the modules to be at 230 C and 50 C, respectively. To maintain the junction
temperatures, the significant amount of heat should be absorbed at the hot junction and
liberated at the cold junction, which usually achieved by heat sinks. The material
properties for the p-type and n-type thermoelements are assumed to be similar. The most
appropriate module of TG12-4 for this work found in the commercial products shows the
maximum parameters rather than the material properties as the number of couples of 127,
the maximum power of 4.05 W, the short circuit current of 1.71 A, the maximum
efficiency of 4.97 %, and the open circuit voltage of 9.45 V. The cross-sectional area and
leg length of the thermoelement are An = Ap = 1.0 mm2 and Ln = Lp = 1.17 mm,
respectively, which are shown in Figure P-1b.
(a) Estimate the effective material properties: the Seebeck coefficient, the electrical
resistivity, and the thermal conductivity.
(b) Per one TEG module, compute the electric current, the voltage, the maximum
power output, and the maximum power efficiency.
(c) For the whole TEG device, compute the maximum power output, the maximum
power efficiency, the maximum conversion efficiency and the total heat absorbed
at the hot junction.
(a) (b)
Figure P-1-2 (a) TEG device, (b) thermocouple.